DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 070 607 SE 014 972

TITLE Nuclear Energy and the Environment.INSTITUTION International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna

(Austria).PUB DATE 72NOTE 49p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS Bibliographic Citations; *Energy; Environmental

Education; Health Education; *Publications; *PublicHealth; *Radiation; Reference Materials; *Safety;Science Education

ABSTRACT"Nuclear Energy and the Environment" is a pocket

folder of removable leaflets concerned with two major topics: Nuclearenergy and Nuclear Techniques. Under NuClear Energy, leafletsconcerning the topics of "Radiation--A Fact of Life," "The Impact ofa Fact: 1963 Test Ban Treaty," "Energy. Needs and Nuclear Power," -'

"Power Reactor Safety," "Transport," and "Waste Management" will befound. Leaflets concerning the topics of "In Air," "In Water,""Agricultural Resources," "In Medicine," and "In the Future" areincluded under Nuclear Techniques. A list of International AtomicEnergy Agency Publications on nuclear energy, the environment, andpollution is also included. OW

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C)THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORI3-

C)INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-

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Nuclear Ener., an the Environment

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Typical radioactive wastes and disposal methods

Radioactive wastes solids, liquids andgases are produced at all nuclear industrialand research establishments.

Three basic philosophies are applied to themanagement of nuclear wastes:

dilute and disperse;delay and decay;concentrate and contain.

Type of wasteradioactivity

Source of waste Form of waste TypicalIsotopes

Disposal methods

/

Naturalactivity

Mining ofuranium ores

Solids Uranium238 Pile in open

Liquids Thorium430 Seep into ground

Gases er.d dusts Radon222 Ventilate mine

Fuelfabricationplants

Solids Uranium238Uranium235

Decontaminate

Liquids (meld) Uranium-238Uranium235

Neutralize, concentrate, andbury residue

Dusts Uranium-238Uranium-235

Ventilate, filter, anddisperse to air

Fissionproductactivity

FuelIrradiationandprocessing

Solids (frompurpowdulsolidification)

Strontium90Caesium137

Encase in container andstore permanently (^ 600 years)

Liquids(with strontium andcaesium removed)

Technetium99Ruthenium-103Cerium144

Store in tanks for severalyears; then solidify inplace

GasesIodine131 React with chemicals to bind

in solid, e.g., silver Iodide

Krypton-85 Disperse to air

Activation-productactivity

Reactormaterialsunavoidablyirradiatedduring operation

SolidsAluminium-28Manganese56

Package and ship for landburial

Liquids(dissolved material)

Cobalt-56 Evaporation or ion-exthange;bury residue

Gases Nitrogen16 Hold for decay (very short life):then disperse to air

PurposefulIrradiationto produceusefulisotopes

Solids

Cobalt -60Ship for burial when no longer

useful (long life)

pnoephofue32 Store for decay to safe levels(short life)

Table from: Radioactive Wastes by C.H. Fox, Understanding the Atom Series, USAEC, 1969 rev. pp 6-7

Nuclear Energy

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DILUTE AND DISPERSE:

Most of the gaseous and liquid wastes gener-ated at nuclear reactors are sufficiently low inradioactivity that they can be released directlyto the environment where they are rapidlydispersed and diluted.

DELAY AND DECAY:In some cases the level of radioactivity ofeffluents is significantly reduced by holdingthe wastes for a period of time to allow decayof short-lived radionuclides.

CONCENTRATE AND CONTAIN:Liquid wastes that are too radioactive fordirect discharge to the environment are treated

=

by ion exchange, precipitation, filtration,evaporation or calcination. The major part ofthe radioactivity is t. .areby removed and con-tained so that the treated effluent can besafely released. The remaining solids some-times are mixed with concrete or bitumen,placed in steel containers and buried near thesurface or placed in mines that are no longerused for production.

All of the high-level solid wastes accumulatedbetween now and the year 2000 are expected to occupy less than 1% of the volumeof salt that is excavated annually.

DUMPING WASTE INTO THE SEA?

The content of radionuclides in sea-water is

Salt formations are particularly suited for such storageas they are practically always dry, they have good heat transfer properties, they are plastic (henceanyfractures are self-sealing) and they should be stable for millions ofyears.

2

reduced by two processes: radioactive decayand the physico-chemical transfer fromthe water to the bottom sediments. Packagedsolid radioactive wastes of low and intermedi-ate activity have been disposed into the deepsea under controlled conditions at selecteddisposal sites.-

THERMAL EFFECTS IN WATER?

All steam-electric generating plants, fossil-fuelled as well as nuclear, release heat to theenvironment. The heat, mostly spent steamthat was used to drive the turbine, is convertedback into water in a condenser, which iscooled directly by water from nearby rivers,lakes or oceans or indirectly through the use

of cooling towers or artificial ponds.There is no doubt that uncontrolled releasesof waste heat could be detrimental toaquatic life. Careful studies, however, at anumber of operating nuclear power plants overa period of years have not revealed anydiscernible harmful effects upon the ecologi-cal systems. In some cases the discharge ofwaste heat could even be beneficial, for ex-ample, heated water could be used to irrigatecrops and warm the soil, thereby extending thegrowing season, or northern water wayscould be kept open during the winter season.

It seems likely that international action tocontrol industrial pollution may deal first withthe conservation of the seas and oceans. Since

The Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Plant at Haddam Neck,the largest operating commercial nuclear power plant in the United States.Credit: Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power Company

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its inception, the Agency has been concernedwith the control of radioactive contaminationof the oceans that might arise from the peace-ful uses of atomic energy.In November 1970 a panel,convened to prepare a report on the principlesfor limiting the release of radioactive wastes,recommended the establishment by the IAEAof an international register of all substantialreleases of radioactive mates into the seas andoceans. In co-operation with WHO the Agencyis also considering a formal proposal to becomea central depository of data on radioactivityreleased into the environment as a whole inconnection with the civil uses of atomicenergy.

In Monaco, the .International Laboratoryof Marine Radioactivity, a co-operative venture between the IAEA, UNESCO, the MonegasqueGovernment, and the Oceanographic Institute of Monaco, is studying the effects of radioactivityin the marine life.

TO KNOW MORE Radioactive Wastes, Charles H. Fox, Under-standing the Atom Series, USAEC, Divisionof Technical Information, 1969 rev.

Das Problem der Radioaktiven Abfalle inKernkraftwerken, Dr. H. Lengweiler &Dr. H.R. Lutz, Atom-Pressedienst, No.9,Sept. 1968, Schweizerische Vereinigung fOrAtomenergie (SVA)

Kernenerpie, Schweizerische Vereinigung firAtomenergie (SVA), Dec. 1971, Bern

Disposal of Radioactive Wastes into Seas,Oceans and Surface Waters, Proceedings of aSymposium in Vienna, IAEA, 1966.

Management of Low- and Intermediate-LevelRadioactive Welles, Proceedings of aSymposium in Aix-en-Provence, IAEA,Vienna, 1970.

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Traffic-a we know it today. But did you know that one of the can passing by might carry a radioactive parcel?

