Polar BearsProceedings of the Eleventh Working Meeting of the

IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group25-27 January 1993, Copenhagen, Denmark

IUCN ~The World CoIlllllWtioa Union S f.E Cl os S l) R v I v ... L COli MISS ION

~~~~Su(rrlMuo/o-If WWF OlicllgOZoologicalSociely. ~ ••

Polar BearsProceedings of the Eleventh Working Meeting of the

IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group25-27 January 1993, Copenhagen, Denmark

Compiled and edited by0ystein Wiig, Erik W. Born and Gerald W. Garner

IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group

Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) No.1 0

IUCN - The World Conservation Union1995

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(1995) International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

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Wiig, 0., Born, E., and Garner, E. W. (eds.) (1995), Polar Bears: Proceedings of theEleventh Working Meeting of the WCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group. lUCN,Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. v + 192pp

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Contents

Foreword 1

List of participants 3

Agenda 5

Minutes , 7

Summary of polar bear populationstatus 19

Guidelines for the Polar Bear SpecialistGroup of the International Union forConservation of Nature (lUCN PBSG) .. 25

Resolutions 27

Press release. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 29

National reports on status and research .. 31

Research on polar bears in Canada 1988-92Calvert, W. et al. 33

Polar bear management in Canada 1988-92Calvert, W. et al. 61

Statns of the polar bear in Greenland 1993Born, E. W 81

Research on polar bears in Greenland,nltimo 1988 to primo 1993Born, E. W. 105

Status of polar bears in Norway 1993Wiig,0 109

Status of polar bear populations in theRussian Arctic 1993Belikov, S 115

Research and conservation of the polar bearin the Russian Arctic 1988-92Belikov, S 121

The status of polar bears in Alaska 1993Schliebe, S. et al. 125

Polar bear management in Alaska 1988-92Schliebe, S. and Evans, TJ. . 139

Polar bear research in the Beaufort SeaAmstrup, S. and Dorner, G. . 145

Research on polar bears in westeru Alaskaand eastern Russia 1988-92Garner, G. et al. . 155

v

Miscellaneous reports . . . . . . . . . . . 165

Research on polar bears in SevernayaZemlya (Russia) 1991-92Belikov, S. et al. . 167

Sequence analysis of the mitochondrialDNA molecule of the polar bearBodin, X. et al. 174

Snmmary of status report for North Baffinpolar bearsBorn, E.w. et al. .. 175

Basic concepts of polar bear maternity dencensnsChelintsev, N.G. and Belikov, S 177

Recent studies on heavy metals iu polarbears from Greenlaud with reference toother marine mammalsDietz, R. 180

On ICC's environmental strategy and somelocal polar bear problemsEgede, I. 181

Polar bears killed in Svalbard 1987-92Gjertz, I. et al 184

Chlorinated hydrocarbons in polar bearsfrom North America, Greenland andSvalbard: A biological measure ofhemispheric pollutionNorstrom, RJ. . 185

The catch of polar bears in northwesternGreenlandRosing-Asvid, A. and Born, E.W 188

Genetic heterogeneity in polar bears: theCanadian dataRamsay, M.A. et al 189

Global environmental change: an involnntaryecological experiment with polar bears asa subjectRamsay, M.A. et al 190

Grizzly bear sightings in Viscount MelvilleSoundTaylor, M. .. 191

Foreword

The eleventh meeting of the mCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group was hosted by the Greenland FisheriesResearch Institute in Copenhagen, 25-27 January 1993. One of the most notable features of this meetingwas the participation of Inuit hunters and members of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) as invitedspecialists.

The proceedings include a review of the world status ofpolar bears. Such a review has not been presentedsince the 1980 meeting of the group. It is, however, important to note that reviewing the population statusis an ongoing process. The present summary will continue to be updated as new data are collected. Duringthe 1988 meeting of the group the importance of the new developments in Russia was stressed. Newcooperative projects between Russian, American and Norwegian scientists were recommended. The resultsfrom some of these projects are reported in the present proceedings. During the 1993 meeting, concern wasexpressed about possible detrimental effects of human activity on polar bears. Very high concentrations oftoxic chemicals have been found in bears, particularly from the Svalbard and East Greenland areas. Nuclearwaste in the Russian Arctic may affect the arctic ecosystem. Global warming may prolong the ice-freeperiod and thereby alter the period during which polar bears are able to feed on seals, and so cause nutritionalstress. Because the polar bear is at the top of the arctic marine food chain, it is an ideal species throughwhich to monitor the cumulative effects of change in arctic marine ecosystems.

The proceedings contain an up-to-date review of present knowledge, management, and research on thepolar bear populations of the world.

We are grateful to Ms Linette Humphrey at the mCN/SSC, Gland, for help with preparing theseproceedings for publication. The Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, the Greenland Fisheries ResearchInstitute, Copenhagen, the National Biological Survey, Anchorage, and the Norwegian Polar Institute, Oslo,have all contributed to meet the printing costs.

The Editors

List of Participants

MEMBERS

Steven C. AmstrupResearch ScientistNational Biological Survey1011 E. Tudor RoadAnchorage, Alaska 99503USAPh: ++ (907) 786 3424Fax: ++ (907) 786 3636.

ErikW. BornResearch ScientistGreenland Fisheries Research InstituteTagensvej 135, 1. floorDK-2200 Copenhagen N.DenmarkPh: ++ 4531 854444Fax: ++ 45 35 82 18 50

Stanislav E. BelikovResearch ScientistAll-Russian Research Institute for NatureConservation and ReservesZnamenskoye-Sadki, Moscow, Russia 113628Ph: ++ 7 095 423 0133Fax: ++ 7 095 423 2322

Gerald W. GarnerResearch ScientistNational Biological Survey1011 East Tudor RoadAnchorage, Alaska 99503USAPh: ++ I (907) 786 3559Fax: ++ 1 (907) 786 3636

Malcolm A. RamsayAssistant ProfessorDepartment of BiologyUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoonSask. S7K OWO,CanadaPh: ++ 1 (306) 966 4412Fax: ++ 1 (306) 966 4461

3

Scott SchliebeManagement BiologistUS Fish and Wildlife ServiceMarine Mammals Management11OlE. Tudor RoadAnchorage, AK 99508USAPh: ++ 1 (907) 271 2394Fax: ++ 1 (907) 272 2381

Ian StirlingResearch ScientistCanadian Wildlife Service5320 122 SI. Edmonton, AB, TSH 3S6CanadaPh: ++ I (403) 4357349Fax: ++ I (403) 4357359

Mitchell TaylorPolar Bear BiologistDepartment of Renewable ResourcesGovernment of the Northwest TerritoriesP.O.Box 1320Yellowknife, NWT, X7A2L9CanadaPh: ++ 1 (403) 873 3219Fax: ++ 1 (403) 873 0114

0ystein WiigResearch ScientistNorwegian Polar InstituteP.O. Box 5072 Majorstua, N-0301 OsloNorwayPh. ++ 47 22 959500Fax: ++ 47 22 959501

INVITED SPECIALISTS

Vlfur AmasonUniversity of LundDepartment of Molecular GeneticsThe Wallenberg Laboratory, Box 7031S-220 07 LundSwedenPh: ++ 46 109259 or 46 107000Fax: ++ 46 137610

Polar Bears

Larry AudlalukInuit Circumpolar ConferenceGrise Fjord, NWTCanadaPh: ++ I (819) 980 9086Fax: ++ 1(819) 980 9952

Charles D. BrowerExecutive ManagerNorth Slope BoroughDept. of Wildlife Mgut.Box 69, Barrow, Alaska 99723USAPh: ++ I (907) 8520350Fax: ++ I (907) 8520351

Rune DietzResearch ScientistGreenland Environment2l Research InstituteTagensvej 135,4. floor, 220 Copenhagen N.DenmarkPh: ++ 45 35 82 14 15Fax: ++ 453582 1420

Ingmar EgedeVice-PresidentInuit Circumpolar Conference (Greenland)P.O. Box 204, 3900 NuukGreenlandPh. ++ 299 2 36 32Fax: ++ 299 2 30 01

Mads-Peter Heide-J~rgensen

Research ScientistGreenland Fisheries Research InstituteTagensvej 135, I. floor2200 Copenhagen NDenmarkPh: ++ 45 31814444Fax: ++ 45 35 82 1850

Amalie JessenGreenland Home Rule GovernmentMinistry for Fisheries, Hunting and AgricultureP.O. Box 269, 3900 NuukGreenlandPh: ++ 299 2 30 80Fax. ++ 299 2 50 80 or 2 46 93

Hansi KreutzmannSpecial Assist2ntKNAPK/fhe Organization of Hunters and Fishermenin GreenlandBox 386, DK-3900 NuukGreenlandPh: ++ 299 2 24 22Fax: ++ 299 2 5715

4

Einar LemcheConsult2ntGreenland Home Rule GovernmentDenmark OfficePilestraede 521016 Copenhagen KDenmarkPh: ++ 45 33 13 42 24Fax: ++ 45 33 13 49 71

Jens PaulsenHead of OfficeGreenland Home Rule GovernmentMinistry for Fisheries, Hunting and AgricultureP.O. Box 2693900 NuukGreenlandPh: ++ 299 2 30 00Fax: ++ 299 2 50 80

Ussarrak Qujaukit.~oq

Chairman of the Board of Environment2l ProtectionThe Greenland ParliamentBox 563971 Thule QaanaaqGreenlandPh: ++ 299 50071

Aqqalu Rosing-AsvidStudent of biologyGreenland Fisheries Research InstituteTagensvej 135, I. floorDK-2200 Copenhagen NDenmarkPh: ++ 4531854444Fax: ++ 45 35 8250

Naja WistortSecret2ryGreenland Home Rule GovernmentDeumark OfficePilestraede 521016 Copenhagen KDenmarkPh: ++ 4533 134224Fax: ++ 4535 82 14 20

Vera SkvirskayaInterpreterJohnstrup Aile 101923 Fredriksberg C.Denmark

Agenda.

5.

14.45

11.00

15.30

15.45

Lunch

Discussion and evaluation of how manage­ment of polar bears in different countriescomplies with the intentions of the articlesof international "Agreement on the Con­servation of Polar Bears".

Sports hunts (regulations for sports hunts indifferent countries, plans for sports hunt,implications of sport hunts to manage­ment). Discussion.

Trade in polar products and implications formanagement. Discussion.

Research.

Presentation: "The polar bear hunt in northwestern Greenland" (Aqqalu Rosing­Asvid, Greenland Fisheries Research In­stitute, Copenhagen). Discussion.

Coffee break.

Presentation: "Studies of mtDNA in polarbears" (Kristina BodinlUlfur Amason, De­parunentofGenetics, University ofLund).Discussion.

Presentation: "Status of Canadian studies ofDNA in polar bears" (Malcolm Ramsay,Department of Biology, University ofSaskatchewan). Discussion.

16.00

15.00

15.15

13.15

14.15

12.45

1l.45

13.45

Production and format of published proceed­ings from the meeting.

Election of ad hoc "editors" for compilationof information on status of different popu­lations for the minutes of the meeting.

Election of group to draft press release.

Summary of research: Canada, Norway.

Lunch

Summary of research (continued): Greenland!Denmark, Russia, USA.

Present status of polar bear populations:Canada.

Coffee break

Present status of polar bear population(continued): Norway.

16.30 Greenland/Denmark

11.30

12.30

13.15

I. Introductory remarks/comments from the hosts

2. Election of the meeting chairman

3. Selection of secretary for recording notesfrom the meeting

4. Suggestions of additional topics for the meet-ing, adoption of final agenda

Monday 25 January 1993

10.00

Wednesday 27 JanuaryTuesday 26 January

9.00

9.45

10.30

10.45

Present status of polar bear populations(continued): Russia.

USA

Coffee break

Presentation: "Effect of sex-selective harvest"(Mitchell Taylor, Wildlife Division, De­parunent Renewable Resources, NWT).Discussion.

9.00

9.30

10.00

10.15

Research (continued).

Satellite telemetry. Evaluation of perform­ance of transmitters.

Aerial surveys, other.

Coffee break

Presentation: "Heavy metals in polar bears"(Rune Dietz, Greenland EnvironmentalResearch Institute, Copenhagen). Discussion.

5

Po/arBears

10.45 Presentation: "Chlorinated hydrocarbons in 12.15 Lunchpolar bears". Status of work (lan Stirling,

14.15 StatusCanadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton).

Evaluation of the future status of the PBSO.Discussion.Future objectives and actions ofthe PBSO.

13.00 Presentation: "ICC's environmental strategy Criteria for membership. Suggestions forand polarbear management". Tentative title. new members. Adoption of new membersInuit Circumpolar representative. ofPBSO.

11.15 Physiological studies of polar bears and im- 13.45 Identification of future research and manage-plications of findings to the management ment priorities.of polar bears.

15.00 Election of a new chairman of PBSO.11.45 Presentation: "Effect on polar bears of global

15.15 Adoption of the compilation of status ofwarming" (Malcolm Ramsay, Deparunentpopulation presented by the ad hoc editors.of Biology, University of Saskatchewan).

16.00 Adoption of press release.Discussion.

6

Minutes of the 11th meeting of the IUCN/SSC PolarBear Specialist Group, Copenhagen, Denmark

25-27 January 1993

25-26 January

I. Introductory RemarksA. The meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m.

25 January 1993 by the present chairman of theIUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG),E. Born. He gave a series of introductory remarksand noted that this meeting was the first in whichinvited specialists included representatives ofnative groups with an historical interest in polarbears. He introduced members and invitedspecialists, and gave a brief preamble on thehistory of group. I. Stirling gave a brief summaryof the PBSG since 1968 when the first officialmeeting was held. E. Born also noted that undercurrent IUCN guidelines, it is the prerogative of theChairman to designate members and invitespecialists to attend the PBSG meetings.

II. Election of Meeting Chairman andSelection of Meeting Secretary

A. E. Born was elected meeting chairman.

B. S. Amstrup agreed to serve as co-chairman.

C. M. Ramsay was appointed Secretary for the meeting.

m. Adoption of the Meeting Agenda

A. E. Born suggested that the membership of thePBSG be considered in the in-camera session on27 January. Resolutions will be considered andadopted on 27 January. C. Brower asked whetherinvited specialists have a vote and can speak freelyon any issues raised. E. Born explained that they donot have a vote, but they are free to participate onall issues except those eanied out in the in-camerasession.

7

B. The Canadian toxicology report was not availablefor presentation at the meeting, but will be includedin the Proceedings.

C. S. Amstrup requested that the group make recom­mendations for his future research endeavors.

D. The final Agenda (as shown above) was adopted.

IV. Production of the Proceedings of theMeeting

A. 0. Wiig, E. Born, and G. Gamer were designatededitors for the proceedings.

B. 0. Wiig offered to have Norsk Polarinstitutt publishthe proceedings in its Meddelelser series, whichwould require an external source of 50% of thepublishing costs or, approximately $5000 CAN total.M. Taylor offered to lobby for the necessary addi­tional funds. S. Amstrup noted that if the NorskPolarinstitutt published the proceedings, the IUCNimprimatur would be removed from the proceed­ings and the proceedings would not be one of theirnumbered reports. However, others suggested thatthe imprimatur of all the contributing agenciescould be included as they were in the Proceedingspublished by the Northwest Territories

V. Miscellaneons Items

A. A discussion ensued between G. Garner, M. Taylor,and I. Stirling about whether the IUCN BearSpecialist Group does or does not include polarbears. E. Born postponed further discussion until27 January.

B. S. Amstrup, E. Born, and M. Taylor were named toa committee to summarize the status of polar bears

Polar Bears

world-wide. This world-wide status report, or asummary, could be published in the primary litera­ture as well as in ihe PBSG proceedings.

C. A committee consisting of I. Egede and I. Stirlingwas named to prepare a draft press release stem­ming from ihe meeting.

VI. National Overviews of Research andManagement

Overviews of ihe research and management pro­grams from each national jurisdiction were pre­sented, which included summaries of researchobjectives and management concems. As ihese reportswill be included in ihe Proceedings, only someaspects of the discussions are included below.

A. Canada: I. Stirling presented a summary ofresearch programs conducted by the CanadianWildlife Service, M. Ramsay outlined research pro­jects carried out at ihe University ofSaskatchewan,and M. Taylor outlined research programs carriedout by ihe Governmentofthe NorihwestTerritories.The Canadian management summary included abriefoverview of ihe current programs. Of particularimportance is ihe amount of effort being expendedon ihe development of Management Agreementsfor each population, reducing quotas for popula­tions thought to be over-harvested, and conductingresearch for populations which arc being harvestedbut ihe status of which is uncertain.

B. Greenland/Denmark: The Greenland FisheriesResearch Institute is planned to move fromCopenhagen to Nuuk by 1996. How this will affectfuture research and management of polar bearsremains to be seen. E. Born presented a summaryof current research and outlined the developingmanagement situation in Greenland. Efforts areunderway to develop a harvest reporting system,and some of ihe Greenland representatives discussedtheir perspectives on polar bear management.E. Born and A. Rosing-Asvid presented summariesofihe status of polar bears in Greenland and theresults of a survey of polar bear hunting done byA. Rosing-Asvid for his Master's thesis. These arcthe most detailed data provided from Greenland todate, and suggest a harvest of 4Q-{iO per year in

8

West Greenland, from ihe population shared withCanada. These results are important because, whenadded to ihe harvest taken in Canada, they give ihefirst reasonably reliable estimate of the total harvestfor ihe shared polar bear population of Baffin Bay.

C. Norway: 0. Wiig reported on research conductedin Svalbard. Movements of satellite collared bearscaptured at Svalbard suggested a local populationthat had only limited exchange with Franz JosefLand and NE Greenland. Svalbard has no nativepeople and, therefore, no traditional hunt is allowed.High levels of PCBs (30-9Oppm) were recorded inpolar bears at Svalbard, which were much higherthan anywhere else in the world. The reason isunknown, but ihese levels have caused reproductiveproblems in other species. The Norwegians are alsoconcerned about possible effects ofoffshore explo­ration in the Barents Sea and nuclear dumps in ihevicinity of Novaya Zemlya. So far, there is littleinformation available on the possible effects ofnuclear wastes on the marine environment, but thereis considerable interest in ihis area.

D. Russia: S. Belikov reported on Russian researchand management programs. Emphasis was placedon potential problems that may be faced in future asa result of ihe tumultuous political and economicevents taking place currently in Russia. Littlemoney is currently available to conduct an inde­pendent research program. Consequently, the co­operative research program conducted wiih the USoffers the best opportunity for generating scientificdata to develop a viable management plan. Thepotential for joint studies of polar bear behavior bybiologists from the Canadian Wildlife Service,Russia, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service wasdiscussed briefly. Other aspects of polar bear biol­ogy in Russia, Alaska, and Canada might also bestudied together. No specific proposals were offeredand no commitments were made by any party,although there are a number of ecological andbehavioral topics that might be studied effectivelyon a cooperative basis.

Current thinking is to divide ihe polar bears in­habiting Russian territory into three populations.The Central population will remain listed in iheRussian Red Book and the Eastern and Western

populations will likely be placed lhere as well. Thepopulation in lhe Eastern Russian Arctic appears tohave increased since hunting stopped in 1956, andlhe Western population has perhaps doubled, wilhproblem bears being encountered in lhe coastalvillages on a regular basis. Data are not availablefor the Central population, although it is possiblystable. There is interest in developing a manage­ment plan for polar bears in the Bering-Chukchiarea, in conjunction wilh Alaska, and lhen openinga hunting season in Russia. There is some debatewithin Russia about who would be allowed to hunt.S. Belikov favors hunting by resident indigenouspeople but interest has also been expressed by huntingorganizations based in Moscow. Recently, interestin lhe development of commercialized sporr huntingofpotar bears in Russia has increased, especially inlhe eastern regions. Advertising for polar bear hunt­ing in Russia has occurred, but was not aulhorizedby Russian authorities.

Indigenous people claim they have a right to huntpolar bears and are working wilh US aboriginalgroups in an attempt to achieve hunting arrange­ments similar to those currently in place in theBeaufort Sea region. Decisions concerning huntingpatterns will be made by the Minister of Ecology.The government is prepared to open a polar bearhunt wilhin the framework of the InternationalTreaty on lhe Conservation of Polar Bears. A sug­gestion has been made lhat lhe quota be set at 65,which is approximately half of lhe current Alaskanharvest.

Legally, hunting is not presently allowed any­where in Russia, however, polar bears are beingharvested by local people in some arctic eoastalcommunities. The government has few means tocontrol illegal hunting and a change in regulationsmay be required. Lobbying efforrs to legalize hunt­ing are mounting and lhe situation may change inlhe near future in lhe Chukotka region. The Easternhunt will be for local use only (i.e., no commercialhunting will be allowed because lhe governmenthas no means of controlling and monitoring such ahunt). In lhe region bordering the Barents Sea lhereare no plans at present for hunting. S. Bclikovoffered to supply any interested parties wilh thenames and addresses of institutions in Russia lhat

9

Minutes

have input to decisions regarding changes in hunt­ing regulations.

S. Belikov suggested lhat PBSG should adopt aresolution to support Russian aulhorities' efforts tocontrol and manage future hunting programs. Therewas general agreement to such a proposition. Thereponed incidental take occurring along lhe Russiancoast for local use is lhe first time Russia has ac­knowledged any harvest of polar bears in Russia.They apparently have little ability tocontrollhe takeat the moment, but hope to do so if they develop amanagement plan in cooperation wilh lhe US. Simi­larly, lhere are few data to indicate the extentoflheproblem, although poaching is not lhought to beextensive. At present, the Russians are largely de­pendent on lhe US, Norway, and ecotourism partiesfor financial support to conduct field work.

E. United States: S. Amstrup and G. Garner reportedjointly on American research endeavors. A consid­erable component of US research is conducted onlhe population of polar bears lhat move between USand Russian jurisdictions. Of particular interest islhe amount of satellite tracking being done on theshared polar bear population resident in theChukchi Sea, and denning on Wrangellsland. Plansare underway to attempt a large scale populationestimate in lhe Chukchi Sea, involving adaptivesampling when lhe bear population is most densealong lhe soulhern edge of lhe pack ice in September1994 or 1995. On the basis of the satellite trackingto determine lhe population boundaries and theestimate of population size, lhe US and Russia willdevelop ajoint management plan. A total of35% ofChukchi polar bears tested positive for canine dis­temper antibodies, which cross-react with phocinedistemper virus. At present, field work in theBeaufort Sea is limited because the results ofrecently completed studies are being prepared forpublication. Suggestions were sought for areas ofinvestigation that members think important in theBeaufort Sea. Suggestions included another totalpopulation assessment in 5-10 years time; moredetailed studies of lhe relationships between bearmovements, seal numbers, and ice conditions;refinement of lhe western border of the population;lifetime reproductive histories of known femaleslhat have been followed for many years; continued

Polar Bears

monitoring of the apparent increase of terrestrialmaternity denning along the Alaskan coast; andstudies of the effects (or lack of them) or industrialactivities on polar bear behavior or reproductivesuccess.

S. Amstrup presented a report on the presentstatus of polar bears in Alaska with particular em­phasis on the discreteness of the populations inhab­iting US territory and the extent these populationsare shared with Canada and Russia. Much emphasishas been placed in recent years on determining thesites of matemity dens and whether they are on landor on the sea ice. S. Schliebe reported on harvestpatterns and management practices for the UnitedStates. He discussed proposed changes to the USMarine Mammal Protection Act and the implica­tions of those changes for the management andconservation of polar bears.

VII. Sex-Selective HarvestM. Taylor presented a report on the management ofpolar bears in the Northwest Territories of Canadawith especial emphasis on the "effectsofsex-selectiveharvesting". A key point emphasized in thispresentation was that reproductive rates in polarbears are very low and all populations aresusceptible to over-hunting. There were numerousquestions from the participating user groups.Results from recent simulations using themathematical model ofpolar bear populations werepresented. It was suggested that a population ofbears would stabilize with about 30% more malesthan femalcs, if the population were harvested atmaximum sustainable yield and a sex ratio of 2males:I female in the harvest. The maximumskewing of the sex ratio of harvested bears that thepopulatiOlI could withstand was about 28%female:72% male, if the population was beingharvested for maximum yield. Current modellingprojections suggest that the absolute maximumharvest level of independent females (i.e. 2+ yearsof age) is about 1.5% annually; however, theeventual outcome is that all cubs are harvested as2-year-olds so this extreme is not realistic. Iffemales were harvested at a rate of 1.5%, whilemales were harvested at substantially higher rates,the proportion of females in the population wouldincrease. However, the population size would

10

initially decline, then increase in about 20 years.Concerns in the discussion included the difficultyof aecounting for compensation in the model andthe difficulty of convincing users to change theirharvest practices so that the population wouldincrease in 20 years. Also, if the population modelwas incorrect, or if ecological conditions changedsubstantially, the recognition that the predictionswere incorrect might be delayed many years. Somefelt this delay presented too high a risk for the modelto be used as a management tool. Thus far, data frommost settlements indicate that obtaining a ratio of 2males: 1 female in the harvest is a reasonable target.

VIII. Compliance with the InternationalAgreement

There was a general discussion and evaluation ofhow the individual management programs of thecircumpolar nations complied witll the intentions ofthc articles of the "International Agreement on theConservation ofPolar Bears and their Habitat". Thiswas a fairly lengthy discussion. Overall, it seemedthat all countries were complying fairly well to theintent, ifnot necessarily the letter of the Agreement.There was some discussion about the extensive useof snow machines in Canada and Alaska to huntpolar bears and whether or not this complied withthe reference to "... local people using traditionalmethods in the exercise oftheir traditional rights ....'as specified in Article III (d). The Canadian Letterof Interpretation allows Inuit-guided sport huntsusing dog teams.

There was a certain amount of variation in thedegree to which different countries specifically pro­tected polar bear habitat. In Svalbard, about half thearchipelago has at least some protection and themajor denning area in Kong Karl's Land has com­plete protection. In Russia, the denning areas onWrangel and Herald Islands are protected, but it wasnot clear if there was any protection for other areas.In Greenland, an area of Melville Bay has been setaside as a reserve for polar bears and the major partof NE Greenland is included in the National Park ofNorth- and East Greenland. No areas are currentlyprotected in Alaska, a1thongh there is some discus­sion taking place on providing protection of somesort in the area of the Arctic National Wildlife

Reserve because it contains the only knownsignificantamount of terrestrial polar beardenningin Alaska. In Canada, the denning areas in Manitobaare both designated Wildlife Management Areasthrough which some control can be exercised. TheChurchill denning area would be included in aproposed National Park if it proceeds. In Ontario,somedenning habitat and coastal summer sanctuaryhabitat are included in Polar Bear Provincial Park.Some polar bear habitat is included coincidentallyin some of the National Parks and National ParkReserves in the Northwest Territories. Nowhere isthere any protection for offshore areas that may becritical breeding habitat. However, a recent pro­posal to drill near the shorelead polynya system inthe eastern Beaufort Sea was denied because thecompany could not demonstrate their ability toclean up an oil spill. One of the principal concernswas the potential for detrimental effects on polarbears.

Several members questioned whether the "Agree­ment" makes any specific reference to whether cubscan be killed. I. Stirling noted that protection of fe­males with cubs and bears in dens is covered in AnnexE "Resolution on Special Protection Measures" , notin the "Agreement" itself. Cubs are not defined, butit seems likely dmt the intent was to include all youngthat were still dependent on their mothers, up to 21;2years ofage. In some areas, Inuit have indicated theywould like to harvest a small number of yearlings andtwo-year·olds to supply tender meat to elders in theircommunities. From a management perspective, thisstrategy would be acceptable as long as dIe adultfemale was not harvested. No agreement was reachedover interpretation of whether families and bears indens are protected.

A. Canada: M. Taylor suggested dlat Canada may bein non-compliance with the "Agreement" on threeof dIe articles. Article II stipulates managementaccording to sound conservation pmctices based onthe best available scientific data. Some sub­populations of polar bears are thought to be over­harvested. Selling hidcs resulting from polar bearskilled in self-defense violates Article II, section II.The use of aircraft to position hunting camps andtransport hunters could be interpreted as a violationof Article IV.

11

Minutes

M. Taylor noted that the existing quota huntingsystem in place allows reduction of quotas inresponse to a decline resulting from over-hunting.The government of the Northwest Territories has oris currently negotiating with local communities toreduce quotas in those jurisdictions where recentpopulation data suggest an over-harvest has occurred.He also noted that all bears killed in self-defense areremoved from local quotas so the sale of the hidedoes not constitute a conservation threat. He arguedfurther that, under a carefully controlled quota man­agement system, the use of aircmft to positioncamps does not result in over-hunting. He alsonoted that aircraft are not used in Canada to pursueor scout for polar bears during a hunt.

A principal area of non-compliance in Canadalies in Quebec where, because of the James BayAgreement, there are no quotas, seasons, or protec­tion of females and young. These shortcomingswere addressed by local resolutions of the Huntersand Tmppers in Northern Quebec. In past years,Makivik has conducted harvest studies in Quebecbut the data collection has been sporadic and hasdeclined in recent years. So far, there has been littlewillingness to join with other jurisdictions thatshare polar bear populations to negotiate a manage­ment agreement. Only a fraction of the kill is reoported and the data and specimens collected arevariable in the information they provide. The Provoince of Ontario has only limited information avail­able on dIe hunt taking place by aboriginals withintheir jurisdiction. The Province of Manitoba allowsno hunting of polar bears within its juriSdiction, andrecords all known mortality of polar bears fromhuman and other causes.

B. Greenland/Denmark: E. Born oUllined howGrcenland hunting regulations comply with the"Agreement", especially with regard to aboriginalharvests. Under Article VII of the "Agreement",Greenland does not currently collect good huntingstatistics and share them with neighboring juris.dictions. Complete protection for polar bears isafforded in the reserve in Melville Bay. A. Jensensummariwd the Greenland hunting regulations asfollows: i) there is no quota; ii) no motorized vehi·cles may be used for the hunt; and iii) hunters mustbe citizens of Greenland and hunt or fish full time.

Polar Bears

U. Qujaukitsoq noted that as of I January 1993,Greenland residents are required to get specialpermits to hunt polar bears. This regulation willallow closer monitoring of the hnnt and better datato be collected. He noted that it would be desirableto have future mCN Polar Bear Specialist Groupmeetiugs closer to where the user groups live. Henoted that the Inuit perceive things differently frommany scientists and their input to tllese meetingsshould provide a useful insight.

C. Norway: 0. Wtig noted that the hunting of polarbears in Svalbard is prohibited; bears may only bekilled in self-defense. Fnrthermore, approximately50% of the land area of Svalbard is totally protected,including all major regions of denning by femalebears. Norway, thus, is in total compliance with theAgreemeut. He noted, however, that protection ofhabitat is only on land and to 4 nautical miles offshore.Therefore, polar bears and their habitat are nnpro­tected in the Barents Sea. Environmental regulationsbased on the Svalbard Treaty claim jurisdiction onlyOUlto 4 nautical miles. Norway, in fact. claims controlof waters out to 200 nautical miles but, only Finlandhas accepted these Norwegian claims.

D. Russia: S. Belikov outlined Russia's compliancewith the "Agreement". Regions on Wrangel andHerald Islands where concentrated numbers of polarbears enter dens each year have been given com­plete protection. Under the new economic situation,Rnssia may be unable to comply with Article 11 andits stipulation of managing polar bears according tosound scientific principles. Dr. Belikov offered todraft a resolution for the group to offer support forthe Russian predicament.

E. United States: S. Schliebe suggested that the USAmay be in non-compliance with the"Agreement" inthree areas:i) protection of females and their cubs as well as

protection of bears in dens;ii) protection of habitat; andiii) the use ofaircraft and large vessels in polar bearhunts.

The US does have legislation in place that canprotect habitat, but none specifically for polar bears.There are political debates on whether specific

12

protection should be afforded to areas within theArctic National Wildlife Reserve known to containpolar bear dens. Significantly, this is the only regionunder US jurisdiction known to contain numbers ofpolar bear dens. The use of aircraft and large shipsis specifically prohibited (Article IV). In Alaska,there have been two cases of native people using asmall aircraft to hunt a polar bear. An effort isunderway to institute legislation that would specifi­cally prohibit the use of aircraft for hunting polarbears.

The Marine Mammal Prolection Act is scheduledfor review during 1993. The US Fish and WildlifeService is considering a number of modifications tothe act to allow the US to come into compliancewith the "Agreement".

IX. Sport Httnting and Access to Harvest

E. Born initiated a general discussion on commer­cial sales of polar bear hunts. Article III (d) of theInternational Agreement on the Conservation ofPolar Bears states that polar bears may be taken, "bylocal people using traditional methods in the exer­cise of their traditional rights and in accordancewith the laws of tI,at Party." Although not writtenas such, this is often interpreted to refer to indige­nous people. The Norwegian Ministry of Environ­ment's interpretation of tile Agreement is that onlyaboriginal people are permitted to hunt. Applica­tions from trappers in Svalbard (where there are noaboriginal people) to hunt polar bears have beenrefused for this reason.

In Canada and Greenland, most hunting of polarbears is done by aboriginal people. However, Can­ada and Denmark (Greenland) have interpretedthese articles in a way that permit.~ some non-nativeresidents to hunt polar bears in specific circum­stances. Canada also allows non-residents to huntpolar bears if they are guided by Inuit hunters trav­elling by dog team. In the United States, under theMarine Mammal Protection Actof 1972, noone canhunt polar bears except coastal dwelling nativepeople for subsistence purposes. In Alaska, theState constitution prohibits limitation of access towildlife resources on the basis of race but can do soon the basis of whether or not a person lives a

"subsistence" life style. However, because FederalLaw supersedes Alaskan State Law in this case, theexemption for native subsistence hunters can still bemade. In Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, maintainingpolar bear hunting as part of the subsistence lifestyleis widely viewed as beingofsignificantcultural import­ance. Although hunting polar bears is still illegal inRussia, there is now significant interest in reopeninga hunting season. It remains to be seen how that willbe done.

The interpretation of the commitment to use"traditional methods" to hunt bears differs betweenthe arctic countries. For example, in Greenland, theprohibition on use of motorized vehicles, aircraft,and large vessels when hunting polar bears wasmotivated by the Agreement. In fact, this is prob­ably the most effective way to limit the number ofbears killed in Greenland since there is no quotasystem. In Canada and Alaska, there are no restric­tions on use of oversnow machines, except duringguided non-resident sport hunts in Canada. InAlaska it is technically legal for a native person touse an aircraft to hunt polar bears, although legisla­tion to change this option is currently beingdeveloped.

In Alaska, hunting of polar bears in order to sellhides has been a non-issue since 1972 because theMarine Mammal Protection Act prohibits harvestof polar hears by anyone except for subsistencepurposes. However, if Alaska and Russia negotiatea joint management agreement on the Chukchipopulation, this may become an issue. The Inupiatof the North Slope Borough are currently opposedto sport hunting, while those in Western Alaska aremore interested. The Inuit Circumpolar Conferencepersons at the mCN meeting were adamant thatonly indigenous people should have access to hunt­ing polar bears. A. Qujaukitsoq expressed a strongemotional opinion on behalf of Greenland huntersthat the relationship between Inuit hunters and polarbears was so special that it could be consideredimproper to guide someone on a hunt for money.L. Audlaluk felt the same about the personal impor­tance of hunting polar bears to individual Inukhunters. However, he also pointed out that there arelimited opportunities for cash income in most ofthesmall settlements so that the hunters becomedependent on guiding for part of their income.

13

Minutes

S. Belikov indicated that the term "local" peoplein Russia might be interpreted by some parts ofgovernment at least to include Russians who havebeen living in polar bear areas for a period of years.There is also interest in certain hunting groups inRussia in starting guided polar bear sport huntingbecause of the foreign currency it would attract.There have even been some advertisements forsuch hunts although Belikov thought none hadoccurred to date.

Of particular significance in the US is the feelingthat the tenets of the Polar Bear Agreement shouldbe enforceable by law. Some thought is currentlygoing into how this might be done. At present, theterms of the Agreement are not enforceable in anycountry, a weakness that has been identified in acouple of reviews of international wildlife law.

A. Canada: M. Taylor discussed the position of theNorthwest Territories that allows sport hunting tooccur as long as it is regulated under the existingquota system. He noted that sport hunters must beguided by a native guide using dog teams. Eachsport hunt is taken directly from the quota assignedto the participating village, regardless of whether abear is killed or not, and if a bear is not taken thetag is unused for that year.

B. Greenland/Denmark: A. Jessen outlined theregulations governing the hunting of polar hears.No sport hunting is allowed there and they have noplans to initiate sport hunting. Before even opening adiscussion of sport hunting, they feel they needconsiderably better statistical information regardingthe impact of the current native hunt. U. Qujaukitsoqstated that he did not approve of the term "sportshunt". It sounded to him like an entertainment andhis people do not hunt polar bears for entertainment.

C. Norway: Because there is no hunting ofpolar bearsin Svalbard, the issue is not an issue in Norway.They interpret the "Agreement" to limit hunting toindigenous people. Norway has no indigenous peoplein Svalbard but takes the view that the intention ofthe Agreement was to defer to native people foraccess to use.

D. Russia: Russia currently does not allow hunting,but if these regulations are changed in the future,

Polar Bears

they desire to limit the hunt to indigenous people.Their government is concerned that money woulddrive a market hunt and, thereby, make control andregulation of the hunt problematic.

E. United States: S. Schliebe outlined the US posi­tion. Currently, polar bears may only be hunted bycoastal dwelling native residents living a subsis­tence life style. Consequently, no sport hunting isallowed. Proposals and amendments to the USMarine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) are beingconsidered which could allow native guiding ofsports hunters under a system which included regu­latory authority.

C. Brower was asked by I. Egede to comment onthese new proposals and amendments. C. Browernoted that the North Slope Borough opposes sporthunting and supports the native exemption clauseof the MMPA and did not wish to endorse theregulatory authority component of the FWS pro­posal. His organization wishes to gain greater con­trol over polar bear hunting in their area and,therefore, thinks that the points raised by proposedchanges to the MMPA are outweighed by the gov­ernment maintaining control over resources.

The US Marine Mammal Protection Act will beconsidered for re-authorization in 1993 and again in1998. The FWS has developed a number of propos­als to amend the MMPAin order to force some legalcompliance with the Polar Bear Agreement. Theyare also seeking a waiver to allow legally takenpolar bear hides to be imported into the US

X. Trade in Polar Bear Products

I. Stirling indicated that the fur market is currentlyglutted resulting in low prices for pelts on the openmarket. The trade in polar bear hides is fairly flat atthe moment and the potential US market remainsclosed because of the MMPA. A. Jessen outlinedhow Greenland assists in the marketing of polarbear pelts for local communities. In 1992 a total of60 hides were purchased by the Greenland tannery,of which 30 went to Denmark.

The group was concerned about the sale of gallbladders from polar bears because of the threat to thesurvival of other species of bears. It is difficult to

14

control illegal trade while there are still legalsources. S. Belikov stated that the sale of gallbladders (currently priced at 0.5 million roubles pergall bladder) drives the kill of brown bears in Russia.Polar bears could easily fall into the same situation;therefore, sale of their gall bladders should be pro­hibited. Only membersofthe InuitCircumpolarCon­ference from Greenland wished to retain the right tosell gall bladders because they represent a potentialsource of income. They agreed to the resolution onrestricting trade in gall bladders only when it wasworded to allow each contracting party to determineits own approach to the problem, as opposed to rec­ommending an outright ban. In early 1993, Greenlandwill be considering whether to sell polar bear gallbladders.

27 January

XII. Review of Polar Population Status

S. Amstrup, E. Born, and M. Taylor presented theirreport on the size of each of the world's polar bearsub-populations based on the best knowledge avail­able for each. The total number of polar bears isthought to lie between 21,000 and 28,000. ThelUCN Bear Specialist Group decided to include areview of the status of polar bear populations intheir Bear Conservation Action Plan for bears of theworld. Members of the lUCN/SSC PBSG felt thatifan assessment was to bedone by anyone, it shouldbe done by the PBSG. Developing a summary of thepopulation estimates for the circumpolarpopulationwas not an easy job. In particular, concern wasexpressed about possible over-harvests in severalCanadian populations of polar bears. It wasacknowledged by Canada that over-harvests hadbeen occurring in Viscount Melville Sound andFoxe Basin. However, in negotiating a local Man­agement Agreement between the users, the quotashad been reduced to levels that were believed to besustainable. The status of the populations of polarbears in Baffin Bay and Davis Strait is not clearalthough there is no evidence of an over-harvestoccurring to date. Research in both those areas iscontinuing. After considerable debate and revision, aset of estimates was made for all the subpopulationsfor which boundaries were known, and subjective

guesses were made about population boundariesand numbers for areas in which the data are too fewto do anything else. For the purpose of this exercise,the total population was estimated to be between21,370 and 28,270.

XIII. Special Topics

A. Molecular genetics: U. Amason outlined hisgroup's work in sequencing the complete mtDNAgenome for a polar bear. He is willing to provideinformation for determining PCR primers to anyresearcher who so desires them. M. Ramsay out­lined ongoing work in Canada using both mtDNAand nuclear DNA methodologies to delineate dis­crete subpopulations of polar bears.

B. The polar bear hunt in northwest Greenland: A.Rosing-Asvid presented data derived for his Masterof Science thesis. These are the best data to date onthe size of the West Greenland hunt. U. Qujaukitsoqdescribed his experiences about hunting in NWGreenland. A. Jessen asked why Greenlauders can­not participate in their traditional hunt in northeastCanada. L. Audlaluk issued a statement of intent ofCanadian Inuit to cooperate with northwestGreenlanders on letting them hunt in Canada in theirtraditional hunting range. U. Qujaukitsoq, as a par­liamentarian, will continue to lobby to re-obtain theright to hunt in their traditional hunting ranges onnorthern Ellesmere Island. E. Born and M. Taylormentioned thatthe cooperative research program inthis area is likely to provide the basis for jointmanagement discussions.

C. Satellite telemetry: M. Taylor reviewed theNorthwest Territories!University of Saskatchewanresearch program being carried out in Canada. A3-year telemetry operation has just been concludedin the Viscount Melville I M'Clure Strait region ofthe Northwest Territories. A similar multi-yearprogram has recently been initiated in Baffin Bayinvolving both Canada and Greenland and also inthe Beaufort Sea. Good success has been realizedwith satellite telemetry.

0. Wiig outlined plans for Norway to deploysatellite collars in the Barents Sea in order to deter­mine the movements of polar bears that inhabit thewaters around Svalbard.

15

D. Aerial survey: G. Garner outlined a proposal fortesting census methods to be used in the BeaufortSea in Alaska in autumn 1993 and, eventually, tobe used in the Chukchi Sea of Russia and Alaska.Current methods of censusing populations usingmark-recapture techniques are thought to be pro­hibitively expensive. Considerable diseussion ofthe cost-effectiveness of various eensus techniqueswere discussed. U. Qujaukitsoq expressed concernabout the effects that low level aerial survey flightsmight have on wildlife.

E. Heavy metals: R. Dietz presented the results of thesurvey of heavy metal eontamination in the polarbears of Greenland.

F. Phocine distemper: M.-P. Heide-J~rgensen out­lined data for the degree of antibody titre seen inseals from Greenland.

G. Sex determination via molecular biology:S. Amstrup outlined results from their researchindicating that the sex of a polar bear can be deter­mined from tissue samples.

H. Global warming: M. Ramsay gave a brief over­view of the current status of models predictingglobal warming and suggested several possible sce­narios that might impact negatively on sea ice con­ditions and, hence, directly on polar bears. Becausepolar bears are so intimately associated with sea ice,polar bears might be an excellent organism withwhich to monitor early changes in the arctic ecosys­tem due to global warming. It was noted that thereis considerable debate about whether or not globalwarming is occurring. However, it was agreed thatit is important to be aware of the hypothesis and to

consider some of the possible consequences forpolar bear research and management.

If climatic warming occurs, the first impacts onpolar bears will occur at the southern limits of theirdistribution, such as in James and Hudson Bays,where the entire population fasts for approximatelyfour montlls when the sea ice melts during thesummer. Prolonging the icc-free period will in­crease nutritional stress on this population untilindividual animals arc no longer able to storeenough fat to survive the ice-free period. Early signsof impact will include declining body condition,

Po/arRears

lowered reproductive rates, reduced survival ofcubs, aud au increase in polar bear-human interac­tions. Although most of these impacts are currentlyevident in the polar bears of western Hudson Bay,it caunot yet be determined if climatic change isinvolved.

In the High Arctic, a decrease in ice cover maystimulate an initial increase in biological productiv­ity. Eventually however, it is likely that seal popu­lations will decline wherever the quality andavailability of breeding habitat is reduced. Rainduring the late winter may cause polar bear mater­nity dens to collapse, causing the death of occu­pants. Human-bear problems will increase as theopen-water period becomes longer and as bearsfasting and relying on their fat reserves becomefood-stressed. If populations of polar bears decline,harvest quotas for native people will be reduced andeventually eliminated. Tourism based on viewingpolar bears in western Hudson Bay is likely to suffera similar fate.

Should portions of the Arctic Ocean become sea­sonally ice free for a sufficiently long period, it islikely polar bears would become extirpated from atleast the southern part of their range. If climaticwarming occurs, the polar bear is au ideal speciesthrough which to monitor the cumulative effects inarctic marine ecosystems because of its position atthe top of the arctic marine food chain.

I. Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC): I. Egedepresented an outline of the aims and goals of theICC.

J. Population processes-<l di>;cussion: U. Qujaukitsoqargued that better monitoring of harvest is essentialand that local people must take the initiative to doso in the future. He sees the use of indigenousknowledge as a priority in future research plans.I. Stirling agreed and felt that anywhere polar bearharvesting occurs, total aud complete harvest datamust be collected.

I. Egede indicated that the ICC is pleased to hearthat the Chukchi peopleofRussiaare beingsupportedin their efforts to hunt polar bears. S. Belikovsupports the native hunt, but is gravely concernedabout possibilities of populations being heavily

16

hunted. He fully supports the concept that localusers be included in management plaus.

E. Born emphasized that mauagement and researchpriorities should include population inventories andthe monitoring of habitat in all regions.

U. Qujaukitsoq asked what would be the mosteffective meaus of monitoring environmental acci­dents and toxicological threats in the Arctic. E. Bornoutlined the Arctic Monitoring and AssessmentProgram (AMAP) ("The Finnish Initiative").Although polar bears are not specifically includedin that program, its results should be directly appli­cable to polar bear researchers and managers.

XIV. Future PrioritiesS. Amstrup asked what are the major gaps in polarbear research. Suggestions included:

III better population dynamics methodologies

III better understanding of seal/polar bear/sea iceinteractions

II clearer understanding of the effects of con­taminauts on polar bear reproduction

III better harvest monitoring data throughout therauge

III population delineation, estimatiou, and trend

II periodic monitoring of toxic chemical levelson a circumpolar basis

II monitoring of long-term reproduction andcondition in two or three populations of polarbears for evidence of climate change anddetermination of the natural range ofenviron­mental variability and its effects on polarbears

III determining population estimates in areaswhere they are suspect or lacking

III development of sustainable quotas andcontinued monitoring of populations forevidence of over-harvesting

XV. Membership and AttendanceA. There was unauimity that the mCN Polar Bear

Specialist Group should continue to exist.

B. There was a discussion about membership in themCN Polar Bear Specialists Group in future meet­ings. IUCN currently gives the Group Chairman theright to choose members of a specialist group, butacknowledges that the formation of the Polar BearGroup predates this decision and has had its ownpractices. InitiaIly, membership was limited to gov­ernment biologists working on polar bears becauseone of the principal tasks was negotiation of thePolar Bear Agreement. After the Agreement wassigned in 1973, "Invited Specialists" were includedto facilitate the input of experts in fields like popu­lation dynamics and physiology.

Itwas generaIly agreed that one of the reasons thePBSG has been so successful is that members havebeen appointed by government agencies and haveusually been polar bear specialists as well. Most ofthe managers attending, who were not specialists,personally had tlle wclfare of polar bears vcry muchat heart and this was as important as the scientificknowledge exchanged. Because governments havebeen more directly involved in the work of thisspecialist group, they have also had a vested interestin its snccess. Consequently, the people attendingmeetings have had a fair amount of authority tomake decisions and commitments.

Certain member nations wished to designate in­dividuals from native user groups as official mem­bers, but wished to close the PBSG to all other usergroups. M. Taylor proposed that a charter be drawnup to specify such matters. He also proposed thatnational governments may appoint any number ofmembers, but each country only gets one vote and

17

Minutes

non-government members cannot vote. Tayloroffered to draft a "requirements for membership inthe PBSG" document and circulate it to currentmembers for discussion. After much debate, theissue was tabled.

Inuit were invited to participate as "Invited Spe­cialists" at this meeting for the first time, throughthe ICC. The three delegates were very knowledge­able on polar bears and contributed significantly to themeeting. It was agreed that the emphasis in an invita­tion should be on the specialist knowledge. In par­ticnlar, it was agreed that non-government parti­

cipants are important to the PBSG meetings becauseof their ability to contribute to the content of themeeting rather than using it as an opportunity toadvance a particular advocacy position.

XVI. Review of Resolutions

Considerable discussion ensued over the wordingof the resolutions. At the end, there was unanimityon all resolutions.

XVII. Schedule and location of next PBSGmeeting

No date was set for the next meeting but it wasagreed that it would probably take place in two tofour years time, probably in Oslo, Norway.

XVII. Election of Chairman

Dr. 0ystein Wiig from Norway was elected to bethe next Chairman.

Summary of Polar Bear Population Status 1993

This summary of the world-wide status of polar bearsis the result of discussions held at the 1993 meeting ofthe mCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group and isbased on the status reports given by each nation. Theindividual national reports are also included in theseproceedings. The present summary will continue to beupdated as new data are collected. For location of thevarious polar bear populations and population estimates,seeFig. I and Table I respectively.

Western Hudson Bay (AI)

The distribution and abundance of this population hasbeen the subject of research programs since the late1960s. Over 80% of the adult population is marked andthere are extensive records from mark-recapture stud­ies and the return of tags from bears killed by Inuithunters. This population appears to be geographicallysegregated during the open-water season, although itmixes with those of eastern Hudson Bay and FoxeBasin on the sea ice covering Hudson Bay during thewinter and spring. The population estimate of 1200should be considered conservative because a portion ofthe southern range has not yet been covered by themark-recapture program.

