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IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICAN

SOJOURNERS TO THE UNITED STATES

Claire B. Halverson, PhD

Ken Williams, PhDSchool for International Training Graduate Institute

World Learning

Brattleboro, Vermont 05301

Joseph R. Takougang, PhD

University of Cincinnati


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I E ES I I

Graduate Course: Social Identity; Racial Identity

Development ModelsPersonal experience

Research Question

What are the factors shaping the development ofCaribbean/African immigrants racial/ethnic identity?

Focus of this presentation on Africans


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LI E E B KG

African Immigration to the United StatesRefugees, professionals, winners of the U. S. Visa Lottery, or

studentsDiversity Visa Program of 1990 Immigration Act 50,000

Africans (Takougang, 2009)

Black and Arab Africans compose 70-75% of all Africanimmigrants

The most highly educated immigrant group in the history of theUnited States (African Immigrants in the United States arethe Nations Most Highly Educated Group, 1999-2000)


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Racialand Ethnic Identity evelopment odels

Cross (1971, 1978, 1991) African AmericanNon-Africentric,AfrocentricMulticultural Identity

Helms (1990) African AmericanPreencounter Idealization of whiteness; anxiety; poor self esteemEnmcounter Consciousneessof race; angerImmersion/Emersion Idealization of Blackness; rageInternalization/Commitment Racial transcendence; positive esteem

Hardiman and Jackson (1975, 1997, 2007) African and EuropeanAmerican

NavePassive/Active AcceptancePassive/Active ResistanceRedefinitionInternalization


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ME L G

y

Research Approach

Grounded theory genre: to discover atheory or create a model

Sample

Criterion sample born in Africa; lived inU.S. for at least 7 monthsy

y

y


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Demographics of Participants

Region of OriginCentral Africa- 4

Eastern Africa - 8West Africa - 10

Southern Africa - 2North Africa 1

GenderFemale 12

Male - 13

Length of Time (+ )7 months1 year 41-3 years 64-6 years - 57-9 year 610 years and over- 4

All lived in US; 5 also lived in

AgeLate 20s 330s 740s 650s 1Unknown 8

Education

Undergraduate and beyond - 25

Reasons Why Came to USHigher education, marriage, better jobs,refugees


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Data CollectionInterviews 1-1 hourQuestions focused on

Racial/ethnic identity, experiences and their responsesIn country of originIn countries prior to arrival in the U.SInteractions with family and friend from their country of originRecommendations for Africans coming to the U. S.

Data AnalysisOpen theoretical codingResults checked with participants


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RES L S

Identity Development Model ofAfrican Sojourners to the UnitedStates (AIDM)

Three stagesConsciousness about their own identityPerceptions of, and reactions to racismRelationships with other racial/ethnic groups


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S GE 1: E I I E IFI I

Racial/ethnic IdentityEthnic identity primary, intertwined with region in country, class, religion and

gender

Perceptions of, and Reactions to, RacismHistorical phenomenonOvert individual behaviors and institutional policies of discrimination

Relationships with African Americans and European AmericansAfrican AmericansCrime and drugs, lazy, overconcerned with racismEuropean AmericansFriendly and curious


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S GE 2: RACIAL AWARE ESS

Racial/ethnic IdentityBlack, African or from their country

Perceptions of, and Reactions to, RacismAware of micro-aggression and covert practicesDeep emotional impactLack of action

Relationships with African Americans and European AmericansUnderstood the concern of African Americans with racismDesire to connect with African AmericansBegan to recognize racist attitudes ofEuropean Americans


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S AGE 3: E IC/RACIAL I EGRATI

Racial/ethnic IdentityRedefined identity in unique way

Sense of pride in African identity

Perceptions of, and Reactions to, RacismNo longer shocked

Used variety of strategies to cope with racism

Relationships with African Americans and EuropeanAmericans

Selective friendships with both groups


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CONCLUSIONs

Factors Influencing DevelopmentGeographic region of initial settlement

Age when came to U.S.

Personal experiences: degree and nature of interaction in earlyentry

Length of time in U. S.


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Comparison to Other Models

Helms Black Racial IdentityDevelopment Model

Hardiman/Jackson SocialIdentity Development Theory

African IdentityDevelopment Model

Pre-encounterPoor self esteem andinternalization of negative view

of Black cultureDesire to emulate White culture

Passive/Active AcceptanceAcceptance of superiority andthe rightness of whiteness

Ethnic IdentificationPride in ethnic identityTrust White culture

Racism is historical

EncounterConsciousness of raceImmersion/EmersionIdealization of Blackness anddenigration of WhitenessCultural mistrust

ResistanceAwareness of systemic racismand their own privilege asWhitesSeek acceptance from BlacksStruggle with guilt

Racial AwarenessDeep understanding ofracismEmotional impact andquestioning of their worthInactionCultural mistrust

Internalization/

Commitment

Black and Pan-African identityand racial transcendence

Able to act

Redefinition/

Internalization

Acceptance of White IdentityAble to act

Racial Ethnic Integration

Integration of racial and

ethnic identityAble to act


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LIMITATI S F RESEARCHAND F TURE

RESEARCH

Sample included only those with graduate degrees

Study of Africans, European Americans of AfricanAmericans and Africans, Black immigrants fromthe Caribbean


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IMPLICATI NS F RHIGHER EDUCATI N

y Student-Student

y Student-Facultyy Counselor-Student

y Student Affairs


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REFERENCES

y

y .y African Immigrants in the United States Are the Nations Most HighlyEducatedy Group (Winter 1999-2000).The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 26.y Retrieved March 19, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable2999156.y Cross, M. (1971). Discovering the Black Referent: The Psychology ofBlack

y Liberation. In V. Dixon & B. Foster (Eds), Beyond Black or White: Any Alternate America (pp.23-66). Boston: Little, Brown and Co.y _____. (1978). Models of Psychological Nigrescence: A Literature Review.y Journal of Black Psychology, 5, 1, 13-31.y _____. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African American Identity.y Philadelphia: Temple University Press.y Helms, J. E. (1990). Black and White Racial Identity. Westport, CT: Praeger.y Hardiman, R. and B. Jackson (1997, 2007). Conceptual Foundations for Socialy JusticeCourses. In Adams, M., B. Bell & P.. Griffin. Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice. New York: Routledge.

y Jackson, B. (1975). Black Identity Development. Journal of Educational Diversity,y 2, 19-25.y Takougang, J. (1995). Recent African Immigrants to the United States: Ay Historical Perspective. The Western Journal of BlackStudies. 19, 1.y ___________. & Tidjani, B. (2009). Settlement Patterns and Organizationsy Among African Immigrants in the United States. Journal ofy Third WorldStudies, 26, 1.

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