Radioactive materials must be transportedsafely and quickly by road, rail, sea and air.Other potentially dangeroussubstances such as explosives and chemicalsare frequently transported and thereforeregulations have been developed toallow radioactive materials to be transportedat least as safely as these other substances.

Transport workers handling radioactivematerials in containers have no special trainingand it is this radioactivematerial that comes into close contact withthe public and with other goods.A release of such contents couldlead to irradiation of the public and contami-nation of the environment.

le.

There are two types of packaging whichcontain built-in safety in the package design.Specimens of these packagedesigns are subjected to a series of tests.

Type A: will withstand normal transportconditions including rough handling. The testsfor Type A simulate theeffects of the normal rough handling to beexpected during transport.

Type B: will withstand damaging effects ofvery severe accidents. The tests forType B simulate the damage that could beforeseen in serious accidents thesetests include drops from a height of 9 metresand exposure to fire. The design ofType B packages requires approvalby competent national authorities in orderto give assurance that all safety featuresare observed.

Type A testTesting penetration

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Type B testA container used in transporting radioisotopes, total weight 4.4 tons,is dropped from a height of 9 metresonto one corner, then from a height of 1 metre onto a steel rod.Credit: Australian Atomic Energy Commission

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A host of special regulations existed fordifferent modes of transport ofradioactive materials in various countries.The IAEA has contributed towardsa harmonization of these rulesby convening panels of experts to formulateinternational safety standards. Todaythe Agency's Transport Regulationsare accepted and implemented by all inter-national transport organizations:

All modes of transport:Regulations for the Transport of RadioactiveMaterials, Council for Mutual EconomicAssistance (CMEA), 1966

Post:Detailed Regulations for Implementing theUniversal Postal Convention, 1966

Rail:International Regulation Concerning theCarriage of Dangerous Goods byRail (RID), 1967

Sea:International Maritime Dangerous GoodsCode, IMCO, 1967

Road:European Agreement Concerning theInternational Carriage of Dangerous Goodsby Road (ADR), 1968

Air:Regulations Relating to the Carriage ofRestricted Articles by Air, I ATA, 1970

Inland waterways:Draft European Agreement Concerning theCarriage of Dangerous Goods by InlandWaterway (ADN)

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PRXIPAL RADIOACTIVE CONTENT

ACTIVITY 0 S CURIES

TRANSPORT EX

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TO KNOW MORE ',Ile Safety Transport of Radioactive Materials,by R. Gibson, Pergamon, 1966

Transportirovanie radioaktivnyh velbestv, byLegEinskij Nikolaj Ivanovia, translationfrom Russian: The transportation of radio-active materials, Washington, OTS, 1964

La reglementation internationale dutransport des matieres radioactives; tendancesactuelles, by Claude Salleron, Paris, Centrefrancais de droit compare, 1964

Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radio-.active Materials,Safety Series No.6, IAEA, Vienna, 1967

Nuclear Law fora Developing World, LegalSeries No.5, IAEA, Vienna, 1969

Tests on Transport Packaging for RadioactiveMaterials, Proceedings of a Seminar,IAEA, Vienna, 1971

700 REACTOR YEARSOFOPERATING EXPERIENCE

0 ACCIDENTSThe whole reactor representsan ultraconservative design enclosed in a"containment system".In no other engineering activity has safetybeen considered in such detail andwith such conservatism.

Containment,A system of duplicates and back-up alternatives within a massive shield of concrete,

steel or both can be likened to a series of pots,one within another.

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9

700 reactor years of operating experience0 accidents

These are the figures for the oer 100 nuclearpower reactors operating in the worldtoday. The few accidents we readabout have all occurred in research reactors,in fuel processing plants, i9 weaponsprogrammes, but not in thecommercial nuclear power stations supplyingus with energy.

In his Message to Congress on Energy inJune 1971 President Nixon said:"... the safety record of civilian powerreactors in this country is extraordinary inthe history of technological advances.For more than a quarter of a century sincethe first nuclear chain reaction tookplace no member of the publichas been injured by the failure of a reactor orby an accidental release of radioactivity.I am confident that this record canbe maintained ..."

In 1971 the Swiss Federal Commission forRadiation Protection made a similarannouncement. "In the field of

nuclear energy, we are in the unique positionthat the safety provisions precededtechnical realization, and do-not, as in thefield of water and air pollution, lagbehind."

The composition of the fuel in a nuclearpower reactor is such that it willunder no circumstances permit the reactorto explode.

DESIGN FOR SAFETY:

When constructing a nuclear reactor 3 safetybarriers are built-in:

(1) the fuel-cladding(2) the reactor vessel(3) the containment structure

There are also other control devices to slowdown and regulate the nuclear chainreaction. Instruments independent fromeach other measure the variousaspects of reactor operations; each one ofthem is wired into a safety mechanism thatwould automatically trigger off a shut-down of the reactor in case a malfunctionwould occur.

;

ECONOMICS:The concern for safety accounts in a largemeasure for the cost differentialbetween nuclear and conventional plants.This cost differential which rangesfrom 100% for a 100 MW(e) reactor anddrops to 50% for a 1000 MW(e) unit alsoaffects the influence of safety costs on savingsof scale, a fact which makes nuclear powerstations especially attractive in larger sizes.

INSURANCE:Under the nuclear insurance rating system,in the USA for instance, substantialportions of premiums paid are placed inreserve and if not used to cover

losses, are returned after 10 years. The twopools, Nuclear Energy Liability InsuranceAssociation and Mutual Atomic EnergyLiability Underwriters, note that in their14 years of operation not a singleliability claim has been filed. These poolsinsure every utility-operated powerreactor as well as many test and researchreactors and other nuclearinstallations for up to 582 million in liabilityclaims per facility.

"This very high rate of refunds 97.08%directly reflects the success of thenuclear safety programme." (AtomicIndustrial Forum, Info.39, July 1971).

The 3 safety barriers of a nuclear power reactor.

TO KNOW MORENuclear News, Publication of the AmericanNuclear Society, Vol.15, No.1, Jan.1972,"Nuclear reactor safety an opinion"by Norman C. Rasmussen

Nuclear Safety, Vol.12, No.4, Jul-Aug. 1971,"Nuclear liability insurance: a briefhistory reflecting the success of nuclearsafety" by J. Marrone

Credit: Idaho National Reactor Testing Station, U.S.A.

AEC News Release,Vol.2, No.50, Dec.15, 1971,USAEC,"The future of thebreeder, its impact on the environment, andits regulatory aspects", remarksby William 0. Doub.

Nuclear Power and the Environment, USAEC,Division of Technical Information, 1969

Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Proceedingsof the Fourth International Conferencein Geneva 6-16 th Sept. 1971,Volume 2, Performance of Nuclear Plants,Costing of Nuclear Plants, Fuel Management;UN/IAEA, Vienna, 1972

It is said that between 1970 and 2000 the Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman, USAEC, at Jointworld will consume as Conference of the Chemical Institute of Canada andmuch e lergy as it has in the past 20 centuries. the American Chemical Society in Toronto, Canada

1.000

500

100

50

10

1

U.S.