Eastern Hudson Bay (A2)

The information on this population comes from a threeyear study of movements and population size usingtelemetry and mark-recapture, mainly along theOn tario coastline. This study documented seasonal fidel­ity to the Ontario coast during the ice-free season, andintermixing with the Western Hudson Bay and FoxeBasin populations during the months when the bay isfrozen over. The calculated estimate of 763 was in­creased to 1000 because a portion of the eastern andwestern coastal areas were not included in the areasampled. Additionally, the inshore area was under­sampled due to difficulties of locating polar bears in­land from the coast in the boreal forest. The estimate of1000 is considered conservative. The harvest quota for

19

this area is currently being revised to levels that willfacilitate an increase in the size of this population. Theprocess for these revisions is the development of man- .agement agreements between the jurisdictions thatshare this population (Northwest Territories, Ontarioand Quebec).

Foxe Basin (C)

An eight-year study of movements and population sizeusing telemetry and mark-recapture was concluded in1992. During the icc-free season, polar bears wereconcentrated on the Southampton Island and WagerBay areas. However, significant numbers ofbears werealso encountered throughout the islands and coastalareas in the remainder of the area. The marking effortwas distributed throughout the entire area so the popu­lation estimate is believed to be accurate. The previousharvest quotas are believed to have reduced the popu­lation from about 3000 in the early 1970s to about 2000in 1991. The harvest quota for this area has now beenrevised to levels that will permit recovery of this popu­lation. The process through which these revisions havebeen developed is through local Management Agree­ments between the Inuit communities that share accessto these polar bears.

Lancaster Sound/Baffin Bay (F/DI)

For an interim period, this area is being considered asa unit because recent studies of movements indicatethat bears from what were formerly considered to bethree populations (Lancaster Sound, western BaffinBay and eastern Baffin Bay) intermix during winterandspring. The total population estimate was obtained bysimply pooling the previous estimates for the LancasterSound and NE Baffin population and assuming that adistinct and separate population for West Greenlandwill not be found. The original estimate for Lancastersound (1657) was increased to 2000 because it wassuspected that bias in sampling during the originalstudies could have resulted in an underestimate. A

Polar Rears

population estimate of 470 bears for eastern BaffinIsland was added to the Lancaster sound estimate of2000 to give a total population estimate of 2470 for thecombined area. This estimate is considered preliminaryand may be conservative. The location of tlle southernand western boundaries are supported by movementdata obtained by telemetry and from the movements oftagged bears. However, the northern boundary, and thepossible existence of subpopulations within the pooledarea have not yet been clarified. The distribution andabundance of this population is currently being re­searched in a cooperative study being conducted byCanada and Greenland. It remains a concern that, onthe basis ofexisting, albeit incomplete data, the numberof bears currently being harvested can probably not besustained by a population of the size estimated. How­ever, no management action is recommended until thecurrent study has been completed.

South-eastern Baffin (D2)

The estimate of population size comes from a studyusing mark...,-ecapture methods, completed in 1979.There is some recent, but limited, movement informa­tion gained by telemetry which is consistent with tllepopulation boundaries determined from movements oftagged animals in the 1970s. The population estimateof 818, calculated from the mark-recapture data, wasincreased to 950 to correct for bias in a samplingcausedby the inability of researchers to survey the extensiveareaofoffshore pack ice. The harvestquota for this areais currently being revised to levels that should permit itto grow slowly, through the development of local Man­agement Agreements.

Gulf of Boothia (E3)

This population was the subject of a limited researchprogram conducted in the rnid-1970s. The tagging andrecapturing ofpolar bears was geographically restrictedto the western coastal areas and no movement datausing telemetry were collected. The population esti­mate of 333 was increased to 900 based on informationfrom local Inuit hunters and because the central andeastern portions ofthe area were not sampled. Althoughmovement data from this area are limited, studies con­ducted in adjacent areas support the boundaries indi­cated. Because population data from this area arelimited, the status must be considered uncertain.

20

M'Clintock Channel (E2)

A six-year population study using mark...,-ecapture wasconducted in this area in the mid-1970s. Most of thearea was surveyed. The estimate for this area was 900.However local hunters have advised that 700 may be amore accurate estimate. Although studies of move­ments using telemetry were not conducted in this area,recoveries of tagged bears and movements documentedby telemetry in adjacent areas support the boundariesindicated. Under a local Management Agreement be­tween Inuit communities that share this population, theharvest quota for this area has been revised to levelsthat will permit the population to grow slowly based onthe more conservative estimate of 700.

Viscount Melville Sound (EI)

A five-year study of movements and population size,using telemetry and mark-recapture, was completed in1992. The population boundaries were based on theobserved movements of female polar bears, and thepopulation estimate is believed to be unbiased. Becausethis population occupies such a large geographic area,it was previously thought to be large and productive atthe time the original quotas were allocated in the mid­1970s. However, this area is characterised by poorhabitat for seals and the productivity of polar bears wasfound to be lower than expected. Consequently, quotashave been reduced. An all-male hunt for four bears wasplanned for 1994, followed by a five-year moratoriumon hunting in this area. In 2000, harvest activities willresume with an annual quota of four males.

North Beaufort Sea (H2)

Estimations of population size and studies of populationmovements have been conducted in the North BeaufortSea, using telemetry and mark...,-ecapture, at intervalssince the early1970s. Thepopulation boundaries indicatedare supported by data on movements obtained boththrough telemetry and recovery of tagged bears. Thepopulation estimate is believed to be unbiased and may beconservative. An ongoing srudy is investigating the pos­sibility that this population extends further north thanprevious studies indicated. The current harvest is withinsustainable limits.

Southern Beaufort Sea (HI)

The southern Beaufort Sea population is shared betweenCanada and Alaska. Mark-recapture and studies ofmovements using telemelIy have been conducted semi­continuously since the late 1960s in Alaska and theearly 1970s in Canada. The eastern and northernboundaries of this population have been determinedfrom movements of marked bears and from telemctry.The western boundary, shared with the Chukchi popu­lation, is less clear at this point. The population estimatefor this area is believed to be uubiased and possiblyconservative. A reanalysis of the entire data base isscheduled for 1994. A management agreement for thisarea was developed by the Inupiat (Alaska) and theInuvialuit (Canada) who harvest this population. Thecurrent harvest appears to be within sustainable limits.

Chukchi Sea

Tagging of polar bears for the purpose of estimatingpopulation size using mark-recapture in the easternChukchi Sea, based from the Alaskan coast, has beenconducted at intervals since the late 1960s. However,cooperative studies between USA and Russia, usingtelernelIy to study movements, have confirmed thatpolar bears in the area are widely distributed on the packice of the northern Bcring and southern Chukchi seas.Consequently, shore-based mark and recapture studiescannot be used to estimate population size. The esti­mates given are based on observations of dens and areconsidered unccrtain. Harvesting activities are cur­rently restricted to Inuit in western Alaska and appearto be sustainable at current levels. This population isbelieved to have increased after the level of harvest wasreduced in 1972. Because of the apparently low levelof harvest, the population may still be increasing in sizebut this is unknown.

Laptev Sea

The Laptev population area includes the western halfof the eastern Siberian Sea, the entire Laptev Sea andthe eastern half of the Kara Sea, including the Novosi­birsk and Severnya Zemlya islands. The estimate ofpopulation size for the Laptev Sea is based on aerialsurveys and den counts. Although no studies of move­ments ofbears have been done in this area using tcleme­1Iy, the data available from the Chukchi Sea support theeastern boundary. A limited amount of telemetry data

21

SU/llJ'f1ilry ofPolar Bear Population Status 1993

from the west is also consistent with the proposedboundary. The population estimate should be regardedas preliminary. Reported harvest activities here arelimited to defense kills and a small but unknown num­ber of illegal kills. The population is not thought to beimpacted by current harvest levels.

Franz Josef Land/Novaya Zemlya

This population includes eastern portions ofthe BarentsSea, the Frauz Josef Land archipelago, and westernportions of the Kara Sea, including Novaya Zemlya.The informatiou for the Kara and Barents Seas in thevicinity of Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya ismainly based on aerial surveys and den counts. Limitedstudies of movements, using telemetry, have been donein the eastern portion of this area but the resultssupport the proposed eastern boundary. More exteusivetelemelIy studies in the Svalbard area suggest the popu­lation associated with Svalbard could be regarded asgcographically distiuct. This is the current rationale forthe western boundary. The population estimate shouldbe regarded as preliminary. Reported harvest activitieshave been limited to defense kills and a small butunknown number of illegal kills. The population is notthought to be impacted by current harvest levels. How­ever, contaminant levels in rivers flowing into this areaand recent information on nuclear and industrial wastedisposal raise concerns about the possibility ofenviron­mental damage.

Svalbard

The population estimate for the Svalbard area includesthe western Barents Sea. Both movement and popula­tion studies using telemetry and mark,ecapture havebeen conducted at intervals in the Svalbard area, begin­ning in the 1970s. Studies ofmovements, using telemetry,indicate that the polar bears associated with Svalbardare more restricted in their distribution than was pre­viously believed. The population estimate is based onship surveys and den counts in the early 1980s. Thisarea is currently unharvested and population numbersare believed to be either stable or increasing. Highlevels of PCBs have been detected in a sample of polarbears from this area which raises the concern thatindustrial activity and contaminants may cause euvi­ronmental degradatiou.

Polar Bears

Eastern Greenland

The harvest data for this population are not completelydocumented but approximately 100 polar bears arereported taken each year (documented average for1970-87: 72 bears per year). Historically, highercatches have been reported (e.g., 1910-20: 94 bears peryear). High catches by European sealers on land andoffshore ceased in the 1930s. There is no information

22

indicating an overall increase in hunting by EastGreenlanders in recent times. No indications of de­crease, nor increase, are apparent. Although no studyhas been done, the seasonal movements of polar bearsin this area are thought to be extensive. The large areaofadjacent available habitat suggests the possibility ofa large population. However, to date there has been nopopulation inventory in this area and the number canonly be presumed to be in the low thousands.

FIG 1.

Summary ofPolar Bear Population Status 1993

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Boundaries of polar bear populations throughout the circumpolar basin(The captions identifying the populations are defined in the text)

23

TABLE 1. Polar bear population status .."<::>

'""Sex ratio Sustained Current Environmental toPopulation % female in harvest Number annual yield annual harvest degradation Status Quality '"'"~

Western Hudson Bay 33.0 1200 55 55 Possible Stationary Good

Eastern Hudson Bay 30.2 1000 50 52 No info Stationary Fair

FoxeBasin 33.0 2020 92 91 No info Stationary Good

SE Baffin Island 39.2 950 36 52 No info Apparent decline Fair

Lancaster Sound/NBaffin Bay 31.0 2470 120 195-215 No info Apparent decline Fair

Gulf of Boothia 33.0 900 41 41 No info Stationary Poor

M'Clintock Channel 33.0 700 32 32 No info Stationary Fair

Viscount Melville 15.0 230 4 4 No info Stationary Good

North Beaufort 48.5 1200 37 33 No info Stationary Good'i;: I Soulh Beaufort 45.8 1800 59 64 No info Stationary Good

Possibly increasing

Chokchi 35.0 2000-5000 86-214 87 No info Stationary PoorPossibly increasing

Laptev N/A 800-1200 N/A Incidental Possible Possibly stationary Very poor

Franz Josef Landi N/A 2500-3500 N/A Incidental Indicated Stationary Very poorNovaya Zemlya Trend unknown

Svalbard N/A 1700-2200 N/A Incidental Indicated Stationary PoorPossibly increasing

East Greenland 50.0 2000--4000 60-120 100 No info Stationary, Very poorTrend uoknown

TOTAL POPULATION ESTIMATE = 21,470-28,370

Guidelines for the Polar Bear Specialist Groupof the International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources (IUCN PBSG)

Statement of purpose

Following the first international meeting on polarbear conservation held in Fairbanks, Alaska in 1965,the mCN PBSG was formed to coordinate researehand management of polar bears on an internationalbasis. In addition this group took on the role ofdeveloping and negotiating the Intcrnational Agree­ment for the Conservation of Polar Bears and theirHabitat (IACPB). That Agreement was signed inOslo, Norway in May 1973 and came into effect fora five-year trial period in May, 1976. The Agreementwas unanimously confirmed for an indefinite periodin January, 1981. Article VII of the IACPB stipulatesthat: "The Contracting parties shall conduct nationalresearch programmes on polar bears, particularlyresearch relating to the conservation and manage­ment of the species. They shall as appropriate coor­dinate such rescarch with the research carried out byother Parties, consult with other Parties, on manage­ment of migrating polar bear populations, and ex­change information on research and managemcntprogrammes, research results, and data on bearstaken." To mect the conditions of Article VII of theAgreement, the meN PBSG meets at 3-5 yearintervals.

The PBSG has no regulatory function. It's mainpurpose is to promote co-operation between jurisdic­tions that share polar bear populations, facilitatecommunication on current research and managcMment, and monitor compliance with the agreementThe PBSG is not an open forum for public participa­tion, it is a technical group which meets to discusstechnical matters which relate to the InternationalAgreement for Conservation of Polar Bears. Thedeliberations and resolutions adopted by the PBSGare available to the public as are the published pro­ceedings of the meetings.

25

Membership

The strength of the group has always been its small size.Because of the relationship of the PBSG to the Interna­tional Agreement, membership must reflect not onlytechnical expertise in polar bear research and manage­ment, but also equal representation of the nations sig­natory to the Agreement. For this reason, each nationis entitled to designate three full members. However, inmatters which require a vote (e.g. elections and resolu­tions), each member nation is allowcd only one vote.Each nation is at liberty to independently determinetheir process for casting a single vote. Only government­appointed members may vote. Government appointedmembers are chosen by their respective govern­ments.

In addition to government appointed members, thechairman may, as per IDCN guidelines for membershipin Specialists Groups, appoint five full members solong as they qualify as polar bear specialists. Fullmembers appointed by the chair and government ap­pointed members constitute the membership of thePBSG during the interval between meetings. The chair­appointed members are considered members until theelection of a new chairman which occurs at the end ofeach meeting. In this way the number of members ofthe PBSG will not excecd 20.

A third category titled: "Invited Specialists" is rec­ognized. These individuals are not considered full mem­bers, but are invited to participate in a given meeting orparts of the meeting as designated by the Chairman.

The intent of the group is to operate in a consensusmanner but regular votes may be used when applicable.These guidelines are intended to maintain the integrityofthePBSG as a small working group oftechnical special­ists on polar bears while still ensuring that it is responsibleto the governments signatory to the IACPB, mCN, andthe international conservation community.

Resolutions

1. Thanks to the Greenland Fisheries ResearchInstitute, Copenhagen, Denmark for host­ing the eleventh working meeting of theWCN/SCC Polar Bear Specialist Group

The mCN Polar Bear Specialist Group

Recognizing that Article VII of the InternationalAgreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears statesthat contracting parties shall exchange information onresearch and management programs, research results,and data on bears taken; and,

Recognizing that participation by all contracting par­ties and invited specialists contributed to the success ofthis meeting; and,

Noting the excellent organization, meeting facilities,snpport, and hospitality provided for its elcventh meet­ing, by the Greenland Fisheries Research Institnte dur­ing its meeting in Copenhagen 25-27 January 1993;

Extends its sincere appreciation and thanks to theInstitute.

2. Participation of users as invited specialiststo meetings of the WCN Polar Bear Speeialist

Group

The mCN Polar Bear Specialist Group

Recognizing the increasing mandate of indigenouspeople with respect to management of polar bears inseveral jurisdictions; and

Recognizing the value and imporumce of traditionalknowledge to the accumulation ofscientific knowledgeand management of polar bears; and

Recognizing the cnrrent and past contributions of tra­ditional users to the research and management pro­grams of the various nations signatory to theInternational Agreement for the Conservation of PolarBears and its Habitat:

27

Therefore acknowledges the participation of northernindigenous people in this meeting of the IUCN PolarBear Specialists Group and supports continued partici­pation of northern polar bear specialists in the IUCNPolar Bear Specialists Group and in future research andmanagement activities of polar bears.

3. Proposed opening of hunting of polar bearsin Russia

The mCN Polar Bear Specialist Group

Recognizin g that the polar bear is a significaut resourceof the arctic region; and,

Recognizing that the International Agreement on theConservation of Polar Bears and its Habitat requiresthat each Contracting Party shall take appropriate ac­tion to manage polar bear populations in accordancewith sound conservation practices based on scientificdata; and

Recognizing that the polar bear populations in someareas of Russia appear to have increased since thecessation of hnnting in 1956; and

Recognizing that interest has been expressed by abo­riginal people in the possibility of rcsnming harvestingof polar bears in Russia; and

Recognizing that Article IlI(d) restricts the harvestingof polar bears to local people nsing traditional methodsin the exercise of their traditional rights and in accord­ance with the laws of that Party;

Hereby recommends that, prior to the initiation of anyhnnting in Rnssia, adeqnte scientific data on the snb­popnlation concerned be collected; and

Further recommends that a management plan be de­veloped, using sonnd conservation practices, providingfor complete and ongoing monitoring, involving localaboriginal people, and, where applicable, in coopera­tion with other conntries when shared populations areinvolved.

Polar Bears

4. Environmental contaminants

The mCN Polar Bear Specialist Group

Noting, that the Intemational Agreement on the Con­servation of Polar Bears and its Habitat requires eachContracting Party to protect the ecosystems of whichpolar bears are a part; and

Recognizing that anthropogenic global pollution, nu­clear wastes, and offshore exploration activity, are hav­ing a detrimental effect on arctic marine ecosystes; and

Recognizing that because polar bear, are at the top ofthe trophic pyramid they may be more affected bypollutants; and

Noting that disturbingly high levels of PCB concentra­tions have been found in the fat of polar bears in theBarents Sea and other areas, and that lesser but stillsubstantial levelsofPCBs and other substances have beenfound in the tissues of polar bears in other areas; and

While recognizing that detrimental effects resultingfrom such contamination have not been confirmed,

28

Therefore recommends that the levels of toxic con­taminants in polar bears and the health of the bears bemonitored by the Parties to determine trends and pos­sible detrimental effects.

5. Restricting the sale of gall bladders frompolar bears

The mCN Polar Bear Specialists Group

Recognizing that the world-wide trade in bear parts,particularly ofgall bladders. threatens the very survivalof several species of bears; and

Recognizing that the legal availability of the gall blad­ders of any species of bear makes it impossible tocontrol the traffic in illegally taken gall bladders andthereby encourages further illegal killing of all speciesof bears, including polar bears,

Hereby recommends, that each contracting party con­sider that an overall benefit to the resource and its usersmay be gained by restricting traffic in polar bear gallbladders.

Press Release

The 11th meeting of the !UCN Polar Bear SpecialistsGroup was held in Copenhagen, Denmark 25-27January, 1993, under the Chairmanship of Mr. ErikBorn of the Greenland Fisheries Research Institute.

Scientific delegates attended, representing each of thefive circumpolar nations (Canada, GreenlandlDenmark,Norway, USA, and Russia) signatory to the Interna­tional Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bearsand their Habitats. Three indigenous hunters fromAlaska, Canada, and Greenland, attended as invitedspecialists on ttaditional knowledge of polar bears.

The group reviewed progress on research and man­agement of polar bears since the last meeting, held inSocchi, USSR, in 1988. Significant progress has beenmade in several areas. The extensive use of satellitetracking of female polar bears has made it possible todetermine the boundaries of several relativel y discretesubpopulations, some of which are shared by differentcountries and therefore require international coopera­tion to manage, as directed by the International Agree­ment on the Conservation of Polar Bears. For example,populations are shared between Russia and Alaska(USA), Canada and Greenland (Denmark), andSvalbard (Norway) and Franz Josef Land (Russia). Itisessential to detennine the distribution ofeach subpopu­lation before its size can be estimated. There appear tobe about 15 subpopulations although the boundaries ofsome, especially in the vast unstudied areas of theRussian Arctic, have yet to be detennined.

A review of the worldwide status of polar bear, basedon available knowledge was conducted. The state ofknowledge of individual subpopulations ranges fromgood to almost nothing. In summary, the world popu­lation of polar bears was thought to be between about21,000 and 28,000. However, it is vital to rememberthat polar bears are distributed in geographically dis­tinct subpopulations, each of which must be managedindividually.

Hunting polar bears is an important part of the cultureand economy of indigenous people throughout the Arctic.

29

However, because polar bears have low reproductiverates, sustainable levels of harvest are lower than inspecies such as caribou. Harvest levels in hunted popu­lations must be set at very low levels to ensure thatdepletion does not occur. To be sustainable, the harvestshould not include more subadult and adult femalesthan about 1.5% of the population size.

Research on toxic chemicals indicated higher con­centrations of PCBs in the vicinity of Svalbard thananywhere else in the Arctic. The reason for this is notunderstood. Fat samples have been collected from polarbears in a wide range of other locations throughout theArctic for toxic chemical analyses but the results arenot yet available. Concern was also expressed about thepossible detrimental effects on the arctic marine eco­system of nuclear waste dumping in the vicinity ofNovaya Zemlya in the Russian Arctic. It is consideredcritical to continue to monitor polar bears to determinepossible effects of man-made substances and activities.

Concern was expressed about the possible detrimen­tal effects of climate wanning on polar bears. Currentmodels project the first and most significant effects willbe detected at high northern latitudes and this will likelyreduce the extent of sea ice. If the models are correct,then prolonging the ice-free period will shorten theperiod during which polar bears in many subpopula­lions are able to feed on seals and cause nutritionalstrcss. Early signs of impact would include decliningbody condition, lowered reproductive rates, reducedsurvival of cubs, and an increase in polar bear-humaninteractions. Eventually, the seal populations woulddecline if the quality and availability of breeding habi­tat is reduced. Rain during the late winter may causepolar bear maternity dens to collapse, causing the deathof occupants. Human-bear problems will increase asthe open-water period becomes longer and bears fastingand relying on their fat reserves become food-stressed.Tourism based on viewing polar bears in western HudsonBay will likely disappear. Should the Arctic Oceanbecomc seasonally ice free for a long enough period, itis likely polar bears would become extirpated from at

Polar Bears

least the southern part of their range. Because thc polarbear is at the top of the arctic marine food chain, andice is an essential component of its environment, it isan ideal species through which to monitor the cumula­tive effects of change in arctic marine ecosystems.

Several priorities were identified as important forfuture research and management. These included

30

continuing to identify the boundaries and size of sub­populations; studying the effects of the harvest, and theeffects of manipulating the sex composition of theharvest on populations; and the relationships betweenbears, seals, and sea ice conditions.

National Reports on Status and Research

In their status reports the nations and jurisdictionsshould address the following issues.

Status of polar bears in ... (country)

1. Population(s) (or management unites))

Short description and map of distribution (a: popula­tion/subpopulation borders; b: denning areas).

1.1 Population (subpopulation or management unit)borders (delineation). Evidence of exchangebetween populations, both national and/orinternational. Basis for and reliability ofdelineation of population(s). Short reference tomethod and source.

1.2 Size of population(s)(number of bears inpopulation/ subpopulation/management unit).Basis of estimate (method). Reliability ofestimate. Reference to source (coefficient ofvariation or qualitative rank: good, fair or poor).

1.3 Short note with data on (or consideration of) theinfluence of ecological changes (ice distribution,duration of ice cover, availability of food) onpoints 1.1. and 1.2. State of knowledge.

2. Harvest

2.1 Numbers taken by area (population, managementunit) average of past 10 years for example(average, SD and range). Trends in numberharvested. Reliability of numbers harvested.Reliability of information on harvest data(reporting). Methods: subsistence harvest,problem bears, sport hunts, other. Change insubsistence harvest strategies. Age and sexcomposition of harvest (most recent orrepresentative. Quotas and/or recommendedMSY (maximum sustainable yield). Recom­mended harvest strategy.

3. Management

3.1 Which jurisdiction responsible for management(reference to national law(s)). Very shortsummary of hunting and regulations particularly

31

referring to latest amendments and/or majorchanges.

3.2 Protection of polar bear critical habitats (e.g. denningareas). Short description and figure showing pro­tected areas (reference to source).

4. Use and trade in polar bear products

4.1 Short summary of purpose of use (local vs. export).

4.2 Trade in products (e.g. hide, gall bladder, other).Listing of past 10 years' export of products (andcountry of import under national CITES permits).Trends in export, information on change in marketand/or prices. Information on illegal trade.

5. Other impact (current or potential) onpolar bear populations

5.1 Short summary of status of exploration for andexploitation of various resources. Other humandisturbance (pollution).

6, Status by population/area

6.1 Based on above information a status category isapplied to each population/subpopulation/management unit: unchanged, increasing.declining, unknown. Basis for categorization tobe stated briefly.

7. Evaluation of how national (international)management of polar bears complieswith the intentions of the articles in the"International Agreement on the Con­Servation of Polar Bear and their Habitat"

Polar Bears

8. Identification of major gaps inknowledge

8.1. Listing of major gaps in knowledge to ensure thesustainable management of polar bear popula­tions.

32

9. Listing of references (used in the review)

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

W. Calvert, Canadian Wildlife Service, 5320 - 122 St., Edmonton, Alberta T6H 3S5, CanadaI. Stirling, Canadian Wildlife Service, 5320 - 122 St., Edmonton, Alberta T6H 3S5, CanadaM. Taylor, NWT Department of Renewable Resources, Yellowknife, NWT XlA 2L9, CanadaM.A. Ramsay, Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. S7K OWO, CanadaG. B. Kolenosky, Ministry of Natural Resources, PO Box 5000, Maple, Ontario L6A lS9, CanadaM. Crete, Direction de la fauna terrestre, 150 St. Cyrille Est, 5e etage, Quebec, Que. G lR 4Yl, CanadaS. Kearney, Man. Dep. Natural Resources, Box 28, 59 Elisabeth Dr Thompson, Man. R8N lX4, CanadaS. Luttieh, Labrador Wildlife Division, PO Box 488, Stn. C, Goose Bay, Labrador AOP lCO, Canada

Most polar bear research in Canada is conducted byFederal, Territorial, and Provincial governments. Thisis largely because of the cost involved, butalso becauseof the management responsibilities of those govem­ments. Often, several agencies cooperate on a largeresearch project. Some research projects, conducted byuniversity researchers, are coordinated with govern­ment research through hilateral discussions andthrough the Federal-Provincial Polar Bear TechnicalCommittee (PBTC). This report summarizes the re­search conducted, and lists reports completed, between1988 and 1992.

Cooperative Studies

Studies of physiology, fat, and fatmetabolism

Malcolm Ramsay (University of Saskatchewan) hasbeen the research leader for many of these studies, withthe collaboration of Dr F. Messier (University ofSaskatchewan), Dr R.A. Nelson (Carle FoundationHospital, Urbana, Illinois), Dr Y. Plante (SaskatchewanResearch Council, Saskatoon), Dr C.M. Pond (TheOpen University, Milton Keynes, U.K.), Dr!. Stirling,Dr M.K. Taylor, Dr C. Robbins and Mr. S. Farley(Washington State University) and Dr S. Arthur (USFish and Wildlife Branch). In addition, two of Ramsay'sstudents, J.Y. Arnould (M.Sc. 1990) and K.A. Hobson(ph.D. 1991) have worked on aspects of the research.Funding for research on fat and fat metabolism wasreceived in 1989-91 from the National Science Foun­dation in the US.

33

Ramsay's long-term research plan is directed tounderstanding the ecological and physiological impor­tance of fasting on the life-history attributes of mam­mals and birds. One of the major difficulties facingendothermic animals inhabiting seasonally variableenvironments is l1uctuating food supplies. For largemammals, an important adaptation during periodswhen food is unavailable is reliance on previously­accrued body-lipid stores for metabolizable energy.Although the phenomenon of regulated weight changeand fasting in homeotherms has bcen well documented,remarkably little is known about its adaptive signifi­cance in frec-ranging terrestrial mammals.

The immediate research goal is to identify the morpho­logical, allometric, and physiological adaptations that al­low free-ranging polar bears to undertake extended fasts.Polarbears arc the mostcarnivorousofthe Ursids, preyingmainly on ringed seals and to a lesser extent on beardedseals. Conditions on the sea-ice dictate seal distribution,abundance, and susceptibility to predation by polarbears.The frequency with which polar bears capture prey isincompletely known, but is seasonally irregular. In latespring and early summer, polar bears become hyper­phagic and accumulate, in a relatively short time, thenutrient reserves required to mcet their growth and main­tenance needs during much of the rest of the year. Duringtheir hyperphagic phase polar bears often consume onlythe blubber layer of their prey and leave the lean bodymass relatively untouched. The diet of polar bears maythus contain the highest proponion oflipids of any mam­mal. Polar bears undertake someofthe most extreme fastsknown for any terrestrial mammal and, consequently,display impressive metabolic adaptations to fasting.

Po/arRears

Weight changes

Large weight losses are experienced by polar bearswhen on land during summer and autumn. Determiningthe dynamics of these weight losses, the associatedintermediary metabolic processes involved, andchanges in body composition are major goals of thisresearch.

In 1990 and 1991,90 and 30 individual bears respec­tively, in different reproductive classes, were sampledserially during the time spent on land in NE Manitoba.All bears lost weight over the period ofstudy. The meanweight loss for adult males was -I. Ikg/day, for solitaryadult females -I.Okg/day, and for females with accom­panying cubs -0.7kg/day. Extrapolated over the periodspent on land (late July-November), adult males lost27% of their body mass, solitary adult females 38%,and females with cubs 43%.

For the family groups handled on two occasions,females with accompanying cubs-of-the-year (COYs)lose weight at a somewhat faster rate (mean rate of-1.3kg/day) than do females with accompanying year­ling cubs (mean rate of -0.9kg/day). This probablyreflects differences in lactational demands by cubs ofdifferent ages.

Even though all bears handled on two occasions lostweight between captures, cubs continued to increase inlength. It is noteworthy that COYs increased their bodylength by 5% and head length by 2% during the timethat they declined in weight by 8%. No other class ofbears showed comparable growth in sir-c, althoughyearling cubs did increase in body length by about 1%between captures. Continued morphological growthduring a period of food scarcity underscores the con­siderable nutritional stress that younger bears experi­ence relative to adult bears during the time on land.Realizing that the sample sizes are small, it is notablethat the two adult males and the adult female recapturedin autumn only declined by about 4% in body weightover a three-week period, whereas both cubs and adultfemales with cubs lost more than double that amountover a similar period of time.

When changes in the Corpulence Index(CI=Weight/Length3

) are plotted over an annual cycle,polar bears show distinct patterns of body fat storage.Adult males show the least change in fatness over thecourse ofa year while solitary (and presumed pregnant)adult females show the greatest change.

34

Polar bears undertake extensive fasts during the timethat they are on land in Manitoba. A pregnant female isforced ashore by the melting sea-ice in late July and willnot return to the sea-ice until the following March after8 months of fasting. During the time on land polar bearseat very little and are, therefore, critically dependent ontheir body fat stores. Earlier studies have shown thatfasting polar bears recycle nitrogenous wastes fromprotein catabolism and, presumably, maintain them­selves entirely through fat catabolism. Thus, theamount of adipose tissue that pregnant or nursingfemales accrue before beginning their on-land fast is ofgreat importance. Lactating females do not fast as longin summer/autumn as do pregnant bears. They do,however, have to use their fat reserves to meet thenutritional demands of their nursing cubs. Lactatingfemales presumably accrue smaller fat reserves thanpregnant females during the peak feeding period in latespring because they have to meet the nutritionalrequirements of their growing cubs as well as their ownneeds, whereas pregnant females can consume all oftheir prey themselves.

Analyses of NOAA satellite imagery show that thetiming of sea-ice melting varies greatly among years.Presumably, similar variation occurs among years inthe timing of ice formation. The amount of time thatbears spend on shore each year can vary by 10% ormore. Thus, the variation in duration of imposed fast­ing, coupled with yearly variation in the amount ofstored fat that bears have when they first come ashorein summer, implies that the polar bears of Manitobamight be expected to experience marked differencesbetween years in the extent of their fat reserves at theend of the on-land period.

If anthropogenic global warming occurs in the nearfnture, sea-ice formation and melting will be stronglyaffected. One consequence will be longer tenure onland in north-east Manitoba by the polar bears of west­ern Hudson Bay. Longer on-land tenure will increasethe likelihood of severe nutritional stress.

There now is some direct evidence that animals thatfall below a minimum amount of body fat experiencesignificant physiological effects. Females captured inthe Manitoba denning region in late March are, onaverage, less fat than females captured in early March.This inverse correlation of fatness with date presum­ably reflects depletion of adipose tissue stores with

increased duration of fast. Most females emerging fromoverwinter dens have serum ratios of urea to creatinine(U/C) less than 10, indicative of protein recycling andfacilitated fasting. Those females, however, that have aCI of less than about 20 show elevated U/C ratios,suggesting that they have such limited fat reserves thatbody proteiu stores begin to break down irreversibly.

By early November, some bears have reached a CI of20 or less. Therefore, even bears that do not undertakethe extended overwinter fast ofpregnant females might,in late autumn, reach levels of body adipose tissuestores that are so low that they might be unable tomaintain the facilitated fasting state for much longer.Bears that begin to break down body protein for main­tenance requirements might be more likely to enter ahuman settlement to find food as well as be at increasedrisk of starvation and disease.

Terrestrial feeding

Although behavioural observations suggcst that polarbears feed little when on land, the data are not dcfini­tive. An innovative test to determine whether an animalhas been feeding on a terrestrial or marine food web isto measure the stable carbon isotopic composition of itstissues. The basis for this method is that the isotopicsignature of carbon (t3C) incorporated by photosyn­thetic pathways differs characteristically between ter­restrial C-3 and marine ecosystems and this differenceis maintained through successive trophic levels in bothfood webs. The seal species that polar bears prey onfeed entirely within a marine food web. If polar bearsfeed exclusively on seals, therefore, tlleir tissues willhave a stable carbon isotope signature characteristic ofa marine system. If, however, they obtain a significantamount of food when they are on land in a C-3 biome,then the carbon isotope signature of their tissues willreflect that diet. In 1990, Ramsay analyzed smallamounts ofmuscle and bone tissue from polar bears andringed seals killed by native hunters, and analyzed themfor their l3C signature.

The mean stable-carbon isotope ratios (ol3C) forpolar bear tissues (bone collagen, -15.7%0, muscle;-17.7%0; fat, -24.7%0) were close to those of the sametissues from ringed seals (-16.2%0, -18.1%0, and -26.1%0,respectively). The ot3C values for four species of fruitsto which polar bears have access when on land insummerranged from -27.8 to -26.2%0, tmical ofterres­trial plants in the Arctic. An animal's ol3C signature

35

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

reflects closely the Ol3C signature of its food. Accord­ingly, the amount of food that polar bears consumefrom terrestrial food webs appears negligible, eventhough some bears spend four months or more of eachyear on land during the seasons of greatest primaryproductivity.

Adipose tissue dynamics

The gross masses of intra-abdominal viscera and super­ficial and intra-abdominal adipose tissue were com­pared in 41 randomly-obtained species of carnivores.The mass of the intra-abdominal viscera scale as: (leanbody mass)O.76. In a sample of 28 Carnivora native tothe tropics or the temperate zone, in which dissectibleadipose tissue is more than 8.5% of the total body mass,superficial adipose tissue scales isometrically to leanbody mass, but intra-abdominal adipose tissue in­creases as (lean body mass)O.74. Comparable measure­ments from 13 adult and subadult wild polar bears fitthese allometric equations, indicating that the partition­ing of adipose tissue between internal and superficialdepots can be fully explained by the fact that they arelarger and more obese than most other Carnivora. Thereis no evidence for adaptation of the gross anatomy ofadipose tissueofpolar bears to their semi-aquatic habitsor arctic habitat.

The actual site of lipid storage in adipose tissue is inadipose cells (adipocytes), which are distributed indiscrete anatomical sitcs. Adipocytes are numericallyand volumetrically variable. Their size and number ina given depot reflect the age, sex, diet, and activitylevels of the mammal (Pond 1985).

Polar bears can have annual changes in body mass ofthree-fold or more and can reach seasonal levcls ofobesity that exceed 50% adipose tissue. When prey areabundant and the opportunity presents itself, polarbears become hyperphagic. During these hyperphagicperiods they may eat the superficial adipose tissue fromtheir prey preferentially and thus amass large amountsof lipids in a relatively shot! time. Most of this adiposetissue is superficial and in sites from which a tinybiopsy samplecan be taken. The relative sizes of adipo­cytes among depots do not vary with fatness of thebears, hence tissue samples from a single adipose depotallows one to monitor variation in all adipocytes.

Whereas females Witll cubs, adult males, and juve­niles all showed a slight decline in adipocyte volumewith season, solitary adult females did nol. From thisand other metabolic information, it is clear that the

Polar Bears

adipose tissue of pregnant female bears has metabolicproperties different from that of non-pregnant bears.These studies will be more fully developed as the dataare processed.

Energetics of lactation

Aspects of the energetics of lactation in polar bearswere studied in the Canadian Arctic. Milk yield wasdetcnnined by a hydrogen isotope dilution-transfermethod in females with cubs-of-the-year and femaleswith yearlings during the summer ice-free period inwestern Hudson Bay. Females with COYs producedsignificantly more milk energy (lOA MJ/day) thanfemales with yearlings (2.6 MJ/day). Daily milk pro­duction represented a significantly greater proportionof the total body fat and protein reserves in females withCOYs «0.3%) than in females with yearlings «0.8%).However, milk yield was not correlated with maternalbody condition in either group of females nor werechanges in body composition correlated Witll milk pro­duction. During the on-land period, milk production isnot directly constrained by maternal body composition,at least within the range of body compositions ob­served.

Milk energy intake was correlated with metabolicsize (kgO.83) in COYs but not in yearlings. COYs con­sumed significantly more milk energy (7.5 MJ/day),and maintained a higher relative linear growth rate(O.22%/day), than yearlings (milk intake, 1.5 MJ/day;growth, 0.03%/day). However, cubs of both ages lostproportionally the same amount of mass, suggestingCOYs are less able to survive nutritional restrictionsthan yearlings. Growth rate was not correlated withmilk fat, protein orenergy intake in either cub age class.

Patterns of serum urea and creatinine

Nelson etal. (1984, Science 226:841) proposed that thephysiological state of black bears during their pro­longed winter fast is characterized by a reduction in theratio of serum urea to serum creatinine (U/C) fromtypical mammalian levels to values lower than 10.Although many species of mammals undertake fasts oflong duration at specific times in their lives, usuallywhen other behaviours preclude feeding or when foodis unavailable, the decline of UIC when fasting to lessthan 10 has not been reported in other mammal species.

Values of serum UIC lower than 10 were measuredin 8% ofpolar bears (25 0015) on the sea-ice in spring,

36

II % of bears (6 of 55) near a refuse dump in autumn,30% of bears (48 of 158) on land in summer, 65% ofbears (99 of 152) on land in autumn, and 78% offemales (42 of 54) emerging from dens in spring.

Thus, at any time of year, some polar bears are ableto achieve low values of serum U/C. Furthermore,mean UIC values are clearly correlated with feedingopportunities. When food was readily available, (e.g.on the sea-ice in spring or at a garbage dump), serumUIC values were elevated in a large proportion of theanimals sampled whereas when prey were unavailableduring tenure on land the mean serum UIC value waslow. If the underlying physiological processes account­ing for low serum UIC values are similar between polarand black bears, then our findings imply that some polarbears are capable of recycling urea and conserving leanbody mass whenever feeding opportunities are limited.At any season, tllCrefore, some polar bears appear ableto switch facultatively to a physiological state offacili­tatod fasting in response to the absence of suitable fooditems. This is in sharp contrast to black bears, which canonly undertake extended fasting in certain seasons.

The lowest mean UIC values of any of the sampledgroups were found in adult females recently emergedfrom winter dens with newborn cubs. Although themean UIC value for these bears was less than 10,individual values were spread over a five-fold range(0.7-33.3). Their UIC values, however, showed a con­spicuous inverse correlation with body weight.

A pregnant polar bear enters a den in autumn andfast.~ until the following spring. All energy and sub­strates required for gestation, lactation, and mainte­nance must come from body-tissue stores accrued priorto the fast. The low UIC values found in adult femalesafteremergencefrom their winter den is consistent withthe hypothesis that they are recycling nitrogenouswastes and conserving lean body mass during their fast.Female polar bears have determinant growth and reachadult body length by the age of first reproduction. Thus,variation in adult body weight very likely reflects vari­ation in body composition among individuals, includ­ing the variation in adipose tissue depots. The observedinverse relationship between body weight and UICratio, therefore, suggests that females that weigh lessthan about 150kg may have insufficient energy reservesto maintain protein conserving mechanisms throughouttheir fast.

Respiratory quotient

Samples ofexpired air were collected from most bearshandled by Ramsay and his co-workers in 1989 and1990, then subsequently assayed for C02 and 02 con­centrations. From these data, a respiratory quotient canbe determined for each sampled bear. Although thereis a great deal of scatter, mean R.Q. values were 0.7 orless. Values this low imply that lipids are the principalnutrients being metabolized, supporting our contentionthat most bears in summer and autumn are fasting andmaintaining themselves on their fat stores.

Field studies were primarily conducted to determinebody composition of animals at different times of theirannual cycle.

Body composition

An estimate ofbody composition was made for31 bearsby determining the dilution of a precisely measuredvolume of stable-isotope (D20) labelled water. Bycombining the data on body composition collectedsincc 1989, onc can see readily that pereent body-fat(%BF) declines during the time spent on land. Mean%BF drops from about45% in early August to less than20% in November. The latter value is similar to thatseen on the sea-ice in spring.

Virtually all of the weight loss of bears on landappears due to a reduction in adipose tissne depots; leanbody mass remains constant throughout the samplingperiod. These data offer powerful support for thehypothesis that bears on land in Manitoba are in aphysiological state similar to a hibernating bear suchthat urea from protein catabolism is recycled back intoprotein, resulting in a nct sparing of muscle mass.Encrgy expenditurcs are met by catabolism of lipids inthe adipose tissue.

Very small adipose tissue reserves (<10% BF) areseen during the on-land period in some animals, par­ticularly cubs and lactating females. Such animals areparticularly susceptible to starvation and, presumably,would be advcrscly affected by human activities thatcause them to increase their energy expenditures duringthe on-land period.

Stable isotope analysis of claws

Possibly beeause of the dynamic nature of sea-ice,individual bears do not maintain discrete home ranges

37

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

but instead travel over large regions annually in searchof their prey. In order to delineate polar bear populationboundaries, managers have carried out extensive mark­recapture programs, hunter tag-return programs, radio­telemetry programs, satellite telemetry programs, andother expensive monitoring methods. None has beenfully successful in delineating discrete boundariesamong populations.

Carbon and nitrogen enter marine food chains withcharacteristic 13C/12C and 15N;t4N ratios through uptakeby marine phytoplankton of bicarbonate and nitratesdissolved in seawater. A major and characteristic frac­tionation or change in these isotope ratios occurs duringphotosynthesis and during metabolism and storage ateach higher trophic level. Each tissue type has its owncharacteristic fractionation factor relative to the wholediet. Because protein and lipid maeronulrients in the dietare usually assimilated in kind within the consumer,however, isotopic pathways for each macronutrient areevident throughout the food web.

Fractionation values between trophic levels for eachmacronulrient are not well understood. For proteins,either in the form of muscle tissue or skin collagen,13CPC and 15N/14N values appear to be enriched byabout I % and 3%, respectively. If there are charac­teristic isotopic differences among ~ographic sites,then the measurement of both B C/ C and 15N;t4Nvalues in consumcr tissues should, in theory, allowstatistical segregation of animals based on their geo­graphic location.

Isotopic analyscs of claw samples collected frommost polar bears handled in zones EI and F since 1989are continuing. Initial results indicate that, for theCanadian Arctic at least, no significant variation inisotopic signature occurs along a growing claw for anyindividual bear. Thus, a single sample from a claw tipappears sufficient to supply the isotopic signature ofthat animal. Furthermore, a cline in claw isotopic valuesis evident from the Beaufort Sea to Lancaster Sound,with claw tissue from more western bears showingsignificantly more enrichment.

Although stable isotope analysis is unlikely to super­sede routine methods of population delineation, itshould prove to be a useful adjunct method.

Mercury levels in hair

Hair samples «O.5g) from the animals handled wereassayed for total mercury load and also for organic

Polar Bears

mercury levels. For all bears, the level of mercuryburden of bears in Hudson Bay was low: significantlylower than for hair samples taken from the High Arctic(2.9ppm vs. l3.8ppm respectively; t= 13.2; P<O.OOI).

Analyses of mtDNA

Variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has beenapplied widely to mammals to examine geographicpatterns of population dispersal and gene flow. Twocharacteristics of mtDNA make it particularly suitablefor insight into population structure: (i) it has a rela­tively rapid rate of evolution; and (il) it does not undergorecombination. If discrete populations of polar bearsoccur in the Canadian Arctic, with limited gene flowbetween them, then mtDNA analysis offers a goodpossibility of delineating tlleir boundaries.

In 1990, Ramsay and his co-workers collectedmtDNA samples from 50 bears (25 from the westernCanadian Arctic and 25 from western Hudson Bay).These samples were cut with 31 different restrictionenzymes for a total of 1550 runs. Two polymorphismswere detected for each of two restriction enzymes. Inboth cases the rare haplotype was found in only onebear, the same bear in both cases. TIle two restrictionenzymes with which polymorphisms were detectedwere used to test an additional 60 bears (30 from eachregion). No further polymorphisms were detected.

Three nuclear DNA "fingerprints" were used to de­termine the degree of genetic heterogeneity within thepolar bears of the Canadian Arctic. All three analyses,each using 16 bears from each region, gave similarresults. The probability of two randomly selected polarbears having identical DNA fingerprints was 1:5.5 xlOs. This is several orders of magnitude higher than thatfound in many other mammal populations, includinghumans.

The tentative conclusion is that polar bears show aremarkable genetic homogeneity. The reasons for thisare unclear but may have important implications forlong-term conservation of the species. In the short­term, however, mtDNA analysis appears to hold littlehope ofdelineating functional subpopulations for man­agement purposes. The rate of mutation calculated fromsome samples in Alaska was also very low.

38

Availability and assessment of Telazol

In 1990, A.H. Robbins, the manufacturers of Telazol,were bought by Ayerst McKenna and Harrison Inc.(1025 Boul. Laurentien, St-Laurent, PQ, H4R U6;phone Leo Conway or Marilyn Mountford 514-744­6771). Because ruied Telazol powder is reported to havea shelf life of 18-24 months, they do not wish to holda large supply that may become outdated while waitingfor orders. It would be helpful if each project contactConway directly with a projection of their needs andtime-frames, to ensure they are able to get what theyneed in time. Costs are approximately $18+GST/500mg dry. Telazol is still classified as an experimentaldrug in Canada. Agriculture Canada (Janet Knowlton,ph. 613-957-3882) will give an emergency drug releasenumber.

Telazol is the only drug available that is safe for bothbears and researchers, and is sufficiently cost-effectiveto allow capture of the large numbers that are neededfor population studies. In the US, it is a controlled drug,with no requirement that the meat never be eaten, butin Canada it is still a Class 2 drug, which means it hasnot been adequately tested and should not be used if theanimal is likely to be eaten. Management of polar bearsis based on the research done with Telazol, but if peoplecannot eat animals that have been dmgged, tllen it maybe much more difficult to do the research. Ramsay anda summer assistant had collccted some information onclearing rates that suggests that the drug is metaboli7.edto safe levels within 48 hours.

A proposal to examine the longevity of the compo­nents of Telawl in polar bears was developed in 1991.This work involved immobilization and subsequentsacrifice of up to 14 polar bears in the Resolute area.The Resolute HTA offered to support this work byproviding at least 10 polar bear tags so tllat the experi­ment would not result in any additional mortality forthe population. Resolute hunters would do the shootingand the pelt would be kept by the hunter. This wouldalso provide an opportunity for systematic tissue sam­pling to detennine contaminant distribution.

The protocol for the drug study was provided by Dr BillDrennan of Health and Welfare Canada. Dr RossNorstrom provided the guidance on the tissue sampliugand will conduct the contaminant assays. MalcolmRamsay is project leader for this work and will super­vise the field portion of the study.

Ringed seal populations in Hudson Bay

The physical condition of polar bears in westernHudson Bay has declined for several years but we knowlittle of the seal population they depend upon. From thcpreliminary results of satellite tracking of female polarbears from Zone AI, it is clear tlley spend most of theirtime offshore of the area between about the NelsonRiver, Manitoba, and Rankin Inlet, NWT. Prior totrying to plan more detailed work on polar bears, acooperative study on ringed seals was undertakenbetween CWS, ti,e HTA in Arviat, and Rob Mulders,the Regional Biologist at Arviat. The objective is tobegin a mouitoring study of the age structure, reproduc­tive status, and condition of seals harvested by Inukhunters at Arviat.

Specimens of seal jaws (for age determination),stomach contents, and reproductive tracts were col­lected in spring and aUlumn 1991 and 1992. Muldersand the HTA coordinated the specimen collection.CWS is analyzing ti,e data and will provide a summaryreport in collaboration with Mulders. More research isplanned for the seal population, in relation to the polarbear population in Zone AI.

National polar bear database

In 1988, ti,e mainframe computer at the University ofAlberta was still used for storage of the whole database,but increasingly more of ti,e entering, editing, andanalyses were done on personal computers at the CWSlaboratory. NWT entered the kill records and tllCircapture data in Yellowknife, tllen exchanged data tapeswith CWS. Work began in late 1988 on developing thesoftware necessary for transferring the whole databaseto microcomputers.

By 1990, the mainframe at the University of Albertawas used only for backnp of database files and for someof the larger data manipulations. Most of the entering,editing, and analyses were on microcomputers. Thesoftware necessary for transferring the database tomicrocomputers had been written, and modifyingexistiug database management software continued.

Entry, edit, extraction, and report generation of themain database in Edmonton were developed withAdvanced Revelation database management software.This is a powerful program, also used by the NatureConservancy and its cooperators for the largest

39

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

ecological database in North America, but it requires alarge investment of time to design each new database.During 1990, all zone files were converted, and work­ing versions of entry, edit, and report programs weredeveloped. Improvements will continue to be made tothese programs, and others written to improve accessto tl,e data, but about half the work is now completed.

During 1990, NWT eliminated use of their main­frame for data storage and analysis. All data processingis now done on PCs, using dBASE as the standard fordatabase management. The NWT mark/recapture andhunter-kill data from both the NWT and Quebec con­tinue to bo entered into a PC as they are collected, thenedited and corrected. A Hardcard is used for weeklyautomated backups. Optical backup diskettes are keptin a safe for extra security. The information is then sentby tape and floppy disk to Edmonton for incorporationinto the master database. The Advanced Revelationpackage CWS use is compatible with the dBASE lll+software used by the NWT on their microcomputers.Manitoba sends all data sheets on bears handled as partof their Polar Bear Alert Program, and any teeth col­lected, to CWS for entry and processing.