WORLD

1800 1850 1900 1950 1970 2000 2050

GROWTH IN ENERGY DEMAND in the U.S. is at the annual rate of about 1 percent per capita.For the world as a whole per capita consumption is growing about a third faster.

The Scientific American. September 1971

Nuclear power has become increasingly im-portant as a supplierof these vast energy requirements today.

In 1970 about 2% of the total global gener-ation capacity was produced by nuclearplantsIn 2000 over 50% is expected to be producedby nuclear plants:

WORLD GENERATING CAPACITY (MW)

1982

1970

1980

2000

1

2

8

Total

700 000

100 000

200 000

800 000 3

Nuclear

20 000

330 000

800000

All continents and all countries willparticipate in this expansion ofelectrical generating capacity due to increaseof population and to thegrowth of the consumption of primary energy.

In looking at future energy demands, thequestion is not should more energy be

produced, but how to produce the necessaryincrease with minimal sideeffects. In an age where pollution control isnecessary, it must be remi-mbered thatpollution control itself is a newgrowth industry that wi'l create an additionalenergy demand. Nuclear energy can help tomeet those needs.

100

90

80

7060

50

40

30

20

10

01970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

YEAR

Nuclear share of electrical generating capacity.

2000 2005 2010

"The Role of Nuclear Power in Meeting World Energy Needs", by B.I. SpinradSymposium on "Environmental Aspects of Nuclear Power Stations ", New York, August, 1970

There is a limited reserve of oil and coaland natural gas that has been depletingrapidly with increased energy demands. Usingnuclear fuels extends this reserve whichis the basis of much of the organicchemical industry from synthetic fibers toplastics.

ECONOMICALLY RECOVERABLE FUEL SUPPLYis an estimate.of the quantities availableat no more than twice present costs.Fossil-fuel reserves are barely equivalent to twicethe cumulative demand for energy between1980 and 2000. Even nuclear fuel is none tooplentiful if one were to use only theordinary light-water reactors. By employing breederreactors, however, the nuclear supply can beamplified roughly a hundredfold.(10" watt-years equals 29.9 X 10" B.t.u.)

. 13

DEP( ETABLE SUPPLY11( WATT-YEARS) WORLD

COAL 670 1000

PETROLEUM 100 200

GAS 70 170

SUBTOTAL 840 1370

NUCLEAR 3.000(ORDINARY REACTOR)

NUCLEAR 300.000(BREEDER REACTOR)

CUMULATIVE DEMAND1960 TO YEAR 2000 350 700(10" WATT-YEARS)

eo-The Scientific American September 1971

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Osicarshemn Nuclear Power Station Unit No.1, Sweden, 440 mw

14

Credit: USAECs.

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TO KNOW MORE Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,Glenn T. Seaborg, USAEC, Oak Ridge, Tenn.,1970

Nuclear Power, W.G. Jensen, G.T. Foulis andCo., Ltd., Cambridge, 1969

The Future of Power Generation, studyprepared for Centennial Celebrationof Koninklijke Machinefabriek Stork N.V.,Henelo, the Netherlands, 1968

Nuclear Energy Costs and EconomicDevelopment, Proceedings of a Symposium,Istanbul, IAEA, Vienna, 1970

"Global effects of increased use of energy",A.M. Weinberg and R. Philip, paperpresented at the 4th International Conferenceon the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,Geneva, 1971

"World energy requirements and resourcesup to the year 2000", Resources andTransportation Division, United Nations paperpresented at the 4th InternationalConference on the Peaceful Uses of AtomicEnergy, Geneva, 1971

404

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"Before the Test-Ban Treaty, almost 200 million tonsof radioactive debris had foundits way into the atmosphere from atomic blasts."Newsweek, November 22,1971

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"THE AMOUNT OFSTRONTIUM-90 DEPOSITEDON THE EARTH IN 1970WAS JUST .5% OF THE AMOUNTTHAT FELL IN 19 6 3"Neite, 234, Nov.12, 1971

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ANNUAL DEPOSITIONOF STRONTIUM-90 ti

HIGH YIELD EXPLOSIONS

NORTH ANDEQUATORIAL

SOUTH

19551 195d 19 511 195811959 f 196 0119 6 1 1196211=19641 19651196611967

Fig. 1 SHOWS THE ANNUAL DEPOSITION OFSTRONTIUM-90

s.

International concern about the effects of radioactive fal1-out from the testing of nuclearweapons led the United Nations General Assembly to establish theUnited Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radation fUNSCEAR) alreadyin 1955, i.e. 2 years before the IAEA was established. This Committee has set upa world-wide system of reliable radioactivity measurements and publishes yearly reports.

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CUMULATIVE DEPOSITIONOF STRONTIUM-90

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HIGH YIELD EXPLOSIONSNORTH AND

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SOUTHMR All

1.9 MCi

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10 MCi 1 MCi -41,- _

TOTAL

NORTHERNHEMISPHERE

SOUTHERNHEMISPHERE

1951 95 1956 1957 959 1959 196011961 11962 1963 1961 9703

Fig. 2 SHOWS THE CUMULATIVE DEPOSITIONOF STRONTIUM-90

CUMULATIVE DEPOSITION: A description of the history of the deposition ofstrontium-90 is given in Fig.2, shows the cumulative amounts corrected for radioactivedecay.The accumulated deposit in the northern hemisphere remains about four times that inthe southern hemisphere.

NUCLEAR TEST BAN

Treaty banning nuckar weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water.Done at Moscow, August 5,1963;Ratification, accession or notification of succession deposited by:

Afghanistan Denmark Italy Netherlands Syrian Arab Rep.Australia Dominican Republic Ivory Coast New Zealand Tanzania,Austria Ecuador Japan Nicaragua United Rep. ofBelgium Egypt, Arab Rep. of Jordan Niger ThailandBolivia El Salvador Kenya Nigeria TogoBotswana Finland Korea, Rep. of Norway Trinidad and TobagoBrazil Gabon Kuwait Panama TunisiaBulgaria Gambia, The Laos Peru TurkeyBurma Germany, Dem. Rep, of Lebanon Philippines UgandaByelorussian Soviet Germany, Fed. Rep. of Liberia Poland Ukrainian Soviet

Socialist Republic Ghana Libya Romania Socialist Rep.Canada Greece Luxembourg Rwanda Union of SovietCentral African Guatemala Madagascar San Marino Socialist Republics

Republic Honduras Malawi Senegal United KingdomCeylon Hungary Malaysia Sierra Leone United StatesChad Iceland Malta Singapore of AmericaChile India Mauritania South Africa UruguayChins Indonesia Mauritius Spain VenezuelaCosta Rica Iran Mexico Sudan Western SamoaCyPrus Iraq Mongolia Swaziland YugoslaviaCzechoslovakia Ireland Morocco Sweden Zaire, Rep. ofDahomey Israel Nepal Switzerland Zambia

TO KNOW MORE

Federal Radiation Council, Rep. No.4 (US Govt. Printing Office,Washington, DC, 1964)

Cambray, R.S., Fisher, E.M.R., Brooks, W.L. and Peirson, D.H.: Radio- it.active Fallout in Air and Rain: Results to the Middle of 1970, AERE-R6556 (HMSO, London, 1970)

Cambray, R.S., Fisher, E.M.R., Salmon, L and Brooks, W.L.: Methods ofCollection and Analysis of Radioactivity from Distant Nuclear TestExplosions, AERE-R5898 (HMSO, London, 19701

Health and Safety Laboratory, Announced Nuclear Detonations 1945-1962,HASL-142, 219 (USAEC, New York, 1964)

Cambray, R.S., Fisher, E.M.R., Brooks, W.L., and Peirson, D.H.: Radio-active Fallout in Air and Rain: Results to the Middle of 1969, AERE-R 6212 (HMSO, London, 1969),

Feely, H.W., Biscay, P.E.; Davidson, B. and Seitz H.: Eleventh ProgressReport on Project Stardust, DASA Rep. 1821 (USDASA, Washington, DC,1966)

Volchock, H.L, Worldwide Deposition of Strontium-90 through 1969,HASL-227, 1-70 (USAEC, New York, 1970)

Peirson, D.H., A.E. Research Establishment, Harwell, Nature, 234, Nov.12,1971: Worldwide Deposition of Long-Lived-Fission Products fromNuclear Explosions.

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YEARLYRADIATION DOSAGEFROM VARIOUS SOURCESAtomics International, North AmericanRockwell, 1972.

From all natural sources we are exposedto 170-195 millirems of radiationper year.

People living in the general vicinity ofan operating reactor receive less than oneadded millirem a year or about 1% of whatthey receive from natural sources.

Who decides how much radiation can betolerated?

The International Commission on Radio-logical Protection (ICRP), anindependent non-governmental bodyestablished in 1928, acts in an official advisorycapacity to the World Health Organization(WHO) and its rules are universallyaccepted both by national and internationalbodies responsible for radiationprotection.

How much radiation can one t lerr fa?

The present recommendations set for workersallow for en exposure not exceeding5 rems/year on the average. Thus, the life-time dose for a worker (50 years)is 250 rams. Present operating rules areso stringent that workers inradiation laboratories are exposed to muchless than that

The IAEA in consultation with ILO, WHOand other organizations has promulgatedBasic Safety Standards for RadiationProtection which conform to ICRP recom-mendations and usuallyserve as a reference for national legislations.

20

Soon after the discovery of man-made sourcesof ionizing radiation (ionizing meansformation of charged fragments) it becameapparent that radiation could eithercure or poison, depending onhow it is used. Since one cannot smell or seeionizing radiation, special health physicsinstruments have been developed fordetection and measurement. Thesedosimeters indicate the quality and measurethe quantity of radiation.

at'4s

The symbol of ionizing radiation

Today the most widely used unit of radiationis the rad, the word stemming fromradiation absorbed dose. Onerad is the quantity of radiation that delivers100 ergs (units of energy)of energy to 1 gram of substance. Now,100 of energy is not muchby our usual standards. It isabout equal to the amount of energy deliveredby a golf ball dropping 2 '4 centimetres.

AMMINNIMINV

r

The biological measure of radiation effect onman it the rem. It is roentgen equivalentman; one rem is numerically equalto the product of absorbed dose, the qualityfactor, the dose distribution factor andpossibly other modifying factors.

As soon as X-rays and other radiation devicesbegan to be widely used by doctors, theneed for regulating radiation dosesarose. The International Commission onRadiological Protection (ICRP) set themaximum doses to which doctors, patientsand other persons could be safelyexposed. Dose limits for radiation protectionhave also been worked out for the generalpublic.

Summary of dose limits for members ofthe public

Organ or tissue

Gonads, redbone-marrow

0.5 remin a year

Skin, bone,thyroid

3 ramsin a year

Hands and forearms;feet and ankles

7.5 ramsin a year

Other single organs 1.5 ramsin a year

in case of children 1.5 rams a year shouldnot be exceeded.

Source: Recommendations of ICRP,Publication No-9, Pergamon Press.London. 1966.

On the other hand, the genetic dose to thepopulation as a whole is 5 rems/generation(30 years).

The two objectives of radiation protection, asstated by ICRP, are:

(1) To prevent acute radiation affects:in 40 years of working experience of ICRP ithas become evident that this objectivecan be achieved in normal

Not en astronaut, but a technician vowing E>a radiation protection suit. Credit UICAEA

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ircumstances. Also to be excluded are suchlate effects as somatic injuries such asopacification of the lens of the eye,skin damage, impaired fertility and serioushaematological effects. Today acuteeffects and the described late effects onlyarise when faulty apparatus ortechniques give rise to doses greatly in excessof the Commission's recommended doselimits.

(2) To limit the risk of late effects, such asmalignancy and genetic effects to anacceptable level.

All states with nuclear power programmestoday have set up national licensingsystems which require notification andregistration prior to building a nuclear reactor.The national safety regulations are alsosubject to continuous controls.

TO KNOW MORE Principles of Radiation Protection,Morgan & Turner Editors,A Textbook of Health Physics, 1967.

Recommendations of ICRP, Publication No.9,Pergamon Press, London, 1966

The Natural Radiation Environment,Jacob Kastner, USAEC,Division of Technical Information, 1968

Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Pro-tection, Safety Series, No.9, IAEA,Vienna, 1967

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46INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY PUBLICATIONS

Radiation Protection1960 Safe Handling of Radioisotopes: Health Physics Addendum;

Safe Handling of Radioisotopes: Medical Addendum;1961 Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Motional,:

Notes on Certain Aspects of the Regulations;The Packaging, Transport and Related Handling ofRadioactive Materials;

1982 The Use of Film hedges for Personnel Monitoring;The VinEa Dosimetry Experiment;Safe Handling of Radioisotopes;

1963 Diagnosis and Treatment of Radioactive Poisoning;A Basic Toxicity Classification of Radionuclides;

1964 Assessment of Radioactivity in Msn;Radiation Quantities and Units;Radiological Health and Safety in Mining and Milling ofNuclear Materials;Training In Radiological Protection: Curricula and Programming;

1985 The Provision of Radiological Protection Services;The Basic Requirements for Personnel Monitoring;Personnel Dosimetry for Radiation Accidents;

1988 Environmental Monitoring in Emergency Situations;Guide to the Safe Handling of Radioisotopes in Hydrology;Manual on Environmental Monitoring in Normal Operation;Techniques for Controlling Air Pollution from the Operation ofNuclear Facilities;

1987 Rhk Evaluation for Protection of the Public inRadiation Accidents;Respirators and Protective Clothing; ,Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials;Radiation Protection Standards for Radioluminous Timepieces:Neutron Monitoring;Basic Safety Standards for Radiation Protection;Assessment of Airborne Radioactivity in Man;

1988 Medial Supervision of Radiation Workers;Radiation Protection in the Mining and Milling ofRadioactive Ores;

Radiation Protection1969 Radiation Protection Monitoring;

Planning for the Handling of Radiation Accidents;Quick Methods for Radiochemical Analysis;Manual on Safety Aspects of the Design and Equipment ofif of Laboratories;Handling of Radiation Accidents;Environmental Contamination by Radioactive Materials;

1970 Air Filters for Use at Nudear Facilities;Guide to the Safe Design, Construction and Use ofRadioisotopic Power;Generators for Certain Land and Sea Applications;Monitoring of Radioactive Contamination on Surfaces;Nudear Accident Dosimetry Systems;Personnel Dosimetry Systems for External Radiation Exposures;Radiation Safety in Hot Facilities;

1971 Tests on Transport Packaging for Radioactive Materials;Rapid Methods for Measuring Radioactivity in the Environment;Handbook on Calibration of Radiation ProtectionMonitoring Instruments;Biochemical Indicators of Radiation Injury in Man;Advances in Physical and Biological Radiation Detectors;

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Nuclear Energy

1

FAST BREEDER REACTORS

Today's nuclear power reactors are usingup too much uranium and resourceswill not last forever. A new reactor conceptis being developed, the fast breeders, whichwill produce more fuel than they consume.