By 1992, programming of Revelation had pro­gressed, so that extractions for data analyses with othersoftware packages, for export to otherjurisdictions, andfor production of summary reports such as field books,would be easier.

Prior to the 1992 PBTC meeting, staff from NWT metwith CWS to formalize a data exchange protocol, sotlmt a second national database archive in Yellowknifewill complement the one currently maintained byCWS. CWS and NWT have agreed on an annual sched­ule for updating ti,e central database in Edmonton withkill and capture records from the NWT each September,then updating (overwriting) the subset file inYellowknife each January. Error correctiOns will besummarized once a year, with ti,e data exchange. Therules for access to the shared database will remain thesame. Data belonging to others cannotbe accessed or usedfor publication without written permission. Extractionof data for management purposes does not requirewritten permission, but would normally involve verbalapproval. Data extracted for management purposescannot be published.

All of Canada's polar bear populations are within orshared with the Northwest Territories. Having regn­larly scheduled npdates ofdata should enhance NWT's

Polar Bears

ability to determine the total kill on these populationsand summarize the available information for manage­ment discussions.

There was also a discussion of standardizing theformat and medium for data from satellite collars. Cur­rently, there are various methods of dealing with thedata: they are received as a hard-copy printout, down­loaded intermittently from other computers, or mailedregularly on a floppy diskette. The consensus of mostparticipants was to maintain the data on disk, but tocontinue consultations on the best method of editing,formatting, and ensuring compatibility. No final agree­ment was reached on the development of a singledatabase, nor on what data should be archived frommaterial that continues to be received or has alreadybeen received.

The 'Quickmap' digitizing/mapping program devcl­oped by ESL, Victoria, is used by NWT for all theirdistribution maps. It uses data from dBASE 1lI+, worksbest on a 386 PC with at least 16MHz, and costs about$700 for a site licence. CWS have begun to use Quick­map for some of their analyses of satellite locations.

Single agency research

Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS)

Continued budget cuts have decreased the number ofprojects in which CWS can participate. Marc Cattetcompleted his studies on evaluating the physicalcondition ofpolar bears and submitted his thesis papersfor publication in 1989. Lois Harwood also completedher Master's degree study of ringed seal distributionduring the open-water season in the Beaufort Sea in1989. The locations of feeding concentrations of sealsare similar to polarbear feeding areas in winter. Data fromthis study complements ongoing CWS studies of therelationships between polar bears and seals in theBeaufort Sea.

Studies on the biological importance of polynyas topolar bears and overwintering marine mammals contin­ued at the Dundas Polynya from early February to earlyMay 1989, and concluded for the present after a shortfield season from mid-February to early March 1990.Becky Sjare collected data on the vocalizations andbehavioural ecology of walruses wintering in thepolynya daring four late-winter seasons, as the basis ofa Ph.D. thesis. There has not been any field work atDundas Island in 1991 or 1992.

40

At the 1989 IBA Conference, Calvert and Stirlingsummarized observations of interactions b<;tween polarbears and overwintering walruses in the area of theDundas Polynya.

Studies of bear behaviour at Radstock Bay on DevonIsland in April and May 1990 were very productive,with many good observations of all age- and sex­classes and of breeding and hunting behaviour. Thisstudy has been a continuing, but low, priority for CWSfor many years; it did not continue in 1991 or 1992.

An analysis of DNA in blood samples collected inseveral areas of the Arctic over several years has beeninitiated in cooperation with the University of Alberta.Eventually, they hope to examine the relatedness oflitter-mates and the contribution of individual breedingmales to sampled litters. The low variability of polarbear DNA and the difficulty of sampling all possibleparents will complicate this.

Analyses and writing are continuing on studies ofsubpopulations in Zones AI and H, and proposals havebeen submitted for studies of polynyas, polar bear andseal populations on the ice of Hudson Bay, behaviouralstudies at RadslOCk Bay, and in the area jointly-managedby NWT, Quebec, and Labrador. The availability offunding undcr the Arctic Initiatives Program of thefederal Green Plan is still unknown.

LIA satellite radios in Labrador

A cooperative project with the LlA began in spring1991 to study seasonal movements of polar bears offthe Labrador coast. The hunters have reported that theyencounter more bears than before, but this may be dueto improved transportation, not a population increase.The LIA wishes to playa role in collecting data thatmay help to delineate subpopulations and eventuallyhelp in making decisions about cooperative manage­ment with other jurisdictions. Twelve bears were cap­tured in April 1991, and two satellite radios wereattached to adult females off thc coast ofLabrador. Oneradio transmitted for only one week. The other did notoperate properly, but gave some locations. Telonics, themanufacturer, believe the problem could be with aswitch or with chips not fully seated in their sockets. Inthe future, the chips will be soldered.

Andriashek deployed four new satellite collars inApril 1992. All four are still transmitting. Twenty-twopolar bears were captured in 1992.

Western Hudson Bay

The intensive population ecology studies begun in 1987in western Hudson Bay have continued, with an empha­sis on

1) age- and sex-specific survival rates of poJar bearsin the population and factors affecting the survivalof cubs and subadults;

2) annual productivity and yearly cohort strength ofthe population;

3) size and trend of the study population and howthese might affect survival and reproductive rates;

4) the fidelity of reproducing adults to their natalarea, and the long-term reproductive patterns ofadult females;

5) variations in the weights of polar bears in thepopulation; and

6) collections of milk and fat specimens for toxicchemical analyses.

These studics were the basis of Ph.D. research byAndrew Derocher, who completed his degree in 1991.

Determining where polar bears feed on Hudson Baywill help in planning future studies on the biology anddistribution of ringed seals in relation to polar bearpopulations and reproductive parameters.

During spring 1988,40 adult females with COYsandone lone adult female were handled. The recapture rateof these adult females was 59% (24 of 41). The meanlitter size of COYs was 1.82. Fourteen radio-collarswere deployed on a representative sample of adultfemales.

During the autumn field season, the emphasis of thecapture program was to obtain as large a representativesample of the population as possible. The objective wasto obtain a random sample, proportional to density, andto ensure maximum coverage of the study area. Of thetotal of 307 bears handled, 52% were previously han­dled (61 % if COYs were excluded). The sex-ratio was0.88:1 (144 males:163 females).

Ten of the 14 radio-collars deployed in the springwere found in the autumn, including one that had been

41

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

dropped. Another five females handled in the springwith cubs were recaptured, giving cub survival infor­mation on 14 of the 40 families handled during thespring. The estimated spring-to-autumn survival rate ofCOYs was 50% (15 of 30 cubs still with mothers).Whole litter loss was seen in four of the 14 families(29%) and three of these females appeared to be preg­nant again.

Only 28 females with COYs were handled in autumn1988. This contrasts sharply with the 49 found during1987 with a similar sampling intensity and design.Conversely, 26 family groups with yearlings were han­dled, 10 more than in 1987. Only one bear was field­aged as a lone yearling. If females were following thetwo-year breeding cycle reported for 40% of the fe­males by Ramsay and Stirling (1988), then there shouldhave been many more lone yearlings in the sample. Theprevalence of a three-year breeding cycle for most ofthe females in the population in 1988 could be ex­plained by two hypotheses. The first is that conditionswere generally good, resulting in a very high survivalrate forthe 1987 cohort and a large number of yearlingsremaining with their mothers. The second hypothesis isthat the conditions on the sea-iee were poor, resultingin females keeping their cubs and not breeding in 1988.To adequately assess these two hypotheses, the weightand eondition of bears in 1987 and 1988 will have to becompared to the long-term means.

Bad weather limited the tagging operations in Mareh1989 to 10 out of a possible 30 days. Females appearedto be in poorer condition than in previous years. Femaleweights (mean=124kg, SE=5) were the lowest seensince spring tagging began in 1980. In total, 23 familieswere handled including 49 COYs. There were twolitters of single cubs, 16 with twins and five withtriplets, giving a mean litter size of 2.1 cubs/litter. Thiswas similar to other years. Two lone adult females werealso caught in the denning area.

The weights of COYs were similar to those of pre­vious years (mean=lO.lkg, SE=0.5). The sex-ratio ofCOYs was 0.75: I (21 females:28 males). The recapturerate for adult females was 92% and was markedlyhigher than the rates of 44% and 59% for the spring in1987 and 1988, respectivcly. Fourteen conventionalradio-collars were deployed on adult females with COYsto help determine COY survival through to autumn.

In September and October 1989, 302 bears werecaught. The recapture rate, including COYs, was 67%.The recapture rate of adult groups was much higher

Polar Bears

(e.g., 97% recapture rate for adult females with COYs).The proportion of lone adult females (49%) ont of alladult females was higher than the 25-35% secn inprevious years. It is possible that many of the femalesin poor condition in the spring lost their cubs. Femaleswith COYs eomposed 31 % of the adult females han­dled and females with yearlings made up the remaining20%. As in the previous three years, the number of loneyearlings was moderately low at 23% of the yearlingshandled (9 of 39). Therefore, most females are now ona three-year breeding cycle.

All but one of the 14 radio-collars deployed in thespring were relocated. The COY survival rate from thespring to the autumn was only 44% (12 0127) and totallitter loss was secn in 38% of the females (5 of 13).Additional autumn mortality of two litters of COYsbrought the total litter loss to 54% and COY mortalityto 67%. Both of these mortality rates were greater thanin previous years.

Bears were in similar condition in autumn 1989 tothose captured in the previous two autumns. The mostmarked changes noted were the large number of preg­nant females and the high cub mortality from the spring.

Poor weather conditions throughout the 1990 springfield season resulted in a sample of only 12 femaleswith COYs (mean litter size 1.5 cubs/litter) and twosolitary females. Only one of the females had not becnhandled previously. Conventional radio-collars wereplaced on the twelve females with cubs. The meanweight of adult females was 159 kg (SE=5, n=12). Themean weights in the early 1980s ranged betwecn 185and 199kg.

During autumn 1990 studies, 179 bears were immo­bilized with no mortalities. The recapture rate of allbears was 68% (n=179) or 88% for all bears older tllanone year. Ten of the 12 radio-collars deployed in thespring were relocated and 11 of 14 radio-collars de­ployed on adult females in 1989 were removed.

The survival of COYs from spring to autumn 1990was 62.5% (n=16), somewhat higher than in 1988 and1989 (47.1% and 42.9% respectively). During theautumn,47% of all adult females (n=85) were accom­panied by COYs,49% were alone, and 4%were accom­panied by yearlings. The low proportion of femaleswith yearlings indicates high mortality in the 1989cohort. Litter sizes of females with COYs were similarto the long-term average of 1.5 cubs/litter. The sex-ratioof COYs was only 32% male, but was not significantlydifferent from 50:50, given the sample size.

42

Blood serum samples collected were analyzed todetennine progesterone levels in solitary adult females.The pregnancy rate was 94.3% (n=35), within the rangeof 82.4% to 100.0% determined as pregnant by thismethod betwecn 1982 and 1989.

The weights ofbears in all age and sex classes in 1990were similar to 1989, but still lower than in the early1980s. The declining trend in weight over the length ofthe study is significant for 15 of 16 age- and sex-classesin the population. The rate at which weight declined(regression slopes) varies from l.lkglyear for maleCOYs to 6.lkglyear for adult males more than eightyears of age. Adult females with cubs have lost anaverage of 2.9kglyear. Solitary females, most of whichare pregnant, have lost an average of 2.8kglyear.

Milk and fat specimens were collected from a sampleof bears to monitor the toxic chemical load. This projectis coordinated by Dr Ross Norstrom of the CanadianWildlife Service.

Twenty-six adult females and 50 cubs were handledin spring 1991. One handling mortality occurred due topoor dart placement. The two cubs from this femalewere adopted out to other mothers, but were not withthose mothers in autumn. Overall, cub mortality washigh in 1991.

The recapture rate was 92% (n = 26) and the ages offemales ranged from 6 to 27 years. Average litter sizewas 1.92 cubs/litter, similar to the long-tenn average.Mean weight of females was 158kg (SE = 5) and wassimilarto that of the previous four springs, but30-40kglighter than the early 1980s. Five satellite collars and20 conventional radio-collars were deployed asplanned. Milk and fat specimens were collected fromsome bears to continne monitoring of toxic chemicalloads.

In autumn 1991, all five satellite collars from thespring were recovered and two new collars deployed.Several old conventional radio-collars were removed.All bears were immobilized using Telawl and no han­dling mortalities occurred. Fat and milk samples werecollected for toxic chemical analyses. Of particularinterest were the samples collected from females withcubs that had becn handled in the past. These samplesallow us to determine transfer rates of toxins. In addi­tion, samples were collected from bears handled in tllepast so tl,e effect of condition on toxin load can bedetennined. Blood samples were collected from females

without cubs to monitor pregnancy rates. A paper onpregnancy rates and progesterone levels has been ac­cepted for publication by the Canadian Journal ofZoology, but the additional samples will yield furtherinsight iuto the reproductive ecology of polar bears.

The sex-ratio of the 160 bears handled was 49%female. Recapture rate for all bears was 64% and 77%for bears older than one year. Thirty-four CaYs and sixyearlings were handled. No independent yearlings werehandled, similar to 1990 and the ttend to fewer inde­pendent yearlings seen since 1987. Mean litter size ofCaYs was 1.45; mean litter size of yearlings was 1.13.Both of these litter sizes are similar to those seen inprevious years, althongh the yearling litter size is lowerthan in the early 1980s.

Seventeen of the twenty conventional collars de­ployed in spring were relocated in antnmn 1991. Sur­vival of CaYs from February to September was 47%(18/38). This was similar to the data collected in theprevious four years (mean =50.5%), but lower thanrecorded in the early 1980s (mean = 75.0%). Total litterloss was found in 27% of the females and was similarto that found in recent years.

The weights of females with cubs and yearlings weresimilar to those recorded in the previous four years. Themean weight was 196 kg (SE =5, n =30). Weights ofother groups of bears captured have not been analyzed.It was our subjective opinion that the condition of adultmales was substantially better than in the past fouryears. However, weights were highly variable andanalyses are necessmy before conclusive statementscan be made.

Wildcat Films, from the United Kingdom, docu­mented sampling procedures for toxic chemical analy­sis. Footage was aired on the news in the UK and adocumentary about arctic pollution was completed forbroadcast on television.

Toxic chemicals and tissue collections

As reported at the last meeting of the PBSG, RossNorsttom (CWS, Ottawa) completed a comprehensivesurvey of chlorinated hydrocarbon contaminants(CHCs) and heavy metals in polar bears throughouttheir range in the NWT. The level of most CHCs,especially chlordane compounds, had increased fromI%9 to 1984 in Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay bears.

43

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

There were no age, sex, or seasonal differences in theloads, except for mercury.

It is important to establish whether this increase is ananomaly or a long-term ttend by continuing the moni­toring program on an occasional basis and to increasetlle geographical extent of the database. Therefore,Norsttom proposed to examine samples collected in1990-91 from all the Canadian jurisdictions, the US,Greenland, Norway, and the USSR in an internationalsurvey of CI-ICs in polar bears. All signatories to theAgreement agreed to help with the collection.

Collection of samples for the circumpolar survey ofcontaminants in polar bear fat was completed to theextent possible by autumn 1991. Over 700 samplesfrom 34 areas or communities in Alaska, Canada,Greenland and Svalbard were collected. No sampleswere collected from Russia despite the assistance ofUSFWS scientists. Use of subcutaneous biopsies ob­tained by 3-mm biopsy punches proved highly success­ful. The Beaufort Sea/Amundsen Gulf area is stillunder-represented, and the sample size from Alaskawas rather small and spread over several years. It maybe worth pursuing further samples from these areas.However, progrmn consttaints make it very difficult tofind time to analyze samples received past the autumnof 1991. Samples from these areas should tllerefore becollected, if possible, but Norsttom cannot make anypromises of when or even if they will be analyzed.

The data gatllered from the present survey should besufficient to answer the large-scale geographical andtemporalttend questions for a number of years. Nor­sttom does not anticipate repeating such a survey foranother 10 years unless indications from other sourcesindicated a worsening contaminant situation.

The samples were analyzed for tetta-, penta- andhexachlorobenzenes; alpha- and beta-hexachlorocy­clohexane; twelve chlordane-related compounds(mainly the metabolite oxychlordane); dieldrin; p,p'­DDT, DDD and DDE; and sixteen PCB congeners. Allsamples were analyzed by a single fraction gas chro­matography-mass selective detector procedure.

A spreadsheetdatabase has been set np in Quattto Pro(Lotus and dBASE compatible). In addition to thechemical concentrations, sample identity and geo­graphical location, information that may be of value inanalyzing the data, such as sex, age, accompanyingbears, axial girth, standard length, zoological length,calculated weight, condition index, and fat index have

Polar Bears

been added to the database where available. There areseventy potential fields of information for each sample.To ensure quality of data, upper and lower flags wereset for data fields. Statistical analyses by SAS and otherpackages are in progress. A report should be availableby February 1993. To date, only preliminary summarystatistics have been completed and therefore it is notpossible to comment on temporal trends. However, afew comments can be made on geographical distribu­tion ofresidues and the effects ofage and sex on residuelevels.

As previously found, the major residues in all areaswere PCBs and chlordane-related. Dieldrin, hexachlo­rocyclohexane and chlorobenzene levels were usuallyan order of maguitude lower. Mean total PCB concen­trations ranged from a low of approximately 2ppm inthe western North American arctic to a high of 15­20ppm in eastern Greenland and Svalbard. Levels inBaffin Bay and Hudson Bay areas were generally inter­mediate at 3-5ppm. Thus, there appears to be a trendfor levels to increase from west to east, with a substan­tial jump going from the Baffin Bay to the Atlanticsites. Chlordane levels were somewhat more evenlyspread, ranging from l-5ppm in all areas, with a slighttendency for an increasing west-east trend. Chloroben­zene and dieldrin levels were more variable amongareas, but there was no pronounced west-east trend.Hexachlorocyclohexane levels demonstrated a slighttendency to decrease from west to east, whereas DDTlevels had a pronounced increase from west to east.

These data imply that most contaminants are quiteevenly distributed at arctic and sub-arctic latitudes inthe northern hemisphere. Asia appears to be a moreimportant source of hexachlorocyclohexane than NorthAmerica, whereas North and Central America are asignificantly more important source of DDT in theArctic than other areas. The significantly higher levelsofPCBs in north Atlantic areas than Hudson and Baffinbays indicates that European, possibly Eurasian,sources are major contributors in this area.

The large numbers of biopsies taken from westernHudson Bay allowed a separation of the samples intothree groups: solitary females, females with young, andmales. A wide age range was available in each cate­gory. Preliminary analysis of the data indicates thatthere is a substantial negative effect of age from cubsto about six years of age in both sexes on PCB andchlordane residue levels in fat. Residue levels in cubswere about twice those in their mothers. After age sixthere was no discernible age effect, indicating that the

44

bears were in equilibrium with their diet. However, itis likely that statistical analysis will find some signifi­cant differences among groups. For example, malesseem to have higher levels of PCBs than females,whereas females with young had the highest overalllevels of chlordanes. Differences among ages and sexeswere less obvious for the minor organochlorines.

Future sampling for chemical analysis

As mentioned above, continued biopsying of bearspreviously sampled in Hudson Bay is highly recom­mended to provide a time-trend for individual bears. Inaddition to fat samples, milk will also be collected fromall adult females with cubs. Similarly, if any of thesebears arc later shot by hunters, it would be desirable toobtain a fat sample. Norstrom would like to be keptinformed of other research projects in which biopsies(or other samples) may be obtained, in order to developa comprehensive plan for ecotoxicology research (seebelow).

A new project on distribution and possible effects ofmethylsulfone (MSF) metabolites of PCBs and DDEwas begun in 1991 as part of the Arctic EnvironmentalStrategy Greenplan. Preliminary aualysis in Sweden offat and liver samples from two bears indicated thatMSF-PCBs were present at 5% of the PCB levels inboth tissues, and high levels ofMSF-DDE were presentin liver. These results were presented along with othersat the DIOXIN'91 conference in Chapel Hill, NorthCarolina in September 1991. An analytical method forthese compounds is being developed by a Ph.D. studentat Carleton University in collaboration with the Univer­sity of Stockholm. He will apply this method to studythe distribution of MSF-PCBs and MSF-DDEs in thearctic marine ecosystem. MSF-DDE has been impli­cated as a possible causative agent in pathologies thatare consistent with adrenal malfunction in non-repro­ducing populations of ringed and grey seal in the BalticSea in the early 1970s. It has an extremely high affinityfor adrenal cortex in rats, causing adrenal hyperplasiaand hyperadrenocorticism.

Ecotoxicology

Studies ofPCBs in cetaceans indicate that PCB congenerprofiles can be used as a surrogate for liver mixed-func­tion oxidase (MFO) enzyme activity profiles. Polarbears metabolize PCBs according to quite different

rules than cetaceans, which may be related to specializedbiochemistry/physiology associated with high vitaminA intake (stellate cell involvement) or facilitated fasting.There have been no measurements of liver MFO activ­ity in polar bears, nor any in other species of bears ofwhich Norstrom is aware. Given the rather unusualcapability of polar bears to metabolize certain PCBcongeners and DDE, MFO studies would be interestingfrom a purely academic viewpoint. However, there is amore pressing reason to pursue this line of research. Ifthere is a toxic effect of PCBs and other organo­chlorines in polar bears, MFOs are likely to be in­volved.

Norstrom has hypothesized that any effects of PCBsand other OCs in polar bears are likely to be found infemale reproduction, or in cubs, which have the highestlevels and exposure. To date, species with delayedimplantation of ova, such as mink and ringed seal, havebeen found to be ule most sensitive to effects of PCBson reproduction. The effects are probably quite compli­cated, and variable among species, but there is at leastsome involvement of interference in hormone balancedue to MFO enzyme induction. Uterine scars, blockageof Fallopian tubes, etc. are various pathologies found.It is worth initiating studies of these kinds in polarbears, but the requirements for sampling and preserva­tion are big obstacles. MFO activities deteriorate rap­idly upon death of the animal, and are lost altogetherafter a few hours. Current wisdom says the liver samplemust be taken as soon as possible after death, andflash-frozen in liquid nitrogen. Lyle Lockhart (DFO,Winnipeg) has found that fish liver samples that arequickly cooled to near 0° on ice, but not frozen, can bekept for some hours without serious loss of MFOactivity. Another approach that may be taken is toobtain liver biopsies from tranquillized animals. Logis­tics are therefore the most difficult problem. If thesecould be solved, the measurement of enzyme activitiescould be easily obtained.

An indirect approach to enzyme activity is mono/polyclonaJ antibody analysis of hepatic microsomal P-450MFO protein. This technique can be applied to normalfrozen samples in which the activity of the enzyme hasbeen lost, and will give a qualitative idea of the cross­reactivity and probable equivalent activity of severalisozymes that are inducible by various classes of or­ganochlorines, including dioxins and PCBs. Samplesoffrozen polar bear liver from the CWS specimen bankwill be analyzed as a preliminary test by Dr Stelvio

45

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

Banclieraat UBC (and possibly A. Brouwerat UniversityofWageningen in the Netherlands).

Another area of interest is the role of fat store size,facilitated fasting, and seasonal fat cycling in generalon clearance levels and effects of organochlorines.Norstrom hopes that data obtained in the present surveywill be applicable to answering at least some of thesequestions. To that end, he will be applying whateverinformation is available on condition index or estimatesof total fat in the bear in analysis of the data. However,to answer this question properly it would be necessaryto obtain data throughout the season, preferably recap­turing the same bears.

Recent publications and results

A review paper of contaminants, arctic marine mam­mals, including a summary of findings on polar bearsand joint research on seals and whales with Derek Muirof the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, was pre­sented by Muir at the 7th International Conference ofthe Comite Arctique International in Oslo, Norway, inSeptember 1989. A paper is in press in the proceedingsof the conference (Muir et al. 1991).

A paper was published in Environmental Pollutionon chlorinated dioxin/furan distribution in theCanadian Arctic for ringed seals, polar bears and somebeluga samples (Norstrom et al. 1990). The geographicaldistribution was very different from other OCs, whichimplies a different source or path. TCDD and OCDDwere the major components found, with highest levelsin the high central Arctic and lowest levels in HudsonBay. The proposed origin is combustion-relatedparticulates in arctic haze, which has a mainly Eurasiansource and does not penetrate to lower latitudes. Otherorganochlorines such as PCBS, Chlordane and DDThave lowest levels in the high Arctic and highest levelsin Hudson Bay, indicating that the atmospheric vectoris unlikely to be transpolar. Based on prevailing winds,the North American land mass is expected to be theorigin of PCBs and other major organochlorines in theCanadian Arctic. Atmospheric lifetimes of thesechemicals are in the order of tens of days to months,therefore all north temperate latitudes may be the ulti­mate source.

A paper on metals distribution in polar bear liversthroughout the NWT was published in Science of theTotal Environment (Braune et al. 1991). It provides

Po/arBears

baseline levels of a number of esseutial elements (Fe,Ca, P, Mn, Na, etc.). There were some statisticallysignificant differences in geographical distribution ofthcse elcments, but these differences are not likely tobe of any physiological importance. There was strongopposite geographical distribution in Hg and Cd levels.Hg was low in Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay, and Cd washigh. The reverse was true west of Barrow Strait. Thereasons for this distribution are probably geochemicalin the case of Hg, but may be related to food webdifferences in thc case of Cd. Cd accumulates prefcr­entially in some species of amphipods that are tllOughtto form a larger part of the ringed seal diet in BaffinBay and Hudson Bay. These data may have potentialfor group (subpopulation?) classification using principalcomponents analysis. Norstrom would like to pursuethis using the current data set.

A paper on circumpolar distribution of Hg in polarbear hair was published in Polar Record (Renwni andNorstrom 1991). Bears from tlle Canadian arctic islandshave much higher levels in hair tlIan elsewhere. Levclsdid not correlate with Hg levels in liver of the samebears. This is explained by the difference in chemicalform and history of Hg in the two tissues. Hg in liver islargely inorganic (mercuric) formed by metabolic de­methylation of methylmercmy, which is probably tlleform accumulated from the diet. Hg levels in liver mayreflect exposure from the diet over a long period oftime. Hg in hair is a covalently-bound methylmercury­protein (cystein) complex tllat reflects circulating levelsduring the time of hair growth.

A paper on tissue distribution of organochlorines andlight-microscopy histopathological examination ofliver from bears in Hudson Bay is in preparation(Braune et at. in prep.). Uniform tissue dis~'ibution oforgauoehlorines on a lipid weight basis was found,except preferential accumulation of a-HCH (alpha­hexachlorocyclohexane--a transformation product ofthe pesticide lindane) in medulla oblongata. Japanesestudies show a similar distribution in whales. Lightmicroscopy investigation showed no lesions that wouldtypically be associated with exposure to organo­chlorines. An important finding was that PCB levelswere negatively correlated with age, or, at least,subadults had higher levels than adults. An older agedistribution ofsampled bears was likely the explanationfor the lower levels of organochlorines found in the1969 sample of fat from the CWS Specimen Bank thanin samples analyzed in the comprehensive 1984 survey.

46

Northeastern Beaufort Sea and WesternM'Clure Strait

Between 1971 and 1987, population and movementstudies were conducted on polar bears in the easternBeaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf. Two of the objectiveswere to determine the size of the population and itsgeographic boundaries. Both were estimated within thelimits of the samples and the technology available. Noradio-tracking was done, thus movement data werelimited to recapturing tagged animals or tlle return oftags from Inuit huntel~. Field work on the west coast ofBanks Island was based from Sachs Harbour. Althoughthe northwestern end of the island was visited a numberof times, it was difficult to spend much time there oneach trip because of the distance from logistic support.Additionally, in more recent years, guided sport hunt­ing by Inuit from Sachs Harbour was based in thevicinity of Norway Island. Because of concern aboutdisturbing the hunt, mark and recapturc studies usinga helicopter were curtailed somewhat in that area.Consequently, tlle population estimates tllat were de­termined may have undersampled bears north ofNorway Island.

In 1990 and 1991, population and movement studieswere conducted on polar bears in the vicinity ofViscount Melville Sound and M'Clure Strait. A sampleof individual bears were marked and a number ofsatellite radios were used to determine the full extent ofannual movements. On the basis of the preliminaryresults of tllese studies, a population boundary betweenZones EI and H2 was proposed in the western portionofM'Clure Strait. Because of budgetary limitations, itwas not possible to cany out the desired surveys northof the northwest corner of Banks Island, along tlleannual lead system that passes north across the westementrance to M'Clure Strait, and along the west coast ofPrince Patrick Island. Similarly, because ofbudget limi­tations, only the minimum number of satellite collarswere placed on female polar bears. Consequently, as inearlier studies, the polar bears in the northern area mayhave been under-sampled.

The reason it is important to fill out gaps in ourknowledge of polar bear populations in tllis area is thatthe quota for Zone H2, including the additional six maletags recently allocated to the northwest cornerof BanksIsland, appears to be very close to the sustainable limit,based on data available to date.

The study has two main objectives:

1) to put satellite collars on adult female polar bearsin the mouth ofM'Clure Strait and along the westcoast of Prince Patrick Island to determine wherethe boundary lies between the subpopulation ofbears in the northeastern Beaufort Sea and thosein M'C!ure Strait and Viscount Melville Sound;and

2) to capture a sample of bears in the mouth ofM'Clure Strait and along the west coast of PrincePatrick Island to examine the proportion of bearsthat might have been tagged further sounth in theBeaufort Sea.

Field work was conducted between 16 April and 18May 1992, from Tuktoyaktuk, Sachs Harbour, andMould Bay. The weaU1er for much of the month wastoo foggy and overcast to allow for safe flying and forpolar bear tracks to be visible. Of the 33 days wc werein the field, the weather was goed enough to fly forresearch purposes on only nine days, several of whichwere only suitable for half days. The visibility was pooron all four days used for ferry flights, and on 20 daysthe weather was too poor to make it wortllwhile flyingat all.

Satellite collars were put on two fcmalc polar bcarsnorth of Tuktoyaktuk, five on the west coast of BanksIsland, one in M'Clure SU'ait, and three on the westcoast of Prince Patrick Island. Twenty-five bears werehandled, and 20 more were sighted. Six adult bcarswere caughton U,e west coast ofBanks Island, of whichfive were tagged. In M'Clurc Strait and U,C wcst coastof Prince Patrick Island, seven adult bears were caughtof which none was tagged. AIUlOUgh these results areintercsting, the sample sizcs are too small to draw anyconclusions.

The liller sizes of cubs of different ages either eap­tured or sighted were as follows:

Number of AverageAge of cub litters seen litter size

0.5 year 6 1.51.5 year 4 1.22.5 year 1 2.0

In 1993, nine satellite eollars will be deployed and asample of 60-80 polar bears will be marked.

47

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

Manitoba

Denning surveys in the Cape Tatnum area

Surveys flown in the early and mid-1970s showed thatsome denning activity occurred in the Cape TaummWildlife Management Area and the area to the south.No surveys were done again till 1989 to determine ifpolar bears continued to use the area. A survey of theCape Tatnum area in March 1989 found several den­ning bears, but tracking was poor because of unusualsnow conditions. Fourteen observations of bears weremade. Four family groups were sighted, three with twoCOYs each and one with one COY. Ten observationsof tracks were also recorded. Itis expected that the samebear or family group accounted for at least two obser­vations on fOUf occasions.

In 1990,23 observations were recorded but only onebear, a solitary adult along the Hudson Bay coast, wassightcd. Taking into account the time between surveyflights and the poor weather conditions, it is probableat least five family groups moved onto the ice from thisarea.

The 1989 and 1990 surveys confirmed that polarbears still den in U,e area south of the Cape TamumWildlife Management Area but it is not possible toquantify the level of activity and U,erefore determineits relative importance as a denning area. The sightingsof bears and tracks observed indicate that denning canoccur at sites more U,an 120km inland. No area ofconcentrated denning activity, such as is found in theCape Churchill Wildlife Management Area, was iden­tified. It is not known if females denning in this area arepart of the Zone A1 or Zone A2 subpopulations.

Research permits

In 1989, some of the tour opcrators expressed concernsabout the possibility of deu'imental impacts on theirindustry because of the intensity of research beingconducted on polar bears in Manitoba. The Departmentof Natural Resources, in assessing proposals for re­search on polar bears, will consider their value to polarbear management in Manitoba and the possible impactsthe research could have on the tourism industry, inaddition to ensuring the criteriaare scientifically sound.It may therefore be more diffieultto obtain a permit forpolar bear research in Manitoba.

Polar Rears

The Department continues to receive comments,often negative, about the level of research it permitsdespite changes made in 1990, primarily by the re­searchers, to better integrate research and tourism ac­tivities. Manitoba, however, remains committed toproviding opportunity for research if it meets certaincriteria.

Manitoba staff have continued to assist researcherson approved projects in the western Hudson Bay.

Newfoundland

Newfoundland supported the development ofcoopera­tive research between jurisdictions sharing theLabrador-Baffin population.

In addition to the bears handled in 1991 under theLlA/CWS radio-collar and capture program offLabrador, three bears were captured and moved inLabrador, mostly as a response to perceived problemsof bears approaching settlements. A helicopter pilotreported evidence of denning in Saglak Fiord, and thesighting ofa different adult female accompanied by twoCOYs. Another 10 individual bears were observed offthe southeast Labrador Coast in 1991.

Northwest Territories

Tetracycline biornarking

Most inventories of polar bear populations to date havebeen done through mark and recapture. Aerial surveymethods have been found to be unreliable at compara­ble effort because not all polar bears are seen (evendirectly under the survey aircraft) and because polarbears occur at low densities. Most of the polar bearinventory work has been carried out in spring on thesea-ice. However, polar bears in Foxe Basin and north­ern Hudson Bay are inaccessible in the spring becauseof sea-ice conditions. In the late summer and earlyautumn the ice cover disappears and the bears comcashore. Many of the polar bears can be captured withstandard immobilization methods. However, a signifi­cant fraction of the bears are found in the sea, on seacliffs, or on coastal plains that are mainly covered bylakes. Operational risks from immobilization taggingwere not considered acceptable in these circumstances.

An alternative to immobilizing and tagging was de­veloped using the antibiotic tetracycline as a

48

biomarker. Tetracycline is calciphilic. A portion ofanytetracycline introduced into mammals is permanentlydeposited in the cementum annuli of the teeth. Underulttaviolet illumination, the biomarked cementum an­nuli exhibits a yellow fluorescence. When a single markis given per year, the year the mark is given may bedetennined by counting the annuli back to the year ofsampling. Counting cementum annuli is done underpolarized light or with other stained sections of thetooth.

The marking was done from a helicopter using equip­ment developed for that purpose by Pneu-Dart Inc.Design constraints included a barbless needle, atransparent syringe (to allow visual verification ofinjection), a non-explosive injection (to allow 15mlvolume), and a slow muzzle velocity (to prevent dartsbouncing). The injection system utilizes C02 producedwhen 10% acetic acid is injected into a reservoir ofbicarbonate of soda. Commercial preparations ofoxytetracycline (200mg/ml) were used.

To determine the amount (mg tetracycline/kg bear)of tetracycline required to reliably biomark polar bears,dose levels ranging from 2mg/kg to 25mg/kg weretested. All bears marked at 25mg/kg tested positive forthe biomark when sampled one week or longer afterinjection. Seventy-three of74 polar bears marked at alldose levels and sampled 180 days after injection testedpositive for the biomark. The identity ofthe animal thatdid not exhibit the biomark may have been confusedwith another harvested animal.

Not all polar bears marked at dose levels of 15mg/kgtested positive when sampled 180 days or fewer afterinjection. Of the short-term samples (Le., <180 days),bears younger than six years were significantly (p <0.05)more likely to be biomarked than older bears. Doseshigher than 7mg/kg resulted in 50% more positive teststhan lower dose levels, although the increase wasnot significant (p >0.05).

For reliability in field application, a dose level of15mg/kg was used. The dose levels for various sex andage categories ofpolar bears were determined. To avoidmarking individual animals more than once, each bearwas marker-darted with a removable roofing tar. Tetra­cycline darts were aimed at the neck or shoulder toensure inttamuscular injection. Approximately 5% ofthe darts either bounced or failed to inject completely.These shots were repeated so each bear was known toreceive approximately 15mg/kg. Some 384 polar bears

were biomarked in all types of habitat throughout thestudy area betweeu 7 September and 5 October 1989.Only one bear was seen but not marked because itescaped to a snow eave.

The recapture samples (teeth) come from retums oflower jaws from harvested polar bears. Although theharvest is not geographically non-random, thebiomarking effort was geographically random. The re­duced handling time per bear allowed the entire coastalhabitat to be covered and all bears encountered to bemarked. The expected annual harvest from the popula­tion is 130-150. The harvest sample may be augmentedwith first premolars taken from captured bears if a moreprecise estimate of the marked-to-unmarked ratio isrequired.

By marking in subsequent years, a mortality rate formarked animals may be estimated. That mortality esti­mate may be partitioned into natural mortality andharvest mortality (known from the harvest return). Bycorrecting the "marks at risk" for annual mortality, thepopulation number may beestimated each year until thefraction of the population marked (or the total numberharvested) becomes insufficient.

Foxe Basin

During September 1986, 32 VHF radio-collars weredeployed on polar bears located onshore in summerretreat areas throughout Foxe Basin and northern HudsonBay.In spring 1987, an additional 15 radio-collars weredeployed during the maximum sea-ice coverage in thesame area. An additional 20 radio-collars were de­ployed during September 1987. Radio-collar failurereduced the toml active radio-collars to 54 that weremonitored by five aerial survey l1ights per year in 1986,1987, and 1988. Although the survey tracks wereplanned to provide 100% coverage, not every radio waslocated every night.

Based on these movements and movements recordedfrom marked bears that were recaptured or killed byhunters, a management area (C) was identified. It wasrecognized that migration within this and other areasdid occur; however, the movement infonnation indi­cated that these movements were insignificant relativeto the tendency for individual bears caught within thearea to remain within the area. The likelihood that bearswithin area C and other areas contiguous to C wereusing the pooled area equally was less than 0.001.

49

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

The marking phase of the Foxe Basin Polar BearStudy was concluded in autumn 1990. A total of 687polar bears were marked with tetracycline in autumn1989 and 1990 (389 and 298 respectively). The tetra­cycline pennanently marks the teeth of the bear so it isimportant that each jaw from harvested bears is turnedin. As explained above, we can estimate the populationnumber for each year from the jaw returns, as long asenough marked bears are still alive in the population.

The entire coastal area of Foxe Basin and northernHudson Bay was surveyed by helicopter in Septemberand OCtober. With one exception, every polar bear seenwas marked. The 1991-92 hunting season was the firsttime that all marked bears would be observed due to therequirement of 180 days to be certain of detecting themark. Based on the data from the 1991-92 huntingseason the population is estimated to be 2022 bears.This estimate is tenmtive and no variance has beencalculated. A previous estimate of 1200 for theSouthampton Island area only was based on limitedconventional mark,ecapture dam.

From 1986-87 through 1990-91, the mean annualkill from this population was 138, although a kill ofonly77 is sustainable at the current sex-ratio (39% females).Computer projections suggest that tllis population hasdeclined from about 3000 since the early 1970s. Arecommendation to manage the population for increasehas been given to the communities that share tllis popu­lation. This would entail increased selectivity for malesand reduced kill.

Viscount Melville Sound

Forty-five satellite radio-collars were put on femalepolar bears in the Viscount Melville Sound area be­tween spring 1989 and spring 1991. The recordedmovements of these bears (Fig. 1) suggested a rela­tively discrete population of polar bears inhabited thisarea. The subjective boundaries were tested against thenull hypothesis of random use of an equal-sizedsurrounding area using Chi-square procedure. The nullhypothesis of equal use was rejected at [sic].

Polar bears were marked and recaptured in this areafrom 1973 to 1976 and from 1989 to 1992. The mark­recapture effort in spring 1991 and 1992 was intensiveand covered the entire population area. The weightedmean population estimate realized by pooling data fromthese two years was 231 (SE= 20). The population esti­mation procedure was the Fisher-Ford model with ajack-knife estimate of variance. The estimated annual

Polar Bears

survival rate of marked animals was 0.918 (SE= 0.016).The recruitment potential for polar bears in ViscountMelville Sound was less than for other areas. Presum­ably this is a reflection of poor habitat quality relativeto other areas. This population could sustain an averageharvest of approximately 0.6 adult females per year, ora harvest of about 1.2 adult males aud females at 50%males and 50% females, ora harvest ofabout 1.7 at66%males and 33% females. However, harvest sex-ratios ofover 50% males result in a decline in the abundanceandmean age of males. The sex-ratio of adults in ulispopulation has become heavily skewed to 29% malesand 71 % females.

The cUITent annual quota for this area is 12 per year(six for Cambridge, six for Holman). If the quota of 12resulted in a kill of no more than two per year, this quotawould be sustainable, but would not allow the popula­tion to recover. An alternative harvest strategy wouldbe a male-only harvest that was restricted to two peryear over the next 20 years. The harvest could bealternated annually between Holman and Cambridge.This would allow the population to build back to pre­vious levels, and increase the sustainable harvest forfuture generations while still allowing current users tohunt polar bears.

Information on seasonal movements and denningbehaviour was also collected for adult female bears.Regardless of the reproduction status of the bear, femaleswere most active during the mating, seal pupping andseal moulting season (April-July), and all femalessought dens for shelters during the winter months(average of 53 days per non-maternity den). All 25maternity dens werc onshore, and all but six of the 20non-maternity dens were also onshore. Based on activitylevel of transmission and sigual quality, it appeared thatpregnant females enter maternity dens on about17 September and leave about 21 March. However,these dens were not visually verified, and the entry dateis earlier than observed in other areas. lt may be thatden site selection occurs in mid-September and denconstruction occurs gradually as snow accumulates.

A grizzly bear was captured on the sea-ice about50km south ofDundas Peninsula, Melville Island. Thislocation is about 800km further north than grizzlieshave been previously reported.

Northeast Baffin

The area refeITed to as Northeast Baffin includesCanadian polar bear management areas F and D. The

50

degree of exchange between polar bear populations inthe Lancaster Sound and Northern Baffin Bay is poorlyknown. This information is important for managementbecause polar bears are harvested by communities inboth the Northwest Territories and Greenland. Thedegree to which harvests in one area affect populationnumbers in other areas has not been evaluated. Addi­tionally, population boundaries must be established asa prerequisite to abundance estimation.

Three satellite radio-collars were deployed in April1991 in Prince Regent Sound in cooperation with uleArctic Bay Hunters and Trappers. An additional IIradio-collars were deployed between Bylot Island andCape Dyer, Baffin Island in September 1991. TheSeptember 1991 deployment was in cooperation withGreenland Fisheries Research Institute, the Pond Inlet,Clyde River, and Broughton Island Huntersand Trappers,University of Saskatchewan, and Parks Canada. Inspring 1992, an additional three collars were deployedin Prince Regent Inlet, 10 were deployed along the eastcoast of southern Ellesmere, Devon, and northernBaffin Island, and six were deployed by Greenland inthe Melville Bay area.

TI,e locations and movements of the satellite-collaredbears to date are given in Fig. 2. Although these dataare preliminary, it appears that the northeast BaffInpopulation is shared with Greenland, but not Canadianmanagement area D2. The degree of mixing betweenarea DI and F suggests that boundary may not beuseful, however there is some suggestion of an east­west boundary in Lancaster Sound. These suggestionsarc based on qualitative examination of preliminarydata. Two more years of telemetry work are planned toresolve the issue of boundaries in this area.

In areas where the icc pack melts completely insummer, most polar bears seck onshore summer retreats.Although both males and females arc found along thecoast during the icc-free season, females are less com­mon. The sex-ratio of subadults and adults observed incoastal areas was 33% females and 66% males. Bothmales and females patrol the coast for carrion and mayhunt seals and whales. However, females with cubsmay regard the males as threats and spend more time inthe inland areas where males are not as common. Thesex-ratio observed by this survey is typical for autumncoastal surveys in areas where polar bears use summerretreats, but is not a good estimate of the actual popu­lation sex-ratio.

A young adult male bear was found dead in a smallbay off Eglinton Fiord, Baffin Island. The hide wastaken and turned over to the Clyde River HTA pendinga final decision on disposition. A field autopsy indi­cated the cause of death was drowning. No haematoma,bruising, bullet holes or other physical injury was ob­served iu either the body or internal organs. The heartwas examined closely, but no discolouration or clottingwas observed. The lungs were full of water and werepinkish in some areas and iridescent purple in otherareas. The stomach contained about 750ml of fishbones and small white squares identified locally asshrimp flesh. The stomach contents and skull werecollected. The kidneys were still slightly warm suggest­ing that the bear had been dead only a few days. Themeat was evaluated by a local hunter who determinedit to be spoiled and unfit for human consumption.

The density of polar bears observed during autumn199 I and 1992 was low compared to the numberthought to be present in this area. Eighty-five percentof all NWT polar bear defense-kills occur along theeastern Baffin Island coastline. Harvest quotas forClyde River and Broughton Island were reduced in1985 to enable the population to recover in that area.The numbers seen did not indicate that a large numberof polar bears were using the coastal areas as a summerretreat. However, weather conditions in 1992 werebetter for surveying higher altitudes and bOtll males andfemales were encountered there. Resolution of thenumber of polar bears in this area will require conven­tional mark-recapture analysis.

Population estimates from an earlier (1981-86) studysuggest population decline or no change in numberswith the current (past five years) harvest levels. Thenumber of bears taken by Greenland hunters was pre­viously estimated at three per year. However, Green­land has recently completed a harvest study thatindicates the number killed by West Greenlanders av­erages between 40 and 60 per year. The effect of theGreenland harvest on the northeastern Baffin polar bearpopulation is unknown. To date, at least 21 polar bearsmarked in Canada have been taken by west Greenlandhunters. The combined Greenland/ Canada harvest ex­ceeds the sustainable levels based on population esti­mates that were adjusted for "capture bias".

Population depletion and continued decline are notsupported by the perceptions of local hunters. Local

51

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

hunters feel the number of bears has increased. Thisperception is supported by an increase in reported"problem bear" incidents. Increased travelling andhunting activities make it difficult to determine if theincrease in bear-human encounters is caused by in­creased bear numbers or increased land use. Most sum­mer and autumn travel is by boat, which concentratesboth bears and people in coastal areas.

The status of polar bear populations in the north­eastern Baffin area cannot be determined with the avail­able data. The marine environment of this area isstrikingly rich. Seals and whales are very abundant,suggesting a rich marine food chain that should resultin an abundant and productive population of polarbears. If managed for recovery, the population mighteventually support a harvest that is significantly greaterthan the number now taken by Greenland, Clyde Riverand Broughton Island combined. The first step to reali­zation of the full harvest potential of this population isdetermination of stock numbers and a more systematicrecording of the Greenland kill. Both objectives fallwithin the Greenland protocol for the cooperative polarbear research planned for this area.

The geographic boundaries of the polar bear popula­tion that inhabits NE Baffin Island have not been estab­lished. There are no apparent natural barriers tomovements between NE Baffin Island, LancasterSound, eastern Ellesmere Island, Kane Basin, andGreenland. The degree of exchange is not known.Additionally, there is a possibility that previous mark­recapture studies were biassed because spring eapturewas only possible in ,coasli\l areas. Research is neededto determine if bears captured along the coast are arandom subset of the entire population, or if the popu­lation estimates only pertain to the bears that tend toremain close to the coast. Both issues need to be resolvedbefore past population estimates can be interpreted, andbefore new estimates can be obtained. Preliminary datasuggest that the polar bear population in Baffin Bay isshared between Greenland and Canada.

This project is a cooperative effort. Participants in­clude Greenland, Canadian Parks Service, CWS, Uni­versity ofSaskatchewan, and the HTAs of Clyde River,Broughton Island, Arctie Bay, Pond Inlet, ResoluteBay, and Grise Fiord.

Deterrent studies

The proceedings ofthe Bear Deterrent Symposium heldin April 1988 have been published. An updated version ofthe Safety in Bear Country Manual has been prepared.

Polar Bears

Preliminary testing of capsicnm spray was attemptedby distributing the spray to Renewable Resource Officersin communities that sometimes have problem bears.However, the delivery system has not performed reliablyin cold weather, and the constraints on distance(<I0 metres) and wind direction limit the effectivenessof sprays currently commercially available.

There is still considerable need and call for an effective,all-weather deterrent system for polar bears. The rubberslugs and cracker shells have proven to be effectivc inmany, but not all instances. Parks Canada has expresseda nced for a non-firearm type deterrent for parks thatcontain polar bears. One difficulty is that a deterrentthat is commercially available and effective againstpolar bears can also be used against people (e.g., bythe police, or in muggings). Any new technology willlikely be banned once it has been misused.

Ontario

1984-88 field study

Reports on the field research conducted during 1984-S8were completed, including a paper on estimating theweight of polar bears from body measurements. Thefinal report will be submitted for publication in theJournal o/Wildlife Management monograph series. Acopy of the abstract follows.

During 1984--86,457 different polar bears were cap­tured 536 times in southern Hudson Bay. The sex-ratioof captured bears was uot significantly different fromunity (p<O.OIO). The mean ages of captured males andfemales were 6.9 and 5.8 years respectively. The calcu­lated mean annual survival rates for males and femaleswere 0.89 and 0.85 respectively. The mean natality ratefor females aged 5-21 was 0.85. Seventy-five percentoffemales~5 were accompanied by young. Most femalesproduced their first litters at five or six years of age.There was no evidence of reproductive senescence inour samples as four of six females ~19 years wereaccompanied by young. Yearly summer litter sizesranged from 1.4 to 1.8 and averaged 1.6. Weights ofsolitary females considered to be pregnant (338 ± 43,n=20) were heavier than the non-pregnant group (283± 47, n=14). When captured, 38% of the yearlings werealone, suggestinga two-year breeding interval for somefemales. We estimated a population of about 700 insouthern Hudson Bay in 1985 and 1986. Adult females

52

averaged 295kg and adult males 489kg during the1984--86 capture period. Overall, bears were heaviestin 1986 and lightest in 1985. For females, ultimategrowth for front foot width and skull length occurred atage three and for body length, neck circumference,chest girth, weight and skull width at age four. Formales, ultimate growth for front foot width and chestgirth occurred at age five, body length, skull length andneck circumference at age six, skull width at age sevenand weight at age 12. Of 73 individuals or familygroups recaptured in 1985 and 1986,46 were within50km of where they were first caught. Only 10 weremore than lookm and only four were more than 200kmfrom previous capture sites. During the winter, adultfemales used areas that ranged from 74 to 502km eastto west and 292 to 925km south to north. A few femaleswere located over 600km north of the coast. The sex­ratio of 45 tagged polar bears harvested by Inuit andIndian hunters between 1984 and 1988 was 2.5 males: Ifemale. Most were killed in the vicinity of the BelcherIslands. Movements of tagged bears confirmed thevalidity of the boundary between management zonesA2 and AI, butsuggested Zone A3 should be combinedwith Zone A2.