Within the reactor the non-fissionable isotopeof uranium-238 will be converted into

I

plutonium-239 which is nuclear fuel."Breeding" occurs because a greater neutronsurplus is being proceeded from thechain reaction than is necessary for the self-sustaining reaction. The stockpile offissionable material is thus steadily increased.In a period of about 10 years double ofthe amount put in originally will have accumu-lated.

View of the prototype fast reactor at Dounreay,Scotland, during construction. It will pave the way for the large power fast reactors of the future; UKAEA

Nuclear Techniques

NUCLEAR FUSIONThe energy of the sun and the stars is pro-duced by the fusion of atoms of lightelements. To exploit this energy source onearth, a gas of the heavy isotopes ofhydrogen deuterium and tritium mustbe raised to a very high temperatureand then confined at sufficiently high densityfor a certain time. Currently muchresearch is being undertaken on the use ofmagnetic field in order to isolate theplasma, a very hot gas, from its containerwalls; this problem has not yet beensolved.

In a fusion reactor, energy will be produced

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not only in the plasma, but in a surrounding"blanket" which will deliverheat to conventional steam turbines.

The advantages of nuclear fusion would be:cheap and almost inexhaustible fuel,

i.e. deuterium or heavy water fromthe oceans of the world;

the quantity of radioactive wastes mightbe significantly reduced;

the energy of the charged particles of thehot plasMa might possibly be directlyconverted to electrical energy without goingthrough a thermal cycle.

Fusion research at the Tokamak3 machine, USSR

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AGRO-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES

What is a Nuplex? The word stands fornuclear energy complex and mightpresent one of the possible keys to economicdevelopment of arid countries.

Forerunners of Nuplex would be the dual-purpose nuclear power plants, wherepart of the nuclear energy produced wouldbe used for the desalination of seawater, the other part being fed into thenormal energy grid. Agro-industrialcomplexes would constitute thenext step by adding fertilizer plants and thenother chemical production facilities to

the intensive farming area irrigated bydesalted water. From thiscomplex Nuplexes could evolve whole newcommunities built around the atom.

Artist's impressionof a nuclear powered agro-industrial complex;Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S.A.

..301

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS FORPEACEFUL PURPOSES

Nuclear explosions may be the cheapestsource of raw energy availablefor large industrial applications. 10.000 tonsof TNT would cost almost 15 times asmuch as an equivalent nuclear explosive.Like any powerful tool, it must behandled with great care due to possibleradiation exposure, seismic and airblast damage.

There are two kinds of nuclear explosions:excavation Mints, explosions whichare relatively close to the surface and vent toit. This technique could be used for

reservoir constructioncanal constructionharbour constructionuncovering of mineral deposits;

contained blasts,explosions which arerelatively deep underground,

TO KNOW MORE

the products of which gases and fragmentedmaterial do not penetrate the surface:

exploitation of oil and natural gas depositscreation of underground cavities

for the storage of natural gas or biologicallydangerous industrial wastes

underground working of ore deposits.

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Gas reservoirstimulation using multiple nuclear explosives

Man and Atom; Building a new worldthrough nuclear technology,by Glenn T. Seaborg and William R. Corliss,E.P. Dutton & Co.I nc., New York, 1971

Kernkraft heute und morgen, Kernforschungund Kerntechnik als Chance unsererZeit, Robert Gerwin, Deutsche Verlagsan-stalt Stuttgart, 1971

Man and the Atom, the uses of nuclearenergy, Frank Barnaby,Thames and Hudson, London, 1971

Plasma Physics and Controlled NuclearFusion Research,Proceedings Series, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

Peaceful Nuclear Explosions II, theirpractical application,Panel Proceedings Series, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

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Using scintigraphy,a brain tumorcan be depictsd and "mapped"

Nuclear techniques in the medical field arebecoming an indispensable tool.There are four main areas in which radio-isotopes are used:

clinical diagnosistherapymedical researchsterilization of medical products

CLINICAL DIAGNOSISThe importance and growth of nucleartechniques in clinical medicine have been sogreat that it has come to be recognizedas a separate speciality in many countries.Radioisotopes provide informationthat is otherwise less accurately or not at allobtainable. Main uses are:

scintigraphy to depict abnormalities invarious organs or body tissues.In scintigraphy, a radioactively labelledsubstance is given to the patient in a small

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dosage. The substance is then taken up by theorgan or tissue of interest whichcan be "mapped" by the distributionof radioactivity in it. Abnormalities causedby various diseases can then be depicted.

investigation of the functional state ofvarious body organs or systems.Using radioisotopes for this is wellestablished, particularly for cardiac, renaltandthyroid functions and blood flow studies"Radioisotopes permit observation ofthe uptake, turnover and excretion of different substances and determination ofmalfunctions that might exist.

measurement of biologically activesubstances in blood, urine or other specimens.WBlood and urine samples taken from apatient can be studied in detail in a laboratoryusing radioisotopes. This allows forrepeated studies and avoids radiation ex-posure to the patient.

148

THERAPY

Radiation is a major treatment for certain kindsof cancer. Applying radiationto an organ affected by a tumor has proveneffective in inhibiting the growth or indestroying the cancerous cells. There arethree established methods of administeringradiation:

teletherapy a beam of radiation from aradioisotope source is directed at atarget area

brachytherapy the radioisotope source isconfined in a suitable containerwhich is physically inserted or brought intocontact with the target area

radiopharmaceutical therapy theradioisotope source is administered in asuitable chemical form so that itwill concentrate in a target area

MEDICAL RESEARCHTracer studies have revolutionized manybranches of the medical.field,particularly endocrinology, immunology,biochemistry and nutritional studies.Radioisotopes induced the detection of asecond thyroid hormone. Tounderstand nutritional disorders, radioactivelylabelled foodstuffs have been used tostudy the absorption and metabolism ofimportant nutrients. Life cycles ofcertain diseasecausing parasites have beenmore clearly understood throughtracer techniques. Nuclear techniques havesubstantially contributed to the under-standing of complex metabolic processes.

STERILIZATION OF MEDICAL PRODUCTSThe sterilization of medical products, equipment, devices and pharmaceuticals isessential to prevent infection. The ability ofionizing radiation to destroy microorganisms has been found useful in many instances where other procedures are notapplicable. Any substance may besterilized in this manner so that materialsthat are heat sensitive such as some plastics canbe treated.

A patient receiving a cobalt 60 treatment for cancer

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TO KNOW MORE Atomic Medicine, (ed. by) Charles F. Behrensand E. Richard King, the Williams andWilkins Co., Baltimore, Maryland, 1964

Nuclear Medicine, William H. Bland,McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1965

fiLes Isotopes a L'Usage du Medecin Praticien,Andre G. Friere, Editions Arscia, S.A.,Bruxelles, 1966

;1

Radiosterilization of Medical Products,Proceedings of a Symposium, Budapest,IAEA, Vienna, 1967

In Vitro Procedures with Radioisotopes inMedicine, Proceedings of a Symposium,Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1970

Radioisotopes in Medical Diagnosis,E.H. Belcher and H. Vetter, ButterworthLondon, 1971

Dynamic Studies with Radioisotopes inMedicine, Proceedings of aSymposium, Rotterdam, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

31

-

Hunger and malnutrition affect 2/3 ofmankind. This problem could bebrought under control in a matter of years.Nuclear techniques are helping in thiseffort in a variety of ways:

Insect controlSterilemale techniqueMode of action of insecticides and other

agricultural chemicalsEcology of insect pests

IrrigationEfficiency of water useWater balanceSource and quantity of water supply

Soil fertility, plant nutritionEfficiency of fertilizer use including

nutrient losses, when, where, and whatform of fertilizer

Nutritional problems of unknown originNutrient interactions

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Food & environment contaminationDetection of pesticide residuesMetabolic studies of pesticidesMonitoring of food contamination from

fallout.

Plant breedingFor higher yieldsFor disease resistanceFor improved qualityFor growth under unfavourable

environmental conditions

Animal production and healthEfficiency of protein and milk productionNutrient deficienciesParasite control (vaccines)

Food preservationPrevention of sprouting and disinfestationExtension of shelf lifeElimination of harmful organismsProduction of infinitely stable (sterile)

products

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INSECT CONTROLAn estimated 1296of the prehervest global agricultural production is lost due to insect pests each year. Thesterilemale technique is a control method that helps to avoid undesirable pesticide residues whichcontaminate the environment. 1,Researchers examine fruit from an area in which sterile flies were released for any evidence of infestation.

IRRIGATIONThe universal use of proper water techniques would allow for an increase in the world's irrigated area of5096or more, using the same amount of water. The IAEA assists in studies of water resources usingisotope techniques in some 20 countries. One of these investigations is being carried out in the Great Sahara.The photo shows concrete blocks that house boreholes from which scientists take samples of tritium-labelled water.

SOIL FERTILITY, PLANT NUTRITIONRadioisotopes make it possible to determine the uptake and fate of applied nutrients and thus determineoptimum modes of application and the effectiveness of various fertilizers. In an experimentin Ceylon, radioactive isotopes in solution were used to ascertain uptake of fertilizer at varyingdistances and depths from a coconut palm.

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It is estimated that about 33% of the global agricultural plant production is lost due to pests and diseaseeach year (insect pests-12%,weeds10%, plant diseases-12%). This amounts to $70,000 million pre-harvest loss per year.

FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT CONTAMINATION

Radioisotope methods are powerful tools for studying the fate and significance of pesticide residues and otherchemical and radioactive contaminants of food and the agricultural environment. The IAEA is sponsoringa programme to study these problems at Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda. In combating thetsetse fly, radioactively-labelled insecticides are sprayed under different conditions and their fate in theenvironment is determined over the next weeks and months. Here bark samples are collected for study.

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PLANT BREEDINGIrradiation of seeds results in creating genetic variability of crop plants, which through breeding increasefood production in terms of quantity and quality. The picture shows two types of barleygrowing in an experimental field. On the right is the normal variety, on the left is the mutant variety,which can make better use of nitrogen fertilizer to increase yield.

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTHUsing a radiation-attenuated vaccine against the sheep lung worm in India, the average difference in meatweight between treated and untreated animals was 2.8 kg per animal over a six month period.

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FOOD PRESERVATION

"It is probably fair to state that the process of radiation treatment of foods has beenmore tt °roughly tested for safety of consumption than has any other food preservation technique."Kenneth F. MacQueen

IRRADIATED FOOD PRODUCTS CLEARED FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION (AUGUST 1971)

Country

Canada

Denmark

Hungary

Israel

Product

potatoes

onionswhen and wheat products

potatoes

minims(experimental batched

potatoesonions

Netherlands asparagus(experimental batches)cacaobeens(experimental batches)strawberrieslexperomental batches)mushrooms

potatoes

shrimpslexperimentol batchedspiceslexperimentel batchedonions(experimental batches)

Spain 1,011110es

United Statesof America

*teat and when flour

*lute Peterms)

Union of Soviet potatoesSocialist Republics

graindried fruitsdry food concentratesfresh fruits & vegetableslexperrmentel belches)semi -prepared raw beet.pork & rabbit products,in plastic bags(experimental batchedpoultry eviscerated,in plastic bags(experimental batches)culinary prepared meetproducts (fried meat.entrecOtel. in plastic bags(experimental batches)onions(experimental batches)

Purpose of Irradiation Radiation Source

Dose(permissiblerengel(Kradl Date of approval

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 10 max. 9 November 195016 max. 14 June 1963

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 15 max. 25 March 1965insect chsinfestation Cobalt 60 75 max. 28 February 1969

sprout inhibition 10 MeV Electrons 15 max. 27 January 1970

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 10 23 December 1969

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 16 max 5 July 1967sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 10 max. 25 July 1969

roduruation Cobalt 60 200 max 7 May 1969

chenlestation Cobalt 60 70 max. May 19694 MeV Electrons -

rodurinhon Cobalt 60 250 max. 7 May 19594 May Electrons

raduritation Cobalt 60 250 max 23 October 19694 MeV Electrons

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 16 max. 23 March 19704 MeV Electrons

radian:awn Cobalt 60 SO 100 13 November 19704 May Electrons

rehodation Cobalt 60 800 - 1000 19704 May Electrons

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 16 max. 5 February 19714 MeV Electrons

sprout Inhibition Cobalt 60 5 16 4 November 1969

insect disinfestation Cobalt 60 20 - 50 21 August 1963Cesium 137 20 - 50 2 October 19646 MeV Elections 20 50 26 February 1966

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 5- 10 30 June 1964Cesium 137 5 - 10 2 October 1964Cobalt 60 n'C's 6 - 16 1 November 1965

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 10 14 March 1958

insect disinfestation Cobalt 60 30 1959insect disinfestation Cobalt 60 100 15 February 1966insect disinfestetion Cobalt 60 70 6 June 1966roduritation Cobalt 60 200- 400 11 July 1964(extension of market4ile)roduritation Cobalt 60 600.800 11 July 1964

roduritation Cobalt 60 600 4 July 1966

radmintion Cobalt 60 800 1 February 1957

sprout inhibition Cobalt 60 6 75 February 1987

TO KNOW MORE

INSECT CONTROL

Insect-Pest Management and Control, NationalAcademy of Sciences, Washington,D.C., 1969