Late autumn-winter distribution

Radio-collared females were monitored at irregularintervals from late Octobcr to early April I984-S8. Inthree years, 157 relocations were obtained. In lateOctober,bears concentrated along the coast as they awaited theformation ofsea-ice in Hudson Bay. By late November,they returned to the ice and dispersed throughout mostsections of Hudson Bay as the winter progressed. Fromlate January through April, a few adult females werenorth of600 latitude and the others were dispersed fromthe Ottawa Islands in the east to a few hundred kilome­tres northeast of Churchill to the west. The greateststraight-line distance north was 682km. Perpendiculardistances from the coast from November to Aprilranged from 24 to 568km. Mean monthly distancesranged from 125km in November to 278km in February.

The seasonal movement pattern ofadult and subadultmales, based on locations ofsolarear-tags and locationsof hunter kills, was similar to that of adult females.However, because ranges of solar ear-tags were morerestricted than those of radio-collars and locations ofhunter kills were restricted to areas where huntingoccurred, our winter locations of males should be re­garded as preliminary.

The 26th consecutive autumn aerial survey of polarbears in Ontario was conducted from 3 to 5 September1988. Two other surveys were done earlier in the sum­mer to monitor changes in numbers and age/sex com­position as the summer progressed. The first survey on26-30 July with a Bell 204 helicopter located 36 bears;the second on 15-17 August with a Twin Otter located152 bears. Ice breakup was much later in 1988 than1987, which probably accounts for the few bears re­corded in late July. The total of 143 bears sighted inOntario during the early September flight was consid­erably higher than the 26-year average of 106. Theproportion of family groups was similar to the long­term average but lower than the previous five-yearaverage. In late July, 36% of the bears observed werefamily groups, but by early September, only 14% werefamily groups. Other workers have commented on theinland movement of family groups during summeralong the southern and western coasts of Hudson Bay.The distribution of bears in 1988 was similar to thelong-term average and suggests that changes in distri­bution thought to be caused by tagging activities during1984--86 were temporary.

During a telemetry survey flight from 18 to 23 January,1988, four active collars were located on the sea-ice,one active unit was at an inland den, and five units werein mortality mode along the coast. No ear-tag transmit­ters were located. The ear-tag transmitters proved tolast less than seven months; tlle radio-collars lasted upto 29 months. Because of the few radios located, nofuture flights are planned.

In 1989, field activities were restricted to four aerialsurveys during the late summer--early autumn to assessnumbers and distribution along the Ontario coastline.The final report of the 1984--86 field study of polarbears in southern Hudson Bay is undergoing final in­ternal review.

The autumn aerial survey of polar bears in Ontariowas conducted from 3 to 8 September 1989. As in 1988,two other surveys were flown earlier in the summer tomonitor changes in numbers and age/sex compositionas the summer progressed. The first survey on 27-29July with a Bell 204 helicopter located 29 bears and thesecond on 14-16 August with a Twin Otter located 162bears. A fourth, later survey on 15-16 October with aTwin Otter located 120 bears. Survey methods weresimilar to previous years.

Ice breakup was later in 1989 than in 1988 and 1987,which probably accounts for the few bears recorded in

53

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

late July. The total of 167 bears sighted in Ontarioduring the early September flight was the highest re­corded since 1981, but the proportion of females withyoung was well below the long-term average. Theresults of the first three seasonal surveys were similarto those recorded in 1988, and support earlier observa­tions regarding the activities of family groups afterarrival on the coast. In late July, 21% of the bearsobserved were family groups, but by early September,only 11% were family groups. Five weeks later, al­though the total number of bears observed declined28%, there was no decline in the number of familygroups. Other workers have commented on the inlandmovement of family groups during summer along thesouthern and western coasts of Hudson Bay. The dis­tribution of bears in 1989 was similar to the long-termaverage for each of the three areas.

J.O. Leafloor, the biologist at Moosonee, prepared areporton the results offour aerial surveys during summer­autumn 1990 and on trends in numbers during the last28 years. There has been an upward trend in the numberof bears counted since 1963, and the count of 236 in1990 was the highest ever recorded. The abstract of thereport is summarized here.

Four aerial surveys were flown in 1990 to count polarbears along the Ontario portion of the James andHudson Bay coasts and on the near-shore islands. In theSeptember survey area, 236 individuals were counted.An additional 12 bears were sighted on Akimiski Islandand II were on the mainland coast south of Hook Point.The proportion of females and young was slightlylower than the long-term and five-year averages. Thefirst bears were observed on shore in the first week ofJuly. A large number came ashore between Winisk andFort Severn between 26 July and 30 July. Seasonaltrends in numbers followed a consistent pattern in thepast three years: bears were relatively scarce on thecoast in late July, increased during August, peaked inlate August or early September, then declined by earlyOctober. In each of the last three years, the proportionof bears found in western, central, and eastern portionsof the survey area depended on survey timing (0 test,p<0.05 in all cases). The September distribution ofbears among these three areas also differed betweenyears (0=51.7, pl. The Ontario polar bear populationhas increased since the 1960s (ANOVA, p<0.05), andtrend analysis suggests that the population is stillincreasing (r=0.70, p<O.OOI). Despite high variability

Polar Bears

in distribution, numbers, and social components ofpolar bear populations observed during these surveys,they are useful in monitoring gross changes in popula­tion size and distribution, and should be continued inthe future.

Research activities in 1991 were restricted to a singleaerial survey 22-23 August, to assess numbers anddistribution along the coast of Ontario from EkwanPoint to the Manitoba border, and the north shore of

Akimiski Island.

The survey was conducted with a deHavilland TwinOtter at a speed of about 140km/h and altitude of about150m AGL. Weather conditions ranged from darkovercast at the start to cloudy-bright at Cape HenriettaMaria to bright for the remainder of the survey. Overall,conditions were considered favourable for sightingbears.

The total of 149 bears sighted in the traditional surveyarea was considerably lowerthan that of236 sighted in1990, but was almost identical to the previous five-yearaverage of 148. One female and a yearling were sightedsouth of Hook Point, and six adult bears were seen onAkimiski Island. In the regular survey area, 14 familygroups with a total of nine COYsand 13 yearlings werecounted. The percentage of fcmales with young andtotal numbers of young exceeded both the long-termaverage and the average during the past five years.

The distribution ofbears was similano the long-termmean, with greatest concentrations in the CapeHenrietta Maria and Pen Islands regions. Compared to1990, numbers of bears in Area 3 were similar, but wereless in Areas I and 2. Reasons for differences could berelated to patterns of ice breakup in Hudson Bay ordifferences in bear movement patterns between years.

Daily and seasonal movement of bears can lead tomuch variation in annual counts of polar bears inOntario. During the 1984-86 marking studies, thesighting frequency of tagged bears was about 20%. Ifthat ratio holds true, then annual counts represent about

54

20% of the total population. The long-term trend ofincreasing polar bear numbers is probably real, but thevariability of counts among years makes it difficult todetect a real change in population size over the shortterm. Mark-recapture and radiotelemetry studies simi­lar to those done during the mid-1980s will probably berequired to determine more accurately the actual sizeof the southern Hudson Bay-James Bay populations.In the meantime, annual surveys should be continuedbecause they are the only means currently available toassess population size and distribution.

The 1992 survey was flown 29-30 August. Only IIIbears were sighted, including 10 family groups with 16COYs or yearlings total. The percentage of femaleswith young was 23.4.

Field research on polar bears in Ontario appearsunlikely in the immediate future. Even annual autumnaerial surveys that have continued for 30 consecutiveyears may be in jeopardy because of continued cut­backs and rising aircraft costs.

Quebec

The laboratory analyses of 30 bone samples fromQuebec hunter-kills will probably not permit polar bearpopulations to be distinguished on the basis of levels oftrace clements. Data collected in 1988 on an aerialsurvey of polar bears in which survey and double-sur­vey techniques were tested have been analysed andpublished (Crete et al. 1991). The harvest studies pre­viously done by Denis Vandal will continue.

There has been no research conducted ou Quebecpolar bear populations since the last meeting of thePBSG. A manuscript proposing a census technique forbears living around Hudson Bay was prepared.

Yukon

There was no research in 1988 through 1992.

References

Adams, A.K., Nelson, R, Stirling, I., and Derocher, A.1988. Heat loss patterns in the polar bear. Posterpresented to FASEB meetings, May 1988, LasVegas, Nevada.

Arnould, J.Y.P. 1990. The energetics of lactation inpolar bears (Ursus maritimus Phipps). M.Sc. Thesis,University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. 80 pp.

Braune, B.M., Norstrom, RJ., Wong, M.P., Collins,B.T. and Lee, J. 1991. Geographical distribution ofmetals in livers of polar bears from the NorthwestTerritories, Canada. Sci. Total Environ. 100: 283-299.

Calvert, W., and Stirling, I. 1990. Interactions betweenpolar bears and overwintering walruses in thecentral Canadian High Arctic. Internat. ConI. BearRes. and Manage. 8: 351-356.

Calvert, W., Stirling, I., Taylor, M., Lee, L.J.,Kolenosky, G.B., Kearney, S., Crete, M., Smith, B.,and LUllich, S. 1991. Polar Bear Management inCanada 1985-1l7. pp. 1-10. In S. C. Amstrup and0. Wiig (eds.) Polar Bears: Proceedings of theTenth Working Meeting of the mCN/SSC PolarBear SpecialistGroup. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.ii + l07pp.

Calvert, W., Stirling, I., Taylor, M., Lee, I..J.,Kolenosky, G.B., Kearney, S., Crete, M., Smith, B.,and Luttich, S. 1991. Research on Polar Bears inCanada 1985-1l7. Pp. 11-24. In S. C. Amstrup and0. Wiig (eds.) Polar Bears: Proceedingsofthe TenthWorking Meeting of the mCN/SSC Polar BearSpecialist Group. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.ii + 107pp.

Cattet, M. 1988. Abnormal sexual differentiation inblack bears (Ursus americanus) and brown bears(Ursus arctos). J. Mamma!. 69: 849-1l52.

Cattet, M. 1990. Predicting nutritional condition inblack bears and polar bears on the basis ofmorphological and physiological measurements.Can. J. Zoo!. 68: 32-39.

Davies, C,J. 1988. Ontario aerial polar bear surveys in1988. OMNR Typed Rept. Moosonee. 8 pp.

Cleator, H.J., and Stirling, I. 1989. Underwatervocalizations of the bearded seal (Erignarhusbarba/us). Can. J. Zoo!. 67: 1900-1910.

Cleator, H,J., and Stirling, I. 1990. Winter distributionofbearded seals (Erignarhus barba/us) in the PennyStrait area, Northwest Territories, as determined byunderwater vocalizations. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci.47: 1071-1076.

55

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

Crete,M.,Vanda1, D.,Rivest, 1.., andPotvin,F. 1991.Doublecounts in aerial surveys to estimate polar bearnumbers during the ice-free period. Arctic 44: 275-278.

Davies, C,J. 1989. Ontario aerial polar bear surveys in1989. OMNR Typed Rept. Moosonee. 12 pp.

Derocher, A.E. 1990. Supernumerary mammae andnipples in the polar bear (Ursus mari/imus).1. Mamma!. 41: 236-237.

Derocher, A.E. 1991. Population dynamics andecology of polar bears in western Hudson Bay.Ph.D. Thesis. University ofAlberta, Edmonton. 189pp.

Derocher, A.E., Nelson, RA., Stirling, I., and Ramsay,M.A. 1990. Effects offasting and feeding on serumurea and serum creatinine levels in polar bears.Marine Mammal Science. 6: 196-203.

Derocher, A.E., and Stirling, I. 1990. Distribution ofpolar bears (Ursus marilimus) during the ice-freeperiod in western Hudson Bay. Can. J. Zoo!. 68:1395-1403.

Derocher, A.E., and Stirling, I. 1990. Aggregatingbehaviour of adult male polar bears (Ursusmari/imus). Can. J. Zoo!. 68: 1390-1394.

Derocher, A.E. and Stirling, I. 1991. Oil contaminationof polar bears. Polar Record 27: 56-57.

Derocher, A.E. and Stirling, I. 1992. The populationdynamics ofpolar bears in western Hudson Bay. pp.1150-1159, In: D. McCullough and R Barrett (eds.)Wildlife 2001: Populations. Elsevier SciencePublishers, London. 1163 pp.

Derocher, A.E., Stirling, I. and Andriashek, D. 1992.Pregnancy rates and serum progesterone levels ofpolar bears in western Hudson Bay. Can. J. Zoo!.70: 561-566

Harwood, L.A. 1989. Distribution ofringed seals in thesoutheast Beaufort Sea during late summer. M.Sc.Thesis, University of Alberta. Edmonton. 131 pp.

Harwood, L. and Stirling, I. 1992. Distribution ofringed seals in the southeastern Beaufort Sea duringlate summer. Can. J. Zoo!. 70: 891-900.

Hiruki,1.. and Stirling, I. 1989. Population dynamics ofArctic fox, Alopex lagopus, on Banks Island,Northwest Territories. Can. Field-Nat. 104: 380-387(pub!. in 1990).

Polar Bears

Hummel, M. and Pettigrew, S. 1991. Wild Hunters,predators in peri!. Key Porter Books Ltd. 244 pp.

Kingsley, M.C.S., and Stirling, I. 1991. Haul-outbehavior of ringed seals in relation to defenseagainst predation by polar bears. Can. J. Zoo!. 69:1857-1861.

Kolenosky, G.B., Abraham, K. and Greenwood, C.J.1988. Polar bears of southern Hudson Bay. FinalRep!. OMNR Typed Rept. 165 pp.

Kolenosky, G.B., Lunn, N.J., Greenwood, c.J., andAbraham, K.F. 1989.Estimating the weight ofpolarbears from body measurements. J. Wild!. Manage.53: 188-190.

Leafloor, J.O. 1990. A summary of polar bear surveysin Ontario, 1963-1990. Ont. Min. Nat. Res. Res.Rept, Moosonee, Ontario. 13pp.

Leafloor, J.O. 1991. Late summer polar bear surveyalong Ontario's northern coast, 1991: Ont. Min.Nat. Res. Typed Report, Moosonee. 7 pp.

Leighton, F.A., Cattet, M., Norstrom, R. and Trudeau,S. 1988. A cellular ba.is for high levels of vitaminA in livers of polar bears (Ursus maritimus): the Itoeel!. Can. J. Zoo!. 66: 480-482.

Lowry, L.F., Testa, J,W., and Calvert, W. 1988. Noteson winter feeding of crabeater and leopard sealsnear the Antarctic Peninsula. Polar BioI. 8:475-478.

McKnight, D.R 1988. Polar bear productivity inOntario. OMNR Typed Rept. Moosonee. 29 pp.

Messier, F., Taylor, M.K. and Ramsay, M.A. 1992.Seasonal activity patterns of female polar bears(Ursus marltimus) in the Canadian Arctic asrevealed by satellite telemetry. J. ZooI., Lond. (A)218: 219-229.

Norstrom, R.I., Simon, M. and Muir D.C.G. 1990.Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins anddibenwfurans in marine mammals in the Canadiannorth. Environ. Pollut. 66: 1-19.

Palmer, S.S., Nelson, RA., Ramsay, M.A. and Stirling,I. 1988. Annual changes in serum sex steroids inmale and female black (Ursus americanus) andpolar (Ursus marltimu,) bears. BioI. Reprod. 34:1044-1050.

Polar Research Board. 1988. Priorities in Arctic MarineScience. National Academy Press, Washington,

56

D.C. 73 pp. (Written by six-member subcommitteeof the Polar Research Board, including Ian Stirling.)

Pond, C.M., Mattacks, C.A., Colby, R.H. and Ramsay,M.A. 1992. The cellular structure, chemicalcomposition, and metabolism of adipose tissue inwild polar bears (Ursus marltimus). Canadian J.Zoology 70: 326--341.

Pond, C.M., and Ramsay, M.A. 1992. Allometry of thedistribution of adipose tissue in polar bears andother Carnivora. Canadian J. Zoology 70: 342-347.

Ramsay, M.A., and Hobson K.A. 1991. Polar bearsmake little use of terrestrial food webs: evidencefrom stable-carbon isotope analysis. Oecologia 86:598-600.

Ramsay, M.A., Nelson, RA. and Stirling, I. 1991.Seasonal changes in the ratio of serum urea tocreatinine in feeding and fasting polar bears.Canadian J. Zoology 69: 298-302.

Ramsay, M.A., and Stirling, I. 1990. Fidelity of femalepolar bears to winter den sites. J. Mammal. 71:233-236.

Ramsay, M., and Stirling, I. 1988. The reproductivebiology offemale polar bears. J. Zoo!. (Lond.), 214:601-634.

Regis, M.A. 1988. Polar bear productivity survey inOntario, February and March 1986. OMNR TypedRep!. Moosonee. 13 pp.

Renzoni, A. and Norstrom, R.I. 1990. Polar Bears andMercury. Polar Record 26: 326--328.

Smith, B.L. 1990. Factors infiuencing the sex of grizzlybears taken by hunters in the Yukon. Yukon Fishand Wildl. Branch Tech. Rep. 24 pp.

Smith, B.L. and Osmond-Jones, E.J. 1990. Grizzly bearabundance in Yukon ecoregions. Yukon Fish andWild!. Branch Tech. Rep. 35 pp

Stenhouse, G.B., Lee, 1..1., and Poole, K.G. 1988. Somecharacteristics of polar bears killed during conflictswith humans in the Northwest Territories, 1976--86.Arctic 41: 275-278.

Stirling, I. 1988. Polar Bears. University of MichiganPress, Ann Arbor, Mich. 232 pp.

Stirling, I. 1988. Attraction of polar bears Ursu,marltimus to offshore drilling sites in the easternBeaufort Sea. Polar Record 24: 1-8.

Stirling, I. 1989. Sleeping Giants. Natural History,1989(1): 34-39.

Stirling, I. 1990. Polar bears and oil: EcologicPerspectives. pp. 223-234 in J.R. Geraci and D.1.SI. Aubin (eds). Sea Mammals and Oil:Confronting the Risks. Academic Press, New York.

Stirling, I. 1990. The future of wildlife management inthe Northwest Territories. Arctic 43(3), iii-iv.

Stirling, I. 1991. Management of shared populations ofpolar bears. Trans. 56th North American WildlifeConference, 56: 488-493.

Stirling, I. 1991. Bears. Key Porter Books Ltd.,Toronto, Ontario. 64 pp.

Stirling, I. and Andriashek, D. 1992. Terrestrialdenning of polar bears in the eastern Beaufort Seaarea. Arctic, 45: 363-366.

Stirling, I., Andriashek, D. and Calvert, W. 1993.Habitat preferences of polar bears in the westernCanadian Arctic in late winter and spring. PolarRecord 29: 13-24.

57

Research on Polar Bears in Canada 1988-92

Stirling, I., Andriashek, D., Spencer, C. and Derocher,D. 1988. Assessment of the polar bear populationin the eastern Beaufort Sea. Final Report to theNorthern Oil and Gas Action Program by CanadianWildlife Service, Edmonton, Alta. 81 pp.

Stirling, I., and Derocher, A.E. 1991. Factors affectingthe evolution and behavioral ecology of the modembears. Internat. Conf. Bear Res. and Manage. 8:189-205.

Stirling, I., Spencer, c., and Andriashek, D. 1989.Immobilization of polar bears (Ursus maritimus)with Telazol in the Canadian Arctic. J. Wildl. Dis.24: 159-168.

Taylor, M.K., Lee, 1..1., and Gray, L. 1988. Foxe BasinPolar Bear Research Program - 1987 Field Report.NWT Ms Rept.

V>00

": ,-- \

"

I

/

\,,:/',

\

\

\

\\

Victoria \\Island

q

~...~

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FIG 1. The movements of satellite-collared female bears within and outside Viscount Melville Sound

FIG 2, The movements of satellite-collared female bears within and outside the north-east Baffin area, September 1991 toSeptember 1992. Although this study is ongoing, and these results are preliminary, it appears that the north Baffinpopulations are shared between Greenland and Canada

"

o

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~

400 km

Greenland

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Polar Bear Management in Canada 1988-92

W. Calvert, Canadian Wildlife Service, 5320 - 122 St.. Edmonton, Alberta T6H 3S5, CanadaM. Taylor, NWT Department of Renewable Resources, Yellowknife, NWT XlA 21.9, Canada

I. Stirling, Canadian Wildlife Service, 5320 - 122 St., Edmonton, Alberta T6H 3S5, Canada

G. B. Kolenosky, Ministry of Natural Resources, PO Box 5000, Maple, Ontarrio L6A lS9, Canada

S. Kearney, Man. Dep. Natural Resources, Box 28, 59 Elisabeth Dr Thompson, Man. R8N lX4, Canada

M. Crete, Direction de la fauna terrestre, 150 St-Cyrille Est, 5e etage, Quebec, Que. G lR 4Yl, Canada

S. Luttich, Labrador Wildlife Division, PO Box 488, Stn. C, Goose Bay, Labrador AOP 1CO, Canada

Since the Tenth Working Meeting of the lUCN/SSCPolar Bear Specialist Group in October 1988, tllCrehave been some changes in the management of polarbears in Canada. The regulations covering polar bearmanagement in Canada as of 31 December 1992 aresummarized in Table I. Changes made prior to 1988are outlined in the management reports included in theproceedings of previous meetings of the lUCN PolarBear Specialist Group.

The Federal-Provincial Technical and Administra­tive Committees for Polar Bear Research and Manage­ment (pBTC and PBAC, respectively) representing theFederal Government, two territories (Northwest Terri­tories and the Yukon Territory), and four provinces(Manitoba, Newfoundland, Ontario and Quebec), con­tinued to meet annually to discuss research results andto make management recommendations. Research aris­ing from these meetings is outlined by Calvert el al.(1995).

Attendance and participation in thePBTC

Several times, various non-government organizationshave requested permission to participate in meetings ofthe PBTe. Although it has never been fully clarifiedwho may attend PBTC meetings. the PBAC has felt thatnon-governmental groups should have their input at themanagement level of the PBAC, since the PBTC hasmostly a technical role. Hence, the IGC and LlA haveboth attended PBAC meetings in recent years. How­ever, an cxccption was made for participation of some

61

representatives of Anguvigak at the Quebec meetingsof the PBTC and for a representative of the YukonWMAC at the 1990 PBTC mecting in Whitehorse.

Several members of the PBTC felt there is a role forrepresentatives of Inuit groups such as the Inuvialuit,Nunavut, Makivik, or the Inupiat from Alaska, and thatthese groups should be sent a copy of the minutes, evenif they do not send an observer to the meetings. ThePBTC recommended to thc PBAC that such groups beinvited to send an observer if they are interested, butthey wanted the PBAC to clarify who may attend, andwhat role an invited group should play. Also, the travelexpenses for potential participants should be paid bytheir own orgauizations.

When Canadian Parks Service began to have con­cerns about polar bear management and potentialbear/people encouuters in their northern parks, theyapproached tlle PBTC and have sent a representative tothe meetings twice since 1990.

PBTC priorities

At the 1990 PBTC meeting, future PBTC prioritieswere discussed and the role of the PBTC reviewed.Most members felt annual meetings were valuable for thecontinuing cooperation between juriSdictions and for rec­ommending management actions to the PBAC. Therewas a consensus that the two most important prioritieswere (a) problem areas (geographical) where the polarbear populations were not well defined or studied, and(b) research problems, such as the present studies onmetabolism and fat, that would contribute significantly

Polar Bears

to otller aspects of polar bear biology and managementand be applicable to all wnes. Thc ability to do popu­lation inventory research, especially, is being lost withshrinking budgets.

Approaches to conservation andeducation

The PBTC identified Conservation Education as a highpriority for polar bear management. The greatest needsfor educational materials were those to:

I) promote male-selective harvests;

2) promote responsible polar bear viewing;

3) promote greater understanding of polar bear sen­sitivity to oil spills, over-hunting, and seal de­clines;

4) promote inclusion of problem bears within quo­tas;

5) promote greater understanding of the economicimportance of polar bears to communities; and

6) provide better information on the need for, andvalue of, specific research.

WWF carnivore conservation strategy

The World Wildlife Fund (Canada) began a CarnivoreConservation Strategy in 1990. To initiate the project,Sherry Pettigrew and Monte Hummel wrote a popularreview of large carnivores in Canada that includedinterviews with researchers on the species. Stirlingdistributed the questionnaire for polar bears and invitedsuggestions for answers. It was agreed that global pol­lution, global warming, habitat destruction, environ­mental damage, and unregulated hunting should belisted as the greatest threats to the species (question 8);more money for essential studies, native participationin conservation strategies, more non-consumptive use,and an emphasis on males during the hunt would bestrategies to ensure the future of the species (question9); that the approach that should be avoided in the book(question 10) is thinking protection solves all problems;and that the behaviour of all bears is the same andpredictable. The book, Wild Hunters, is now availablefor $19.95. It is a good summary of the biology, naturalhistory, and conservation problems of large carnivoresin Canada.

62

Polar bear kills by jurisdiction

The quota of polar bears taken by each jurisdiction isbased on recommendations by the Federal-ProvincialCommittees. The quotas and numbers of polar bearskilled in 1987-{l8, 1988-{l9, 1989-90, and 1990-91 aresummarized, and recommended quotas for 1991-92 aregiven in Table 2.

From 1990 on, the quotas in the NWT have beenorganized by community, so there are minor changesin the wne totals in the table. This is meant to reflectmore closely the population being hunted; it does notaffect total quotas or kills.

Management changes or reports byjurisdiction

Manitoba

The annual Polar Bear Control Program for the Chur­chill townsite and surrounding area continues eachautumn. The primary objective of this program is toensure the safety of people and the protection of prop­crty from damage by polar bears; the secondary objec­tive is to ensure bears are not unnecessarily harassed orkilled. Program highlights are summari7~ in Table 3.

Following the 1990 Alert Program, Department staffreviewed the Policy and Procedure Directives and theOperational Guidelines for the Polar Bear Alert Pro­gram to ensure consistency with actual program deliv­ery and to incorporate some changes to these Directivesand Guidclines that had already been put into practice.Thc Program poliey was modified to emphasize theDepartment's position that polar bears will be protectedfrom unwarranted killing and harassment. It was alsochanged to reflect the Department's desire for it to bemore prevention than control-oriented. The Programprocedures were altered to provide staffwith additionaldiscretion to decide the fate of bears with a history ofthree or more years in the immediate Churchill area.These and several other minor changes were approvedat U,e Executive level and were in effect for the 1991Program.

Two polar bears were killed outside the Churchilltownsite area in the autumn of 1990 by Treaty Indiansexercising rights granted to them under the NaturalResources Transfer Agreement (1930) and affirmedunder the Constitntion Act (1982). In both cases the

animals were killed for personal use by the individuals.Though Treaty Indians have killed polar bears on sev­eral occasions before, and have been allowed to retainthe hides for their personal use, in tllOse cases theanimals were shot "in defense of life or property". Thiswas not the case in 1990.

For Manitoba to address the issue of a quota kill, it isimportant that the quota for the Zone Al subpopulationbe clearly stated. Currently on paperthe Zone Al quotakill is listed as 35 for Manitoba and 62 forthe NorthwestTerritories (which includes 15 tags borrowed fromManitoba). However, the PBTC at a 1988 modellingworkshop indicated a sustainable harvest of a maxi­mum of 65 animals based on a population estimate of1200 animals and a sex-ratio of28 females:72 males inthe harvest. From 1980-S1 to 1984-85, the kill in theNWT has averaged 55 bears. Problem kills, bears trans­ferred to zoos, and handling deaths throughout the zoneare additive.

In 1991, Manitoba made a significant change to itsmanagement of polar bears by changing their statusunder the Wildlife Act to Division 6 (Protected Spe­cies) from Division I (Big Game Species). This changein status actually reflects more accurately how Mani­toba has treated and recognized polar bears since the1970s. It also enhances Manitoba's ability to managethis internationally important species, rather than solelyguard against its potential over-harvest. This is becausethose parts of the Wildlife Act dealing with protectedspecies are considered to be general laws ofapplication,and hence applicable to all persons. The result is thatall hunting of polar bears is prohibited except as spe­cifically otherwise permitted by the Minister of NaturalResources. This allows Manitoba to conform to theconditions of the International Agreemcnt on the Con­servation of Polar Bears as it relates to hunting. It alsomakes it more consistent with the CITES andCOSEWIC listings of the species and the legislativeprotection afforded by other Canadian jurisdictions.

This should not be construed as meaning Manitobahas placed a total ban on the hunting of polar bears inperpetuity. Rather, the Minister can authorize any per­son(s) to kill 'x' number of polar bears in any year forany purpose not contrary to public interest.

For 1991-92, as an interim policy, Manitoba took theposition that no person would be granted a permit tohunt polar bears until biological staff have establishedwhether there is a harvestable surplus over and abovethe conservation needs of the population and in consid­eration of all other political and scientific concerns

63

Polar Bear Management in Canada 1988-92

including those of the international scientific commu­nity. Further, and in response to a request from theChurchill Local Fur Council to administer and allocate15 hunting tags for polar bears, the Department hasstated that no tags or permits will be issued in Manitobafor the recreational or commercial taking (killing) ofpolar bears. This includes trapping, hunting and outfitting.

As a result of this legislative change and of theinferences that can be made respecting population num­ber and dynamics based on Canadian Wildlife Serviceresearch, Manitoba is recommending the existing quotaof 97 be re-evaluated and adjusted if necessary, and acooperative management strategy be developed for theZone Al population of polar bears.

Non-consumptive use of polar bears

A permit system to regulate tour operators at CapeChurchill was implemented in September 1988, as aresult of concerns of residents, tourists, the tour opera­tors, and polar bear managers and researchers. In thepast decade, polar bear viewing has become a majortourism industry at Churchill, generating considerabledollars for the local and provincial economies. It wasrefined over the next several years by Wildlife Branchstaff following consultation with tour operators, localresidents, and polar bear researchers.

The permit system applies to all commercial tourismoperations using the Cape Churchill Wildlife Manage­ment Area and

I) requires tour operators to keep their vehicles ondesignated routes;

2) restricts access to prime polar bear staging areas;

3) prohibits tour operators from placing food forfeeding or holding polar bears;

4) allows for limited, temporary overnight facilitiesat designated locations for extended tours.

Item 3, to do with baiting, caused concern amongsome of the tour companies. They lobbied senior staff,including the ministers of the Tourism and the NaturalResources departments to allow the use of foods orattractants to attract and hold free-ranging bears in thearea 20km east of Churchill that is currently used bytour operators. After some deliberation, the Departmentof Natural Resources decided it would not allow baiting.

Polar Bears

The majority of the members of the PBTC were alsoagainst baiting. A consensuS was that a survey of theattitudes of tourists, townspeople, and others should beconducted; that an education program about polar bearmanagement at Churchill and explaining why baitingis not tolerated would take some ofthe pressure off touroperators to provide close-up photo opportunities allthe time; and that feeding should be done only inconjunction with research designed to evaluate its effects.

Some baiting and feeding was still occurring in 1989.Too many vehicles at the same site at one time alsocaused problems, including a reduction in the qualityof the experience. By 1990, there were no overt infrac­tions to the regulation prohibiting baiting. In one instance,several cases oflard were intercepted by a tour operatorafter the Department informed him that a tour groupChartering his facilities intended to take this unusuallylarge quantity of lard with them.

Two complaints raised in 1990, one from a touristabout the harassment of polar bears by two operators,the second from the local Churchill Land and ResourceUse Steering Committee, and directed at several aspectsof the tour operations, prompted a meeting of thisCommittee, the tour operators, and Department staff todiscuss their concerns in more detail.

There arc still the annual concerns expressed by localresidents, tourists, and commercial operators alikeabout the congestion that occurs at the peak of theviewing season and its impact on the area's aestheticsand environment and the quality of the tours. However,there is no consensus for a solution to these concerns.Interestingly, the Department has had requests fromtwo existing operators for an additional vehicle eachand from three interested parties for new permits sincethe 199I tour season ended. The Department has takenthe position that no additional permits will be issued tonew operators and no additional vehicles permitted toexisting operators.

The Department is addressing the issue of the safetyof existing vehicles from two perspectives: straight­forward commonsense, and the liability of the govern­ment should an accident occur involving a bear. It islikely that none of the existing vehicles are 'bear-proof'and it has been observed that some methods employedby operators are dangerous. The issue that must beaddressed is at what point does the Department'sresponsibility end and the operator's begin.

64

Proposed national park in the Churchill-Yorkfactory area

The status of the land area currently designated theCape Churchill Wildlife Management Area maychange in the future. A proposal has been made for anational park in the Churchill area. The study areaincludes the Hudson Bay lowlands area from Seal Riverto Cape Tatnum. The proposal identifies an area withinthe existing CapeChurchill Wildlife ManagementAreafor a Natural Park designation. It includes most of theprimary autumn staging areas and winter denning areacurrently used by the Zone AI polar bear population.

An emphasis was placed on local community con­sultation and involvement, in particular with Churchillresidents. Other communities, including Tadoule Lake,Yark Landing, Shamattawa, Bird, and Gillam weregiven an opportunity for input, and open houses wereheld in Thompson and Winnipeg. The proposal attemptsto accommodate the major concerns and desires ofChurchill residents, Manitoba Natural Resources, andCanadian Parks Service, among others. Some additionaldiscussions are continuing with representatives of nativecommunities because some of their concerns are notdealt with adequately in the proposal.

A working group and seven technical committeesalso formed to try to cover concerns such as marine andland resources, or the effects on the community. Boththe Steering Committee and the Working Group wereresttuctured in 1991 to include representatives forlocalNative communities that could be affected by the estab­lishment of a national park. This was in addition tofederal, provincial and Churchill representatives. Arepresentative of Parks Canada pointed out that mostnorthern parks in Canada are classified as 'wilderness',with minimum development.

The parties are now trying to finalize a Memorandumof Understanding that will:

I) summarize and reflect the broad cross-section ofgovernment, community, organizational and pri­vate interests related to the establishment, devel­opment and management of a national park in theChurchill-York factory area;

2) clearly outline unresolved issues requiring furtherinvestigation and/or negotiation;

3) establish the process for negotiating a Federal­ProvincialParkAgreementbetween thegovernments

of Canada and Manitoba but with special refer­ence to the role to be played by local repre­sentatives.

As ofmid-I992, this Memorandum ofUnderstandingwas in the preliminary draft stage only.

The PBTC expressed concern about what effect apark might have on ongoing research. Some studies,including the polar bear studies, have been underwayfor over 20 years. In the case of polar bears, there is aunique database that will likely never be duplicated inother areas. Because the entire population is ashore andaccessible in a relatively small area, several researchopportunities exist there that do not occur elsewhere. Insome southern parks, guidelines for research have beenquite restrictive in some cases. Perhaps on polar bearsat Churchill contributes to conservation of the specieson a world-wide basis and helps Canada to live up toits commitmeuts under the International Polar BearAgreement. One of the main reasons for the proposedpark is the polar bear denning area and the accessibilityof the whole population. Perhaps research could be oneof the areas in which this park could contribute overall.

Polar Bear Management in Canada 1988-92

Under land claim settlements in the NWT andQuebec, access to polar bear hunting is clearly limitedto native people. Theapproach to eligibility in Labradoris different than in other jurisdictions, and may setimportant precedents. The issue may be best resolvedduring the settlement of land claims in Labrador.

Eleven bears were killed in late 1991. Of these, twowere illegal kills and three were problem kills. (Thesewere included in the 1991-92 kills). Another threebears were moved by Newfoundland Wildlife officers.Both an ice build-up quite far south, and a large harpseal herd just offshore may have contributed to theunusually large number of kills and problem bears.

Currently, the fines for illegal kills of moose orcaribou are higher than for illegal kills of polar bears;the department is looking into changing those regula­tions.

Northwest Territories

Northwest Territories polar bear managementplan

A draft management plan has been developed for theNorthwest Territories. This plan has been reviewed bythe Canadian Federal/Provincial Polar Bear TechnicalCommittee (pBTC), and Territorial Biological Staff. Itis currently under final Review by the Department ofRenewable Resources Directorate. A key facet of theManagement Plan is the development of "Local Manage­ment Agreements" between the communities that sharea population of polar bears. Under the Inuvialuit andNunavut Land Claim Agreements, polar bear manage­ment and research is an expressly cooperative venturebetween the local users, their representatives, and govern­ment. A five-part process to address managementchanges has developed that begins with local meetingsand concludes with Local Management Agreementsthat are wimessed by the MinisterofRenewableResources.These Agreements are then used to develop regulationchanges that enable the agreements.

Newfoundland

Although Labrador has had a quota of four since 1978­79, there is no regular hunting season. Hunting is facili­tated by the allocation of special permits by theMinister. In Spring 1991, the government authorized aseason with a quota offour bears. Eligibility for huntingwas defined as "... a person who has resided in theTorngat Mountains Electoral District for at least sixmonths prior to the hunting season.", with no distinctionbetween natives and non-natives. The LIA objected to theeligibility requirement.

Although the International Polar Bear Agreementstates that "local people" and "nationals" may take polarbears, Canada submitted a Declaration at the time ofratification that states, in part, that the hunt is an impor­tant traditional right and cultural element of the Inuitand Indian Peoples, but that local people in a settlementmay authorize the selling of a polar bear permit fromthe subpopulation quota to a non-Inuit or non-Indianhunter, but with the additional restriction of a nativeguide and a dog tearn within Canadian jurisdiction. Theintention in Canada was to limit the hunt to Inuit andIndians. At the time, there was no hunt in Labrador, andthe Newfoundland government supported the Canadianposition.

65

1)

2)

3)

Community visits where scientific informationand traditional knowledge is shared.

Development of Local Management Agreementsbetween the communities that share polar bears(two representatives per community).

Review of proposed agreement by the community.

Po/arRears

4) Agreement amended as necessary, signed by com­munities, and witnessed by Minister of RenewableResources.

5) Regulation modified to enable agreement.

Other jurisdictions that share a population are encour­aged to participate in this process. However, theserelationships must be worked out individually.

Status of local management agreements forpolar bears

Zone Status of Agreement

Al First meeting of parties held (Manitoba notpresent), interim Agreement expected inearly March 1993

A2 Initial community consultation in NWTsettlements completed

Conservation education

A poster to encourage hunters to be more selective formales was produced and distributed. The poster istitled: "Save the Females". A booklet on how to tellmales from females was prepared based on traditionalknowledge of hunters in the Baffin region.

The development of the Local Management Agree­ments has required an extensive series of meetings withlocal hunters. During these meetings the scientific infor­mation for the local population, the harvest information,and the knowledge of the local hunters is exchanged.Our approach to management is explained and thereasons for the quotas and regulations are explained.Prior to these meetings many of the hunters regardedthe regulations as arbitrary interference in their hunting.The meetings leading to the agreement have increasedconcern for conservation and increased local confi­dence in our research and management programs.

Traditional knowledge

c

DI

D2

EI

First meeting of parties held (Quebec notpresent), final in early March 1993

Agreement signed 1992 for 3 year period*

Initial community consultation in NWTsettle- ments completed

Done,* reviewed September 1992

Local involvement in both research and managementhas increased considerably. The local and traditionalknowledge ofnorthern residents is being systematicallycollected by interviews and by conducting field researchwitll traditional methods as much as possible. An ex­ample is polar bear capture using dogs and snowmachi­nes, rather than helicopters. The Department hasformed a standing committee on Traditional Knowledgeto promote development of cross-cultural initiatives.

F Done, March 1992

H2 Done, reviewed September 1992

E3 Initial community consultation completed

HI Done, reviewed September 1992

Population status

The status of polar bears in the 12 populations that arewholly within or shared with the Northwest Territoriesis determined by the number of individuals in thepopulation, the rates of birth and death of the popula­tion, and the rate at which animals are harvested. Thesefactors have been considered in a number of workshopsby the PBTC. The status of polar bear populationswithin and shared with the Northwest Territories (Table4) has varied considerably. Inventories of polar bearpopulations are made periodically, and quota alloca­tions are modified based on those results. The inventoryis repeated approximately every 20 years, and manage­ment changes are made as required. This process isdescribed in the Northwest Territories Draft Polar BearManagement Plan. The Draft Plan also contains sum­maries of other information relevant to the status of therespective populations.

Initial community consultation completedE2

G Initial community consultation completed

*These agreements were for a harvest that exceeds thesustainable yield; they will be revisited in subsequentmeetings.

*See Appendix 1 for an example of a Local ManagementAgreement (Area F)

66

At the 1992 meeting of the PBTC, there was consid­erablediscussion ofthe population status table includedin the NWT submission. The population estimates forsome zones have been reviewed and revised conserva­tively according to the available data, but in dIe absenceof additional new documentation. Although the PBTChave noted the need to conduct studies on these popu­lations, the funding has not been available. One of theproblematic populations is in western Hudson Bay(Zone AI). Although Zone Al exteuds from aboutRankin Inlet to the Manitoba-Ontario border, the cur­rent estimate applies only to the study area between theChurchill and Nelson rivers. It is unclear at this pointhow many additional bears may be present north of theChurchill River and, probably more importantly, southof the Nelson River in the Cape Tatnum coastal andinland areas. To date, there have not been sufficientfunds to facilitate extending the capture program to thesouthern area.

Ontario, Yukon

There have been no management changes in thesejurisdictions

Quebec

In accordance with the law on hunting and fishing rightsin the Baie James and Nouveau-Quebec Territories, thepolar bear harvest is restricted to native people. Thislaw aims at protecting traditional rights of northernQuebec natives as recognized by the government ofQuebec. The law makes provision for guaranteed har­vest levels; harvests can be taken as long as the princi­ple of conservation is respected. Guaranteed harvestlevels were established based on observed polar bearharvest, between 1976 and 1980; Inuit have agreedalready on the levels while negotiations are much advancedwith the Crees.

Following discussions on the 'Polar Bear TacticalPlan' with native organizations, it was agreed that theMinisteredu Loisir, de la Chasseetde la P&he (MLCP)will not impose hunting regulations in addition to thosealready accepted with Inuit after an amicable settle­ment, as long as bear harvests remain below guaranteedlevels. These tentative levels, subject to minor changes,are 22, 31, and 9 annual kills for hunting zones A2, D2,and C respectively; they constitute harvest targets.These harvest levels apparently agree with the principleof conservation as the polar bear populations involveddo not exhibit any sign of decrease. However, the

67

Polar Bear Management in Canada 1988-92

MLCP will try to convince Inuit to stop hunting bearsin summer refuges during the ice-free period, in accord­ance with the Tactical Plan.

Canadian Parks Service interests

The Canadian Parks Service of Environment Canadahas become progressively more involved with arcticareas that include polar bear habitat. They will eventu­ally have to deal with human-bear problems and makemanagement decisions affecting polar bears in existingand proposed parks. In 1989, an invitation to send anobserver to the PBTC was sent to the Canadian ParksService. Charles Pacas, the wildlife management offi­cer for northern parks, attended for the first time in1990.

Under the revised Parks Act of August 1988, polarbears are classified as threatened. Any person whohunts, disturbs, confines, or is in possession of wildlife,or who is in possession either in or outside a park ofsuch wildlife killed or captured in a park, is guilty ofanoffence and is liable,

a. on summary conviction, to a fine not exceeding$150,000; or

b. on conviction or indictment, to a fine not exceed­ing $150,000 or to imprisonment for a tenn notexceeding six months or both.

Canadian Parks Service (CPS) realize they are in­volved more in people management than wildlife man­agement. Parks have a dual mandate to protect theresource but also to encourage use of the parks.

The recent Justice Tobler decision involving a bearattack in Banff National Park contained infonnationthat is pertinent to CPS's management of its wildliferesource and users of the resource: a) the CPS as theoperator, manager, and controller, has the responsibil­ity to ensure the safety of the visitor; b) when policy hasbeen approved, it must be implemented and that imple­mentation must be complete (Le., when CPS have abear management policy or garbage policy in place, itmust be enforced); c) misrepresentations of safety area common cause ofpersonal injury and a familiar formof negligence that the law has long considered action­able (from the decision: "...often the misrepresentationconsists, not in something he said, but in failing tosay anything at all (that is to warn)..."); and, d) theinfonnation CPS presents to the public must be current,accurate, and easily available.

Polar Bears

Each park has a management plan that must be tabledin Parliament within five years of the park being cre­ated. The Minister reviews the management plan everyfive years and tables any amendments in the House ofCommons. Maintenance of ecological integritythrough the protection of natural resources is given thefirst priority when considering park wning and visitoruse in a management plan. Included in the plan forAuyuilluq is the goal of increasing visitor use, whichcould lead to an increase in bear-human conflicts. TheTFN agreement also encourages an increase in visitorsto the park, training of natives, and an increase in theeconomic benefits of tourism to residents of BroughtonIsland.

Parks have prepared an information booklet on polarbears in national parks. Currently, only natives, Parksemployees, and researchers are allowed to carry fire­arms within northern parks. A superintendent canauthorize persons to carry firearms for park manage­ment purposes. Research is usually included under thiscategory, but it might also include activities such asguiding, running concessions, etc. Because several pro­posed parks-Wager Bay, Bylot Island, Banks Island,a possible arctic marine park, and an enlarged NorthYukon Park, for example-may also have polar bearconcerns, therc is a need to review this policy and assesspossible alternatives to firearms for safety and deter­rence of bears (while at the same time ensuring protec­tion of bears and, in particular, any critical habitatarea).

The PBTC discussed the issue of visitor safety andprotection of bears at some length at their 1990 meeting.A multi-level zoning based on assessment of danger ofpolar bear-human encounters was proposed. The fol­lowing draft contains modifications suggested by Pacasand Bosse:

People and polar bears in Canada's arcticnational parks

The Canadian Parks Service is creating new nationalparks in the Arctic, several of which are inhabited bypolar bears during part or all of the year. As the parksdevelop, they will attract visitors, which will inevitablybring people into contact with polar bears. In the south­ern parks, visitors are not allowed to carry firearms forprotection from black or grizzly bears. However, polarbears are much more predacious than other species ofbears and are much more likely to be dangerous topeople. In the view of the Polar Bear Technical Com­mittee, the safety of visitors in at least some areas of thearctic parks, at particular times of the year, could not

68

be ensured without firearms. At the same time, thePBTC recognizes that firearms in the hands of aninexperienced or frightened person may be more dan­gerous than not having them at all. We also recognizethat CPS does not wish to establish a precedent forvisitors carrying firearms in national parks. Conse­quently. as a starting point for discussion, we suggestestablishing risk wne areas that would reflect potentialdanger from polar bears, and structure the responseaccordingly.

The following is a preliminary draft for discussion.

1. Area closuresThis approach is already used in the southern parkswhen conditions are judged to be unsafe for visitors.Known areas of high concentrations of polar bears(such as the Hudson Bay coast south ofChurchill in thesummer and autumn). should simply be closed to hik­ing, camping, and kayaking until visitor managementtechniques such as controlled group tours or viewingfacilities can be implemented without adverse impactson critical bear habitat areas.

2. Compulsory guideIn some areas where bears are common, an experiencedperson can still travel safely (such as the east coast ofBaffin Island). It could be made mandatory to hire alocal guide who would be fully trained, allowed to carrya firearm, and be responsible for the safety of visitors.

3. Firearm-propelled deterrenl~permittedFor many people, the presence of a guide and possiblemotorized transport will eliminate enough of tile es­sence of the wilderness experience that they will notvisit the Park. For remote areas where the possibility ofmeeting a polar bear is judged to be possible but un­likely (such as the Yukon coast or Herschel Island),groups that can demonstrate sufficient competencecould be allowed to take a firearm that can fire deter­rents for protection in the unlikely eventofan encounterwith a problem bear.

4. Bear-proof sheltersSome people will not wish to be accompanied by aguide and not be competent with firearms. In areaswhere the possibility of meeting a polar bear is judgedto be very low but still possible (such as the interior ofBanks Island), bear-proof shelters containing radioscould be provided at intervals of some reasonable dis­tance so people can camp in safety and be prudent aboutwalking, kayaking, and other activities.

5. Firearm-free areasFirearms might not be allowed at all in areas where thepossibility of meeting a polar bear is judged to bevirtually non-existent (such as on the Penny Ice Cap).

Management of polar bears in theBeaufort Sea

In October 1988. the Joint Commissioners and Techni­cal Advisors of the agreement between the North SlopeBorough Fish and Game Management Committee(NSBFGMC) and the Inuvialuit Game Council (IGC)met to discuss the size of the allowable harvest of polarbears and how it would be allocated. The followingitems were recommended for approval of the jurisdic­tions:

I. That the following guideline harvest levels be estab­lished for polar bears: Canada, 38 bears annually;Alaska, 38 bears annually.

That the guideline harvest levels be based on thefollowing assumptions:

a) The Beaufort sea polar bear population is esti­mated at 1800-2000. The population estimatemay change as information becomes avail­able.

b) The sex-ratio of the harvest is two-thirdsmales to one-third females.

2. That the USFWS, in consultation with the AlaskaDeparunent of Fish and Game, the NSB, andCanadian agencies, develop guidelines for moni­toring and mitigating conflicts between polarbears and human activities.

3. That all possible means be used to reduce theproportion of female polar bears in the harvest.

4. That an information and education program on theAgreement be undertaken in both countries.

These harvest guidelines are significant, becausetheir implementation marks the first time since enact­ment of the MMPA that a harvest limit, based uponsustained yield principles, has been placed on polarbears in Alaska. Further. implementation is by theindividuals most affected by the Agreement. Recogni­tion of the need for a more active maragement programfor this area is the basis of the Agreement. The NWTDepartment of Renewable Resources, in cooperationwith the other agencies, initiated the development of a

69

Polar Bear Management in Canada 1988-92

slide show and poster to be presented or distributed tolocal villages.

The harvest ofpolar bears in 1988~9 was lower thanthe number of bears available. There were even exam­ples of bears being chased from villages rather thanbeing shot.

In 1989-90, there was some concern about an over­harvest in Alaska. However, since few of the bearskilled were females, there should be no effect on thepopulation. However, there was clearly a need forimproved contact and awareness of the managementconcepts. In Canada, some settlements, especiallythose with no resident game officer, had a variablerecord in reporting of kills. Efforts were made to improvethis. At the consultative meeting that year, the possibleneed to shift the boundary between zones HI and H2was discussed. However, recent analyses indicatedthat, while a small movement might be needed, therewill be no large change in the position of the boundary.

The total 1990-91 Canadian harvest of polar bears inthe area covered by the Agreement was 34, out of aquota of38. The sex composition ofthe kill was approx­imately 1.3 males to I female, but the sex of three bearswas not recorded. This represented a higher proportionof females than desired. The reason for approximatingthe sex composition of the harvest was that the total forPaulatuk had to be estimated on the basis of one-thirdfrom the mainland population and two-thirds from theBanks/Amundsen Gulf population. In the past threeyears, 12 of 15 bears killed as problems throughout theeastern Beaufort Sea and Amundsen Gulf were in­cluded in the quota. From earlier analyses, it appearsthat polar bears were likely being over-harvested in thelate 1960s and early 1970s. The average age of polarbears killed by hunters was quite low and in 1971-73,only 2.2% of the bears were over 10 years of age.Similar results were presented from Alaska. It seemslikely that hunting pressure was so heavy that bearswere being killed before they had a chance to grow old.For the past 10 years, it appears that the average age ofthe harvest has been relatively constant and a healthyproportion of the population is reaching old age. Thisis particularly important for the adult females. TheInuvialuit Game Council recognises that there is a needto improve the reporting of the sex of bears killed andthe collection of jaws for age determination. Somedifficulties are still being experienced in this area butshould be rectified in future years.

Polar Bears

The Inuvialuit and Inupiat agreed that the accuracyof the harvest statistics is of paramount importance tothe continued success of the Agreement. The quota of76 for the southern Beaufort Sea population of polarbears was agreed upon for 1991 and 1992. It will beshared evenly, with 38 bears being allowed to eachParty to the Agreement. The 1991-92 kill was 30 (16males) in Alaska, and 32 (12 males) in Canada.

Polar bears and assessment of impactsof hydrocarbon exploration

On 6-7 November 1989, representatives from theInuvialuit Game Council, Esso, and the NWT Depart­ment of Renewable Resources met to develop an oilspill contingency plan for the ISSERK 1-15 1989-90drilling season. The scope and tcnure of this plan waslimited, but an approach was developed that couldprove useful for development ofother or more compre­hensive plans. Copies can be obtained through MitehTaylor.

Several years ago, the PBAC decided to drop the OilSpill Contingency Plan developed by Schweinsburgand Lee. However, the possibility of damage to polarbears because ofspilled oil keeps coming up in a varietyof contexts. In 1989-90, in response to the possibilityof polar bears being oiled if a blowout occurred in theBeaufort Sea at a proposed well site, the Governmentof the NWT cooperated with Esso Resources CanadaLimited to draft what was called a polar bear protectionplan. Although not as extensive as the original oil spillcontingency plan, this plan was similar in a scaled­down form and responded to many of the originalconcerns of the Technical Committee. Copies of theplan "Esso Resources Canada Limited Polar Bear Pro­tection Plan for Isserk 1-15 (1989-90 Drilling Season)"can be obtained from the NWT Department of Renew­able Resources.

In December 1990, a Gulf proposal to drill wasreviewed in detail by a group of 30-40 people who metin Calgary for a two-day workshop. Compensation andmitigation in event of an oil spill in the Beaufort Seawere discussed. Polar bears were perceived as one ofthe most important resources likely to be affected by anoil spill. The Oil Spill Contingency PlanIPolar BearProtection Plan was used as a background document.

70

In January 1992, Scott Schliebe and Andy Derocherattended a meeting in Anchorage, Alaska on the impactsof hydrocarbon exploration on polar bears. Oil and gascompanies operating in the Beaufort Sea are concernedthat future polar bear-human interactions be mini­mized. Information required of operator site-specificpolar bear interaction plans (voluntary action in theabsence of incidental take regulations and Letters ofAuthorization) have been reviewed for completenessand consistency with conditions of the US MarineMammal Protection Act.

In the NWT, NOGAP has provided funding for atwo-year study of oil-spill preparedness. The capabilityof responding to an oil spill with local transportation(snow machines) will be developed in 1992-93 andtested in 1993-94. Tubs for cleaning oil-fouled bearsand cages for holding oil-fouled bears will be con­strncted and stored in Tuktoyaktuk. In winter 1993-94,a simulated oil-spill will be marked out and local hunt­ers will be hired to respond. A 24·hour watch will beinitiated, and deterrence, capture, and cleaning activi­ties will be simulated. This test will ensure a localability to respond quickly and independently to an oilspill.

COSEWIC status of polar bears

In 1990, the PBAC decided the classification of thepolar bear as "vulnerable" under COSEWIC was notappropriate becanse the definition was loose and over­stated the case. For COSEWIC, the definition of vulner­able reads as follows: "Any indigenous species offauna or flora that is particularly at risk because of lowor declining numbers, occurrence at the fringe of itsrange or in restricted areas, or for some other rcason,but is not a threatened species." Since the reasons forthe polar bear being classified as vulnerable fall into thephrase "or for some other reason," the Technical Com­mittee felt it appropriate to explain their support of thisclassification with a justification, as follows.

Polar bears are distributed at low densities. The cur­rent estimate is approximately 13,000 polar bears inCanada, in about 12 subpopulations, each of which isestimated to number from less than 1000 individuals upto a few thousand. Polar bears have a low reproductiverate. Conseqnently, the size of a population could de­cline quickly as a result of over-hunting, or damage to

significant parts of the ecosystems on which they de­pend. A decline in the size of a subpepulation, forwhatever reason, would be difficult to detect frommonitoring the harvest until it was serious, after whichit could take decades to recover. At present, manage­ment of pelar bears in Canada is based on extensiveresearch that reduces, but does not preclude, the possi­bility of a subpopulation declining because of over­hunting. For a few pepulations, we do not have enoughinformation to determine whethercurrent harvest levelsare sustainable. In these areas, research and community­based monitoring programs are ongoing. Recent com­puter modelling has shown that pelar bear pepulationsare particularly sensitive to the harvest ofadult females.Large-scale environmental damage, while not highlylikely to occur, is beyond the ability of government orindustry to control. Oiling of the fur and ingestion ofoil are lethal to polar bears if not treated quickly.Because polar bears are at the top of the marine foodchaiu and prefer to eat the fat of seals, in which toxicchemicals such as PCBs are deposited, they concentratethese substances. If levels of local and global pollutionincrease, pelar bears, and other apical prcdators, willbe subject to the detrimental effects of increasing con­centrations of toxic chemicals in their tissnes. The

References

Calvert, W., Stirling, 1., Taylor, M., Ramsay, M.A.,Kolenosky, G.B., Messier, M., Kearney, S., Crete,M., and Luttich, S. 1995. Research on pelar bearsin Canada, 1988-92. This volnme.

Heppes, J.B., Robillard, J.R., and Berlinguette, A.1989. 1987 Annual report for Canada. Can. Wildl.Servo CITES Rep. No. 15.82 pp.

Heppes, J.B., Robillard, J.R., and Pilon, F. 1990a. 1988Annual repert for Canada. Can. Wildl. Servo CITESRep. No. 16. 63 pp.

71

Polar Bear Management in Canada 1988-92

long-term effects of such concentrations are unknownbut cannot be ignored. Similarly, pessible long-termeffects of climate change on pelar bears are unknown.

Federal Government

The Convention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) (CITES) hasbeen in effect since July 1975. Polar bears are includedin Appendix II to the Convention ('all species that,although not necessarily now threatened with extinc­tion, may become so unless trade in specimens of suchspecies is subject to strict regulation in order to avoidutilization incompatible with their survival').

The Federal Government, through the issue of per­mits, has maintained a permanent record of all pelarbears, hides, or any other products legally exported orimperted. The 1987 through 1990 data are summariZedin Table 5. In those years, most of the exported hideswere again destined for Japan.

Heppes, J.B., Robillard, J.R., and Pilon, F. 1990b. 1989Annual repert for Canada. Can. Wildl. Servo CITESRep. No. 17.67 pp.

Heppes, J.B., Robillard, J.R., and Pilon, F. 1991. 1990Annual repert for Canada. Can. Wildl. Servo CITESRep. No. 18.59 pp.

TABLE 1. Summary of regulations covering polar bear management in Canada as of 31 December 1992 .."

~"CATEGORY JURISDICTION

Itl:>

"Manitoba Newfoundland Northwest Territories Ontario Quebec Yukon ~Hunting closed has been closed; 01 Oct to 31 May in Keewatin, closed none 01 Oct. 10 31 May

reopening under Foxe Basin and Grise Fd; 15 inGMZlonlyconsideration Nov. to 31May for 12 tags in

Repulse; 1 Oct. to 31 May for4 tags in Lake Harbour; 1 Dec.to 31 Mayall others

Who can hunt Treaty Indians if Inuit only during season Inuit residents and non- permissible kill by Inuit and Inuit only who arespecifically residents with Wildlife Treaty Indians Indians issued polar bearpermitted by Minister Certificate if HTA tagsofNatllIal Resoot=. provides necessary tag

Quota total quota of 50, 15 of 4 quota by settlement permissible kill of none total quota of 6,which are currently on continuation of season 1988-89 limit equals 615 30 (by restricting all of which areloan to the NWT and not yet determined (including 15 loaned by sales over 30) presently includedincluded in the NWT Manitoba and 6 administered in NWf totaltotal, and 35 are not for Yukon)exercised at present.

--J I Females and cubs yes yes cubs and females with cubs no no yes

'" protected under 15 m in length, prior tobeing stretched and dried or1.8 m after being stretched anddried

Bears in den yes yes yes no no yesprotected

Proof of origin documen ted proof documented proof (no seal on hide and export pennit seal on hide seal on hide seal on hideof untanned seal implemented to proofof origin kill moni IOred bybear date) required on export pennit

imported hides

Export permit required required required required required requiredrequired and no cost $5.00 $1.00 no cost no cost $5.00cost (out ofprovince orterritory oforigin)

Export permit out required by CITES for all polar bears or parts thereof exported out of Canadaof Canada obtained from Province or Territory in which port of export

Scientific discretion of discretion of discretion of Director of Wildlife discretion of District discretion of discretion ofCmser-Licences Minister Minister Management, Department of Manager Minister varian Officer

Renewable Resources (Wildlife ResearchPermit)

TABLE 1. Summary of regulations covering polar bear management in Canada as of 31 December 1992 (cont'd.)

CATEGORY JURISDICTION

Manitoba Newfoundland Northwest Territories Ontario Quebec Yukon

Selling ofhide prohibited skins of allowed if legally yes must be sealed by 515.00 Royalty permit requiredby hunter nuisance bears sold by obtained must be sealed Ministry staff fee must from Conservation

Manitoba Gov't. be sealed Officerthrough sealedtender

Basis of Wildlife Act 1991 Wildlife Act 1970 Wildlife Ordinance and Regu- Game and Fish Act Wlldlife Cooserva- Wildlife Act,Regulation classified as big game lations; 1960 Order in Council R.S.o. 1980 tion and Man- 1981: Wildlife

(Endangered Species) Chap. 182 agement Act 1983 RegulationsOrder in Council3234-1971 Bill28-1978 (James

Bay Agreement)

Fur Dealer Authority $10.00 restricted $2.50 for each store $150.00 Fur Dealer's Licence $28.00 licence $200.00 licence 525.00 Resident$25.00 general $2.50 travelling foreachofthe fIrst 2 consecu- Order-in-COuncil 5300.00 Non-$25.00 travelling rive years, then $10.00 for 1274-1984 resident

-.J Ieach year after 55.00 Agent

w $200.00 Travelling FurDealer's $25.00 Non-Licence for each of the fJIst 2 residentconsecutive years, then restricted$100.00 for each year after

Taxidenny $5.00 Wildlife Act legislation in prepa- $25.00 Taxidermist Licence see Tanner's see Tanner's $25.00 ResidentLicence ration; Authority Authority Licence, ;0

legal if obtained $30.00 Non- i:;'legally elsewhere resident

...O:l

Licence ""...Tanner's $10.00 licence no legislation at present $25.00 Tanner's Licence Game and Fish Act $150.00 $2.00 Resident,~Authority ($28.00 licence) Ta:rmer's $10.00 Non-"licence resident "~

Live Animals Ministerial permit illegal unless authorized $5.00 licence to capture live District Manager Ministerial free Wildlife ~Captu1e by pennit from wildlife permit Research Permit, ~Minister for scientific $5.00 fee for S·purposes capture of live

"wildlife ""Live Animals Ministerial pennit Wildlife Export Permit Wildlife Export Pennit District Manager Ministerial permit Special pennit ~Export $100.00-s5000.00 licence "-to export live wildlife '0:

PolarBears

TABLE 2. Quotas1 and known numbers of polar bears killed2 in Canada, 1987-88 through 1990-91

Man.3 NOd. NWT3 Ont.4 5 Yukon Norwai TotalQue.

1987-88 Quota 35 4 611 30 62 6 5 753Bears killed2 6 0 525 16 47 5 0 599Bears captured and

held in zoos 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1988-89 Quota 35 4 611 30 62 6 5 753Bears killed 6 8 553 17 60 4 0 648Bears captured and

held in zoos 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3

1989-90 Quota 35 4 611 30 62 6 5 753Bears killed 6 0 540 16 66 4 0 632Bears captured and

held in zoos I 0 0 0 0 0 0 I

1990-91 Quota 35 4 611 30 62 6 5 753Bears killed 8 0 490 23 47 4 0 572Bears captured and

held in zoos 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1991-92 Quota 35 4 609 30 62 6 5 751

IManagement year extends from 1 July to 30 June the following year. Numbers may change as more infonnation is receivedfrom the villages.

2All known kills, including quota and sport-hunt kills, problem kills, illegal kills, bears found dead, and bears that die whilebeing handled by scientists.

3Pifteen of the Manitoba quota of 50 are administered byNWT~ any kills under this quota arc included in the NWT lotal.

4Pennissible kill.

5The total allowable kill in Quebec is a maximum harvest level controlled by the length of the hunting season and by allow·ing only certain sex-and age-categories to be taken.

6Allowed to Norway for protection of life tmdcr the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (1973).

TABLE 3. Manitoba Polar Bear Control Program 1988-91

1988 1989 1990 1991Program d'uration mid-Aug.- Jul.- Sept.- mid-July-

mid-Nov. mid-Nov. mid-Nov. 31 Oct.

No. of occurrences 99 94 89 71No. of bears captured 35 51 64 18No, of bears killed:

- by Department 2 I 0 0- by public 2 I 0 0

Handling deaths I 0 0 0Natural deaths 0 0 I 0No, of bears to zoos 0 I 3' I'

*One bear died after being shipped to the 7..00.

74

PolarBear Management in Canada 1988-92

TABLE 4. Population and harvest estimates for Canadian polar bear subpopulations

RevisedSub- Harvest Population Reliability Sustaiuable Current Population

popnlation % Females Estimate of Estimate Harvest3

Total Kill Status

Al 33.01 1200 G 54.05 55 SlationaryA2 30.21 1000 F 49.07 51.7 StationaryC 33.02 2020 G 91.001 91.0' StationaryDJ-F 31.01 24707 F 119.05 195-215 Declining

(data uncertain)D2 39.21 950 F 36.04 51.8 Declining

15.02 3.075 4.0·(data uncertain)

EI 230 G IncreasingE2 33.02 700 P 31.08 32.0 Slationary

33.02(data uncertain)

E3 900 p 40.09 41.0 Stationary

40.71(data uncertain)

G 200 p 7.04 6.0 Stationary

45.8 1 18007(data uncertain)

HI G 59.00 63.6 SlationaryH2 48.5 1 1200 G 37.01 33.4 Slationary

TOTAL7 12,670 532.0 624.5-M4.5

Source: Polar Bear Technical Committee, revised August, 1993.

G == GOOD (Minimum capture bias, acceptable precision)

F=FAlR (Capture bias problems, precision uncertain)

P = POOR (Considerable uncertainty, bias and/or few data)

1Average percent of killed bears that arc females (1987-88 to 1991-92) for populations in which the sex-ratio of the kill isnot set by law is based on the Northwest Territories sample plus harvest and problem kills by Greenland, Alaska,Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and Labrador, as data were available.

2perceni of killed bears thaI are allowed 10 be females as regulaled by law.

3Except for subpopulation El, the sustainable halVest is based on the sex-ratio of the halVest, the subpopulation estimate(N) for the area and the eslimaled rales of birth and death (Taylor el al. 1987):

SUSTAINABLE HARVEST = (N x 0,015)

% FEMALES HARVEST

Unpublished modelling indicates a sex~ratio of 2 males to 1 female is sustainable, although the mean age and abundance ofmales will be reduced at maximum sustainable yield. Harvest data (Lee and Taylor, in press) indicate that selection of

males can be achieved.

4The communities of subpopulation C have agreed to a phased reduction in quota to 91 or the sustainable yield as deter~

mined by subsequent population estimales by 1997. TIle tOlal kill in will not exceed 122 in 1994.

5Subpopulation El has reduced rate of sustained yield because of lower cub and yearling survival, and lower recruitment,compared to other subpopulations. The projected percent of females in the harvest is 15% based on the intention to take

only males.

6A five-year moratorium on harvesting El will begin in 1994/95.

7Totals refer to sums of subpopulations including those Canada shares with Alaska and Greenland.

75

Po/arBears

TABLE 5. Number of permits issued for polar bears, polar bear hides, and polar bear parts to belegally exported from Canada, 1 January 1987 to 31 December 1990

1987 1988 1989 1990 Total

Live polar bears1 4 I 5 1 11

Polar bear hides2 349 396 426 410 1581

Skulls/jaws 7 13 24 36 80

Claws 20 0 0 2 22

Tissue specimens 0 >05kg 525 170 >695

Bones 2 > IOkg >206 2 >210

Feet 4 8 0 0 12

Preserved organs 0 0 10 0 10

Source: Heppes et al. 1989. 1990a.1990b. and 1991.

Ipor zoos.

2Includes some hides wilh skulls and some as whole mounts.

76

APPENDIX 1

Management Agreement for Polar Bears inPopulation F

An agreement between the Hunters' andTrappers' Association of Resolute ArcticBay Pond Inlet and Grise Fiord

Preamble

As with many species being actively managed, ourunderstanding of the habits of polar bears has increasedin recent years. Information has come from thc harvestreporting system which emphasizes community involve­ment and for research projects that identify populationboundaries and estimate population numbcrs.

During 1990, 1991 and 1992, meetings were held inmany communities throughout the Northwest Territo­ries to exchange information on polar bears. A maindevelopment was the realization the polar bears livewithin 12 fairly distinct populations within the North­west Territories and surrounding jurisdictions. TheTerritorial Deparunent of Renewable Resources ex­pressed a desire to move towards a system of manage­ment that was based on populations. The suggestedcornerstone of this system was Population Manage­ment Agreements drawn up between communities thatshare the populations.

Workshops were held 6-9 February 1992 and 26-27March 1992 in Nanasivik which brought together rep­resentatives from the four communities that hunt polarbears from the F population. This agreement identifiesthe management objectives as defined by the users ofthe polar bear resource and describes how these Objec­tives are to be achieved.

Management Agreement for polar bearsin polar bear management area FDefinitions

(a) The species considered is the polar bear (Drsusmaritimus).

77

(b) The area covered by this agreement is Polar BearManagement Area F, as defined in Appendix I.

(c) The people who are party to this agreement are theInuit of Resolute, Grise Fiord, Arctic Bay andPond Inlet; and the outpost camps associated withthose communities.

(d) Sustained yield is the level of taking which doesnot causc the population to decline.

Objectives

(a) To maintain a healthy, viable population of polarbears in the Polar Bear Management Area F.

(b) To provide the maximum protection to femalepolar bears, including maintaining the level offemales harvested at 28% or less of the total kill.It is recognized that it would be beneficial to thepolar bear population to reduce further the numberof females harvested annually.

(c) To minimi,", detrimental effects of human activi­ties, especially industrial activities on polar bears.

(d) To manage polar bears on a sustained yield basisin accordance with the best information available,including harvest statistics.

(e) To encourage the collection of adequate technicalinformation on a timely basis to guide manage­ment decisions.

(I) To encourage wise use of polar bears and polarbear by-products within the context of manage­ment on a sustained yield basis.

(g) To identify research priorities and encourage in­volvement of local people in research projects andcollections of harvest data.

(h) To hold management meetings with repre­sentatives of the communities of area F at leastonce every three years to update information andset direction for the continuing management ofpolar bears in this zone.

Polar Rears

Regulations

To conserve this population of polar bears. the partieshave agreed as follows:

(a) All female polar bears in dens or constructiondens are protected. No one will knowingly ap­proach a female polar bear den closer than 2kilometres.

(b) All bears in family groups comprising female withattitalaaq (newborns) or female with attirta (year­lings) are protected.

(c) The hunting season for Area F will open OctoberI and close 31 May; however the Hunters' andTrappers' Associations of each community re­serve the right to open their season later or closeearlier and allocate polar bear tags in a manner timtoptimizes their polar bear hunting opportunities.

(d) Quotas for hunting polar bears shall be allocatedto communities on the following basis:

COMMUNITY QUOTA

RESOLUTE 38ARCTIC BAY 19

POND INLET 21

GRISE FIORD 27

TOTAL 105

counted as a female for quota setting purposes.

(e) The sex-ratio of the harvest will remain between25% and 28% females.

(I) (I) All bears killed during sports hunts,subsistence hunts, or as a result of defenseof life and property shall be taken from theoverall quota for the polar bear populationin area F.

(2) When a GHL holder kills a bear the tag willbe taken from the quota of the communitywhere that hunter lives.

(3) If a polar bear is killed accidentally or indefense of life and property by any personengaged or associated with industrialactivity, then full compensation will be paidto the nearest F Area HTA. which willprovide a tag. The amount of compensationwill be set by agreement with industry.

78

(4) Other defense or illegal kills will be takenfrom the quota of the nearest community.

(5) If a female is shot the attitalaaq or attirta ofthat female will also be given a quota tag. Anabandoned attitalaaq or attirta will becounted as a natural death.

(6) In all cases the HTA that gives the tag willtake possession ofthe hide and meat after theinvestigation has been completed by tileRenewable Resource Officer.

(g) Evidence of sex (bacula) of all male polar bearsharvested shall be provided when the kill is regis­tered with local Renewable Resource Officer.Where evidence is not provided the kill will becounted as a female for quota setting purposes.

(h) Hunters from Arctic Bay. Resolute Bay, PondInlet and Grise Fiord shall participate in the polarbear research conducted in their area.

(i) The following data shall be recorded for each bearkilled: date, sex, location and hunter's name.

(j) The following shall be collected from each bearkilled: lowerjaw. (or undamaged premolar tooth).ear tags or lip tattoos if present. bacula from allmale bears, and other specimens as agreed by thehunters for any additional studies. If the bear witha radio-collar is accidentally taken, the radio-col­lar will be turned in to the local HTA for return tothe research project. Any damage on the hide fromthe radio-collars or capture of the polar bear willbe compensated for by the research project.

(k) Critical areas for polar bear denning and feedingwill be identified and protected via the land usepennitprocess and ti,e direction from the local HTA.

(I) All tenus of the agreement, including quota levels.shall be reviewed by the parties when new re­search is available or within three years.

(m) The following research and management goalsare identified.

(i) Development of pos!tlOns for thecommunity residents in wildlife researchprojects.

(ii) Research and development of metilods toprotect meat caches from polar bears.

(iii) Examination of methods for monitoringmovements of male bears.

(iv) Requirement of a bond for adventurers,explorers, or other uavellers to insure thatthey can meet the compensation require­ments for any polar bear that may be killedas a result of their activity.

(v) Collection and archival of traditionalknowledge of critical areas for polar bearfeeding and denning so that these areas arenot compromised by human activities.

79

Polar Bear Management in Canada 1988-92

(vi) Collection and archival of traditionalknowledge of polar bear behaviour,ecology, and cultural importance to Inuit.

(vii) The Department of Renewable Resourceswill provide funding to enable the abovementioned goals are met.

Status of the Polar Bear in Greenland 1993

E.W. Born, Greenland Fisheries Research Institute, Tagensvej 135,2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark

Distribution of polar bears

Names of places mentioned in the text are shown in Fig. I.

The distribution of polar bears in Greenland islargely determiued by how extensive the pack ice cov­erage is and how long the ice remains along the coasts(Fig. 2). These factors not only influence the numberand distribution of bears, but also determine their access­ibility to the Greenlanders, and the Greenlanders' hunt­ing effort (Vibe 1967; Born and Rosing-Asvid 1989).Polar bears occur most regularly along the entire coastofeastern Greenland (Pedersen 1945; Dietz el al. 1985;Born and Rosing-Asvid 1989) and in northwesternGreenland (pedersen 1945; Born and Rosing-Asvid1989; Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990). During the sum­mer sea-ice is present in northeastern Greenland and inMelville Bugt and Kane Basin (Fig. 2); polar bears canbe found during summer in these areas as well. Theoccurrence of polar bears in southwestern Greenland isvariable and correlated with the distribution of the EastGreenland pack ice extending south ofKap Farve!. Thepack ice is usually absent from the West Greenlandcoast between Paamiut (FrederiksMb, approx. 62°N)and Nuuk (GodthAb; approx. 64°N), and consequentlypolar bears are very rare in this region. In late winterand spring, polar bears occur offshore along the edgeof the pack ice in Davis Strait. At locations where thepack ice reaches the coast of western Greenland, polarbears sometimes occuron land (Born and Rosing-Asvid1989). Polar bears are scarce along the northern coastsof Greenland (Dietz and Andersen 1984).

Location of maternity denning areas

Although there have been no specific studies designedto document the location and density of polar beardenning sites in Greenland, it appears that polar bearsden at low densities over most of their range along thecoast ofeastern Greenland north of approximately 68°N,and in the Melville Bugt and Kane Basin reginns (Fig. 3).

81

This conclusion is based on observations ofdens and/orfemale polar bears with newborn cubs (Pedersen 1945;Born 1983; Dietz et al. 1985; Born and Rosing-Asvid1989; Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990; Glahder 1992). InGreenland polar bear denning sites mainly occur in areasdevoid ofpermanent human dwellings, and where thereis sea-ice for a long period of the year (Fig. 3).

Delineation of populations

Significant differences in the concentrations of mer­cury in the hair of polar bears from eastern Greenlandand northwestern Greenland (Born el al. 1991), and inthe cranial traits of bears from the two areas (Henrichsenand Sj;1vold 1986; Henrichsen 1988) suggest that thereis little exchange of polar bears between western andeastern Greenland.

East Greenland

The information on stock discreteness is somewhatcontradictory and does not allow delineation of polarbear populations in the East Greenland region to bedetermined. The information suggests: I) that there isa directional movement of polar bears in the pack icesouthward along the East Greenland coast, and a move­ment in the opposite direction on land and on the land­fast ice; 2) the possibility of more or less sedentarygroups; and 3) the occurrence of infrequent (?) long­range movements.

Apparently, polar bears move south along the coastof eastern Greenland with the pack ice in the EastGreenland Current. Two percent (4 of 98) of the polarbears tagged off NE Greenland and in the Svalbard andFranz Joseph Land regions between 1966 and 1982have been recovered from south-west (winter 1968/69;1983), south-east (1982) and central East Greenland(1980) (Larsen 1986a; Fig. 4). Observations by Inuitand others indicate that there is a general movement ofpolar bears in the opposite direction on land and on the

Polar Bears

land-fast ice along the coast of East Greenland (Dietzel at. 1985; Born and Rosing-Asvid 1989).

There are indications of more or less sedentarygroups of polar bears in eastern Greenland. Mark­recapture studies conducted in the period 1973-75showed that a small group ofbears consisting primarilyof adult females remained in the area between KongOscars Fjord and Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord (approx.73° N) (Vibe 19700, b, Dietz el at. 1985; Born andRosing-Asvid 1989). Differences in non-metrical traitsin polar bear skulls collected over a long period of timeindicate that bears in SE and SW Greenland may beseparate from bears in NE Greenland and in theSvalbard-Franz Joseph Land region, respectively(Henrichsen 1988).

A connection between polar bears in eastern Grecn­land and in other areas of the Arctic has been shown.Satellite tracking of polar bears off northeastern Green­land In the spring of 1979 demonstrated that polar bearscan move from eastern Greenland to the Svalbard­Franz Joseph Land region against the main direction ofthe ocean currents (Larsen et at. 1983). Polar bears alsomove to eastern Greenland from other areas of theArctic; a polar bear tagged near eastern Baffin Island(Canada) in 1983 was shot at the entrance to ScoresbySound in late February 1992 (Fig. 4). Between May andDecember 1992, a female with two cubs was trackedby satellite from Prudhoe Bay in Alaska across thePolar Sea to Nordostrundingen in Northeast Greenland(Fig. 4; Amstrup and Durner 1995).

According to Larsen (1986a) a shared polar bearpopulation ranges from East Greenland to Ole Svalbard­Franz Joseph Land region, and possibly into parts of thewestern Russian Arctic. However, of 143 bears taggedat Svalbard between 1988 and 1992, only one (0.7%)has been recovered in 1992 from Scoresby Sound(Wiig, pers. comm. 1992: Fig. 4). In addition move­ments of female polar bears collared with satellitetransmitters indicate that the population found in theSvalbard-Franz Joseph Land area is perhaps more dis­crete than believed earlier (Wiig 1995).

West Greenland.

Polar bears in northwestern and western Greenland areshared with the eastern Canadian High Arctic.

Including the fall of 1992, a total of 1521 polar bearshave been tagged within the Canadian managementzones (Fig. 5), Dj (n=37 1 bears), D2(294), F (844) andG (12) (Taylor, in litt. 1992). Between 1973 and 1992,

82

at least 21 of these bears have been killed in westernGreenland north of69°N (recoveries = about 1.3 % ofthe bears tagged in the respective Canadian manage­ment zones). The majority were taken in the Avaner­suaq (Thule) and Upernavik areas (Fig. 6; Born andRosing-Asvid 1989; Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990.

There are no physical barriers separating bears inzones F, Dt and western Greenland north of approxi­mately 66°N. On the basis of data from an ongoingsatellite telemetry study it appears that the boundarybetween the Canadian management 7AlOes F and D] isnot warranted. The majority of polar bears from man­agement zones F and Dj appear to be intermiXed on thepack in Baffin Bay and then spend the ice-free season(late summer and fall) on land along the east coast ofBaffin Island north of Cape Dyer, the north coast ofBaffin Island, and the southeastern coast of DevonIsland. Most maternity denning in this shared popula­tion appears to occur in Canada although some havealso been recorded in Melville Bugt in Greenland (Bornel al. 1995; Figs. 6,7 and 8).

Vibe (1982 ) suggested that a more or less sedentarypopulation of polar bears spends part of the year on theeastern side of the "North Water Polynya". (i.e. in NEBaffin Bay including Melville Bugt). The finding thatof seven bears tagged in the Melville Bugt area in thespring of 1978, two were caught in the same area byInuit during the spring of 1981 and 1984 (Vibe 1982;Born and Rosing-Asvid 1989) may support this hypo­thesis. However, it may also simply refiect that individ­ual animals tend to show a high degrec of seasonalfidelity to particular coastal areas. During May 1992,when an estimated 20 to 30 polar bears were present inthe Melville Bugtarea, the majority ofbears were foundat the edge of the offshore Baffin Bay pack ice. Only afew signs of polar bear activity were seen along thecoast of Melville Bugt (Born el al. 1992).

Estimates of population sizes

Generally, numbers of polar bears in the populationswhich are harvested in Greenland are poorly known.

East Greenland

Population estimates are available for some areas of thepolar bear's range in eastern Greenland. mark--recaptureestimates from 1973-1975 indicated that there wereapproximately 48 bears between approx. 72° N and 73°in eastern Greenland. The estimated number of bearswithin the entire study area between nON and nON

(areas A and B in Fig. 4) was about 182 polar bears(Born and Rosing-Asvid 1989). An attempt has beenmade to estimate the number of polar bears in the entireeastern Atlantic Arctic. By extrapolating the densitiesof polar bears found at Svalbard in 1980 to the total icecovered-area between East Greenland and the westernRussian Arctic, Larsen (19800) estimated that therewere between 3000 and 5000 bears. By extrapolatinginfonnation on den counts from Svalbard to the sametotal area, the estimated number of polar bears in theeastern Atlantic Arctic population was 4()()()..{57oo; ofthese between 1700 and 2000 were in the Svalbard area

alone (Larsen 1986a).

West Greenland

A mark-recapture estimate for 1980 of 2000 polarbears was presented for the Canadian managementmne F (Schweinsburg et al. 1980; Canadian Polar BearTechnical Committee 1992, see Taylor 1992). Therevised estimate of 2000 in mne F is considered to beconservative (Born et al. this volume). A population of420 (CV=29%) polar bears were estimated for theClyde River-Broughton Island region within manage­ment zone DI (Calvert et al. 1986); a revised estimate of470 bears for this area was given by the Canadian PolarBear Technical Committee in 1992 (see Taylor 1992).

Aerial surveys (1978-79) of western and northwest­ern Baffin Bay indicated that about 1680 polar bearswere present in the pack ice during May (Koski 1980).

Assuming that the catch of polar bears in northwest­ern Greenland was sustainable, Vibe presented (Anon.1985a:40) a crude estimate ofat least 300 bears for thenorthwestern Greenland and eastern Ellesmere Islandregion.

Ecological factors influencing on thenumbers of bears

The distribution of polar bears in Greenland is largelydetermined by the distribution of pack ice (Vibe 1967).Information obtained in 1990 from the hunters living inthe municipality of Upernavik (NW Greenland) indi­cated that the occurrence of polar bears has increasedin the northern part of the area during the 1980s, andthat the range ofthe polar bears has extended southwardto approximately 73°N. The hunters believed that thesechanges reflect a change in ice conditions in northernBaffin Bay (Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990).

83

Status ofthe PolarBear in Greenland 1993

Harvest

Magnitude and composition of the catch

In Greenland there are no quotas for the catch of polarbears, and the infonnation on the magnitude and com­position of the Greenland catch of polar bears is poor(Born and Rosing-Asvid 1989). Reporting of catchesby an individual hunter, settlement, or region has notbeen mandatory. Until 31 December 1992 the catch hasbeen reported on an individual voluntary basis via theHunters' Lists ofGame (HLG; Anon. 1950-1987). Thereliability of this system of reporting has deterioratedsince about the mid-1975s (Born and Rosing-Asvid1989). A new system ofreporting catches in Greenlandwas introduced in January 1993 (sce 'Summary ofresearch required to ensure sustaiable exploitation ofpolar bears in Greenland' below).

According to the HLG, the annual take of polar bearsbetween 1955 and 1987 averaged 113.2 animals (SD =35.0; 28-182 animals). This figure includes estimatesgiven in the published HLG to compensate for unre­ported catches. If these estimates are excluded, theaverage annual catch of polar bears during the periodwas 104.4 animals (SD = 39.8; 28-182 animals). Thecatch shows great annual fluctuations with no evidenceofany trends. Catch data obtained from various sourcesfor 1980-92 are presented in Table 1. It is estimatedthat dIe actual take of polar bears in Greenland hasaveraged about 150 bears per year during the last sev­eral decades. Based on interviews of hunters the estimateof the average annual catch of polar bears in westernGreenland (SW Greenland not included) during the late1980s and early 1990s ranges between 40 and 60 bears(individuals/year; AvanersuaqfThule: 20-30; Upernavik:15-20; other areas: 5-10). The remainder of the Green­land catch is taken in eastern and southwestern Green­land.

The majority of the catch is taken while on sledgetrips during late winter and spring (February-April;Fig. 9). Of 61 catches in Avanersuaq (NW Greenland)for which the method of hunting was known, only 1.6%of the bears were taken using motorized boats (usuallyskiffs with 40 hp outboard engines). The correspondingfigure for Scoresby Sound (E Greenland) was 4.9%(n=84; Born and Rosing-Asvid, unpublished data).According to Sandell and Sandell (1991) the numberof polar bears taken from boats increased in Scoresby

Polar Rears

Sound in the mid 1980s. Biological samples obtainedfrom the hunt indicate that independent ( > 2 years ofage) females comprise about 40% and 36% of the totalcatch in Scoresby Sound and Avanersuaq, rcspectively(Table 2). Young and subadult bears ( < 4 years ofage)make up a large proportion of the catch (Fig. 10; Bornand Rosing-Asvid, unpublished data).

Guided sports or photo-safaris are not permitted inGreenland. According to the hunting regulations, ahunter is not allowed to receive payment from anybodyparticipating in a polar bear hunt if these persons them­selves are not licensed as full time hunters (HuntingRegulations §1; Born 1991:30; Anon. 1992a).

Over the years, a very limited number of polar bearshave been shot in self-defense by military or stationpersonnel in the national park of North and East Green­land. Such cases must be reported and the hides deliv­ered to the police.

Management

Management scheme and huntingregulations

There have been polar bear hunting regulations innortheastern Greenland since 1937 (Anon. 1938,1956). However, following the signing of the Interna­tional Agreement on Conservation of Polar Bears andTheir Habitat in 1973 (Anon. 1973, I974a), regulationswere extended to include all areas of Greenland andwere enforced by I January 1975 (Anon.1974b). Sincethen, severnl minor amendments have been made to theregulations. When Home Rule was established in 1979,Greenland took over the legal responsibility for man­agement of its renewable resources, including polarbears. The hunting regulations issued by the GrecnlandHome Rule in 1985 (Anon. 1985b) remained the sameas those issued by the Danish government (Born andRosing-Asvid 1989). In 1977, Denmark, on behalf ofGreenland, ratified the International Agreement on theConservation of Polar Bears and their Habitat (Anon.1978). When polar bear studies conducted by theGreenland Fisheries Research Institute (GreenlandHome Rule) were initiated in 1991, Greenland defactotook over the responsibility providing scientific data forthe sound management of its polar bear populations asoutlined in the International Agreement on Conserva­tion of Polar Bears and their Habitat.

84

The polar bear hunting regulations state that bearscan be taken only by hunters who hunt and/or fish as afull-time occupation and have a valid hunting licenseissued by the Greenland authorities (Hunting Regula­tions §I; Born 1991; 30, Anon. 1992 a). Basically, theseregulations try to control hunting effort by ensuring thatpolar bears are taken only by traditional means as a partof the Inuit's subsistence hunting. Hence, it is forbiddento use motorized vehicles (aircrnft, helicopters, snow­mobiles and large vessels) for the hunting ofpolar bearsor for transportation to and from the hunting grounds.All Greenland municipalities completely protect femaleswith cubs up to 12 months of age. However, there aresome regional differences. In all areas outside themunicipalities of Avanersuaq (Thule), Upernavik andIttoqqortoormiit (Scoresby Sound) females accompa­nied by young up to 24 months of age are completelyprotected (Born 1991). The latest revision of the huntingregulations for the municipality ofTasiilaq (Ammassalik,SE Greenland) in 1992 (Anon. 19913) permits the killingof polar be.ars between 12 and 24 months of age, andfemales accompanied by such young (ibid.). All bears areproteeted in July and August (August-September in theTasiilaq area). In May 1988, the law was revised topermit killing of single, adult male bears all year round(Anon. 1988).

Protection of polar bear critical habitats

The Greenland Home Rule Authorities restrict accessto certain coastal areas. In thc Melville Bugt NatureReserve (established in 1980) permits are required fromthe Home Rule AutJlOrities to enter zone II along thecoast (Anon. 1981, 1989). This action protects polarbear dens in the area (Fig. 3; Born and Rosing-Asvid1989; Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990). When theNational Park in North and EastGreenland (Fig. 3) wasestablished in 1974 (Anon. 1981) the intention was tocompletely proteet polar bear den sites and summeringareas. Originally, polar bears were completely pro­tected within the National Park (Anon. 1976). Since1976 hunters from the municipalities of ScoresbySound and Avanersuaq have been allowed to catchbears in the park provided that they do not settle per­manently in the area and do not rely on aid from thepermanent stations in the park (Anon. 1981). In all areasof Greenland, disturbance of polar bears in dens isprohibited (Anon. 1992a).

Use of polar bear products and trade

Use of products

In the municipality of Avanersuaq, polar bears aretaken mainly for their hides which are used to maketraditional clothing. This is to some extent also the casein the Upernavik area (Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990).In other areas of Greenland, polar bear hides are usedonly to a very limited extent for clothing and the ma­jority of hides are traded. For Scoresby Sound, anothertraditional hunting community, Sandell and Sandell(1991) estimated that one-third of the hides are soldprivately. The remainder is sold to the Greenland TradeCompany. In other areas of Greenland the hides areeither sold to the trade company or privately. The meatof the bears is eaten locally in northwestern Greenland(e.g. Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990) and in easternGreenland (Born 1983; Sandell and Sandcll 1991;Glahder 1992). In other areas of Greenland the mcat isalso eaten locally.

Trade

The number and value of hides traded to the GreenlandTrade Company since 1980 are listed in Table 1. Thesestatistics do not take into account the proportion ofhides that are sold privately. The estimated value of the121 polar bear hides bought by the Greenland TradeCompany in 1991 was approximately US$I92,400(US$I = approx. 6.04 Danish kroner in December 1992;Table 1). This amount is an undercstimate given that thevalue ofhides sold privately, and the valne ofother bcarparL' (for example claw and skulls), are not included.The 1993 prices paid by the Greenland Trade Companyfor a polar bear hide range between about US$364 andUS$1738, depending on quality and size of the hide.Winter hides less than 1.6m can not be traded (Anon1992c).

Other impact on polar bearpopulations

Large-scale industrial exploration and developmentmay adversely affect polar bears and polar bear habitats(e.g. Anon. 1990, Dietz 1992). Exploration and exploi­tation of mineral resources in Greenland are supervisedby the Denmark-Greenland Joint Commission for MineralResources ("FrellesrAdet") and are regulated by theMineral Resources Act ("RAstofloven"; Anon. 1992b).The Greenland Environmental Research Institute

85

Status ofthe Polar Bear in Greenland 1993

(Danish Ministry of Energy, Copenhagen) assesses theenvironmental impact of exploration and exploitationof mineral resources in Greenland, and takes part in theapproval procedure ofthe Mineral Resources Administra­tion for Greenland ("RAstofforvaltningen"). At present,there is no exploitation of non-renewable resources inGreenland, but exploration activities occur in severalareas (Fig. 11; Anon. 1992b). Noteworthy in this con­text are onshore explorations for gold in the Kangerius­suaq area (SE Greenland) and for various mineralswithin the National Park in North and East Greenland(Figs. 1,3 and II). Both these areas are important polarbear habitats. Furthermore, since 1991 there has beensome marine seismic exploration activity during theopen- water period along the coasts north to 79°N ineast Greenland and 77°N in West Greenland in associa­tion with the KANUMAS project (Kalaallit NunaatMarine Seismic Program; Larscn 1986b; Anon.1992b).

The regulations for the protection of the NationalPark in North and East Greenland do not precludeexploration and exploitation of non-renewable resourcesin the park (Anon. 1987, §25). Howevcr, in each casewhere permission for exploration is granted by theMineral Resources Administration for Greenland, theCouncil of the National Park must also be consulted.The council has the opportunity to ensure that specialenvironmental conditions are maintained so that im­pacts on wildlife, and wildlife habitat are minimized.Similarly, the regulations for the Melville Bugt NatureReserve allow for exploration and exploitatiou activi­ties within the reserve provided permission is granted(Anon. 1989, §9).

The current low level of exploratory activities appearsto have little or no impact on polar bear populations.The potential impact of future large-scale explorationand exploitation of non-renewable resources on polarbears can not be assessed at the moment; the risks willhave to be evaluated case by case when scenarios areknown.

Status of populations

Polar bear populations can probably sustain an overallexploitation of 2-5% per year (Larsen 19800). The polarbear harvest model of Taylor et al. (1987, 1988) indi­cates that the sustainable harvest (H) of a population

Polar Bears

can be estimated as: H = N . (0.015IP!), where N is totalnumber of individuals in the population and Pf is theproportion of females in the harvest. Hence, the catchof adult females should not exceed about 1.5% of thepopulation (see Calvert et al. 1988).

East Greenland

In the mid-1970s, the catch of polar bears in the KongOscars Fjord-Kejser Franz Joseph Fjord area (CentralEast Greenland) increased from a few to 10 to 20 bearsper year (Born 1983; Sandell and Sandell 1991).Catches this large were beyond the maximum sustain­able yield of the presumed resident population; theresident group must therefore have been replenished bybears coming from other areas to sustain this harvestfor several years.

If eastern Greenland is considered as a whole, thenthe estimated annual catch of aproximatcly 100 bearsis within the limits ofsustainability, assuming the popu­

lation estimate of 3000--6700 (Larsen 1986a) is valid,and the sex composition of the catch is as indicated by

the sample from Scoresby Sound (this study).

In eastern Greenland the availability of polar bears tothe hunters is affected by fluctuations in ice conditions.Furthermore, the majority of the bears are taken inspring during sled trips that originate from towns andsettlements which are situated in a few relatively con­centrated areas. Hence, it is doubtful whether the polarbear hunters can extend the range of the hunting areaor effort to a level that will seriously affect the entirepopulation.

However, the picture is complicated by indicationsof discrete subpopulations in eastern Greenland (Bornand Rosing-Asvid 1989) and in the Svalbard-FranzJoseph Land region (Wiig 1995). These findings makeit difficult to evaluate the effect of the curreut harvest onthe population(s) of polar bears in eastern Greenland.To date there is no indication of a major decrease orincrease in the population. Given the large amount ofpotentially good polar bear habitat in the East Green­land area it is likely that a large population is supported.However, there have been no population inventorystudies in this area, and the number of bears can oulybe estimated as probably thousands.

86

West Greenland

Movements offemale polar bears collared with satellitetransmitters indicate the presence of a shared popula­tion in the northern Baffin Bay region (Figs. 7 and 8).The population estimate for Canadian managementzones F and D1 are 2000 and 470, respectively. Thepresent Canadian quotas are 105 (F) and 50 (D1) whilethe average harvest of polar bears in West Greenland isestimated to range from 40 to 60; making an annualtotal harvest of 195 to 215. Thirty-one percent of thetotal harvest are females. The polar bear harvest modelof Taylor et al. (1987, 1988) suggests a sustainableharvest ofaboUl120 forthe northern Baffin Bay region.On the basis of these data, the possibility of an over­harvest must be considered (Born et al. 1995). Theobjectives of an ongoing Canadian-Greenland jointstudy in Baffin Bay, Smith Sound and Kane Basin areto obtain better data to delineate the range of the popu­lation and to determine the number of polar bears in theshared population.

Management in relation to theagreement on the conservation ofpolar bears and their habitat

The following text provides an evaluation of howGreenland legislation and management of polar bearscomply with the articles in the International Agreementon Conservation of Polar Bears and their Habitat(Anon. 1973).

Article I:The taking of polar bears in Greenland is prohibitedexcept as provided in Article III (Anon. 1992a).

Article II:Greenland has intentionally protected important polarbear habitats by establishing the National Park in Northand East Greenland and the Melville BUg! Nature Reserve.By adopting hunting regulations that emphasize andencourage the use of traditional hunting practices andby protecting females in dens and females widl cubs, theGreenland polar bear management scheme is based onsound conservation practice. Generally, too little datahave been available to give advice on a scientific basison the levels of sustainable exploitation.

Article III:The Greenland polar bear hunting regulations com­ply with this article. Beal~ are only taken accordingto points d and e of Article III.

Article IV:According to the Greenland polar bear hunting rcgula­tions (Anon. 1992a) it is not permitted to use aircraft,motorized vehicles and boats above 40 BRT duringpolar bear hunts, or as transportation to and from thehunting area.

Article V:Greenland/Denmark have signed the CITES conven­tion.

Article VI:Comments as under Article IV and V.

Article VII:Since 1973, polar bear research has been conducted onboth a national and international basis within Green­land territory. The Greenland Fisheries Research Insti­tute (the Greenland Home Rule Government) has beenengaged in cooperative polar bear research with othercountries since 1991.

Articles VIII, IX and X: No comments.

Summary of research required toensure sustainable exploitation ofpolar bears in Greenland

The following information is necessary to establish a sus­tainable level of harvest for polar bears in Greenland.

87

Status ofthe Polar Bear in Greenland 1993

I) Number of polar bears taken in all areas(including exact information on the method ofcatching, the date and location).

2) Sex ratio of the catch in all areas (including exactinformation on sex and age of each catch).

3) Number of animals in the harvested populationsin all areas.

It should be mandatory to report each polar bearcatchwith the exact information as outlined in points I and2. By continuously monitoring the harvest to obtaininformation on the levels and type ofexploitation it willprobably be possible to monitor trends in the popula­tions at a relatively low cost.

A new system of reporting catches was adopted inGreenland on I January 1993. A new hunting licensewill only be issued if the hunter has reported his catchofgame, including polar bear, during the previous year(Anon. 1992d). This system has to prove its efficiency;however, there are no control measures available todetcrmine the accuracy of individual reportings.

To provide the information required under point 3 itwill be necessary to delineate the range of each popu­lation and to obtain good estimates of the number ofbears in the harvested populations. Satellite tracking ofa sufficient number of individuals can provide data onpopulation delineation. Multiple-season mark,ecaptureestimates (or single-season intensive marking and re­captures) can provide information onabundance. In 1991,Greenland and Canada initiated a cooperative study todctermine population delineations and population sizein thc Baffin Bay area.

Polar Bears

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Anon. 1938. Fredning af dyrebestanden iNord~stgr~nland. Publikationer om 0stgr~nland

Nr. 6. Levin and Munksgaard K~benhavn: 19 pp.(In Danish.)

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Fangstlister m.v. (Greenland Hunters' Lists ofGame). For the year 1950-1983 The Ministry forGreenland, then The Greenland Home Rule, Nuuk.(In Danish.)

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Anon. 1974b. Fredning af isbj~rne i Gr~nland (Orderof preservation of polar bears in Greenland), 5.december 1974. Order No. 596 Ministry forGreenland, Nalunaerutit- Gr~nlandsk Lovsamling,Serle A Nr. 3 , J.Nr. 1701-D8, p. 509-510). Pp.51-52 in Polar Bears. Proceedings of the EightWorking Meeting of the lUCN/SSC Polar BearSpecialist Group, January 1981. Gland,Switzerland 1985: 151 pp.

Anon. 1976. Bekendtg~relse om rendring afbekendtg~relseom fredning af isbj~rne i Gr~nland.Nalunaerutit-Gr~nlandsk Lovsamling, Serie A, Nr.I, MJ.G.j. nr. 1701-D8: 109. (In Danish.)

Anon. 1978. Bekendtg~relse af aftale af 15. november1973 om fredning af isbj~rne. Nalunaerutit­Gr~nlandskLovsamling, Serie A, Nr. 3, M.f.G. j.nr.1701-D8: 280. (In Danish.)