Pest Control, (ed. by) Wendell W. Kilgore andRichard L Doutt, Academic Press,New York and London, 1967

Isotopes and Radiation in Entomology, Proceedingsof a Symposium, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1968

Sterile-Male Technique for Eradication or Controlof Harmful Insects, Proceedings of a Panel,Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1969

IRRIGATION

Soil Moisture and Irrigation Studies, Proceedingsof a Panel, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1967

Isotope and Radiation Techniques in Soil Physicsand Irrigation Studies, Proceedings of aSymposium, Istanbul, IAEA, Vienna, 1967

SOIL FERTILITY, PLANT NUTRITION

Nutrition des Plantes de Culture, J. Baeyens,Editions E. Nauwelaerts, Louvain, 1967

The Soil Plant System in Relation to InorganicNutrition, M. Fried and H. Broeshart,Academic Press, New York and London, 1967

Isotopes in Plant Nutrition and Physiology,Proceedings of a Symposium, Vienna,IAEA, Vienna, 1967

The Use of Isotopes and Radiation in Researchon Soil-Plant Relationships IncludingApplications in Forestry, Proceedings of aSymposium, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1972

FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTALCONTAMINATION

Radioisotopes in the Detection of PesticideResidues, Proceedings of a Panel, Vienna, IAEA,Vienna, 1966

Nuclear Techniques for Studying Pesticide ResidueProblems, Proceedings of a Panel, Vienna,IAEA, Vienna, 1970

Pesticide Residues and Radioactive Substances inFood: A Comparative Study of the Problems,A Technical Report, IAEA,Vienna, 1972

PLANT BREEDING

Radiacila i selekci)a rasteni), Sbornik state (ed. by)N.P. Dubinin, V.V. Khvostova, Moskva,Atomizdat, 1965

Improving Plant Protein by Nuclear Techniques,Proceedings of a Symposium, Vienna, IAEA,Vienna, 1970

Manual on Mutation Breeding, Technical ReportsSeries, No.119, IAEA, Vienna, 1970

Induced Mutations and Plant Improvement,Proceedings of a Study GroupMeeting, Buenos Aires, I AEA, Vienna, 1972

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

Mineral Studies with Isotopes in Domestic Animals,Proceedings of a Panel, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

Laboratory Training Manual on the Use of Isotopesand Radiation in Animal Research, TechnicalReports Series, No.60, IAEA, Vienna, 1969

FOOD PRESERVATION

Radiation Preservation of Foods, Proceedings ofa Symposium, Atlantic City, New Jersey,American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1967

Radiatsionnaya Obrabotka Pishchevykh Produktov,L.V. Metlitskii, V.N. Rogachev, V.G. Kruchchev,Izdatel'stvo "Ekonomika", Moskva, 1967

Food Irradiation, Proceedings of a Symposium,Karlsruhe, IAEA, Vienna, 1966

Disinfestation of Fruits by Irradiation, Proceedingsof a Panel, Honolulu, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

01.

TO KNOW MORE

INSECT CONTROL

InsectPest Management and Control, NationalAcademy of Sciences, Washington,D.C., 1969

Pest Control, (ed. by) Wendell W. Kilgore andRichard L. Doutt, Academic Press,New York and London, 1967

Isotopes and Radiation in Entomology, Proceedingsof a Symposium, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1968

SterileMale Technique for Eradication' r Controlof Harmful Insects, Proceedings of a Panel,Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1969

IRRIGATION

Soil Moisture and Irrigation Studies, Proceedingsof a Panel, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1967 ,

Isotope and Radiation Techniques in Soil Physicsand Irrigation Studies, Proceedings of aSymposium, Istanbul, IAEA, Vienna, 1967

SOIL FERTILITY, PLANT NUTRITION

Nutrition des Plantes de Culture, J. Baeyens,Editions E. Nauwelaerts, Louvain, 1967

The Soil Plant System in Relation to InorganicNutrition, M. Fried and H. Broeshart,Academic Press, New York and London, 1967

Isotopes in Plant Nutrition and Physiology,Proceedings of a Symposium, Vienna,IAEA, Vienna, 1967

The Use of Isotopes and Radiation in Researchon SoilPlant Relationships IncludingApplications in Forestry, Proceedings of aSymposium, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1972

FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTALCONTAMINATION

Radioisotopes in the Detection of PesticideResidues, Proceedings of a Panel, Vienna, IAEA,Vienna, 1966

Nuclear Technique:. for Studying Pesticide ResidueProblems, Proceedings of a Panel, Vienna,IAEA, Vienna, 1970

Pesticide Residues and Radioactive Substances inFood: A Comparative Study of the Problems,A Technical Report, IAEA,Vienna, 1972

PLANT BREEDING

Radiacija i selekcila rastenij, Sbornik state tad. by)N.P. Dubinin, V.V. Khvostova, Moskva,Atomizdat, 1965

Improving Plant Protein by Nuclear Techniques,Proceedings of a Symposium, Vienna, IAEA,Vienna, 1970

Manual on Mutation Breeding, Technical ReportsSeries, No.119, IAEA, Vienna, 1970

Induced Mutations and Plant Improvement,Proceedings of a Study GroupMeeting, Buenos Aires, I AEA, Vienna, 1972

ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH

Mineral Studies with Isotopes in Domestic Animals,Proceedings of a Panel, Vienna, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

Laboratory Training Manual on the Use of Isotopesand Radiation in Animal Research, TechnicalReports Series, No.60, IAEA, Vienna, 1969

FOOD PRESERVATION

Radiation Preservation of Foods, Proceedings ofa Symposium, Atlantic City. New Jersey.American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1967

Radiatsionnaya Obrabotka Pishchevykh Produktov,LV. Metlitskii, V.N. Rogachev, V.G. Kruchchev,lzdatel'stvo "Ekonomika", Moskva, 1967

Food Irradiation, Proceedings of a Symposium,Karlsruhe, IAEA, Vienna. 1966

Disinfestation of Fruits by :rradiation, Proceedingsof a Panel, Honolulu, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

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Some of the laboratory equipment used to prepare water samples fnr analysis

Water is one of the basic elements for sui-A suppty-of-adequate-water-for varioususes, sufficient in quantity and adequate inquality, is a basic need for everycommunity regardless of its size and its stageof development.Progressively increasing demands for waterrequire car l. appraisal of water resources inorder to add%) the most efficient and

11/

beneficial uses of availabl'resources.Although there is a continuous circulation ofwater in nature, which is called thehydrologic cycle, usable water resources inany given region are limited. Thus,we must learn everything about water: howmuch is available, its location, and howto use it beneficially and withoutspoiling its quality.

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Pumping of groundwater for isotope analysis

The movement of water in the hydrologiccycle is erratic in time and space.It takes both engineers and hydrologists tosearch for methods and tools to solvethe difficult problems associated with theorigin, the distribution and propertiesof water. Nuclear techniques are among themost modern means for studying hydrologyand can be effectively used alongwith other hydrologic methods in orderto have a comprehensive knowledgeand understanding of the availablewater resources. For certain typesof hydrologic information, nuclear methodsare the only possible means.