Anon. 1981. Preservation of the Melville Bay. pp.45-47 in Polar Bears. Proceedings of the EighthWorking Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar BearSpecialist Group, January 1981. Gland,Switzerland 1985: 151 pp.

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Anon. 1985a. Table I. Summary of populationestimates on a regional basis. pp. 39-41 in Polarbears. Proceedings of the Eighth Working Meetingof the mCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group,January 1981. Gland, Switzerland 1985. 151 pp.

Anon. 1985b. Hjemmestyrels bekendtg~relse omfredning af isbj~rne i Gr~nland. Nalunaerutit­Gr~nlandsk Lovsamling, Serle D, Grlhj. b. nr. 10:41-42. (In Danish.)

Anon. 1986. Sea Ice Climatic Atlas. Vol 2. Arctic East.Naval Oceanography Command Detachment.

Anon. 1987. Hjemmestyrets bekendtg~relse nr. 16 af16. juni 1987 om Nationalparken i Nord-og0stgr~nland. Offentligg~relse af Hjemmestyretsbekendtg~relser. Gr0nlands Hjemmestyre: 8 pp. (InDanish.)

Anon. 1988. Hjemmestyrets bekendtg~relse nr. 7 af5.maj 1988 om fredning af isbj~rne i Gr~nland.

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Anon. 1989. Hjemmestyrets bekendtg~relse nr. 21 af17. maj 1989 om nalUrreservatet i Melville Bugt.Offentligg0relse af Hjemmestyrets bekendlg~relser.

Gr~nlands Hjemmestyre: 5 pp. + I fig. (In Danish.)

Anon. 1990. Polar bear. pp. 59-68 in Hansson, R.,Prestrud, P. and 0ritsland, N.A. (eds.): AssessmentSystem for the Environment and IndustrialActivities in Svalbard. Norwegian Polar ResearchInstitute, Oslo: 267 pp.

Anon. 1992a. Hjemmestyrets bekendtg~relse nr. 25 af2.oktober 1992 om fredning af isbj~rne i Gr~nland.Offentligg~relse af Hjemmestyrets bekendt­g~relser. Gr~nlands Hjemmestyre: 5 pp. (InDanish.)

Anon. I992b. Beretning forperioden I.juli 1991 Iii 30.juni 1992 fra FrellesrAdet vedr~rende MineralskeRAstoffer i Gr~nland. FrellesrAdet vedr~rende

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Born, E.W. and Rosing-Asvid, A. 1989. Isbj\'lrnen(Ursus maritimus ) i Gr\'lnland: en oversigt (polarbears in Greenland: a review). Teknisk rapport ­Gr\'lnlands Hjemmestyre. Milj\'l-og naturfor­valtning. Rapport Nr. 8 - november 1989: 126 pp.(In Danish with English summary.)

Born, E.W. 1991. Polar bear research and managementin Greenland 1985-1988. pp. 25-33 in Amstrup,S.C. and Wiig, 0. (eds.): Proceedings of the TenthWorking Meeting of the mCN SSC Polar BearSpecialist Group. Occasional Paper of the mCNSpecies Survival Commission No.7: 107 pp.

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Koski, W. R 1980. Distribution and migration ofmarine mammals in Baffin Bay and EasternLancaster Sound, May-July 1979. UnpublishedReport by Petro-Canada Explorations, Calgary,Alberta, Dec. 1980: 317 pp.

Larsen T. 1986a. Population biology of the polar bear(Ursus maritimus) in the Svalbard Area. NorskPolarinstitutts Skrifter 184: 55 pp.

Larsen, B.C. 1986b. Project KANUMAS. Proposal fora regional marine seismic survey aroundGreenland: Geophysical description. TheGeological Survey of Greenland, Copenhagen,August 1986: 58 pp.

Po/arBears

Larsen, T., Jonkel, C. and Vibe, C. 1983. Satelliteradio-tracking of polar bears between Svalbard andGreenland. Int. Conf. Bear Res. Manage. 5:230-237.

Pedersen, A. 1945. Der Eisbltr (Tbalarctos maritimusPhipps) - Verbreitung und Lebensweise. Bruun andCo., K0benhavn: 166 pp. (In German.)

Rosing-Asvid A. and Born, E.W. 1990. Fangst afisbj0rn (Vrsus maritimus) i Avanersuaq andUpernavik kommuner: en interviewunders0gelse(Catch of polar bears in the municipalities ofAvanersuaq and Upernavik: an interview survey).Teknisk rapport - Gr0nlands Hjemmestyre.Milj0-og naturforvaltning. Rapport Nr. 23 ­december 1990: 63 pp. (In Danish with Englishsummary.)

Sandell, H.T. and Sandell, B. 1991. Archaeology andenvironment in the Scoresby Sund fjord.Ethno-arehaeologieal investigations of the lastThule culture of Northeast Greenland. MeddrGr0nland Man and Soc. 14: 150 pp.

Schweinsburg, R.E., Lee, J. and Latour, P. 1980. Polarbear studies in Eastern Lancaster Sound and BaffinBay. Northwest Territories Wildlife Service FinalReport: 91 pp.

Taylor, M.K., DeMaster, D.P., Bunnell, F.L. andSchweinsburg, R.E. 1987. Modeling the sustainableharvest of female polar bears. J. Wildl. Manage.51(4): 811--S20

90

Taylor, M.K., Bunnell, F., DeMaster, D.,Sehweinsburg, R. and Smith, J. 1988. ANURSUS.a population analysis system for polar bears (Vrsusmaritimus). Int. Conf. Bear Res. Manage. 7:117-125

Taylor, M.K. 1992. Draft. Northwest Territories polarbear management plan. Technical version.Department of Renewable Resources. Governmentof the Northwest Territories. Yellowknife, N.W.T.,June 1992: 114 pp.

Vibe, C. 1967. Arctic animals in relation to climaticfluctuations. Meddr Gr0nland 170(5) : 227 pp.

Vibe C. 1976 a. Preliminary report on the First DanishPolar Bear Expedition in North East Greenland,1973,. pp. 74-76 in Polar Bears Proceedings of the5th Working Meeting of the Polar Bear SpecialistGroup Organized by the Survival ServiceCommission of WCN and held at Le Manoir,St-Prex, Switzerland 3-5 December 1974. WCNPublications New Series Supplementary paper No.42,IUCN, Gland Switzerland,1976: 106 pp.

Vibe C. 1976 b. Preliminary report on the SecondDanish Polar Bear Expedition to North EastGreenland. 1974. Pp. 91-97. in Ibid.

Vibe, C.. 1982. Gr0nlands hvide bj0rne (The whitebears ofGreenland). Naturens Verden 2: 41-56. (InDanish.)

Wiig, 0. 1995. Status of polar bears in Norway 1993.This volume.

'"-

TABLE 1. catch of polar bears and trade and export of polar bear hides in Greenland, 1980-92

Catch 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

W. Greenland pop.Avanersuaq (Thule) 01 (20) 22 (10) 25 (0) 35 (0) 17 (5) 0(25) 20' (0) 24' (0) 24' (10) 481 (0) 226 (10)4 126(20)4 46(25)4

Upernavik - (-) 2 (0) 10 (0) 4 (0) 9 (0) 5 (15) 10' (0) 41 (4) 9' (10)4 6' (15)4 0(20)4 0(20)4 0(20)4

Uummannaq-Nuuk 9 (0) 4 (0) 3 (0) 2 (0) 2 (0) 0(0) o (0) 5 (0) - (5)4 _ (5)4 _ (5)4 _ (5)4 _ (5)4

Total W. Greenland 9 (20) 28 (10) 38 (0) 41 (0) 28 (5) 5 (40) 30' (0) 70 (4) 33' (25)4 54' (20)4 226 (35)4 126 (45)4 46 (50)4

E. Greenland pop.SW Greenland

south of Paamiut 1 (0) 1 (0) 13 (0) 7 (0) 1 (0) 0(2) 2 (0) 3 (0) I' (5)4 41 (0)4 71 (0)4 41 (0)4 17' (0)4

East Greenland

IttOCJqortoonniit 31 (10) 40 (20) 32 (20) 29 (10) 18 (15) 18 (5) 19 (0) 12' (40)4 131 (40)4 401 (0)4 526 (0)4 251 (20)4 226 (25)4

Tasiilaq 20 (0) 51 (0) 67 (10) 50 (0) 42 (5) 5 (5) 7 (0) 445 (0)4 24' (25)4 31 1 (20)4 31 1 (20)4 821 (0)4 101 (40)4

Total E. Greenland 52 (10) 92 (20) 112 (30) 86 (10) 61 (20) 23 (12) 28 (0) 49 (40)4 381 (70)4 751 (20)4 90 (20)4 111' 491 (65)'

(20)4

Total Greenland 61 (30) 120 (30) 150 (30) 127 (10) 89 (25) 28 (52) 68 (0) 119 (40)4 71 (95)4 129 (40)4 112 (55)4 123 (65)4 53 (115)4

Hides traded2 38 - 135 37 136 45 - 42 42 76 92 121 44

Value (USSlOOO) 39.6 - 132.1 22.5 - - - 43.9 51.2 1125 137.8 192.4 71.0

CITES export' 97 65 102 - 59 92 98

Notes:Figures in parenthesis ;:;; estimate given in the source.I Traded to the Greenland Trade Co.; 2Hunters , Lists of Grame; 'Interviews (Rosing-Asvid and Born 1990; 4Estimate (this study); 'Interviews (Glahder 1992;6Biological samples (Born unpublished); 7Exchange rate, December 1992; US$1 = 6.04 Danish Kroner; 'Whole hides

Source: Greenhand Home Rille Administration (Nuuk)

'"li1:;~

if;;p~b:l

~S·

f[....~

Polar Bears

TABLE 2. Percentage of "independent" (i.e. >2 years-old) polar bears in Scoresby Sound (CentralEast Greenland) and AvanersuaqfThule (NW Greenland)

Area Independent F (%) Independent M (%) Young (%) N Year

Scoresby Sound (E) 40 48 12 131 1983-91

Avanersuaq 36 50 14 70 1988-91

The samples represent about 29% and 60% of the estimated total catch in Scoresby Sound and Avanersuaq. respectively, dur­ing the period.

Source: Born and Rosing-Avid, unpublished data.

92

StaiUS of the Polar Bear in Green/and 1993

72'

SVALBARD ~'-.l~78

'4'

60

100 260 300 400 km

"0'Kap Farvel"

, "AVANERSUAQ (Thule omr<\det)\ ....I..p. Sav,!.Ssivlk

MEL VILLE BUGT

56'

BAFFIN BAY

':1"() 0 ,)

.§j~UMMANNAQ omrMet

~&1;:QEQERTARSUAO .

o ~ AAS1AAT~ro <:j-.0 ,3"I;:-Q KANGA~TS\AQ :'/0 g "'il' \

~'"Q ,,0\ ~ , """,or'Iv"'r-0 ~ .

S'\«- SlSlM1UT

.0.""0'1'

60'

FIG 1. Map of Greenland with names of places mentioned in the text

93

'".".

HIfm 80 - 100%" ICE COVER

~50-80%D0-20%

~20-50%D~;~R

w-

,,-

~~\~,~.

C'.

~'Irfi1'.... )!q-"~)

,. w

".

<;;

w100 Q mo--2OO" -~oo ~'"

24'

'""C>

ff~~

FIG 2. Mean ice concentrations (1972-82) during maximum (mid-March, left) and minimum (mid-September, right) extensionof ice cover. Source: modified from Anon. 1986. Polar Bears occur regularly in areas with 50%-100% ice cover, exceptalong the northern coast of Greenland (Dietz & Anderson 1984; Dietz et al. 1985; Born & Rosing-Avid 1989)

60'

MELVILLE BAY

Status ofthe Polar Bear in Greenland 1993

S' O' (j

SVALBARD <N\J)~~~

72'

60

lbo 0 16:0 200 300 4bo km

Legend

Dark areas = "concentration" of maternity dens. Light areas = preswned denning but littleinfonnation. Black dots = towns and settlements. The borders of the National Park in North andEast Greenland and The Melville Bugt Nature Reserve are shown.

Source: (Dietz et ai, 1985; Bom and Rosing-Avid 1985; Rosing-Avid andBom 1990; Glahder 1992)

FIG 3, Distribution of polar bear maternity denning areas in Greenland based on observations ofmaternity dens and/or females with newborn cubs

95

Polar Rears

GREENLAND

•

t,/ \'A,,

452~j

--

FAROE ISLANDS

FRANZ JOSEPH LAND

+

x

7

700 N, 1~3° W (ALASKA)+

2

Legend

Solid lines =conventionally marked bears (car tags etc.). Broken lines;:;: bears tracked via satellite. A=stndy area during mark-recapture studies, 1973-75 (Vibe 1976a). B =stndy area duringmark-recaptnre stndies, 1974 (Vibe 1976b).

Source: 1-2 (Larsen 1986a); 3 (Larsen et al. 1983; Born & Rosing-Avid 1989); 4 (Larsen 1986a),5 (Wiig 1995); 6 (Lee in litt. 1992).

FIG 4. Movement to eastern Greenland of polar bears tagged in other areas of the Arctic

96

v,

"i2"~

it~..,I:l:>2..,s·a

"~[--.~

GREENLAND

ONT.

HtlDS'O!f bY

MAN.

---r-----i-- Al

N.W.T.

ALTA.

SASK.

~/B.C.

YUKON

Source: Taylor 1992

canadian management zones

ALASKA

FIG 5.

'.0-.J

Po/arBears

100"

,,,,,//'

,," 75°/+

100 km ,,,

Greenland

Avallcrsuaq

(Thule area)"

70° NShOl in 1992 at Scoresby Sound(East Greenland) _

Y--,-;+

'lit).- 01:)'"

of'? 10'",<,; .*,',-""60° 55°

?

?

*

70'

Baffin IslandV5c:o -I-

c/o8

D. 10\Q.~

Legend• = catch in the 1970s.• =catch during the 1980s... =1990s. Open symbols =infonnation on site of recovery very uncertain. Black symbols::;: size of recoverycertain. *= tagging site. ? = infonnation from northwestern Greenland aboutmarks too lU1certain to specifically identify tagging site. Small black dOL" = townsand settlements.

Source: Born and Rosing-Avid (1989); Rosing-Avid and Born (1990); Born(nnpublished); Canadian Wildlife Service, Wildlife Division (Department ofRenewable Resources, NWT)

FIG 6. Catch in western Greenland of tagged bears during the period April 1973-November 1992Although the information obtained in western Greeniand about the marks was often insufficient, it is indicativethat during the period at least 28 (29?) marked animals have been caught. Of these, at least 21 were taggedin Canada

98

Status ofthe Polar Bear in Greenland 1993

55'

SO"

75"

40"W

,,

, ,,,,,

",,,",/+

GO'

+

100 km

Greenland,,,,",+',,, , ,, , ,,

,

AV:lncrsutllj

(Thule urea)

J/~/

/";/

I "I .:\_ I \ # 2706

I -r- ,-......::,..I / .7-~'I \,' ,/ ,'jI \',' ,I'

J /\ ,/ // \

" :' S,_." I\ I :' '.... {"I' .... ..J

",' '" :' # 2718/

LegendStar/munber = tagging site and day in May 1992. Transmissions from bear #2708 ceasedthe day after attachment of the transmitter. Black dots = towns and settlements.

Source: Greenland Fisheries Research Institute, Wildlife Division (Department ofRenewable Resources, NWT); Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan

FIG 7. Satellite tracking of six adult female polar bears between first half of May 1992 and15 September 1992, showing that the bears summered in Canada

99

Polar Bears

o

Greenland

400 km

FIG 8. Movement of adult female polar bears with satellite radio-collars in the Baffin Bay andDavis Strait areas, September 1991 to September 1992

Source: Wildlife Division (Department ot Renewable Resources NWT); Greenland Fisheries ResearchInstitute; Department of Bioiogy, University of Saskatchewan

100

Status ofthe Polar Bear in Greenland 1993

40 %

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

Month

FIG. 9: Seasonal distribution of catch of polar bears in the ItloqqortoormiitiScoresby Sound(central East Greenland=white bars; 1983-91. n = 132) and AvanersuaqfThule areas(NW Greenland=black bars; 1988-91. n = 64)

Source: Born and Rosing-Avid, unpublished data

101

Polar Bears

14 %

12

10

8

6

4

2 *0

0 1

14 %

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Avanersuaq (Thule)F=white M=blackN=23 N=29

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 >20

Scoresby SoundF=white M=black

N=58 N=61

o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 >20

Age (year)

FIG 10. Age distribution of the polar bear catch in AvanersuaqIThule (1988-91) andIttoqqortoormiillScoresby Sound areas (1983-91). Note: 'two ll-month-old cubs shot inThule were reported and the hides confiscated

Source: Born and Rosing-Avid, unpublished data

102

Status of the Polar Bear in Greenland 1993

70'

65·

. 7S'

Ammassalik\

GR0NLAND

:24/92

05/9 2 """ic'l:::1/

<12/91 ,?-,"=Y/

2~/92i04/92

03/92 ..--;;;:.......,::.)

02/92

Nuuk

Uman'aq

__ d3/91

25/92

i !}

/ 15/92' ~

\ 60·60· 11/92 \ ______

~----"--...--- 125 ~~,~!Gl9 ---- \---------

-----'-.- ------- O"~00'----------- 10/92 'Nanortalik ~-~---- cOO' 000"!y - .. ._~-..........--.- ~O

SOc 00' OO"W 40° 00' OO"W

65'

70'

80'

Legend15/92 - refers to number and year of pennit in Anon. (1992b)

Source: Anon. (l992b)

FIG 11, Sites in Greenland where permits for exploration for non-renewable resources

103

Research on Polar Bears in Greenland, ultimo1988 to primo 1993

E.W. Born, Greenland Fisheries Research Institute, Tagensvej 135, DK-2200 Copenhagen N

Introduction

Between 1988 and 1990, polar bear studies were con­ducted by the Greenland Home Rule Department forWildlife Management. These studies were made possi­ble by a research grant from a private Danish founda­tion (Aage V. Jensen Foundation) (Born 1991). SinceJanuary 1991, polar bear studies have been conductedby Greenland Fisheries Research Institute (GreenlandHome Rule, Ministry for the Environment and Health)as a partof this institute's research of marine mammals.

Monitoring of the Greenland polarbear hunt

Little information is available on the catch of polarbears in Greenland. The Greenland hunters report theircatch of polar bears and other wildlife on a voluntarybasis, and the system of reporting (The GreenlandHunters' Lists of Game) has not worked reliably formany years. In particular, reporting from the munici­palities of Avanersuaq (Thule), Upernavik, Ittoqqor­toormiit (Scoresby Sound) and Tasiilaq (Ammassalik),where the majority of polar bears are taken, has beenvery insufficient (Born and Rosing-Asvid 1989).Hence, in order to provide information on the magni­tude, seasonal and spatial distribution of the Greenlandpolar bear hunt, biological samples have been collectedsince 1988 from the catch. Between the spring of 1988and the spring of 1992, samples (various tissues, teethfor age determination and reproductive organs) from atotal of 207 polar bears have been obtained. Thesesamples represent about 35% of the estimated totalGreenland catch of polar bears in the period. Thesampling has been particularly successful in theAvanersuaq (Thule area, NW Greenland) and theIttoqqortoormiit (Scoresby Sound, Central East

105

Greenland) areas, two important polar bear huntingareas. To provide additional information on the distri­bution and hunt of polar bears, hunters living in Ava­nersuaq (Thule) in 1989, and hunters of themunicipality of Upernavik in 1990 were interviewed(Rosing-Asvid 1990; Rosing-Asvidand Born 1990). Inconnection with exploration ofmineral resources in theKangerlussuaq area (SE Greenland), interviews withhunters were conducted by The Greenland Environ­mental Research Institute (Danish Ministry for Energy)(Glahder 1992). Information on catches of polar bearsin the Ittoqqortoormiit (Scoresby Sound) area is givenin (Sandell and Sandell 1991). Analyses of the infor­mation on the distribution and composition of theGreenland catch of polar bears, with analyses of ageand reproductive organs, have been made for a degreeof Master of Science (Rosing-Asvid, University ofCopenhagen). Some results are presented in Born(1993).

Laboratory analyses

Studies of the contents of various heavy metals in polarbear tissues have been conducted at the GreenlandEnvironmental Research Institute (Born et al. 1990,1991; Dietz et al. 1991; Dietz and Agger 1992; Dietz1992). As a part of an international study, analyses ofchlorinated hydrocarbons in blubber of polar bearsfrom northwestern and eastern Greenland have beenconducted by the Canadian Wildlife Service (Environ­ment Canada, Ottawa) (Norstrom this volume). Thecomplete mtDNA of a polar bear from Greenland hasbeen sequenced at the Department of Molecular Genetics(University ofLund, Sweden; Bodin et al. thisvolume).Samples of somatic muscles and diaphragm from about200 polar bears are being analyzed for contents ofTrichinella sp. at the Veterinarian Serum Laboratory(University of Copenhagen).

Polar Rears

Determination of stock delineation inthe Baffin Bay area

A co-opemtive study of polar bears in the Baffin Bayregion was initiated in the fall of 1991 (GreenlandFisheries Research Institute, Department of RenewableResources, N.W.T., Department ofBiology, Universityof Saskatchewan, Canadian Wildlife Service). The ob­jectives of this study are to delineate the range of thepolar bearpopulation(s) in the Baffin Bay, Smith Soundand Kane Basin regions and to determine the numberof bears in these areas. In the fall of 1991, Greenland

References

Anon. 1989. HjernmestyrelS bekendtg~relse nr. 21 af17. rnaj 1989 om naturreservatet i Melville Bugt.Offentligg~relse af HjemmestyrelS bekendtg~relscr.

Gr~nlands Hjemmestyre: 5 pp + I fig. (In Danish.)

Anon. 1992 a. Hjemmestyrets bekendtg~relse nr. 25 af2. oktober 1992 om fredning af isbj~rne i Gr~nland.Offentligg~relse af HjemmestyrelS bekendtg~relser.

Gr~nlands Hjemmestyre: 5 pp. (In Danish.)

Born, E.W. and Rosing-Asvid, A. 1989. Isbj~rnen

(Ursus maritimus ) i Gr~nland: en oversigt (Polarbears in Greenland: a review). Teknisk mpport ­Gr~nlands Hjcmmestyrc. Milj~-og naturforvaltning.Rapport Nr. 8 - november 1989: 126 pp. (In Danishwith English summary.)

Born, E.W. and Henriksen, Sv.Aa. 1990. Prevalence ofTrichinella sp. in polar bears (Ursus maritimus)from northeastern Greenland. Polar Res. 8:313-315.

Born, E.W. 1991. Studies of walruses and polar bears.pp. 31-49 in Egede, I. (Ed.): Nature Conservationin Greenland. Atuakkiorfik. Nuuk-Copenhagen:132pp.

Born, E.W. 1991. Polar bear research and managementin Greenland 1985-1988. pp. 25-33 In Amstrup,S.c. and Wiig, 0. (Eds.): Proceedings of the TenthWorking Meeting of the IUCN SSC Polar BearSpecialist Group. Occasional Paper of the IUCNSpecies Survival Commission No.7: 107 pp.

106

Fisheries Research Institute participated with personneland provided some of the satellite radio-collars duringtagging of polar bears along the eastern coast of BaffinIsland. In May 1992, the Greenland Fisheries ResearchInstitute, with personnel from Canadian Wildlife Serv­ice (Edmonton), put satellite radio-collars on six femalepolar bears in the Melville Bugt area (NW Greenland).During this study a total of 19 polar bears were tagged(Born et al. 1992; Born 1995). During this cooperativestudy, 28 female polar bears have been mdio-collaredby Department of Renewable Resources on the westernside of Baffin Bay.

Born, E.W., Renzoni, A. and Dietz, R. 1991. Totalmercury in hair of polar bears (Ursus maritimus)from Greenland and Svalbard. Polar Res. 9: 113-120

Born, E.W., Andriashek, D. and Rosing-Asvid, A.1992. Tagging of polar bears in NW Greenland,2-19 may 1992. Unpublished report on field work.Greenland Fisheries Research Institute. Tagensvej135, DK-2200 Copenhagen: 6 pp.

Born, E.W. 1995. Status of polar bears in Greenland1993. This volume.

Dietz, R., Overgaard Nielsen, c., Munk Hansen, M.and Hansen, C.T. 1990: Organic mercury inGreenland birds and mammals. The Science of theTotal Environment 95: 41-5Ipp.

Dietz, R. and Agger, C.T. 1992. Recent studies onheavy metals in polar bears from Greenland withreference to other marine mammals. pp. 28Q-287.In Niimi, A.J. and. Taylor, M.C (Eds.): Proceedingsof the Eighteenth Annual Aquatic ToxicityWorkshop, September 3Q-October 3 1991, Ottawa,Ontario, Canada. Canadian Technical Report ofFisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1863.

Dietz, R., Agger, C.T. and Paludan-Miiller, P. 1991.Heavy metals in tissues of Greenland marinemammals. Abstracts from the Ninth BiennialConference on the Biology of Marine MammalsDecember 5-91991, Chicago, USA: 18.

Research on Polar Bears in Greenland, ultimo 1988 to primo 1993

Dietz, R. 1992. Reactions of marine mammals tohwnan activities. A literature review. Report fromGreenland Environmental Research Institute,March 1992: 83 pp.

Glahder, C. 1992. Hunting in Kangerlussuaq1951-1991. An interview investigation. GreenlandEnvironmental research Institute Report Series.Report No.3, June 1992: 201 pp.

Rosing-Asvid, A. 1991. Isbj¢rnefangst iNordvestgr¢nlandl Kitaani avannerpasisuminannunniartarneq (Hunting of polar bears innorthwestern Greenland). Forskning i Gr¢nland/tusaat 1991 (1): 23-31.

10'1

Rosing-Asvid, A. and Born, E.W. 1990. Fangst afisbj¢rn (Ursus maritimus) i Avanersuaq andUpernavik kommuner: en interviewunders¢gelse(Catch of polar bears in the municipalities ofAvanersuaq and Upernavik: an interview survey).Teknisk rapport-Gr¢nlands Hjemmestyre.Milj¢-og naturforvaltning, Rapport Nr. 23 ­december 1990: 63 pp. (In Danish with Englishsummary.)

Sandell, H.T. and Sandell, B. 1991. Archaeology andenvironment in the Scoresby Sund fjord.Ethno-archaeological investigations of the lastThule culture of Northeast Greenland. MeddrGr¢nland Man and Soc. 14: 150 pp.

Status of Polar Bears in Norway 1993

0. Wiig, Norwegian Polar Institute, PO Box 5072 Majorstua, N-0301 Oslo, Norway

Population

Population borders

The Norwegian population of polar bears is found inthe area of Svalbard north of the Norwegian mainland.According to Larsen (1986) the polar bear populationin the Svalbard area is a part of a population distributedbetween Eastern Greenland and western Russia. L0n0(1970) pointed out that the distribution of bears in thisarea was a function of the extent of the drifting packice.

The Norwegian Polar Research Institute started asatellite telemetry project in 1988 on polar bears in theSvalbard area in order to get more information onpopulation boundaries. Sixty-nine females and onemale have since been tagged. Individuals have beentracked for up to 21 months. Only one bear moved toareas west of Svalbard (Fig. I). Many of thc femaleshave moved into the Russian area but not farther thanthe western parts of Franz Josef Land; however, dlOsethat have been followed after moving to Franz JosefLand have all moved west again towards Svalbard. Thegeneral pattern is that female bears tend to return to thesame area of Svalbard each spring. Some of thc bearseven confine their movement to the 100km coastline allyear round.

The migratory pattern presented above has not yetbeen scientifically evaluated. However, it seems appro­priate to assume that there is a more or less discretepopulation of female polar bears in the Svalbard area.Many of these bears move seasonally to Russian terri­tory, but they tend to return to Svalbard to breed.

We do, however, know that there are bears thatmigrate between Greenland and Svalbard (Larsen1986). It seems, therefore, correct to conclude that thepopulation of polar bears in the Svalbard arca is morediscrelC than earlier believed.

109

Population size

Larsen (1986) estimated the population size of polarbears between Eastern Greenland and weslCrn Russia

to be between 3000 and 6700 in the period 1980--83.These estimates were based on comparisons betweenship surveys, and calculations from den counts andestimates of the proportion of denning females in thepopulation. The population size in the Svalbard areaalone was estimated to be between 1700 and 2200bears. No population estimates have been developedsince Larsen's work. Based on the new results onmigration indicated above it must be concluded that theSvalbard population of polar bears consists of about2000 bears.

Influence of ecological changes

There are nO data on the influence of environmentalchanges on die Svalbard population of polar bears.

Ringed seals are assumed to be the main food ofpolarbears. Smith and Lydersen (1982) estimated that about19,500 ringed seal pups could be born annually in thefast ice of Svalbard. Polar bears might require approxi­

mately 50--73 ringed seals per annum for growth andsustenance. There is an obvious discrepancy betweenthe estimated production of ringed seals and number ofseals required to sustain a population of 2000 polar

bears in the area of Svalbard.

Harvest

The Svalbard population of polar bears is not harveslCd.However, 26 bears have been killed in the period 1987-92due to conflict with humans or killed iu act of mercy(Gjertz et al. 1993). All such ca~es are considered apolice matter and are either investigated by or author­ized by the Governor.

Polar Bears

Management

Regulations

According to the Spitsbergen Treaty of 9 February1920, Norway exercises full and unlimited sovereigntyover the area. However, citizens of the countries con­tracting to the Treaty have the same rights as Norwe­gians to hunt and fish in the area and to conductall kindsof maritime, industrial, mining and commercial opera­tions, provided that they observe the local laws andregulations.

The main responsibility for the administration ofSvalbard lies with the Norwegian Ministry of Justice.Norwegian civil and penal laws, and various otherregulations, are applicable to Svalbard as well. TheMinistry ofEnvironment deals with matters concerningthe environment and nature conservation. The highestlocal authority in Svalbard is the Governor (Sysselman­nen) who exercises jurisdictional, police and adminis­trative authority.

A result of the International Agreement for the Con­servation ofPolarBears and their Habitat was that polarbear hunting was forbidden in Norwegian areas. Themanagement of polar bears on Svalbard is regulated byThe Royal Decree "Regulations concerning the man­agementofgame and freshwater fishes on Svalbard andJan Mayen" enacted in 1978 (Ministry of Environment1984).

There is a problem here, however, because theSpitsbergen Treaty applies to land areas and territorialwaters within four nautical miles of land. Most of theice covered part of the Barents Sea is outside this area.Polar bears are therefore not protected outside Svalbardsterritorial waters by the Environmental Regulations forSvalbard. Norway claims an economic zone of 200nautical miles outside Norway. Svalbard is a part of theKingdom of Norway and Norway, therefore, alsoclaims an economic zone around Svalbard. This has,however, not been accepted by other nations. Based onthe Norwegian view the Norwegian Game Law hasforce within the Norwegian economic zone. Accordingto this law all game are protected ifnot otherwisc stated.

Protected areas

About 50% of the land areas of Svalbard are protectedas national parks ornature reserves by the Royal Decree"Regulations concerning conservation of the naturalenvironment on Svalbard" from 1983 (Fig. 2). The

110

protected areas incorporate most of the important polarbear terrestrial habitats in Svalbard. Several areaswithin the protected areas are, however, exempt fromthe regulations on account ofestablished mining rights.The most restricted area in Svalbard in relation to polarbears is Kong Karls Land were it is forbidden to landdue to its importance as a denning area.

Use orand trade in polar bear products

There is no trade of polar bear products from Svalbard.The hides of the few bears killed are the propeny of theNorwegian State and are given away usually to differ­ent institutions or sold at a public auction.

Other impacts on polar bearpopulations

In a Governmental Proposition (Stoningsmelding or.40, 1988-89) the Norwegian pan of the Barents Seasouth of 74° 30'N was opened for exploration activityfor hydrocarbons. The northern part of this area coin­cides with the southern extension of O,e drifting ice ofthe Barents Sea. The Norwegian Government is nowconsidering whether to open the northern part of theBarents Sea for oil exploration as well. Before thatdecision is made an environmental assessment programwill be performed. The polar bear is one of the speciesthat might be most affected by such activity.

Norheim et al. (1991) analysed the occurrence ofheavy metals and chlorinated hydrocarbons in polarbears from Svalbard based on tissue from 24 bearskilled in the period 1978-89. The occurrence ofPCBswas found to be particularly high WiOl a mean of31ppmin fat from seven adults. Peak value was 9Oppm. Thisis higher than the level assumed to have caused repro­ductive failure in seals in the Baltic. Similar effects inpolar bears cannot be excluded.

Status by population/area

According to Larsen (1986) the Svalbard population ofpolar bears probably doubled from 1970 to 1980. Wedo not know the development of the population duringthe 1980s. Due to its status as totally protected thepopulation might still be increasing. At some point thepopulation must approach the carrying capacity of thearea and the population size stabilize. If this has come

to effect in the Svalbard population we do not know. Itis therefore suggested to apply the conservative viewthat the Svalbard population ofpolar bears be classifiedas stationary and possibly increasing.

Management in relation to theagreement on the conservation ofpolar bears

How Norway complies with each Article in the Agree­ment on the Conservation of Polar Bears (Oslo 1973)is listed below.

Article I:The taking of polar bears in Norwegian areas is prohib­ited except as provided under Article IlIa, b, c.

Article II:Norway has protected the land areas most important forpolar bears at Svalbard. Ice-covered areas of theNorwegian part of the Barents Sea is, however, notprotected. Norway is now considering whether to openthese areas for oil exploration and exploitation activity.Before this is done an environmental impact assess­ment study will be performed.

Articles III and IV:There is no take of polar bears at Svalbard. Skins orother items from polar bears taken in self-defense orother reasons arc the property of the Norwegian stateand are not available for commercial purposes.

Article V:Norway has signed the Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species (CITES).

Article VI:Legislation is under the Environmental Regulations forSvalbard and the Norwegian Game Act.

Article VII:The Norwegian research program on polar bears isperformed by the Norwegian Polar Research Institute.The research is coordinated through the IUCN PBSG.

Article VIII:No comments.

Article IX:Norway consults with the other Parties through theIUCNPBSG.

In conclusion, Norway complies with most of thearticles in the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar

III

Status oIPolar Bears in Norway 1993

Bears. There arc two uncertainties, however. The force ofNorwegian law within the 200 nautical mile economiczone around Svalbard is internationally debated. Nospecial protection has becn given to important feedingand migration areas outside the four nautical mile zonearound land areas at Svalbard.

Identification of major gaps inknowledge

The most important population parameters that must beknown to secure a scientifically based management ofa population of polar bears arc the extent of the popu­lation, population size, reproductive rates and survivalrates. We also need to know important denning, feed­ing, and migration areas. In addition, a mathematicalmodel from which we can simulate the probable devel­opment of a population when different parameters arcaltered is needed.

Population borders

For the Svalbard population of polar bears a discussionof extent has been given above. We know quite a lotabout the migratory patterns of females from southernparts of Svalbard. We assume the females from otherareas arc just as philopatric as these. The assumptionhas to be proved by tagging experiments. We do notknow how the males migrate.

Population size

Larsen (1986) was very uncertain whether his figuresfor population size were correct. Estimating the size ofpolar bear populations is difficult, and so far no obviousbest survey methodology has been suggested. It seemswise, however to concentrate effort in areas that areimportant in relation to human activity like oil explo­ration. For the Svalbard population the southern iceborder zone in the Barents Sea is such an area (Wiigand Bakken 1990).

Po/arBears

Reproductive rates

Larsen (1986) estimated the mean litter size of polarbears at Svalbard to be 1.84 for four-month-old CaYs.Reproductive rates were estimated betwcen 0.51 and0.59. Between 77% and 89% of "available" females inspring was assumed to leave the den with coys nextspring. We do not know if these values have changedduring the 1980s.

Survival rates

Larsen (1986) estimated the survival rate of polar bearsfrom 0 to 2 years old to be 34% for the Svalbardpopulation after 1976 when the hunting had ceased. For

References

Gjertz, I., Aarvik, S. and Hindrum, R. 1993. Polar bearskilled in Svalbard 1987-1992. Manuscript.

Larsen, T. 1986. Population biology of the polar bear(VrslIs maritimus) in the Svalbard area. NorskPolarinst. Skr. 184.

Ljilnjil, O. 1970. Thc polar bear in the Svalbard area.Norsk Polarinst. Skr. 129.

Ministry of Environment. 1984. EnvironmentalRegulations for Svalbard. Ministry ofEnvironmcnt,Oslo.

112

older bears of both sexes (from three to 12 years old),the survival rate from the period 1977-82 was esti­mated at 90.6%±1O.0%. Rates for older bears were notestimated due to missing data.

Denning areas

According to Larsen (1985) the most important den­ning areas for polar bears at Svalbard are Edge0ya,Barentsjilya, Nordaustlandet and Kong Karls Land. Thelatter area has been considered as the most importantdenning area with the highest polar bear den density inthe world. Fifteen of the females tagged with satellitetransmitters in the period 1988-91 have denned thefollowing winter, but none of them at Kong Karls Land.

Norhcim, G., Skaare, J. U. and Wiig, 0. 1992. Someheavy metals, essential elements, and chlorinatedhydrocarbons in polar bears (VrslIs maritimus) atSvalbard. Environm. Poll. 77: 51-57.

Smith, T.G. and Lydersen, C. 1991. Availability ofsuitable land-fast ice and predation as factorslimiting ringed seal populations, Phoea hispida, inSvalbard. Polar Res. 10: 585-594.

Wiig, 0. and Bakken, V. 1990. Aerial surveys of polarbears in tile Barents Sea. Polar Res. 8: 309-311.

FIG 1. Movements of female polar bears fitted with satellite transmitters in the Svalbard area

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FIG 2. Protected areas at Svalbard

114

Status of Polar Bear Populations in theRussian Arctic 1993

S.E. Belikov, All-Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation and Reserves, 113628 Moscow,Sadki-Znarnenskoye, Russia

Populations: distribution, denningareas, inter-population exchange

Elemental analysesofbone tissues (Uspensky et al. 1985)from polar bear skulls obtained in different regions ofthe Russian Arctic revealed three eco-geographicalgroupings: western, central and eastern. Based on polarbear distributional data collected during previous aerialsurveys of ice conditions and polar bear observationsrecorded at "North Pole" drifting ice stations over manyyears (Belikov et al. 1982; Gorbunov et al. 1987;Belikov and Gorbunov 1991), the three relatively dis­crete populations were named the Spitsbergen-NovayaZCmlya (Spitsbergen is the Russian name for Svalbard),theLaptev, and the Chukchi-Alaskan populations, respec­tively (previously referred to as the Wrangel-Alaskanpopulation).

The Spitsbergen-Novaya ZCmlya population occu­pies the Greenland, Barents, and Kara seas. Larsen(1986) believes that this population extends fromGreenland in the west, to 70° E in the east. The generalice drift pattern and frequency of polar bear occurrencein the Kara Sea is known (Belikov and Gorbunov1991), and it is assumed that the eastern border of theSpitsbergen-Novaya ZCmlya population extends to theextreme northeastern portions of the Kara Sea. Impor­tant foci of polar bear reproduction are Spitsbergen,Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and possiblySevernaya ZCmlya (Parovshchikov 1965; Belikov andMatveyev 1983; Larsen 1986; Uspensky 1989).

It is assumed that the westward distribution of theLaptev population includes the SevernayaZCmlya Islandsand some portion of the extreme northeastern Kara Sea.The eastern border is based on observations of marinemammals and polar bears during aerial surveys of

115

sea-ice (Belikov et al. 1982). This boundary is believedto be in the central East Siberian Sea, where multi-yearpack ice often remains throughout the year. The year­round presence of sea-ice in this region is believed tolower survival rates of seals and subsequently hinderpolar bear movements across the region.

Dens of breeding females have been recorded in theNovosibirsk Islands (Kishchinsky 1969), SevernayaZCmlya (Belikov and Randla 1987), on the easterncoast ofthe Taimyr Peninsula, and northern coast oftheLaptev and East Siberian Sea. Dens were not abundantanywhere, but recent evidence from hunter question­naires indicates a slight decrease in the numbers ofdensdetected annually.

The range of the Chukchi-Alaskan population includesthe Chukchi Sea, the northern Bering Sea, and theeastern portion of the East Siberian Sea. The eastwardextent of the range in the Chukchi Sea is believed to benear Barrow, Alaska. Data from females fitted withsatellite transmitters indicate that movements of polarbears from the Chukchi and Bering seas to the BeaufortSea and back have a limited character (Gamer andKnick 1991). Wrangel and Herald islands are the mostimportant breeding areas (Uspensky and Chernyavsky1965; Kishchinsky and Uspensky 1973; Belikov 1977),with small numbers of females denning along theChukchi coast, from the mouth of the Kolyma River inthe west to near Laurence Bay in the Bering Straits inthe east (Stishov 1991).

In summertime, the southern border of the populationscoincides with the southern edge of the drifting ice(Belikov and Gorbunov 1991), while the northern bor­ders lie within the central part of the Arctic Basin andvary widely from year to year. The Barents Sea is anexception to this rule, where the northern limits of the

PolarBears

population range are 100-200km northward fromSpitsbergen, Franz Josef Land, and Ushakov Island(Larsen 1986; Belikov and Gorbunov 1991). In summer,some individuals may reach areas adjacent to the NorthPole.

By the wintertime most polar bears move to the south.They are often seen along the coast, especially nearsettlements. Documented occurrences in the tundra andforest-tundra are very rare. In the Chukchi-Alaskapopulation, bears are associated with the seasonal icecover and they move from the Chukchi Sea through theBering Straits into the northern Bering Sea. Bears occurin the Anadyr area and along the eastern coast of theKamchatka Peninsula.

Two estimates of the Spitsbergen-Novaya Zemlyapopulation are available for the early 1980s (Larsen1986):

a. 4~700 bears were estimated using the num­ber ofdens of breeding females and the portion ofbreeding females;

b. 3000-5000 bears were estimated using the num­ber of dens and polar bears counted from a ship.The trend for the population is unknown.

The Laptev population estimate is derived from thefollowing assumptions:

a. the density of polar bears in the Laptev and EastSiberian Seas is 3/8-1/2 the density in the BarenL~

and Kara Seas (Belikov and Gorbunov 1991);

b. the number of dens in the Laptev range was esti­mated at 110-160 in the mid-1980s (Uspenskyand Belikov 1991), bUllhe estimate was adjustedto 80-120 dens in the early 1990s.

Using these assumptions and calculations similar tothose used for the Spitsbergen-Novaya Zemlya popu­lation, the population in the Laptev Sea is approxi­mately 800-1200 individuals.

The Chukchi-Alaskan population was estimated usingthe same methods (den numbers and brecding females).During the early 1980s, Belikov et al. (1986) estimated300-370 dens on Wrangel and Herald Islands. Stishov(1991) estimated about 250 dens on Wrangel and HeraldIslands and 50 to 120 dens along the northern ChukotkaPeninsula coastline. Stishov (unpublished data) estimatesthat the annual number ofdens on Wrangel and Herald

116

Islands is 400-500, while Belikov (1992) estimates theannual number ofdens at 300-400. The number ofdensis believed to represent approximately 10% of the totalpopulation; therefore, the Chukchi-Alaskan populationestimate is 3000-5000 bears. Certainly, this estimate isonly an approximation.

Polar bear observations recorded during the periodicaerial surveys of sea-ice and observational data ofpolarbears sighted from the "North Pole" drifting stationswere examined to evaluate the influence of sea-iceconditions on seasonal distributions and movements ofpolar bears and their prey (Belikov et al. 1982, Gorbunovet al. 1987, Belikov and Gorbunov 1991). During winter,polar bears are most often sighted on drifting ice whichhad leads and cracks, and at a polynya edge. Trackswere often sighted in leads covered with young ice andin hummocks of annual ice, where seals are known toconstruct lairs. In the Chukchi Sea, polar bear trackswere more often seen in the areas of highly broken ice.In all the seas, polar bears or their tracks were seldomsighted in the shorefast ice. They were also rare in theice with no open leads or cracks, especially in theclosedmulti-year ice. In summer and early autumn, most polarbears are distributed along the edge of drifting ice.Bears also concentrate in bays and fjords, where iceremains throughout summer, a condition especiallycommon at Spitsbergen (Larsen 1986). Some bearsmove into the Arctic Basin. Seasonal distributions andmovements are also influenced by local prey abun­dance and the availability of other food resources, ie.whales and walrus carcasses, and wastes from commer­cial hunting and fishery, which can attract polar bears(Belikov and Kupriyanov 1977).

Harvest of polar bears

Hunting polar bears in Russia has been prohibited since1956, from Spitsbergen to the Chukotka Peninsula.Only "problem" polar bears arc allowed to be killed. Inthe Russian Arctic, 10 (±5) polar bears are killed annu­ally for this reason. Small numbers of cubs are peri­odically captured from the Russian populations forrestocking purposes of Russian zoos, with the annualmaximum of 10 cubs captured in 1985 in Franz JosefLand. Cubs are not captured every year.

The size of the illegal harvest is unknown. However,Russia is currently undergoing economic and political

changes that make control of nature conservation anduse ineffective. Information received from local gov­ernmental bodies responsible for renewable resourcesindicate that the pressure of illegal hunting on polarbears is probably increasing. Polar bears from theChukchi-Alaskan population are harvested by Alaskannatives. In Alaska, the 1980--88 annual average totalharvest was 130 polar bears, with an estimated two·thirds of the harvest occurring in the Chukchi andBering Seas (Schliebe 1991).

Management of populations

In Russia, the Main Administration on Biological Re­sources of the Ministry of Environment and NaturalResources is responsible for conservation of animalsincluded in the Russian Red Data Book (including polarbear). Regional Committees control the situation at thelocal level.

In the Russian Arctic, only Wrangel and HeraldIslands have special conservation status as a place ofhigh concentration of maternity dens and/or polarbears. Both islands were included in the Wrangel IslandState Nature Reserve (zapovednik) in 1976. Specialprotected areas are proposed in the Russian High Arc­tic: the Novosibirsk Islands, Severnaya Zemlya, FranzJosef Land, and Novaya Zemlya. Within these areas,conservation and restoration of terrestrial and marineecosystems and some plant and animal species (includ­ing the polar bear) are proposcd. Proposals for estab­lishing special protection measures for various regionsof the mainland coastline and within the "economiczone" of the Russian Arctic are also being considered.

Use of and trade in polar bearproducts

As previously noted, the only use of the polar bears inRussia is the periodic restricted capture of cubs for zoorestocking purposes. Hunting of polar bears and tradein products derived from polar bears has becn prohib­ited in Russia since 1956. Russia has implemented theprovisions of CITES, which include the polar bear inappendix 2 of the list. There are no data on illegalimport of polar bear products in Russia.

Status ofPolar Bear Populations in the Russian Arctic 1993

Other impact on polar bearpopulations (current or potential)

Industrial development in the majority of the RussianArctic where polar bears occur has not been of impacton polar bears to a significant degree. However, thereare some local concentrations of human activities in theArctic ecosystems of the Arctic islands and along themainland coastline that have the potential to affect localpopulations of polar bears. A geological survey of themineral and oil and gas resources of the Barents andKara Seas contincntal shelf, some areas of the Arcticcoastline, and the Arctic islands is currently beingconducted. Those areas where mineral resource extrac­tion occurs are sources of pollution and disturbance forlocal wildlife populations. Illegal hunting and conflictsbetween people and polar bears are expected to be moreserious in these areas.

Population status

The prcsent trend of the Spitsbergen-Novaya Zemlyapopulation change is unknown. However, the BarentsSea ecosystem has had negative impacts as evidencedby sharp reductions in the capelin and polar cod stocks(duc to over-exploitation), which are the important foodresources for seals. The polar bear population in theBarents Sea is probably negatively affected by thesechanges, and the moratorium on polar bear harvestingin the Barents and Kara Seas should be continued as aprecautionary measure. The Laptev population's habi­tat has not been altered greatly in the past2Q-30 years.Illegal hunting, changes in habitatconditions, and human­induced disturbance are factors that impact polar bearsat some local sites. The Laptev population is believedto occur in low densities with a finite population size.The Laptev polar bear population will remain on the listofrare forms in thc new edition ofthe Russian Red DataBook.

The preliminary analysis of polar bear sightings datareceived from aerial surveys of sea-ice conducted up to1992 indicated that the Chukchi-Alaskan polar bearpopulation has increased since the 1970s (Gorbunov etal. 1987), and the trend is assumed to be increasingslowly. In general, the population condition is satisfac­tory, and this population will be recommended for the"restored specics/form" category in the new edition ofthe Russian Red Data Book.

117

Polar Bears

Management in relation to theagreement on conservation of polarbears

In accordance with US legislation, Alaskan nativesliving in coastal settlements are allowed to kill polarbears without restrictions (ie. age, sex, season, number,etc.), as long as the polar bear population is not depieted.There are currently no data indicating depletion,although the rate of harvest is relatively high. At thesame time, killing of females and cubs is contradictorywith the terms of the 1973 International Agreement onPolar Bear Conservation. This issue should be included

References

Belikov, S.E. 1977. Number, distribution andpeculiarities of polar bear females' dens on themodel plot on the Vrangel Island. In: Polar bear andits protection in Soviet Arctic. Centro Lab. Nat.Cons. Mosscow, USSR. pp.19-13 (In Russian).

Belikov, S.E., and Kupriyanov, A.G. 1977.Geographical peculiarities of some aspects of thepolar bear behavior. M. Nauka. pp. 202-212.

Belikov, S.E., Gorbunov, Yu.A. and Shilnikov. V.l.1982. Distribution and number of marine mammalsand polar bear in the seas of Soviet Arcticdepending on ice condition in the end of winter. In:Studying, protecting and rational using of marinemammals. Summaries of reports of the VIII All­Union Meeting Astrakhan. pp. 18-19. (In Russian).

Belikov, S.E., Gorbunov, Yu.A. and Shilnikov, V.l.1984. Distribution and migrations of sompinnipedia, cetaceans and polar bears in the seas ofEastArctic. In: Marine mammals. M. Nauka.pp. 233­252 (In Russian).

Belikov, S.E. and Matveev, L.G. 1983. Distribution andnumber of polar bears and their dens on the FranzJosef Land. In: Rare species of mammals and theirprotection in USSR. Proceedings of the IIIAll-Union Meeting. M., Nauka. pp. 84-85 (InRussian).