Isotopes are used as tracers to identify watermovement and related characteristicsthrough various phases of the hydrologicalcycle:

Measurement of streamflowsMeasurement of snow cover and its water

equivalentMeasurement of suspended sediment carried

by riversDetermination of aquifer characteristics

such as porosity and transmissivity

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Determination of direction and velocity ofgroundwater flows

Study of dynamics of lakesStudy of leakage from lakes and reservoirsStudy of groundwater systems on a

regional basis, in order to determine theirrecharge areas, the amount of rechargeand their interconnections withdifferent water bodies.

Once the water distribution and movementis identified, water can be tapped moreeffectively and efficiently both foragricultural and domestic use..

IAEA is actively involved in the application ofnuclear techniques in water resourcesdevelopment projects in variouscountries in collaboration with other UNagencies, such as FAO, WHO andUNESCO. It also participates in the work ofthe International Hydrological Decade(I HD) organized by UNESCO and in the ACCSubCommittee on Water ResourcesDevelopment.

Drilling operations in search of groundwater

ARID ZONESAND AREAS FACINGWATER PROBLEMS

Arid and semi-arid zones (darker areas) cover more than 1/3 of the world's exposed land surface.

TO KNOW MORE Primenenie radioacktivngh izotopov vgidrotehniceskom stroitel'stve, (by)M.P. Belikov, V.A. Emel'janov, V.E. Nesterov,Moscow, Goddtrojizdat, 1961

Isotope Techniques in Hydrologic Cycle,Proceedings of a Symposium, Illinois,American Geophysical Union, Washington,D.C., 1967

Summer Course on Nuclear Geology,Comitato Nazionale per L'EnergiaNucleare, Laboratorio diGeologia Nucleare, 1967

Guidebook for Nuclear Techniques inHydrology, Technical ReportsSeries, No.91, IAEA, Vienna, 1968

Isotope Hydrology 1970, Proceedings of aSymposium, Vienna, IAEA, 1970

Nuclear Techniques in EnvironmentalPollution, Proceedings of a Symposium,Salzburg, JAEA, Vienna, 1971

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Where does this pollution originate? Is It affecting your environment?

,

Little is known about the quantitativebehaviour of air pollutants,although more than 200 million tons arereleased into the atmosphere each year in theUnited States alone.To identify and map thesepollutants, two nuclear techniques are used:

tracersactivation analysis

TRACERSAs a rule, information on the behaviour,dispersion and fate of air pollutantsafter they leave their place of origin is difficultto interpret if there is a variety of sources.Isotopic tracers are a means of readilyacquiring this information. Generally, acti-vable tracers and isotopic ratio techniquesgive the best results, especially in large-scale field studies. The two stableisotopes of sulphur make it easy to followsulphur oxides as they are emitted from fossilfuel plants and are converted intosulpilur dioxides in the atmosphere. The stackthat is releasing the pollutant can thenbe identified.

ACTIVATION ANALYSISUsing neutron activation analysis, researchersare able to distinguish the elementalcomposition of particles in the air. Localdilution and dispersion of the pollutantfrom its source and transport and removal ofthe pollutant to land and sea surfacesby atmospheric processes can bestudied when several samples are taken fromdifferent places. It is also possible to usethe elemental ratios (such as MI) todefine whether a pollutant is of natural originor due to pollution.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORINGAn environmental monitoring system is usedto measure radiation levels in theatmospheric environment. This systemmeasures background radiationand can immediately note any significantchanges that might occur. Checks are madearound nuclear facilitiesto insure that normal levels are maintained.

CTracers can be dispersed from this tower to befollowed through the atmosphere.

The tower is also equipped to take readingsat different heights to measure radiation or tracers.

Equipment Used in Environmental Monitoring E >

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TO KNOW MORE Proceedings, Part I, International Clean AirCongress, London, 1966

Manual on Environmental Monitoring inNormal Operation, Safety SeriesNo.16, IAEA, Vienna, 1966

Air Pollution, Arthur C. Stern, editor,Academic Press, New York and London, 1968

Measurement of Air Pollutants, Guide to theSelection of Methods, M. Katz, WorldHealth Organization, Geneva, 1969

Meteorological Aspects of Air Pollution,World Meteorological Organization,Technical Note No.106, Geneva, 1970

Proceedings of the Seminar on Pollution andHuman Environment, BhabhaAtomic Research Center, Trombay, Bombay,India, 1970

Nuclear Techniques in EnvironmentalPollution, Proceedings of aSymposium, Salzburg, IAEA, Vienna, 1971

45

4?

ON NUCLEAR ENERGY, THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION

Waste Management1961 Radioactive Waste Disposal into the Sea;1962 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes into Marine and Fresh Waters;1963 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes into Fresh Water;

Treatment and Storage of High-Level Radioactive Wastes;1964 Technology of Radioactive Waste Management

Avoiding Environmental Disposal:1965 The Management of Radioactive Wastes Produced by

Radioisotope Users;Radioactive Waste Disposal into the Ground;Methods of Surveying and Monitoring Marine Radioactivity;

1966 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes into Seas, Oceans andSurface Waters;Practices in the Treatment of Low- and Intermediate-LevelRadioactive Wastes;The Management of Radioactive Wastes Produced byRadioisotope Users:Technical Addendum;

1987 Operation and Control of Ion-Exchange Processes for Treatmentof Radioactive Wastes;Disposal of Radioactive Wastes into the Ground;Basic Factors for the Treatment and Disposalof Radioactive Wastes;

1988 Chemical Treatment of Radioactive Wastes;Design and Operation of Evaporators for Radioactive Wastes;Economics in Managing Radioactive Wastes;Management cf Radioactive Wastes at Nuclear Power Plants;Treatment of Airborne Radioactive Wastes;Treatment of Low- and Intermediate-Level RadioactiveWaste Concentrates;

1970 Bituminization of Radioactive Wastes;Management of Low- and Intermediate-Level Radioactive Wastes;Reference Methods for Marine Radioactivity Studies;Standardization of Radioactive Waste Categories;The Volume Reduction of LowActivity Solid Wastes;

1971 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes into Rivers, Lakes and Estuaries;

Nuclear Safety1661 Safe Operation of Critical Assemblies and Research Reactors;1962 Reactor Safety and Hazards Evaluation Techniques;1963 Siting of Reactors and Nuclear Research Centres;1966 Criticality Control of Fissile Materials;1967 Containment and Siting of Nudes Power Plants;1968 Safety Considerations in the Use of Ports and Approaches by

Nuclear Merchant Ships;Application of Meteorology to Safety at Nuclear Plants;Anionic Design and Testing of Nudes Facilities;

1969 Safe Operation of Nuclear Power Plants;1970 Guidelines for the Layout and Contents of Safety Reports for

Stationary Nuclear Power Plants;1971 Environmental Aspects of Nuclear Power Stations;

Sofa Operation of Critical Assemblies and Research Reactors;

Nuclear Techniques

1

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Printed by the IAEA in Austria

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International Atomic Energy AgencyKamtner Ring11, RO. Box 590, A-1011 Vienna, Austria

Nuclear. Energy and the Environrnu/