Belikov S.E., Stashkevich, L.F. and Gaev, VA 1986.Polar bearecology on the Wrangel Island. Collectedproceedings. Vladivostok. pp. 127-134 (In Russian).

118

on the agenda of the forthcoming 1993 Russia-USPolar Bear Management Meeting, which will be de­voted to drafting a cooperative management agreementon the Chukchi-Alaskan population.

Information needs and data gaps

This review highlights the general lack ofadequate datafor all three Russian polar bear populations to estimatepopulation size, structure (sex, age, space, genetic),mortality, reproduction rate, and other important factors.

Belikov S.E. and Randla, T.E., 1987. Fauna ofbirds andmammals of the Severnaja Zemlia. In Fauna andecology of birds and mammals of middle Siberia.M., Nauka. pp. 18-28 (In Russian).

Bclikov S.E. and Gorbunov, YuA 1991. DislIibutionand migrations of polar bear in Soviet Arctic inrelation to ice conditions. Pp. 70-74. In S.c.Amstrup and 0. Wiig, (eds.) Polar bears.Proceedings of the Tenth Working MeetingmCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Group, IUCN,Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107pp.

Gamer, G.W. and Knick, S.T. 1991. Research on PolarBear in Western Alaska 1986-1988. pp. 54-61. InS.C. AmslIup and 0. Wiig, (eds.) Polar bears.Proceedings of the Tenth Working MeetingmCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Group, mCN,Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107pp.

Gorbunov, YuA, Belikov, S.E., and Shilnikov, V.L.1987. Effect of Ice condition on dislIibution andnumber of polar bears in the seas of Soviet Arctic.Bulletin MOIP. Biology, vol. 92, issue 5, pp.l9-28.(In Russian)

Kishinsky, A.A. 1969. Polar bear on the NovosibirskIslands. In: Polar bear and its protection in SovietArctic. Pp. 103-113. (In Russian)

Kishinsky, A.A.and Uspensky, S.M. 1973. Recent dataconcerning winter ecology of polar bear on theWrangel Island. In: Ecology and morphology ofpolar bear. M., Nauka. Pp. 10-28.

Larsen, T. 1986. Population biology of polar bear(Ursns maritimus) in the Svalbard area. NorskPolarinstitull. Oslo. 55pp.

Parovshikov, V.Ja. 1965. Current condition of FranzJosef Land's polar bear population. In: Marinemammals. Nauka. M. pp. 234-242. (In Russian).

Schliebe, S. 1991. Summary of Polar Bear Managementin Alaska. pp.68-62.ln S.C. Amstrup and 0. Wiig,(Eds.) Polar bears. Proceedings of the Tenth

Status ofPolar Bear Populations in the Russian Arctic 1993

Working Meeting mCN/SSC Polar Bear SpecialistsGroup, IUCN, Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107pp.

Stishov, M.S. 1991. Results of Aerial Counts of thePolar Bear Dens on the Arctic Coast of the ExtremeNortheast Asia. Polar Bears. N. 7.90-92. In S.C.Amstrup and 0. Wiig, (Eds.) Polar bears.Proceedings of the Tenth Working MeetingmCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Group, IUCN,Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107pp.

119

Research and Conservation of the Polar Bear inthe Russian Arctic 1988-92

S.E. Belikov, All-Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation and Reserves. 113628 Moscow,Sadki-Znamenskoye, RussiaSM. Uspensky, All-Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation and Reserves, 113628 Moscow,Sadki-Znamenskoye, Russia

Research on the polar bear in the Russian Arctic during1988-92 occurred in several phases. One was theChukchi-Alaskan population project conducted jointlyby Russia and the US. Its main pnrpose was researchon current population status and management improve­ment.

This research began in 1989, and in Russia the projectarea included Wrangellsland and the northern coast ofthe Chukotka Peninsula. Project aetivity included immo­bilizing and marking maternal females and cubs, collect­ing biological samples, morphometry, and weighing.This work was conducted by scientists from the AlaskaFish and Wildlife Research Center (US Fish and Wild­life Service), the Russian Research Institute of NatureConservation and Reserves, and the Wmngel IslandState Nature Reserve (the latter two are componenL' ofthe Russian Ministry on the Environment and NaturalResourees). Results of this work are presented inGarner el al. (1993).

Aerial counts of the maternity dens of polar bear inthe Wrangel and Gerald islands area have been under­taken annually since 1982, and aerial counL, of denshave been conducted annually along the northern coastof the Chukchi Peninsula since 1986 (Stishov 1991). Insome localities of Wrangel Island, ground counts ofdens were also conducted. These survcys showed sub­stantial annual changes in the total numbers of densdetected and numbers of dens in certain localities. Inour view, differences in total den numbers may notreflect actual differences in the number of femaleswhich den each year, but may reflect differences be­tween survey methods or conditions between years. Auniform den census method is needed before the results

121

will be comparable between area, and years. Reeently,Belikov and Chelintsev (1993) have proposed a stand­ardized den census methodology.

Observations on polar bear behavior have been con­ducted on Wrangel Island during spring and autumn,and are continuations of bear behavior research begunin the mid-1970s (Belikov and Kupriyanov, 1977,1979). The spring observations are ofmaternal femalesand their young emerging from maternity dens.Autumn observations include the interactions betweenwalrus and polar bears in the Cape Blossom area.

In spring 1991, the International Scientific Expedi­tion to the Soviet Arctic (ISESA) of VNIlPRlRODAimmobili7.ed and marked polar bears in the SevernayaZemlya Archipelago. Cooperating institutions includedthe All-Russia Research Institute for Nature Conserva­tion and Reserves, Moscow; the Russian Institute forArctic and Antarctic Research, St. Petersburg; theNorsk Polarinstiitutt, Oslo; and the Alaska Fish andWildlife Research Center, Anchomge. Project activitywas similar to that on Wrangel Island. Satellite radio­collars were placed on five adult females, four ofwhichwere accompanied by cubs-of-the-year. These markedfemales moved extensively throughout theeastern KaraSea, with more restricted movements in the westernextremes of the Laptev Sea.

Data on polar bears occurrences obtained duringaerial surveys of sea-ice and observations recorded atdrifting ice stations ("North Pole") were examined.Preliminary results from surveys in the Wrangel Islandarea (eastern East Siberian Sea and the Chukchi Sea)indicate increasing numbers of polar bears observed,

Polar Bears

which may reflect an increase in the polar bear popula­tion. Conflicts between polar bears and people are stilla serious problem in the Russian Arctic. Each yearseveral people are killed or seriously wounded as aresult of a provoked or non-provoked attack by a polarbear. VNIIPRlRODA prepared and distributed instruc­tions on how to prevent a polar bear attack, to solve thisserious problem (M. 1989). This work will nOl becontinued because of the current financial crisis inRussia. In accordance with the recommendations of theSochi Polar Bear Specialist Group meeting, VNllPRI­RODA issued "Methods on the aerial counts of thepolar bear" (M. 1991). Plans to conduct a total count ofpolar bears in the Russian Arctic in conjunction withthe aerial surveys of sea-ice were not reali7.ed in the early1990s, because the IL-14 aircraft used for these surveysare no longer available. A substitute aircraft satisfactoryfor these aerial surveys has not been dcvcloped.

The research on the identification of spatially segre­gated groups of polar bears based on the analysis ofchemicals in the bone tissue has been continued(Uspensky er al. 1985; Golovkin er al. 1991). Theabsolute concentration values of 22 elements was de­termined using plasma spectrometry. Sample size was192 polar bears (100 males and 92 females) from theCanadian Arctic. Seven area groupings (using six sig­nificant elements: K, Co, Fe, Mg, Mo, Sr) have beendefined for females, and two groupings (using threesignificant elements: Ba, Fe, K) for the males. Theseresults are similar to those described by Golovkin er al.(1991) using a different analytical method. Using theseresults, we can distinguish 3-4 groupings of femalesbetween 600 W and 1200W, within the polar bear rangein Canada. We can also conditionally separate maleswhich dwell in the south (Hudson Bay), the north, andnortheast.

122

Future activity

The joint Russia-US research project on the Chukchi­Alaskan population will be continued. Plans are beingdeveloped and tested for a joint Russia-US one-timecensus of polar bears in the in the Chukchi Sea using ahelicopter based on a ship adjacent to the sea-ice edge.Observations of polar bear behavior and ground countsof dens within model plots will be continued in theWrangel Island State Nature Reserve. If finances areavailable, the aerial counts of dens will also continue.

The analysis of data on polar bear observations fromaerial surveys of sea-ice and drifting ice stations("North Pole") will be completed soon. If samples ofthe bone tissue from the other Arctic Nations are re­ceived, this research will continue. VNllPRIRODA hasdeveloped proposals for polar bear field research in theprotected and central parts of the Russian Arctic, al­though at the present time, the Institute does not havefinances to begin this work.

Population management

Since 1956, polar bear hunting has been prohibited inRussia. Only a limited number of polar bear cubs arecaptured annually for restocking Russian zoos. For thepast several years, approximately 10 cubs have beencaptured annually for this purpose. In the next one totwo years, Russian officials plan to make some changesin the use and conservation strategy of some polar bearpopulations as proposed by polar bear specialists. Theyare considering the differences in the current status ofthe populations, social and economic situations, andexisting mutual agreements on population managementwith contiguous countries.

Research and Conservation of/he Polar Bear in the Russian Arctic 1988-92

References

Belikov, S.E.,and A.G. Kupriyanov. 1977a.Geographical peculiarities of some aspect of thepolar bear behavior. ColI.: Mammal Behavior. M.,Nauka. pp. 202-212.

Belikov, S.E., and A.G. Kupriyanov. 1977b. Behaviorofthe polar bear in Wrangel Island. Coli.: Polar bearand its conservation in the Soviet Arctic. M., CentralLaboratory on Nature Conservation. pp. 40--54.

Belikov, S.E., N.G. Chelintsev, V.N. Kalyakin, A.A.Romanov,andS.M. Uspensky.1991.Resultsoftheaerial counts of the polar bear in the Soviet Arcticin 1988. In S.C. Amslrup and 0. Wiig, (eds.) Polarbears. Proceedings of the Tenth Worldng MeetingmCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Group, mCN,Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107pp.. pp. 75-79.

123

Golovldn, A.N., S.M. Uspensky, and N.G. Chelintsev.1991. Use of geochemical methods fordifferentiation of the polar bear geographicalgroupings. In S.C. Amslrup and 0. Wiig, (eds.)Polar bears. Proceedings of the Tenth WorkingMeeting mCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Group,mCN, Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107pp. pp.80--85.Methods on aerial counts of the polar bear. 1991.M., VNIIPRIRODA. Ilpp.

Stishov, M.S. 1991. Results of the aerial counts of thepolar bear dens on the Arctic coasts of the exlremeNortheast Asia. Polar Bears. Proceedings of theTenth Working Meeting of the mCN/SSC PolarBear Specialist Group. Occasional Papers of themCN Species Survival Commission (SSC), N 7.pp.90--92.

The Status of Polar Bears in Alaska 1993

S.L. Schliebe, us Fish and Wildlife Service, Marine Mammals Field Office, lOll E. Tudor Road,Anchorage, Alaska 99503, USAS.C. Amstrup, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, National Biological Survey, lOll E. TudorRoad, Anchorage, Alaska 99503, USAG.W. Garner, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, National Biological Survey, lOll E. TudorRoad,Anchorage, Alaska 99503, USA

Population

Population definition

Polar bears occur in all ice-covered seas adjacent toAlaska. The southern extent of thcir mnge in winter isthe northern Bering Sea, where polarbears are seasonalvisitors. From there, they mnge northerly through theBering Strait, into the Chukchi Sea, and northeasterlythrough the Beaufort Sea into Canada. In summer,when the sea-ice retreats to the north, the polar bearsgo with it, and although they still occur adjacent to thecoast in the Beaufort Sea, the Bering and Chukchi Seasare largely devoid of polar bears.

Movements studies, using radio telemetry of polarbears in the Beaufort Sea region of Alaska began in1981, and continue to the present. Telemetry studiesbegan in the Bering/Chukchi region in 1986. Resultshave not been completely analy7-ed, but preliminaryassessments suggest that there is one population in thearea from Cape Bathurst in Canada to approximatelyPt. Barrow, Alaska. In the Chukchi Sea, bears thatassociate with the Alaska coast migrate seasonally atleastas far west as Wmngel Island in Russia. Additionalstudies as well as analysesofexisting data arc necessaryto evaluate the overlap between the bears of theBeaufort and Chukchi Seas near Barrow, and to deter­mine the western limits oftravels by Chukchi Sea bears.

Denning areas

Maternal denning has been studied in northern Alaskasince 1981. Over 150 dens have been found throughoutthe Beaufort Sea and adjacent areas. Of the 90 dens

125

located and confirmed by mdiotelernetry, 53% were ondrifting pack ice, 42% were on land and4% on land-fastice. The proportion of dens on land was higher after1986. Bears denning on pack icc drifted as far as 997kmwhile in dens. Differences in production of land and packice dens were notdeteeted. Meanentry and exitdates were11 Novemberand 5 Aprilforland dens and 22 Novemberand 26 March for pack ice dens. Polar bear dens were ofice and snow only. Female polar bears captured in theBeaufortSea appeared to be isolated from those occurringeast ofCape Bathurst in Canada. Movements to den siteswest of the Beaufort Sea were more common, but bearscaptured in the Beaufort Sea seldom denned in Russia. Ofpolar bears that denned along the mainland coast ofAlaska and Canada, 80% denned between longitude 1370

and 1460 West. Bears followed to more than one den didnot reuse sites, and consecutive dens were 20-1304kmapart, but mdio-eollared bears were largely faithful to thesubstrate and the general geographic area of previousdens.

Preliminary results suggest that many bears occur­ring seasonally along the coast ofwestern Alaska entermaternity dens on Wrangel Island or the northernChukotka Peninsula of Russia, and that few bears denon the western Alaska coast. Much work is needed,however, to confirm denning patterns in westernAlaska.

Population size

It is presently estimated that there were approximately2000 polar bears in the Beaufort Sea, and that at leastan equivalent number probably occurred seasonally inthe Bering and Chukchi Seas. A reassessment of theestimate in the Beaufort Sea is presently under way, but

Polar Rears

results are not yet available. Population estimates in theChukchi Sea still present great difficulties. A majorcensus effort is presently planned for 1993 and 1994.Until those efforts are completed, we must deal with theprevious estimates.

Harvest

Number and composition of the harvest

Polar bears may be harvested for subsistence purposesor for creating items of handicraft or clothing by coastaldwelling Natives provided the population(s) is notdcpletedand the taking is not wasteful. An unquantified portionof the Native subsistence harvest is actually taken indefense of life at hunting camps or within villages.Other types of harvest are prohibited. A single self­defense kill was attributed to offshore oil explorationactivities.

The US Fish and Wildlife Service has tagged theskulls and hides of harvested bears and collected har­vest information, with the assistance of local individu­als, since 1980. The program was voluntary initially,and in October 1988, became mandatory.

The annual harvest of polar bears in Alaskan villagesbetween 1980 and 1992 has averaged 121.6 animals(SD=51.7; 64-296) (Table I). Great annual fluctua­tions are noted. Availability of polar bears to Nativehunters may be determined by weather, ice conditions,and bear distribution. Hunters from villages harvestingBeaufort Sea stock polar bears accounted for 29.8% ofthe total state-wide kill, and hunters from villages har­vesting from the Chukchi/Bering Seas stock accountedfor 71.2% of the kill. Today, average harvest levelshave declined from the 1960 to 1972 period when theannual harvest averaged 260 animals (Fig. I). Recentharvest levels during the last two years have declinedbelow the average (Table 1).

The statewide sex-ratio of the harvest from 1980­1991 was 66:34, males to females (Table 2). Long-termdifferences in the sex-ratio were not detected for theBeaufort or Chukchi/Bering Seas regions, however an­nual variation by region was evident. The extremedifferences in the harvest sex-ratio oceurred in theBeaufort Sea during 1982/1983 when the sex-ratio was48:52, males to females; and during 1990/91 in theChukehi Sea region when the sex-ratio was 83:17,males to females.

126

Statewide, harvests occurred in all months (Fig. 2).The greatest monthly harvest for the period occurredduring January (19.1 %). The combined months of No­vember to May, when the pack ice is in proximity toshore, accounted for 87.7% of the harvest. The monthsof June to September, when the pack iee is retreating toits minimum, accounted for only 12.3% of the harvest.Differences in the chronology of the harvest were evi­dent between the Beaufort Sea region and the Chukchiand Bering seas region. The harvest in the Beaufortregion was bimodal and favored the October to Novem­ber (39.9%) and April to May (26.4%) periods. In theChukchi and Bering seas region the harvest was moreevenly distributed through the mid-winter and springmonths of December to April (78.4%) (Table 3). Thepack ice is generally absent from this area during Julyto October resulting in low harvests (1.6%) during thisperiod.

Average harvested polar bear ages are presented (Fig. 3,Table 4). Accuracy of age estimations are under evalu­ation and may change. Long-term trends within sexclasses were not detected. Generally, the average ageof females exceeded the average age of males. Theharvest age class composition during 1980 to 1990 was26.3% cubs, 26.8% sub-adults, and 46.9% adults (Table 5).Annual variation in age-class composition by regionoccurred.

The actual harvest is believed to approximate thereported kill, although the reported kill is considered aminimum verified number. Information on the sex andage of harvested animals should be improved. Com­plete information on the sex of harvested bears wasavailable for 85% of the kill. Age information wasavailable for 69% ofthe harvest during the 1980 to 1990period (Table 6). The trend of providing specimensfrom harvested bears including teeth, has not increasedfollowing the mandatory marking, tagging and report­ing regulation of October 1988. The validity of hunter­provided sex information will be tested through a pro­tocol to test tissue samples of harvested bears geneti­cally to confirm the sex. The uuknown sex categoryremains a problem if there is a hunter bias againstreporting females harvested. Due to insufficient sam­ples, the unknown sex category will not be clarifiedthrough genetic analysis during this effort.

The primary mode of transportation used to harvestpolar bears is snow machine (71%). Other modes of

transportation include the following: boat (II %),foot (11%), off-road vehicle (4%), pickup (2%), anddog team or airplane (each less than 1%) (Table 7).

Management

Current management regime andhunting regulations

The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) allowsunlimited harvest of polar bears by coastal dwellingNatives for subsistence purposes or for creating articlesof handicraft or clothing. Quotas, seasons, or otherlimitations are not placed on the harvest provided thatthe population is within optimum sustainable levels, arange between maximum net productivity level andcarrying capacity: and provided that the harvest is notwasteful.

Regulations, effective from October 1988, requirehunters to present hides and skulls from harvested polarbears to Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) personnel orlocal assistants working with the FWS within 30 daysof harvest. Skulls and hides are tagged with interlock­ing nylon-plastic tags. Specimens including teeth, or­gan tissues, claws, and ear tags and radio-collars ofbears marked in research are obtained through thisprogram. Non-compliance can result in a fine up to$10,000.

A local user group agreement between the Inupiatand Inuvialuit Native people of Alaska and the North­west Territories of Canada established harvest guide­lines for the polar bear population of the Beaufort Sea.The guidelines are based upon scientific data whichconsider population size, sustainable yield estimates,and the sex-ratio ofthe harvest. The agreement requiresthe voluntary compliance of Alaska Native hunters.The guidelines have been adhered to during all yearsexcept during the initial year in Alaska.

The MMPA is scheduled for reauthorization inSeptember 1993. The FWS Alaska Region has devel­oped a packageofamendment proposals. The proposalsare undergoing Washington Office review. The pro­posed amendments would accomplish the following:

• broaden and make more specific the habitatprotection language in the Act;

• provide for US citizens to hunt polar bears inAlaska;

127

The Status ofPolar Bears in Alaska 1993

• permit importation into the United States oflegal sport-harvested polar bears;

• change the existing incidental (small) takesprocess to a permit process rather than a rule­making;

• relax existing restrictions in the MMPA toallow additional economic activities for Alas­kan Natives, including selling and exportingmeat and hides from certain species or stocksof marine mammals and licensing Alaskan Na­tives as hunting guides for sport hunting ofpolar bears;

• provide the Secretary with discretionaryauthority to manage the harvest of marinemammals by Alaskan Natives prior to popula­tions declining below the depleted threshold;

• restrict methods and means to prohibit the useofaircraft or the use oflarge motorized vesselsin taking or attempting to take marine mam­mals;

• relax import restrictions on marine mammalparts for Alaskan Natives, and for anyonewishing to leave the US with personal items orequipment and then to import those same per­sonal items upon completion of travel;

• allow the intentional take (harassment) ofpolarbears and lethal take in defense of life (but notdefense of property);

• authorize the Secretary of Interior to makegrants or provide other financial assistance toAlaskan Native institutions or persons in orderto participate in cooperative marine mammalmanagement activities;

• authorize the Secretary to develop informationand education materials to further publicknowledge and understanding of marine mam­mals and their habitats; and

• increase the authorization of appropriationsduring the period of reauthorization.

The result of these proposals cannot be determined atthis time.

Protection of polar bear critical habitats

Specific legal authorities to protect polar bear habitatare limited and dispersed among a number ofFederal,state, and local agencies. Maternity denning area inAlaska are being identified. Feeding and migration useareas are not adequately identified or understood. Partsof the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge are used by

Polar Bears

denning polar bears. This area is subject to FWS man­agement, but future demand for oil and gas explorationand the authorization to conduct these activities may beconsidered by the United States Congress.

The MMPA enacted a general moratorium on takingof polar bears, including takes by harassment. Activi­ties which disturb polar bears are illegal and subject toprosecution. The incidental (small) takes provision,Section 101(a)(5) of the MMPA provides some author­ity to protect polar bear and habitat. Incidental andaccidental takes of polar bears are permitted condi­tional to specific letters of authorization. A finding bythe FWS that the activity would have a negligibleimpact on polar bear populations or their availability tosubsistence users is required before development ofregulations. This provision may offer some protectionofpolarbear habitat while authorizing prescribcd levelsof non-lethal take.

The need for more effective habitat protectionauthorities are identified in the preceding section andproposed as amendments to the MMPA.

Use orand trade in polar bearproducts

Use of products

Natives use polar bears primarily for their meat and fortheir hides. A substantial amount of meat is salvagedand used for personal consumption. Some meat whichis salvaged may be used for dog food. It is legal for polarbear meat to be sold in Alaskan Native villages, al­though it occurs infrequently. Hides which have beensubstantially altered and converted into clothing orhandicrafts may be sold to non-Natives.

Trade

It is illegal to sell unaltered hides to non-Natives.Unworked hides may be traded, bartered, or soldamong other Natives. A limited number of hides aresold or traded between Natives for groceries, fuel, snowmachines or snow machine parts, seal oil, etc. Somehides are given as presents to relatives or friends. It isillegal to import polar bear products into the UnitedStates, unless the importing countries apply for and aregranted a waiver. Export of handicrafts, clothing or polarbearproducts may be authorized with a Convention on

128

International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)permit. Most CITES permits are for transport of speci­mens obtained through scientific research. Increasedtravel of Native peoples between Russia and the UnitedStates has increased demands to import and exportmarine mammal products between these countries.Trends to import or export for other purposes are notdetectable.

There is very limited information concerning illegaltaking of polar bears by non-Natives. If illegal takingoccurs it is believed to be at a very low level. However,illegal trade of unworked or unsealed hides has beendocumented through law enforcement action. The firstcase involving the illegal saleofpolar bear gall bladdersdocumented by law enforcement agents occurred during1992.

Other impacts on polar bearpopulations

Industrial activities

The effect of human activities, such as shipping, seismicexploration, drilling, hard mineral mining offshore oronshore, and transport of oil, in polar bear habitat is notpreciscly known. Also, contamination of ice, water,food species, and bears themselves by oil and othertoxins may increase as human activities increase in theArctic. Acute exposure to oil and other chemicals canbe fatal to polar bears. Long-term effects oflower levelsof exposure to oil are not known.

Offshore oil and gas exploration has ceased in theChukchi Sea region. In the Beaufort Sea, offshore andonshore exploration and development continues at apace reduced from previous years.

Human activities in the Arctic, particularly thoserelated to oil and gas exploration and development,pose risks to polar bears and other wildlife, although oilexploratory activity is declining in Alaska's Arctic. A1990 workshop on measures to assess and mitigate theadverse effects of Arctic oil and gas activities on polarbears noted the following ways by which polar bearsand their habitat could be affected: I) death, injury, orharassment resulting from interactions with humans; 2)damage or destruction of essential habitat (the ArcticNational Wildlife Refuge is the only known denning

areaover which the FWS has directmanagementcontrol);3) contact with and ingestion of oil from acute andchronic oil spills; 4) contact with and ingestion ofothercontaminants; 5) attraction to or disturbance by indus­trial noise; 6) harassment (disturbance) by aircraft,ships, orother vehicles; 7) increased hunting pressures;8) indirect food chain effects due to the impacts of oiland gas-related activities on the food web upon whichpolar bears depend and are a part; and 9) mortality,injury, and stress resulting from scientific research todetermine possible effects of oil and gas activities onpolar bears and other species. Available information isnot sufficient in many cases to accurately assess anddetermine how to avoid or mitigate possible direct andindirecteffects ofindustrial activities. Use ofnon-lethaldeterrents and harassment of problem bears could re­duce bear-human conflicts by aversive conditioning ofbears to avoid humans.

Another concern is introduction of radioactivewastes into the Arctic marine ecosystem. Experimentalnuclear testing and dumping of nuclear wastes intooffshore waters by Russia has recently become com­mon knowledge. Near Cape Thompson, Alaska, lowlevel nuclear waste was buried at the completion of atest project. Distribution of radioactivity within thepolar basin and its possible effects on the food websupporting polar bears have not yet been determined.

Status of populations

Preliminary assessments indicate that the status of thepolar bear population in the Beaufort Sea is good. Thepopulation is high and appears to be increasing slowly.Several characteristics, when compared to those of theprevious two decades indicate a population nearingK-carrying capacity. The polar bear population in theChukchi and Bering Seas area is also thought to behigher than in previous years, but data with which toassess it are more limited.

Harvest data indicate that the ages of polar bearstaken by subsistence hunters, throughout Alaska, hasgenerally increased from the levels which occurredduring the late 1960s and early 1970s. All age classesare now present within the population. Previously theolder age class (more than 10 years old) was noticeablyunder-represented. Traditional knowledge offered byNative elders and hunters indicates that today polar

129

The Status ofPolar Bears in Alaska 1993

bears are more frequently observed in near-shore areas.All coastal villages have experienced increased encoun­ters with polar bears and some encounters occur withinthe communities. In 1990 a predacious polar bear attackresulted in the death of one individual.

The magnitude and frequency of Native-killed polarbears has increased from the 1960s. Hunters from vil­lages which harvest polar bears infrequently during thepast, such as Gambell and Savoonga, are harvesting anaverage 10 to 20 bears per year. Hunters from othercoastal villages are experiencing similar situations.

Management in relation to theagreement on the conservation ofpolar bears

The International Agreement on the Conservation ofPolar Bears became effective in 1976. Article VI of theAgreement states that contracting parties shall enactand enforce such legislation and other measures as maybe necessary to give effect to the Agreement. TheUnited States has not specifically enacted implement­ing legislation orregulations. When the Agreement wasinitially provided to the Senate for advice and consentand prior to Presidential signature, it was thought thatthe MMPA provided adequate authority to implementall provisions of the Agreement. This appears not to bethe case, however, and specific implementing legisla­tion or regulations may be necessary to allow the UnitedStates to more fully comply with all provisions of theAgreement. The MMPA's lack of definitive authorityto protect polar bear habitat, regulate the harvest andmethods and means ofharvesting are topics ofcontention.The United States Department ofState has recently takenan interest in this issue.

Article I:The taking of polar bears is prohibited except as pro­vided in Article III. Under the MMPA limited takes areallowed for scientific research purposes, public display,incidental (small) takes by United States citizens, andfor Native subsistence, handicraft, or clothing purposes.The definition of "taking" covers hunting, killing, andcapturing. In the United States the MMPA considersharassment or disturbance, knowing or unknowing, tobe a form of taking. Authority to authorize, regulate,and prohibit these forms of incidental taking are pro­vided. For example passive denning disturbances could

Polar Bears

pose significant threat to individual animals and ifprevalent on a wide scale, it could pose significantthreat to cohorts or stocks of animals.

Article II:Instructs parties to the Agreement to protect the ecosys­tem of which the polar bears are a part and providespecial attention to specific habitat components. Itseems that the ecosystem terminology means some­thing larger than the individual habitat types. In eitherevent, some clarification may be warranted.

Specific measures to protect polar bear habitat in theUnited States have been limited. The difficulties withprotecting offshore habitats which appear and disap­pear annually are great. Unusual problems in identify­ing important polar bear habitat result from the polarbears' mobility and widespread occurrence on sea-ice.Stipulations to protect known or observed polar bearden sites have been incorporated into exploration per­mits and guidelines. Spatial and temporal restriction onactivities are appropriate for certain terrestrial habitats.Broad authorities to protect habitat may be found inother national laws such as the Coastal Zone Manage­ment Act, Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Na­tional Environmental Policy Act, and the OuterContinental ShelfLands Act.

Article III:Native hunting of polar bear is permitted for subsis­tence purposes or for purposes of creating handicraftsor clothing, as authorized by the MMPA. Harvests arenot restricted provided populations are notdepleted andthe taking is not wasteful. The harvest of female bearswith cubs and their cubs, and occasionally of bearsmoving into denning areas or in dens occurs in defer­ence to Annex X, Resolution on Special ProtectionMeasures, to the Agreement. Amendments proposedfrom FWS Alaska Region would partially resolve thisissue. These amendments, if adopted, may also author­ize a regulated system of Native-guided sport huntingor possibly, the regulated sale of hides, and relaxationof import/export provision.

Article III (1)(d) allows for taking by "local peopleusing traditional methods in the exercise of their tradi­tional rights and in accordance with the laws of thatparty." Does this broadly worded phrase override theResolution on hunting females and cubs and bearsentering or in dens?

Article Ill(I)(e) provides and exception "whereverpolar bears have or might have been subject to taking

130

by traditional means by its nationals." Does this allowany taking so long as it is conducted by traditionalmeans? Does the term nationals restrict take by non­residents of the country?

Article IV:The MMPA does not restrict Native subsistence hunt­ing methods or means of harvesting polar bears. TheAgreement excepts the prohibition on use ofaircraft orlarge vessels by stating that it applies, "except wherethe application of such prohibition would be inconsis­tent with domestic laws." Infrequently, polarbears havebeen harvested by Alaska Native hunters using aircraft.Amendments proposed from the FWS Alaska Region,would prohibit the use of aircraft or large motorizedvessels in harvesting polar bears.

Article V:The United States is party to the CITES convention.

Article VI:The United States has chosen the MMPA to implementthe Agreement. Amendments from the Alaska Region,FWS, are proposed.

Article VII:Cooperative research and management programs areunderway. A protocol with Russia was signed October1992 to develop a cooperative management/allocationagreement in the future (previously discussed). Anagreement between the Inupiat of Alaska and the Inu­vialuit of Northwest Territories on the cooperativemanagement of polar bears in the Beaufort Sea issupported by the FWS. The Alaska DepartrnentofFishand Game, Canadian Wildlife Service, Renewable Re­sources of the Northwest Territories, and the FWS aretechnical advisors to the user agreementand meetannu­ally to review progress of the management program. Afive-year evaluation will occur in 1993.

Information needs and data gaps

The conservation of polar bears depends primarilyupon two things. First, we must insure adequate spacefor the critical life functions of feeding and reproduc­tion is available. Significant habitats must be protectedor managed in order to ensure their continued availabil­ity for polar bear use. Second, manage human activitiesthat can directly or indirectly alter numbers or welfareof polar bears must be managed.

Space issues

Denning habitats

Throughout most of their life cycle, polar bears areextremely mobile. While in maternal dens, however,they are stationary, and theoretically vulnerable tomany natural or anthropogenic perturbations. Recentstudies have described the distribution of polar beardens in northern Alaska, but the distribution of dens inwestern Alaska is still largely unknown. Also, althoughthe distribution ofdenning is known in northern Alaska,explanations for that distribution are not. Thus, there isa need for "explanatory" as well as continuing "descrip­tive" studies of denning in Alaska.

Feeding habitats

Little is known about polar bear feeding ecology. Like­wise, polar bears are very mobile, and movements tocertain areas at certain times can be predicted. How-

131

The Status ofPolar Bears in Alaska 1993

ever, the reason for those movement patterns is unclear.Therefore, detailed studies of polar bear feeding ecol­ogy and relationships to sea-ice conditions and move­ments are needed.

Population size and trend

Population size

As indicated above, methods are needed to determinenumbers of polar bears in western Alaska, where markand recapture methods are not practicable.

Population trend

Knowledge of recruitment and survival of polar bears islimited and current population models are hampered bythe lack of accurate estimates of these parameters. Addi­tional data on these subjects are critical to continuingefforts at polar bear management.

­wtv

TABLE 1. Number and sex of polar bears killed by village each harvest year (1 JUly-30 June)

ViUage 1980/81 1981182 1982183 1983/84 1984185 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988189 1989190 1990/91 1991/92 Total

M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U

Atqasuk'" I I I I

Barrow~ I 3 4 5 I 5 5 4 18 5 4 12 14 5 I 2 10 4 9 8 9 2 3 20 I 9 10 4 101 14 9 100 56 47

Brevig Mission 2 3 I I 3 4

Diomede I I 1 I 6 4 5 3 3 I 3 4 I 12 7 5 4 4 3 3 5 I 48 27 3

Emmonak 1 I

Gamocll 3 4 1 3 2 1 20 6 1 I 2 11 3 3 10 11 12 12 3 10 6 3 9 2 3 2 82 56 6

Golovin I I

Ilooper Bay I

Kaktovik'" 4 6 13 I 1 1 1 3 I 1 2 3 3 5 2 3 1 I 2 1 19 13 23

Kiana I 1

Kivalina 1 3 2 1 2 3 2 1 4 1 I 2 2 13 6 7

Kotzebue I 1 I 3 1 2 6 2 I

Nome I 3 1 3

Nuiqsut* I I 1 1 I 2 3 1 1 I 2 I 1 7 3 7

Point Hope 4 3 2 4 1 2 9 6 6 13 11 6 11 3 3 9 3 4 10 2 2 4 5 I 5 3 10 5 9 12 2 10 4 2 I 95 46 46

Point Lay 1 1 2 5 3 2 3 2 1 1 I 2 1 I 1 1 1 13 8 8

Savoonga 11 5 12 9 6 3 31 17 5 2 13 5 3 4 I 7 5 10 4 7 3 9 3 2 4 117 61 3

Shishmaref 15 11 3 13 7 3 7 5 I 49 22 II 10 2 11 8 I 6 9 2 1 19 7 3 13 2 6 3 161 66 23

Wainwright'" 4 2 8 2 4 5 7 4 15 7 11 9 6 3 5 3 8 2 3 7 2 9 2 4 6 I 4 2 2 3 82 33 35

Wales 7 I 5 6 6 I 10 10 7 4 4 6 4 I 5 2 4 3 2 3 6 2 1 3 2 60 38 7

Sub Total 51 34 24 52 27 14 42 29 16 172 88 36 62 32 23 66 33 31 59 33 18 71 46 9 84 41 19 64 2611 58 12 13 37 23 4 818 424218

Annual Total 109 93 87 296 117 130 110 126 144 101 83 64 1460

"Villages harvesting polars bears from the Beaufort Sea stock

~l>l

"~

TABLE 2. sex ratio of polar bear harvest, 1980-1991.

1980/81 198V82 1982183 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988189 1989/90 1990/91 Total

All Alaska 60040 66,34 59041 66,34 66,34 67033 64,36 61039 67033 71029 83,17 66,34

(85) (79) (71) (260) (94) (99) (92) (117) (125) (90) (70) (1241)

Beaufort Sea 53:47 82,18 48,52 74,26 51,49 71,29 57043 73,27 86,14 76,24 82,18 67033

(19) (17) (23) (46) (91) (14) (28) (26) (43) (21) (17) (324)

CbukchiSea 62,38 61039 65,35 64,36 77023 66,34 67033 57043 57043 70,30 83,17 65,35

(66) (62) (48) (214) (53) (85) (64) (91) (82) (69) (53) (917)

Total TIrunber of bears in parentheses

TABLE 3. Monthly harvest of Polar Bears in the Beaufort, Chukchi and Bering Seas (1980-1992).-wwJuly Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Total

Beaufort Stock* 10 16 17 85 85 32 27 9 23 30 84 13 431

(%) (2.3) (3.7) (3.8) (19.7) (20.2) (1.3) (6.3) (2.1) (5.2) (7.0) (19.4) (3.0) (100)

Chukchi!Bering Sea 11 1 0 4 84 143 249 110 183 113 98 21 1017

(%) (1.1) (.1) (0) (.4) (8.3) (14.1) (24.5) (10.7) (18.0) (11.1) (9.6) (2.1) (100)

Total 21 17 17 89 169 175 276 119 206 143 182 34 1448

(%) . (1.5) (1.2) (1.2) (6.1) (11.7) (12.1) (19.1) (8.2) (14.2) (9.8) (12.6) (2.3) (100)

*Beaufort Sea Stock hmvest communities include Kaktovik, Nuiqsut. Barrow. Wainwright and Atqasuk.

;;J'"~~

<Q,~~to

~S·;>.

~....~

TABLE 4. Mean age by sex of polar bears harvested in Alaska, 1980-1991. ""'"is"1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90

..,tl:l'"Sex N x SD N x S5 N x SD N x SD N x SD N x SD N x SD N x SD N x SD N x SD ~

SOUTHERN BEAUFORT SEA

Male (3) 6.3 2.5 (5) 7.2 4.0 (7) 3.3 2.9 (25) 6.6 4.4 (14) 4.8 4.1 (7) 3.0 1.0 (6) 6.5 5.1 (10) 9.0 6.3 (18) 8.1 5.3 (8) 7.0 4.9

Female (6)11.6 3.7 (3) 8.0 5.6 (6) 5.6 3.1 (9) 7.1 3.9 (13) 9.6 5.4 (3) 14.3 1.5 (8) 7.6 3.4 (4) 3.5 1.0 (3) 8.0 1.0 (1) 3.0

Unknown (4) 3.0 0.8 (0) (0) (0) (0) (5) 4.0 1.2 (2) 4.0 2.8 (0) (1) 4.0 (0)

CHUKCmSEA

Male (38)5.9 3.6 (28) 6.0 4.7 (25) 4.4 2.1 (128)7.0 4.5 (30) 8.4 6.6 (48) 7.0 4.8 (37) 6.4 4.3 (50) 6.5 5.5 (41) 5.8 4.5 (38) 5.8 4.6

Female (22)0.3 6.3 (21) 8.1 4.6 (14) 6.2 4.0 66) 7.3 4.6 (9) 8.6 3.8 (28) 7.5 5.4 (21) 6.8 4.8 (34) 7.5 3.8 (31) 8.2 4.8 (18) 8.5 4.1

Unknown (1) 4.0 (I) 2.0 (1) 5.0 (4) 3.3 0.5 (0) (3) 3.6 1.2 (0) (I) 9.0 (0) (0)

a) Harvest season extends from July 1 to June 30.N::::: Nwnber of known/age bears. ::::: Mean age. SD;:;; Standard Deviation.

- TABLE 5. Age class of polar bear harvested in Alaska, 1980-1990w.,.,

1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 Total

Cubs 22 14 22 49 16 31 18 25 22 20 239(%) (29.7) (24.1) (41.5) (21.1) (24.2) (33) (24.3) (25.3) (23.4) (30.8) (26.3)

Subadulrs 12 11 16 72 17 26 23 24 24 19 244(%) (16.2) (19) (30.2) (31) (25.8) (27.7) (31.1) (24.2) (25.5) (29.2) (26.8)

Adults 40 33 15 111 33 37 33 50 48 26 426(%) (54.1) (56.9) (28.3) (47.9) (50) (39.3) (44.6) (50.5) (51.1) (40) (46.9)

Total 74 58 53 232 66 94 74 99 94 65 909

Cubs::::: 3rd year of life, harvested before May.Subadults = 3-5 yearolds.

Adults ::::: 6 years or greater.

~

wV>

TABLE 6. Complete information on the sex and age of harvested polar bears in Alaska, 1980-90

1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983184 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988189" 1989190 Total

No. of bears forwhich sex and ageinformation 74 58 53 232 66 94 74 99 94 65 9(Jlcomplete

Total size of harvest 109 93 87 296 117 130 110 126 144 102 1323

(%) Complete (67) (62) (61) (78) (56) (72) (61) (78) (65) (64) (69)

*88189 mandatory marking, tagging and reporting program went into effect

TABLE 7. Modes of transportation used to harvest polar bears in Alaska from 1980/61 to 1991/92

Airplane Boat Dog team Foot Off road vehicle Pick-up Snow machine

N 3 100 2 97 39 19 641

(%) (0.33) (11) (0.22) (11) (4) (2) (71)

N= Number

:;J'"'"".~~

~~tll

~S·;".

~~

~

Po/arRears

400

'C 300Q)

~Q)

~lU.s:::Ul 200 -...lUQ).c...lU"0Do

100

o1960 1965 1970 1975

Year

1980 1985 1990

FIG. 1. Annual Alaskan polar bear harvest (1960-92). The Marine Mammal Protection Act wentinto effect in 1973

136

300• Beaufort Sea

250 -.~ChukchilBering Seas

"0Q)-tilQ)

~ 200J:::.til...IIIQ).c

- ~ 150 -'" '0-J

C.-0.8 100 -E::lZ

50

oJUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN

MonthFIG 2. Monthly harvest of polar bears in the Beaufort and Chukchi/Bering Seas (1980-92)

;;i'"~g~:;<>;:;-...txl

§S':..;:;-

~....~

Po/arBears

Beaufort Sea25.,..----------------------,

20_Male (n=1 05)

El::'lFemale (n = 58)

>.g 15CD:::l0-CD 10....u..

5

o1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Age (year)

Chukchi/Bering Seas100 -,....-------------------,

80

_Male (n=470)

El::'lFemale (n = 268)

>.g 60CD:::l0-CD 40....u..

20

o , , I , i , I , , I I ,

1 234 5 6 7 8 91011121314151617181920212223242526272829

Age (year)

FIG 3. Age frequencies of harvested polar bears, Beaufort and Chukchi/Bering Seas (1980--90)

138

Polar Bear Management in Alaska 1988-92

S. L. Schliebe, us Fish and Wildlife Service, Marine Mammals Field Office, 1011 E. Tudor Road,

Anchorage, Alaska 99503, USA

T. J. Evans, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Marine Mammals Field Office, 1011 E. Tudor Road, Anchorage,

Alaska 99503, USA

~anagernentchanges

The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) providesthe framework for management activities pertaining topolar bears. The MMPA has been reauthorized numer­0us times since its passage in 1972, the most recent in1988. Procedures for reviewing the status of marinemammal populations and for making depletion deter­minations were added in 1988. The new section elabo­rates on the development of conservation plansparticularly for those species which are depleted. TheMMPA provisions governing scientific research andpublic display pennits were also amended in 1988 anda new pennit category was created which allows theFish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to authorize activitiesdesigned to enhance the survival or recovery of marinemammal populations. These changes were imple­mented so that animals which were pregnant or nursingor less than eight months old when taken may beimported for public display if the importation is for theprotection or welfare of the animal. The existing require­ments for public display remain in effect.

Following the last mecting of the Polar Bear SpecialistGroup, mandatory marking, tagging and reportingregulations (October 1988) went into effect. The newregulations provided standards for tagging skulls andhides and recording harvest data.

Polar bear kiIIs

Number and composition of the harvest

The MMPA allows polar bears to be harvested forsubsistence purposes or for creating items of handicraftor clothing by coastal dwelling Natives, provided the

139

population(s) is not depleted, and the taking is notwasteful. The Native subsistence harvest includes killsat hunting camps or within villages which may be moreappropriately considered defense kills. All other typesof harvest are prohibited. A single defense of life killwas attributed to offshore oil exploration activitiesduring 1990.

The total Alaska harvest of polar bears from July1988 to June 1992 was 392 animals. The annual harvestof polar bears in Alaska villages during this period hasaveraged 98 animals (S0=51.2; range: 64-144) (Table 1).Hunters from villages harvesting Beaufort Sea stock(Northern Area) accounted for 28.4% of the total state­wide kill, and hunters from villages harvesting from theChukchi/Bering seas stock (Western Area) accountedfor the remaining 71.6% of the kill. Harvest levelsduring the last two years have declined below theaverage of 98 animals for the four-year period between1988 and 1992. Today, average harvest levels havedeclined from the 1960-72 period when the annualharvest averaged 260 animals. The sex-ratio of theharvest from 1988-91 was 72:28, males to females(Table 2). The sex-ratio for the Chukchi Sea regionapproximated Ole long-term 2: I, male:female ratio;while Ole Beaufort Sea region more closely approxi­mated a 3:1, male to female, ratio. Complete infonna­tion on the sex of harvested bears was available for 85%of the kill.

Average ages and age classes ofharvested polar bearsare presented in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Accuracyof age estimations arc under evaluation and maychange. The harvest age class composition during 1988to 1990 was 26.4% cubs, 27.0% subadults, and 46.6%adults (Table 4).

Po/arRears

Age infonnation was available for 65% of the harvestduring the 1988-90 period.

The ttue harvest is believed to approximate the reportedkill, although the reported kill is considered a minimumverified number. Infonnation on the sex and age ofharvested animals should be improved. The trend ofproviding specimens from harvested bears includingteeth, has not increased following the mandatory mark­ing, tagging and reporting regulation ofOctober 1988.The validity of hunter-provided sex information will beverified through a genetic test of tissue samples ofharvested bears. Due to insufficient samples of un­known sex category animals killed in the past, geneticanalysis will not clarify this issne.

Specimens from harvested bears continue to be col­lected. Claw samples are being evaluated for isotopiccarbon/nitrogen ratios by Dr Donald Shell of the Uni­versity of Alaska, Fairbanks. Collection of samples formonitoring organochlorines and heavy metals will becontinUed.

North Slope Borough/lnuvialuit GameCouncil Hunters Agreement

A local user group agreement between the Inupiat andInuvialuit Native people of Alaska and the NorthwestTerritories of Canada, modeled after the InternationalAgreement, establishes harvest guidelines for the polarbear population of the Beaufort Sea. The guidelines arebased upon scientific data which consider populationsize, sustainable yield estimates, and the sex-ratio of theharvest. The agreement requires the voluntary compli­ance of Alaska Native hunters. The guidelines havebeen adhered to during all years except during theinitial year in Alaska.

The Agreement is precedent setting, and in theUnited States establishes conditions which are morestringent than Federal guidelines under the MMPA.The long-range success of the Agreement will dependupon several factors but primarily upon compliance oflocal hunters, as it lacks legal status and does notprovide for enforcement or penalties in Alaska.

In 1988 the annual sustainable harvest guidelineswere established at 76 bears per year: 38 bears each forthe Canadian and Alaskan sectors of the Beaufort Sea.The snstainable yield estimate was based on existing

140

sex-ratio of the harvest and a 1.5% annual sustainableremoval rate for females. The hunting season in Canadais 1December to 3I May, and in Alaska it is SeptemberI to May 3I. This protects pregnant females prior todenning in Canada, but not in Alaska.

During the initial harvest year, 1988-89, Alaskanhunters in the area governed by the Agreement took 58bears, exceeding harvest guidelines. The Canadian har­vest of 32 was below the allocation guideline. During1989-90 the Alaskan harvest of 24 and the Canadianharvest of 34 were both less than the allocation guide­line of 38 bears per jurisdiction. It is believed that theredUCed take in 1989-90 resulted from recognition oftenus of the Agreement through distribution of infor­mational brochures and posters and an extensive com­munications effort. Harvest during the 1990-91 and1991-92 seasons were also less than the allocationguidelines: 19 from Alaska and 15 from Canada in theformer, and 30 from Alaska and 32 from Canada in thelatter.

Bear-human interaction

The first human mortality caused by a polar bear attackof recent time occurred on December 8, 1990, withinthe villageofPoint Lay. The predacious attack occurredin the dark of the early morning hours. The bear waslocated and killed. A necropsy was conducted by per­sonnel of the North Slope Borough. The bear wasextremely lean and no remarkable physical problemswere observed. The victim was consumed by the bear.

The increased frequency ofpolar bear visits to coastalcommuuities has caused public concern for humanwelfare in recent years. During the fall and early winterof 1992/93, favorable weather and ice conditions and asuccessful bowhead whaling season, contributed to at­tracting up to 40 polar bears to the vicinity of Barrow.Potentially serious human safety problems wereaverted by the actions of the North Slope Boroughagencies, Alaska Department ofFish and Game and USFish and Wildlife Service. In certain instances localpolar bear monitors have been employed to conductcommunity polar bear patrols.

The potential for an excessivebearkill existed butdid notoccur due to the vigilance of the North Slope Borough'sDepartment of Wildlife Management and hunterrestraint in complying with the harvest guidelines

contained in the agreement with the Inuvialuit GameCouncil, Canada.

Industry and polar bear regulations

Industry has petitioned the FWS to develop incidental(small) take regulations for permissible types and levelsof "taking" of polar bears in two geographic regions:Chukchi Sea and Beaufort Sea. Types of "taking" areprimarily incidental, non-intentional forms, iUcludingnon-lethal disturbance (harassment). In order for regu­lations to be developed the FWS must first find that theaggregate total of taking in the specified activity willhave a negligible impacton the species or stock and willnot have an unmitigable adverse impact on the avail­ability of the species or stock for subsistence uses. Ifthis finding is made, the FWS issues the regulationswhich include specify monitoring and reporting pro­grams necessary to measure the effect of the subjectactivity. Individual Letters of Authorization providefurther details on operational requirements.

To date, regulations for exploratory activities in theChukchi Sea during the open-water season have beendeveloped. Regulations for exploratory and productionactivities in the Beaufort Sea will be developed by May1993.

The first recorded lethal take of a polar bear directlyassociated with industry activity occurred duringJanuary 1990. Oil and gas companies operating in theBeaufort Sea are keenly interested that future polarbear-human interactions be minimized and have takenthe initiative to implement polar bear interaction plansprior final development of incidental take regulations.FWS and Alaska Department of Fish and Game(ADFandG) representatives have provided training tonumerous operators on detecting and avoiding encoun­ters with polar bears. Operator site-specific polar bearinteraction plans have been developed and reviewed forcompleteness and consistency with conditions of theMMPA. Further, FWS and ADFandG employeescontrib­uted to an informational video for employee environ­mental orientation.

The US Minerals Management Service has con­lTacted development of a reference manual for indus­trial operators working in polar bear country. A host ofagencies and individuals contributed to the develop­ment of the manual, scheduled for completion during1993.

141

Polar Bear Management in Alaska 1988-92

Management planning

A draft management plan for polar bears in Alaska hasbeen developed (copies available). The draft manage­ment plan is being considered for approval by theFWS.It wasprepared with the assistanceofthe Marine MammalCommission and the Polar Bear Management PlanAdvisory Team. The Advisory Team comprised ofindividuals or representatives from a wide speclTum ofinterests inclUding the following: Alaska Native hunt­ers; North Slope Borough; Bering SlTait region; North­west Alaska Native Association; National WildlifeFederation; Audubon Society; Greenpeace; Defendersof Wildlife; Safari Club International; Alaska Profes­sional Hunters Association; US Minerals ManagementService; Alaska Department of Fish and Game; ARCOAlaska Inc.; BP Exploration; Marine Mammal Commis­sion; and FWS. The development of this plan recog­nized the different ideologies and philosophies inconserving and managing polar bears and soughtconsen­sus through a cooperative venture. Because of the diver­sity of opinion it is unlikely that the final plan willrepresent a consensus for all individuals or organiza­tions involved in its development.

The Management Plan for the Polar Bear in Alaska(plan) has been developed by the Fish and WildlifeService (FWS) for a number of purposes.

• Support terms of the International Agreementon the Conservation of Polar Bears.

• Support the policies outlined in the MMPAincluding maintaining populations within opti­mum sustainable ranges, protecting the envi­ronment, and providing for specific uses ofpolar bears. Support amendments to theMMPA to improve the abilities oftheFWS towisely manage and protect polar bear popula­tions for the public benefit or intrinsic values.

• Support management programs based onsound, objective biological information.

• Support cooperative management and researchprograms at local Native hunter, state, national,and international levels.

The plan is organized into six sections: 1) prefaceexplaining the purpose and process of the plan andinvolvement of key individuals and organizations in itsdevelopment; 2) background section providing infor­mation on the historical and contemporary uses ofpolarbears, their management, and the legal framework

Polar Bears

which guides the actions of the plan; 3) polar bearbiology; 4) conservation issues; 5) conservation plan, astep-down outline and narrative of the goals and objec­tives (tasks) ofthe conservation plan; and 6) implemen­tation plan comprised of; a) the schedule for completingthe tasks in the conservation plan, and b) managementoptions,. including the preferred alternative.

The public availability of this plan was announced on28 December 1992 in the Federal Register. The plan issubject to change during and as a result of the publiccomment period from 15 January 1993, to 28 February1993. Meetings were conducted in coastal villages andAnchorage. Public comment will be evaluated duringMarch 1993 and a revised final plan will be publishedin Apri11993. The final plan is also subject to changeas a result of annual review by the advisory team, newfindings, change in population status orstocks, or researchfindings.

The plan may be revised at any time as appropriate.The life of the plan is anticipated to be five years.Modification may be required as dictated by emergingresource issues, amendments to the MMPA, or shifts inFWS policies and public directives regarding polar bearmanagement.

Marine Mammal Protection Actreauthorization

The MMPAis scheduled forreauthorization in Septem­ber 1993. The FWS, Alaska Region, has developed apackage of amendment proposal. A formal FWS andDepartment of Interior position has not been deter­mined for the proposed amendments. As ofMarch 1993they addressed the following areas or issues: broadenand make more specific the habitat protcction languagein the Act; provide for US citizens to hunt polar bearsin Alaska; permit importation into the United States oflegal sport harvested polar bears; change the existingincidental (small) takes process to a permit processrather than a rule-making [see also previous section onindustry developments]; relax existing restrictions toallow additional economic activities for Alaskan Natives,including selling and exporting polar bear meat andhides and licensing Alaskan Natives as hunting guidesfor sport hunting of polar bears; provide the Secretarywith discretionary authority to manage the harvest ofpolar bears by Alaskan Natives prior to population

142

declines below the depleted threshold; restrict methodsand means to prohibit the use of aircraft or the use oflarge motorized vessels in taking or attempting to takepolar bear; allow a regulated import or export of polarbear parts; authorize financial grant assistance toAlaskan Native institutions or persons participation incooperative polar bear management activities; and em­phasize the development of information and educationmaterials to further public knowledge and under­standing of polar bears and their habitats.

Cooperative projects with Russia

The polar bear population occupying the Chukchi andBering seas is mutually shared between Russia andAlaska. Avery high frequency ofdenning ofbears fromthis stock occurs in Russian territories; and polar bearsspend a greater proportion of their time in Russianterritories than in Alaskan territories. At the Polar BearSpecialist Group meeting in 1988, polar bear manage­ment biologists within the former SovietUnion expresseda desire to renew hunting. Hunting of polar bears in theRussian Arctic has been prohibited since 1956.

In Alaska, Native subsistence hunters harvest approxi­mately 100 bears annually from this population. Har­vests at this level are considered sustainable, althoughprecise estimates of population size and sustainableyield limits are not available.

Additional demands on this stock of polar bearsrequires a unified management approach. Resourceagency and Native representatives of both countriesmet in October 1992 and signed a protocol of intentionto develop a cooperative management plan. The proto­col states that Native peoples from both countries willbe involved in the developmentofthe ultimate manage­ment plan as partners with the management agencies.The agreement will describe exchange of scientificinformation, regulation of uses, endorsement for bio­monitoring and joint field research, coordination ofconservation and management activities, and exchangeof information on environmental legislation. The foun­dation for future management or allocation agreementwill be sound biological information. The managementprotocol urges each country to establish a working groupand to convene a meeting of the working groups during1993 to draft the initial management agreement.

The need to control and account for the total take ofpolar bears from the Bering/Chukchi seas populationwill be central to an allocation agreement. The currentability of the FWS to regulate harvests is limited towhen populations decline below asp. Independentvoluntary reslraint in harvesting polar bears has recentlybeen demonstrated by North Slope hunters conformingto terms of the Inupiat and Inuvialuit managementagreement for polar bears of the Beaufort Sea. However,it is not certain whether voluntary restraint, such asdemonstrated by the Inupiat, provide adequate protec­tive assurances for Russian managers entering futurehunter agreements for the western Alaska region.

Polar Bear Management in Alaska 1988-92

A sound estimate of population size and biologicallyallowable removal rate are priority management needs.To this end the FWS polar bear management programhas supported Dr Garner et al. in a review of censusmethodologies which lead to the Protocol: Pilot PolarBear Survey Beaufort Sea, 1993. The managementprogram will be cooperating in the 1993 test ofcensusmethodologies designed to be applied in the ChukchiSea during the fall of 1994.

TABLE 1. Number and sex of polar bears killed by village each harvest year, 1988-92

Village 1988/89 1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 Total

M F U M F U M F U M F U M F U

Atqasuk" I I I IBarrow** 20 1 9 10 4 10 I 14 9 54 15 9Brevig Mission I IDiomede 5 4 4 3 3 5 1 17 8Gambell 3 10 6 3 9 2 3 2 21 17Kaktovik" 5 2 3 1 I 2 I 5 3 7Kivalina I 4 1 1 2 2 7 4Kotzebue I 2 1 2Nuiqsut" 2 I 1 2 I 1Point Hope 5 3 10 5 9 12 2 10 4 2 I 31 12 20Point Lay 2 1 I 1 I 1 4 I 2Savoonga 10 4 7 3 9 3 2 4 28 14Shishmaref 19 7 3 13 2 6 3 41 9 3Wainwright" 9 2 4 6 I 4 2 2 3 21 7 5Wales 3 6 2 1 3 2 10 7

Subtotal 84 41 19 64 26 11 58 12 13 37 23 4 243102 47

Annual total 144 101 83 64 392

lie Harvest year is from 1 July to 30 June

**Villages haIVesting polar bears from the Beaufort Sea stock

143

Po/arBears

TABLE 2. Sex ratio of polar bear harvest, 1988-91

1988/89 1989/90 1990/91 Total

All Alaska 67:33 71:29 83:17 72:28(125) (90) (10) (285)

Beaufort Sea 86:14 76:24 82:18 83:17(43) (21) (17) (81)

Chukchi Sea 57:43 70:30 83:17 68:32(82) (69) (53) (204)

Total nwnber of bears in parenthesis

TABLE 3. Mean age by sex of polar bears harvested in Alaska, 1988-1990

Sex 1988/89 1989190

SOUTHERN BEAUFORT SEA

N x SO N x SO

Male (18) 8.1 5.3 (8) 7.0 4.9Female (3) 8.0 1.0 (I) 3.0Unknown (1) 4.0 (0)

CHUKCHI SEA

N x SO N x SO

Male (41) 5.8 4.5 (38) 5.8 4.6Female (31) 8.2 4.8 (18)8.5 4.1Unknown (0) (0)

The harvest season extends from 1 July to 30 JuneN ;::; Nwnber of bears of known age. x;::; Mean age. SD ;::; Standard Deviation

TABLE 4. Age class of polar bears harvested in Alaska, 1988-90

Cubs(%)

Subadults(%)

Adults(%)

Total

()~%

Cubs ~ 3rd year oflife, harvested before MaySubadults ~ 3-5 year oldAdults ~ 6 years or greater

1988/89

22(23.4)

24(25.5)

48(51.1)

94

144

1989/90

20(30.8)

19(29.2)

26(40)

65

Total

42(26.4)

43(27.0)

74(46.6)

159

Polar Bear Research in the Beaufort Sea

S.C. Amstrup, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, National Biological Society, 1011 E. TudorRoad, Anchorage, Alaska, 99503G. Durner, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, National Biological Society, 1011 E. Tudor Road,Anchorage, Alaska, 99503

Current research is designed to determine the status ofthe polar bear population in the Beaufort Sea and adja­cent areas. One goal is to determine how polar bears aredistributed relative to each other and habitat features,and to define population boundaries. Another goal is todetermine the population size and trend, and assess howpresent and future management issues may affect thetrend. Specific objectives of the research include theneed to:

1. Determine the movements of individualscomprising the polar bear population that uses theBeaufort Sea. Determine how movements vary byseason and by year, and whether they can bemodeled so as to allow meaningful census andmitigation efforts.

2. Improve estimates of size of the Beaufort Seapopulation relative to the capacity of theenvironment to sustain it.

3. Determine factors regulating the rate ofrecruitment of new bears into the population.

4. Determine the distribution of polar bear dens innortheru Alaska and whether denning habitatsmay be a limiting factor on reproductive success.

5. Determine the timing of den entrance andemergence.

6. Determine the relative success rates (thus thereproductive significance) of dens in variouslocations.

This report summarizes the progress toward thoseobjectives that has been made since the last meeting ofthe PBSG in 1988.

Methods

We captured polar bears by injecting immobilizingdrugs (Tiletamine HCI plusZolazepam HCI [Telazol®,

145

Warner-Lambert Co.]) with projectile syringes firedfrom helicopters. Bears were captured throughout theBeaufort Sea, which extends from Pt. Barrow, Alaska,at approximately I57'W, to Cape Bathurst, NorthwestTerritories, Canada at approximately I27'W, and inbordering areas to the east and west. We used logisticsbases at Kaktovik, Prudhoe Bay, and Barrow, Alaska.Canadian cooperators captured and radio-collaredbears (for us to radio-iiack) in the Canadian BeaufortSea, along the east coast of Banks Island, and inAmundsen Gulf.

We attached very high frequency (VHF) radio-collarsto polar bears between 198I and 1985 and relocatedthem using aircraft. After autumn 1985, and throughoutthe time since the last meeting of this group in 1988,we mostly deployed ultra high frequency (UHF) lIans­mitters that were relocated by satellite. Satellite radio­collars or Platform Transmitter Terminals (PTTs)communicated the animal's location, temperature ofthe sensor within the collar, and two indices ofactivity.A short-term activity counter recorded the number ofseconds of movement during the minute prior to lIans­mission. A long-term activity counter recorded theproportion of time the bear was moving in the 72 hoursprior to transmission. P1Ts also had VHF beacons thatwe located using aircraft. We located radio-collaredpolar bears with satellite position fixes, aircraft radio­tracking, and visual sightings.

Blood samples were collected routinely from cap­tured bears, and tissue was collected where possible.These specimens were subjected to modem moleculargenetics techniques to examine geographic variationamong polar bears, phylogenetic relationships amongNorth American bears, and to test a new method ofdetermining the sexes of animals from which onlytissues or blood were available.

Polar Bears

Results and discussion

Mark and recapture and radiotelemetry continued to bethe mainstays of northern Alaska polar bear researchduring and after 1988. Between 1988 and 1992 inclusive,639 polar bears were captured. We captured or recap­tured 128 bears with the assistance of radio-telemetry.Of the 511 bears captured by normal helicopter searchingmethods, 146 (29%) were previously marked. Associ­ated with captures we deployed 93 PTfs and 40 VHFradio-collars. We relocated the VHF collars 106 times,mainly as part of efforts to confirm production andsurvival of cubs. PTfs provided 7479 location fixesfrom collared polar bears during this period. The abovenumber represents only one high quality location perday of transmission. In most cases, there were severalsuch locations per day, so the total number of positionfixes recorded was actually far greater.

Maternal denning studies

Although we will continue to collect information onmaternal denning as we can, the 1991 season markedthe end of formal studies unit on denning. Two manu­scripts describing the findings of denning studies indetail are presently under review by professional jour­nals. One has been submitted to the Journal ofWildlifeManagement, the second to Arctic. Synopsis of thefindings reported in those manuscripts follows:

Between 1981 and 1991, radio-collared polar bearswere followed to 125 suspected maternity dens in landor sea-ice habitats. We confirmed 90 of those dens andevaluated success for 59. During the same time interval,we located 31 suspected incidental dens, confirmed 26and evaluated success for 17. Of 90 dens located byradiotelemetry, 53% were on drifting pack ice, 42%were on land and 4% on land-fast ice. Bears we fol­lowed to more than one den did not reuse sites andconsecutive dens were 20-1304km apart, but radio­collared bears were largely faithful to the substrate andthe general geographic area ofprevious dens. The num­bers of dens found on land in the Beaufort Sea areaincreased during the study, suggesting an increasingfrequency ofland denning relative to pack ice denning.We examined 14 dens on the ground. All were con­structed of ice and snow only, and both single andmultiple chambered dens were observed. Halfofexam­ined dens, and many others were in areas of minimaltopographic relief, where denning might not havebeen suspected without the aid ofradiotelemetry. Mean

146

entry and exit dates were 11 November and 5 Aprilfor land dens and 22 November and 26 March for packice dens.

Substantial denning occurs in the BeaufortSea regionof northern Alaska and adjacent Canada, and the distri­bution of those dens raises management questions.Most bears that denned on land selected sites in thenortheastern comer of Alaska or adjacent Canadawhere oil and gas exploration has occurred or is likely.Fidelity to denning substrata means that recovery fromperturbations that unequally affect either denning com­ponent will be slow. On the other hand, the absence ofsite fidelity among denning polar bears indicated thatdenning habitats are not limiting. Further, the chronologyof denning was predictable. Therefore, temporal andspatial management of hunting and industrial develop­ments should mitigate many human impactson denningbears.

Movements, distribution, and populationdefinition

Collection of data on movements of polar bears hascontinued since 1988, and this phase of the BeaufortSea research project is also coming to completion.Initial analyses have corroborated observations, madeearlier, that polar bears are extremely mobile animalsperhaps the most mobile of all non-aquatic mammalsexcepting some species of bats. Some individual polarbears that were monitored for a period of at least oneyear had activity areas (minimum area polygons) ex­ceeding 300,OOOkm2.

Most bears have maintained activity areas in theBeaufort Sea and adjacent areas. Fig. 1 illustrates rathertypical spring-autumn movements of a bear capturedin the central Beaufort Sea. Fig. 2 illustrates the sea­sonal activity areas ofa typical bear monitored over thecourse of one year.

Activity areas continue to grow! to some extent. evenafter a full year, and our many years of radiotelemetrydata continue to emphasize the need for loug-termstudies to understand these long-lived animals. Fig. 3illustrates the boundaries of annual activity areas occu­pied by a bear wearing a satellite collar for four con­secutive years. It is clear from that figure thatresearchers following her for ouly one or two yearscould have had a much different pictureofhow she usedher habitat.

Despite seasonal and annual variation in areas occu­pied by polar bears, most bears captured in the BeaufortSea have either stayed within the Beaufort Sea, or ifthey left, they returned. Table I summarizes the maxi­mum and miuimum longitudinal values of relocationsofpolarbears captured at various logistical bases. Notethat the eastern extremes of activity areas of bearscaptured clear across the Beaufort Sea mainland coastare very similar. To date, there has only been one bearradio-collared west of Cape Bathurst that has spentsignificant time in Amundsen Gulf. Furthermore, thisbear remained there for only two months, and thenreturned to the Beaufort Sea. Western extremes ofmovements were more variable.

Movementdata have not yet been analyzed, butsometrends are clear. Polar bears are most dispersed inwinterand spring, and it is in these seasons that we haveseen the greatest movements beyond the bounds of theBeaufort Sea. Through summer and autumn, bearsappeared to concentrate in the mainland coastal area ofthe Beaufort Sea. This pattern could be tied entirely tothe condition and distribution of the sea-ice, because inmany years the ice breaks up first at the eastern andwestern fringes and erodes progressively toward thecentral Beaufort Sea. Bears captured in Barrow have agreaterdispersion than bears captured atother localitiesduring every season. We feel this indicates that bearsaccessible from Barrow represent both Chukchi andBeaufort Sea populations, whereas bears captured inmore easterly locals only represent Beaufort stocks.

Ifany process is studied long enough, exceptions aresure to surface. In spring 1992 the exception to ourhypothesis about integrity of the Beaufort Sea popula­tion surfaced. In late May, 1992, we captured an adultfemale polar bear with two cubs-of-the-year withinsight of Prudhoe Bay. She was instrumented and re­leased at the site of capture like all other bears wecaught, but upon recovering from the cffects of thedrngs, she headed north. This bear continued her north­erly trek until she reached northeast Greenland, via anover the pole route (Fig. 4). Unfortunately, her radiofailed prematurely, and chances of recovering her oreven resighting her are slim.

Population dynamics

Analyses of the data relevant to population dynamicsof bears in the Beaufort Sea are just beginning. A few

147

Polar Bear Research in the Beaufort Sea

patterns appear to be emerging, however. Preliminaryanalyses of age structure information have indicatedthat the Beaufort Seapopulation iscloser to the carryingcapacity of the environment than at times past. Datacollected after 1981 indicate lower numbers of littersproduced and smaller litter sizes than prior to that date.The age structure appears older now. Survival ofyounganimals to the age of maturity is lowerand survival ofoldanimals appears higher than for the period 1967-80. Weare continuing to use the 1986 estimate of approximately2000 animals as a working figure but analyses leading torevised population size estimates are under way.

Molecular genetics studies

Since 1988, personnel of both western and northernAlaska polar bear projects have continued to examinemolecular genetics methods for helping to differentiatestocks. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of polar bearsfrom Alaska and Canada were analyzed for intraspeci­fic variation. We also compared mtDNA of polar bearswith that ofbrown bears and black bears in order to helpunderstand phylogenetic relationships. The results ofthese comparisons were published in a 1991 paper"Interspecific and intraspecific mitochondrial DNAvariation in North American bears" (Cronin, M. A.,Amstrup, S. c., Gamer, G. W., and Vyse, E. R., 1991,Can. J. Zoo!. 69:2985-2992). Abriefsummary ofthosefindings follows.

Six mtDNA haplotypes were identified in blackbears, five haplotypes in brown bears, and four haplo­types in polar bears. The six black bear haplotypesoccurred in two major groups. Within each group,mtDNA sequence divergence's were low relative to thedivergence between groups. Haplotypes of one groupwere distributed among all locations. Also, divergenthaplotypes from both groups occurred together in thesame areas of Montana and Oregon.

Low to moderate divergences were identified amongthe five mtDNA haplotypes of brown bears. The twomorphological forms of U. arc/os, grizzly and coastalbrown bears, did not cluster as distinct mtDNA lineages.Haplotypes of some coastal brown bears were moresimilar to haplotypes ofgrizzly bears than to one haplo­type of other coastal brown bears. Further, one haplo­type was actually more similar to the polar bearhaplotypes than it is to the other brown bear haplotypes.

Four mtDNA haplotypes with low sequence diver­gences were identified in polar bears. One comprised

Polar Bears

73-79% of the haplotypes in each of the three areas(Chukchi and Beaufort Seas of Alaska, and NWT ofCanada) sampled. Another haplotype also occurred inall three areas. The third haplotype occurred only in thetwo Alaskan locations and the fourth only on EllesmereIsland in the extreme north of the Canadian high Arctic.The distribution of polar bears differs from those ofblack bears and brown bears because they are continu­ously distributed across their range with no geographicbarriers or disjunct populations. Polar bears are highlymobile and our studies have shown there is the potentialfor gene flow across the entire range of the species. Theoccurrence of the same haplotypes across the samplinglocations may reflect this.

Perhaps the most interesting finding was that onegrizzly bear haplotype clustered with polar bears, sepa­rate from the other brown bear haplotypes. This indi­cates that brown bears are paraphyletic with respect topolar bears in mtDNA phylogeny. That is, some brownbears share a more recent common ancestral mtDNAwith polar bears than they do with other brown bears.That brown bear haplotype and the four polar bearhaplotypes probably represent descendants of onemtDNA variant which occurred in ancestral popula­tions.

Although mtDNA phylogeny of brown and polarbears is paraphyletic, polar bears have many derivedmorphological characters which identify them as amonophyletic group. This relationship of brown bearsand polar bears is an example ofa mtDNA phylogenetictree which is not the same as a species tree, and pointsout some of the dangers in broad interpretations ofmolecular genetics data without benefit ofmorphologi­cal or ecological knowledge.

Sex determination from DNA

The technique for determining sex ofanimals from whichtissue or blood samples were derived was described in

a manuscript that has been submiued to the CanadianJournal ofZoology. A brief summary of the findingsfollows. We amplified Xand Ychromosome DNA withthe polymerasechain reaction using oligonucleotideprim­ers developed from known sequences for mice and hu­mans. The primers amplify homologous segments ofDNA on the X and Y chromosomes. The amplifiedDNA segment extends from exon 3 (primer 333) toexon 6 (primer 332).

Amplification with primers 332 and 333 yielded1950 base pair (bp) segments of both X and Y chromo­somes. An initial screening of samples of known sexhad shown that digestion of the 1950 bp DNA segmentwith the restriction enzyme HaeIll, resulted in fivedistinctive fragments for males and four fragments forfemales. These fragments appeared as bands, corre­sponding to size, on electrophoretic gels. The fourbands in females indicated that both X chromosomeshave Haelll restriction sites where the DNA is cut intofour fragments of 950, 450, 400, and 150 bp. The fifthband in males represented a 1950 bp DNA fragmentand indicated the HaeIll restriction sites present on theX are absent on the Y chromosome. A schematic of theamplification and restriction process is shown in Fig. 5.We extracted DNA from all samples, and amplifiedDNA fragments from !OI (84%) of the 120 samplesavailable. We correctly determined sex from all sampleswe amplified.

Future plans

Existing data on movements and population structurewill be analyzed in spring 1993. Objectives for 1993are to complete those analyses and submit manuscriptsfor publication before autumn. Upon completion ofthose analyses, the future directions of the Beaufort Seapolar bear research program will be charted. We areanxious for input from all members of PBSG regardingsuggestions of needs for future research.

TABLE 1. Eastern and western extremes of movements of radio-collared polar bears captured atvarious logistical bases within the Beaufort sea

Area N Eastern extreme Western extreme

Barrow 31 127.4° West 166.1° EastBarter lsI. 29 127.4° West 175.6° WestCanada' 9 127.5° West 167.1° WestPrudhoe 46 123.6° West 173.4° East

arcpresents captures of bears along the mainland Beaufort Sea coast, west of Cape Bathurst

148

FIG 1. Spring to autumn movements of a typical radio-i:ollared polar bear in the Beaufort sea

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FIG 4. Unusual movements of a PTI-equipped polar bear between May and December, 1992.The first observed emigration from the Beaufort Sea in 12 years of radio-telemetry

152

Polar Bear Research in the Beaufort Sea

PrimerAmplification

1950 BP

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950 450 400 150 I1: Ail: 1:

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FIG 5. Schematic diagram of the process of amplifying homologous portions of X and Ychromosomes and digesting them to reveal differential patterns that are reflected onelectrophoretic gels

153

Research on Polar Bears in Western Alaska andEastern Russia 1988-92

G. W. Garner, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center. National Biological Survey. 1011 East TudorRoad. Anchorage. Alaska 99503. USAS. E. Belikov, All Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation and Reserves. Sadki-Znamenskoye.Moscow M-628. Russia 113628. RussiaM. S. Stishov, Wrangel Island State Nature Reserve. Ushakovskoye, Shmidt District. Magadan Region,Russia 686870. RussiaS. M. Arthur, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, National Biological Survey, 1011 East TudorRoad, Anchorage, Alaska 99503. USA

A research project on polar bears (Ursus maritimus)that seasonally occur in waters of western Alaska wasinitiated in spring 1986 with the capture and the fittingof satellite telemetry collars on ten adult females. Amajor impetus for the project was the fact that approxi­mately 75% (range 57--81 %) of the 1980--88 averageannual subsistence harvest of 128 polar bears in Alaska(range 89-292) had occurred in western Alaska(Schliebe 1986. 1990). This population was undefinedand no populations estimates were available to evaluatethe effects of the subsistence harvest. The primaryobjective of this project is to determine the populationsize and status of polar bears that occupy the Chukchiand Bering Seas.

Capture and marking activities were limited to west­ern Alaska from 1986 through 1989. but were expandedinto a cooperative research program with Russianscientists in 1990 when it became apparent from satel­lite tracking data that the bear population was sharedwith Russia (Gamer et al. 1990; Garner and Knick1991). A total of 130 different female polar bears havebeen captured and fitted with satellite collars between1986 and 1992. Capture activities have extended fromsouth of Saint Lawrence Island in the northern BeringSea to the vicinity of Barrow at the western edge of theBeaufort Sea, and into Russian territory includingWrangel and Herald islands and west into the EastSiberian Sea (Fig. 1). Satellite telemetry has provideddata on polar bears movements in western Alaska thatwas impossible to collect prior to the development ofthis technology (Fancy et aJ. 1988; Harris et aJ. 1990).

155

Inherent failure rate of the collars is approximately 10%(Garner et a1. 1989).

A total of79 litters ofcubs of the year (COY), 29 littersof yearlings, and 19 litters of two-year-olds were ob­served/capturedduring the period. Average litter size was1.87 for COYs. 1.69 for yearlings, and 1.53 fortwo-year­olds. Of nine family groups accompanied by 19 COYscapturedonWrangellslandduring spring 1990 whose fateis known by recapture. resighting. or evident denning thefollowing winter, only three COYs (15.8%) survived toone year ofage (fable 1). This low survival ofcubs maybe related to the poor physical condi~on of many of thematernal females captured on Wrangel Island duringspring 1990. Fourteen of 20 maternal females capturedduring spring 1990 were classified as being in pooror verypoor physical condition (Gamer et al. In press). Uspenskiand Kistehinski (1972) and Belikov et al. (1977) reportedthat maternal females sometimes killed and ate their cubswhen food sources were not readily available.

The determination of physical condition prior tospring 1992 relied upon an ocular assessment of thecondition of the bear and an arbitrary classification ofits physical condition into one of five categories. In anattempt to quantify this determination. Alaskan researcbersbecame involved with Dr Charles Robbins and gradu­ate student Sean Farley ofWashington State Universityin an effort to extend their work on determination ofbody condition of black and brown bears to polarbears.Othercooperators included Drs. M. Ramsay and M. Taylorof Canada. The methodology being developed is the

Polar Bears

estimation of percent body fat based upon the inverserelationship between percent body water and fat con­tent. A field sampling procedure using bioelectricalimpedance (RIA) technology was developed for use onpolar bears.

The BIA procedures were used on all adult femalebears captured during spring 1992 and the results of thepereent fat determinations were compared to the ocularestimates ofbody condition (Table2). Mean percent fatfor the four ocular estimate classes of body conditionwere different (ANOVA, F = 7.48, df = 3.31, P =0.(07). The Fisher LSO multiple comparison test indi­cated that the ocular estimates ofcondition classes I, 2and 3 were inconsistent. Ocular estimates ofclass 4 hada mean percent fat content that was larger than the otherocular classes. No bears in excellent condition (class 5)were captured during spring 1992. The BIA procedureappears to offer a more quantitative estimate ofphysi­cal condition than the ocular estimates; however, theclassification of those estimates into several categoriesof physical condition corresponding to the five ocularestimated condition classes is questionable.

Marked polar bears move extensively in the northernBering Sea and throughout the entire Chukchi Sea(Gameretal. 1990, in press). Adaily rate of movementwas calculated from the movement data by dividing thedistance between consecutive locations for a bear bythe time interval in hours. Polar bear movements in theChukchi and Bering Seas are greatly influenced bysea-ice distributions and types (Gamer et al. in press).The movement data for the five collared bears werecategorized into four periods relating to major periodsof sea-ice activity. These four periods for the Bering andChukchi Seas are depicted in Fig. 2. The periods aredefined as follows: maximum sea-ice 1January-30April;receding sea-ice 1May-IS August; minimum sea-ice 16August-IS October; advancing sea-ice 16 October­31 December.

Rates of movement were expected to be fow duringminimum and maximum sea-ice periods and higherduring periods of advancing and receding sea-ice. Therates of movement during maximum, receding, andminimum sea-ice periods were very similar (Table 3),but the rate of movement during the advancing iceperiod was higher than the other three periods. Polarbears in this region move long distances to maintaincontact with the sea-ice throughout the year. Thismovement is particularly rapid when ice is formingduring the autumn.

156

Sera from blood samples of the 191 polar bearscaptured in western Alaska and eastern Russia (Fig. 3)were screened using a neutralization test for antibodiesof canine distemper vims (COV) to determine the po­tential for incidence of phocine distemper virus (pOY)in polar bears. The POV cross-reacts to a certain degreewith COV (Ross et al. 1992); therefore, an initialscreening was done using the COV test. A total of 68bears were positive for the COV (Table 4). The annualproportion of tested animals that were positive rangedfrom 23.2-46.2 percent. The distribution of the bearsthat tested positive for COV was widespread through­out the study area (Fig. 4). The implication of thispositive reading awaits further analyses of those serathat tested positive to COV test. The second phase ofthe research will determine if the positive antibody titerto COV is actually POV. In cooperation with the north­ern Alaska polar bear research project, the next step willbe to test the sera collected from bears captured in theBeaufort Sea. Cooperators at the University of Alaska,Fairbanks and the Washington Animal Oisease OiagnosticLaboratory are interested in pursuing a research pro­gram to determine the epidemiology of the disease(COV and/or POY) in northern Alaska.

The major goal of the research in western Alaska andeastern Russia is to determine population sizeand statusof polarbears that occur in the Bering and Chukchi Seas.As part of that effort, several versions of a censusprotocol that might be used in the Chukchi Sea havebeen developed (Gamer et al. 1992a, 1992b) and anextensive review of the literature on census methodolo­gies that might be applicable to polar bears in theChukchi Sea was completed (Garner et al. 19920). Thedraft protocol was reviewed by a peer gronp of statisti­cians and biologists and a protocol for field testingduring fall 1993 in the Beaufort Sea was finalized(Gamer et al. 1993a, 1993b). The protocol for a jointUS/Russian census of polar bears in the Chukchi Seaduring fall 1994 will be developed following the comple­tion of the test effort in the Beaufort Sea.

Other aspects of the research conducted in the Chuk­chi Sea include genetics studies to determine the degreeof separation between polar bear stocks in the Chukchiand Beaufort seas, and research to develop a methodfor determining the sex of polar bears from tissue andblood samples. The progress on these research topics isincluded in the report on research on polar bears innorthern Alaska and will not be repeated here.

Research on Polar Bears in Western Alaska and Eastern Russia 1988-92

References

Amstrup, SA 1986. Research on polar bears in Alaska,1983-1985. Pages 85-115 In Polar bears: Proc.ninth working meeting. mCN/SSC Polar BearSpecialist Group. mCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Belikov, S.E. 1977. Number, distribution, andpeculiarities of polar bear females denning onWrangel Island. in The polar bear and itsconservation in the Soviet arctic. Cent. Lab. Nat.Conserv., Moscow, USSR.

Fancy, S.G., L.P. Pank, D.C. Douglas, c.H. Curby,G.W. Garner, S.C. Amstrup, and W.L. Regelin.1988. Satellite telemetry: a new tool for wildliferesearch and management. US Fish and WildlifeService, Resour. Pub!. 172. 54pp.

Garner, G.W., S.C. Amstrup, D.C. Douglas, and C.L.Gardner. 1989. Performance and utility of satellitetelemetry during field studies of free-ranging polarbears in Alaska. Pages 66-76. In C.J. Amlaner, Jr.,ed. Biotelemetry X proceedings of the tenthinternational symposium on biotelemetry. Univ.Arkansas Press, Fayetteville. 733pp.

Garner. G.w., S.T. Knick, and D.C. Douglas. 1990.Seasonal movements of adult female polar bears inthe Bering and Chukchi seas. Int. Conf. Bear Res.and Manage. 8:219-226.

Garner, G.w., and S.T. Knick. 1991. Research on polarbears in western Alaska 1986-1988. Pp. 54--{)1.lnS.c. Amstrup and 0. Wiig, (eds.) Polar bears.Proceedings of the Tenth Working MeetingmCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Group, IUCN,Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107pp.

Garner, G.W., G.E. Menkens, Jr., M.S. Udevitz, andL.L. McDonald. 1992a. United States-Soviet jointChukchi Sea polar bear survey, fall 1993. AlaskaFish Wild!. Res. Center, Anchorage. 22pp.

Garner, G.W., L.L. McDonald, D.S. Robson, and S.M.Arthur. 1992b. Pilot polar bear survey BeaufortSea:1993 and Joint United States-Russian ChukchiSea polar bear survey: 1994. Draft proposal dated30 September 1992. Alaska Fish and WildlifeResearch Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service,Anchorage, Alaska. 34pp.

Garner, G.W., L.L. McDonald, D.S. Robson, D.P.Young, and S.M. Arthur. 1992c. Literature review:Population estimation methodologies applicable to

157

the estimation of abundance of polar bears. AlaskaFish and Wildlife Research Center, US Fish andWildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. l02pp.

Garner, G.W., L.L. McDonald, D.S. Robson, and S.M.Arthur. 1993a. Summary peer reviewer'scomments 30 September 1992 draft pilot polar bearsurvey Beaufort Sea: 1993 and joint UnitedStates-Russian Chukchi Sea survey: 1993. AlaskaFish and Wildlife Research Center, US Fish andWildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 23pp. +Appendix.

Garner, G.W., L.L. McDonald, D.S. Robson, and S.M.Arthur. 1993b. Protocol pilot polar bear surveyBeaufort Sea: 1993. Alaska Fish and WildlifeResearch Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service,Anchorage, Alaska. 44pp.

Garner, G.W., S.E. Belikov, M.S. Stishov, V.G.Barnes, Jr., and S.M. Arthur. In Press. Dispersal ofmaternal polar bears from the denningconcentration on Wrangel Island. Int. Conf. BearRes. and Manage. 9.

Harris, R.B., S.G. Fancy, D.C. Douglas, G.W. Garner,SA Amstrup, T.R. McCabe, and L.F. Panko 1990 .Tracking wildlife by satellite: current systems andperformance. US Fish and Wildlife Service, FishWild!. Tech. Rep. 30. 52pp.

Ross, P.S., I.K.G. Visser, H.W.J. Broeders, M.W.G.van de Bildt, W.D. Bowen, A.S.M.E. Osterhaus.1992. Antibodies to phocine distemper virus inCanadian seals. Vet. Rec. 130:514-516.

Schliebe, S.L. 1986. Alaska polar bear nativesubsistence harvest 1980-1985. pp. 117-131. InPolar Bears: Proc. ninth working meeting.mCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Group. Int.Union Conserv. Nature and Nat. Resour., Gland,Switzerland.

Schliebe, S.L. 1990. Summary of polar bearmanagement in Alaska. pp. 62--{)9.ln S.c. Amstrupand 0. Wiig, (ed8.) Polar bears. Proceedings of theTenth Working Meeting mCN/SSC Polar BearSpecialists Group, mCN, Gland and Cambridge. ii +107pp.

Uspenski, S.M., and A.A. Kistchinski. 1972. New dataon the winter ecology of the polar bear (Ursusmari(irnus Phipps) on Wrangel Island. Int. Conf.Bear Res. and Manage. 2:181-197.

Po/arRears

Other publications

Fancy, S.G., L.F. Pank, D.C. Douglas, C.H. Curby,G.W. Garner, S.C. Amstrup, and W.L. Regelin.1988. Satellite telemetry: a new tool for wildliferesearch and management. US Fish and WildlifeService, Resour. Publ. 172. 54pp.

Garner, G.W., S.C. Amstrup, D.C. Douglas, and c.L.Gardner. 1989. Performance and utility of satellitetelemetry during field studies of free-ranging polarbears in Alaska. Pages 66-76 In C,J. Amlaner, Jr.,ed. Biotelemetry X proceedings of the tenthinternational symposium on biotelemetry. Univ.Arkansas Press, Fayetteville. 733pp.

Gamer, G.W. 1990. The polar bears ofWrangel Island:a shared resourCe. Alaska's Wildlife 22(5):34-36.

Garner. G.W., S.T. Knick, and D.C. Douglas. 1990.Seasonal movements of adult female polar bears inthe Bering and Chukchi seas. Int. Conf. Bear Res.and Manage. 8:219-226.

Harris, R.B., S.G. Fancy, D.C. Douglas, G.W. Garner,SA Amstrup, T.R. McCabe, and L.F. Panko 1990.Tracking wildlife by satellite: current systems andperformance. US Fish and Wildlife Service, FishWild!. Tech. Rep. 30. 52pp.

Fancy, S.G., R.B. Harris, D.C. Douglas, L:F. Pank,K.R. Whitten, T.R. McCabe, S.c. Amstrup, andG.W. Garner. 1990. Application of satellitetelemetry to wildlife research and management inAlaska. pp. 5-12. In Acte du colloque international:"suivi des vertebres terreSlreS par radiotelemetrie",Principality of Monaco, 12-13 December 1988.191pp.

Garner, G.W., and S.T. Knick. 1991. Research on polarbears in western Alaska 1986-1988. Pages 54--61.In S.c. Amstrup and 0. Wiig, (eds.) Polar bears.Proc. Tenth Working Meet. mCN/SSC Polar BearSpecialists Group, mCN Species Surv. Comm.Occ. Paper No.7. 107pp.

Cronin, M.A., S.c. Amstrup, G.W. Garner, and ER.Vyse. 1991. Inter- and intraspecific mitochondrialDNA variation in North American bears (Ursus).Can. J. Zool. 69:2985-2992.

Cronin, M.A., S.c. Amstrup, G'w. Garner. 1991.Mitochondrial DNA variation in North Americanbears: potential uses for population management.USFWS Research Information Bull. 91-61.

158

Ovsyanikov, N.G., G.W. Garner, and V.G. Barnes, Jr.,In Prep. Interactions between polar bears strandedon Wrangel Island and walrus during late summerand early fal1199!. Arctic.

Amstrup, SA, G.W. Garner, M.A. Cronin, and J.C.Pallon. In Prep. Sex identification of polar bearsfrom blood and tissue samples. Can. J. Zool.

Stishov, M.S., G.W. Garner, S.M. Arthur, and V.G.Barnes, Jr. In Prep. Distribution and relativeabundance of maternal polar bear dens innortheastern Russia. Arctic.

Unpublished reports

Gamer, G.W. 1988. Operations report 1987. AlaskaFish Wildl. Res. Center, Anchorage, 5pp.

Garner, G.W. 1989. Operations report 1988. AlaskaFish Wildl. Res. Center, Anchorage, 5pp.

Gamer, G'w. 1990. Operations report 1989. AlaskaFish Wildl. Res. Center, Anchorage, 7pp.

Garner, G.W. 1991. Operations report 1990. AlaskaFish Wildl. Res. Center, Anchorage, 8pp.

Gamer, G'w., M.S. Udevitz, and L.L. McDonald.1991. USSR polar bear denning surveys:methodology and application. Alaska Fish Wildl.Res. Center, Anchorage. 12pp.

Garner, G.W., and V.G. Barnes, Jr. 1991. Sovietsurveys of polar bear maternity dens: a review ofcurrent methods. Alaska Fish Wildl. Res. Center,Anchorage. 6pp.

Garner, G.W., G.E. Menkens, Jr., M.S. Udevitz, andL.L. McDonald. 1992. United States-Soviet jointChukchi Sea polar bear survey, fall 1993. AlaskaFish Wildl. Res. Center, Anchorage. 22pp.

Garner, G.W. 1992. Operations report 1991. AlaskaFish Wildl. Res. Center, Anchorage, 9pp.

Garner, G.W., L.L. McDonald, D.S. Robson, D.P.Young, and S.M. Arthur. 1992a. Literature review:Population estimation methodologies applicable tothe estimation of abundance of polar bears. AlaskaFish and Wildlife Research Center, US Fish andWildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 102pp.

Garner, G.W., L.L. McDonald, D.S. Robson, and S.M.Arthur. 1992b. Pilot polar bear survey BeaufortSea: 1993 and Joint United States-Russian ChukchiSea polar bear survey: 1994. Draft proposal dated

Research on Polar Bears in Western Alaska and Eastern Russia 1988-92

30 September 1992. Alaska Fish and WildlifeResearch Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service,Anchorage, Alaska. 34pp.

Gamer, G.W., LL. McDonald, D.S. Robson, and S.M.Arthur. 1993a. Summary peer reviewer's comments30 September 1992 draft pilot polar bear surveyBeaufortSea: 1993 and joint United States-RussianChukchi Sea survey: 1993. Alaska Fish andWildlife Research Center, US Fish and WildlifeService, Anchorage, Alaska. 23pp. + Appendix.

Garner, G.W., L.L. McDonald, D.S. Robson, and S.M.Arthur. 1993b. Protocol pilot polar bear surveyBeaufort Sea: 1993. Alaska Fish and WildlifeResearch Center, US Fish and Wildlife Service,Anchorage, Alaska. 44pp.

Garner, G.W. 1993. Operations report 1992. AlaskaFish Wild!. Res. Center, Anchorage, 8pp.

TABLE 1. Apparent survival to one year of age for nine litters of cubs of the year COYs capturedon Wrangellsland, spring 1990

Tracking Period

Animal No. of Start Endnumber Age COYs date date Comments

6864 II 2 25 Mar 90 06 Feb 91 lost COYs, denned 916871 18 2 27 Mar 90 31 Mar91 lost COYs, denned 916872 II 2 27 Mar 90 29 Mar 91 I yrlg, shot Mar 916875 9 2 28 Mar 90 31 Mar 91 lost COYs, recap 916876 6 2 29 Mar 90 28 Mar 91 lost COYs, recap 916878 12 2 29 Mar 90 24 Dec 90 lost COYs, denned 916879 10 3 29 Mar 90 24 Mar 91 10stCOYs, denned 916881 9 2 30 Mar 90 31 Mar 91 2 yrlg, recap 916882 10 2 I Apr 90 31 Mar 91 lost COYs, shot Mar 91

TABLE 2. Percent body fat determination using bioelectrical impedance analysis of adult femalepolar bears captured during spring 1992

Condition MeanLSD class codes1class %

(code) n body fat SE A B C D

I (A) 7 19.92 1.68 S2 S

2 (B) II 22.69 1.34 S

3(C) 12 26.15 1.29 S S

4 (D) 5 31.28 1.99 S S S

1Least significant difference (LSD) multiple comparison tcst with P = 0.052S indicates that this mean is significantly different from the mean whose code is above it.

159

Polar Bears

TABLE 3. Comparison of mean daily rates of movement within sea-ice condition categories forfemale polar bears in the Chukchi and Bering seas, 1986-92

Sea-ice Movementcondition (km/24h) LSD class codesl

(code) n Mean SE A n C D

Max ice (A) 7 11.92 0.58 $2

Rec ice (B) 7 13.04 0.70 $

Min ice (C) 7 12.33 0.71 $

Adv ice (D) 7 15.39 0.27 $ S $

lLeast significant difference multiple comparison test with P = 0.05

28 indicates that this mean is significantly different from the mean whose code is above it.

TABLE 4. Proportion of polar bear blood sera samples from western Alaska and eastern Russiawith positive antibody titers for canine distemper virus 1986-92

Year No. tested No. positive Proportion (%)

1987 13 6 46.151988 42 11 26.191989 26 11 42.311990 44 13 29.551991 26 10 38.461992 40 17 42.50 ,

Total 191 68 35.60

160

Research on Polar Bears in Western Alaska and Eastern Russia 1988-92

scale: 200 km

•Wrangells.

.~

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FIG 1. Capture locations for 130 adult female polar bears in western Alaska and eastern Russia,1986-92

161

Polar Bears

ADVANCEMAXIMUM

NOV

OCT

SEP

DEC JAN

FEB

MAR

APR

MINIMUM

JUL JUN

----~RECEDE

~----------~

MAY

FIG 2. Seasonal ice designations for Chukchi sea

162

Research on Polar Bears in Western Alaska and Eastern Russia 1988-92

Scale: 200 km

Wrangells.

~ .

•

FIG 3. Capture locations for 191 polar bears captured in western Alaska and eastern Russia thatwere tested for canine distemper virus, 1987-92

163

Polar Bears

Sca~: 200km

• Wrangells._.

•• ••~

FIG 4. Capture locations for 66 polar bears captured in western Alaska and eastern Russia thathad positive antibody titers for canine distemper virus. 1967-92

164

Miscellaneous Reports

Research on Polar Bears in Severnaya Zemlya(Russia) 1991-92

S.E. Belikov, All Russian Research Institute for Nature Conservation and Reserves, Sadki-Znarnenskoye,Moscow, Russia 113628, Russia0. Wiig, Norwegian Polar Institute, PO Box 5072 Majorstua, N-030l Oslo, Norway

G.W. Garner, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, National Biological Survey, 101 I East TudorRoad, Anchorage, Alaska 99503, USAS.M. Arthur, Alaska Fish and Wildlife Research Center, National Biological Survey, 101 I East Tudor

Road, Anchorage, Alaska 99503, USA

A joint research project between Russian, Norwegian,and American scientists on polar bear ecology in theSevernaya Zemlya Islands of the east-centtal Russianarctic was initiated during May 1991 when IS bearswere captured and five adult females were fitted withsatellite collars (Table I). Two bears were collared nearthe southwestern region of the Severnaya ZemlyaIslands, while the remaining three bears were collaredfarther south near the Russian mainland (Fig. I). Beardensities were low with a total of 23 bears sightedduring 59 hours and 20 minutes of aerial searching.Average litter size for the four observed litters was 1.5(SE = 0.29) cubs of the year.

Two satellite collars failed soon after deployment«10 locations), but three units functioned for an ex­tended period of time (>45 locations) following deploy­ment (Fig. 2 A-E). Bears N7980 and N7982 had collarsthat ttansmitted on a five-day duty cycle, while theremaining three bears' collars (N7984, N7986, N7988)ttansmitted on a six-day duty cycle. The majority ofthemovements were confined to the eastern Kara Sea, butone bear (N7988) did move into the western Laptev Seabefore returning to the eastern edgeof the Kara Sea nearCape Chelyuskin, where the collar apparently failed.One bear (N7980) had a very restricted movementpattern that was closely associated with the western twoislands in the Severnaya Zemlya group (KomsomoletsandPioner islands). The combined locations forthe fivecollared bears depict a overall range that is centered in theeastern Kara Sea south of the Severnaya Zemlya Islands(Fig. 3).

Minimum estimates of distances ttavelled for threebears with more than 45 locations averaged 3051km(Table 2). A daily rate of movement was calculated

167

from the movement data by dividing the distance be­tween consecutive locations for a bear by the timeinterval in hours. These daily rates of movement for thestudy period varied between bears, but ranged between5 and 8km per day, with the exception of one animalwith few locations. Sample sizes are small, therefore noeffort was made to determine the statistical significanceof the variation in total movement.

Polar bear movements in other regions are greatlyinfluenced by sea ice disttibutions and types. Themovement data for the fi ve collared bears were catego­rized into four periods relating to major periods of seaice activity. These four periods forthe Severnaya Zem­lya area are depicted in Fig. 4. The periods are definedas follows: maximum sea ice 16 October-31 May;receding sea ice I June-IS July; minimum sea ice 16July - IS September; advancing sea ice 16 September­IS October. Rates of movement were expected to below during minimum and maximum sea ice periods andhigher during periods of advancing and receding seaice. The rate of movement during minimum sea iceperiod was the lowest for the four periods (Table 3), butrates ofmovement for the other three periods were verysimilar. Polar bears in this region ofRussia do not movelong distances to maintain contact with the sea ice, inconttast to polar bears in the Chukchi Sea in easternRussia which move over a large area to maintain con­tact with the sea ice throughout the year.

One other item of note, serum from blood samples ofthe five adult females was screened using a neuttaliza­tion test for antibodies ofcanine distemper virus (CDV)as part of a larger survey to determine the potential forincidence of phocine distemper virus (pDV) in polar

Polar Bears

bears. It is known that PDV crossreacts to a certaindegree with CDV (Ross et al. 1992); therefore, an initialscreening was done using the CDV test. Surprisingly,one of the five females captured near SevernayaZemlya was positive for the CDV (Fig. 1). The impli­cation of this positive reading awaits further analysesof those sera that tested positive to the CDV test. Thesecond phase of the analysis will test specifically forthePDV.

168

References

Ross, P.S., l.K.G. Visser, H.W.J. Broeders, M.W.G.van de Bildt, W.D. Bowen, A.S.M.E. Osterhaus.1992. Antibodies to phocine distemper virus inCanadian seals. Vet. Rec. 130:514-516.

Research on Polar Bears in Severnaya Zemlya (Russia) 1991-92

TABLE 1. Characteristics of bears captured and marked near the Severnaya Zemlya Islands,Russia during May 1991

Animal Weight Length! Chest Location# Age/sex (kg) (em) girth (em) Latitude Longitude Date

N7980 adultF 148 218 119 79"37N 91"05E 10 MayN7981L COy2 M 10 79 50 79"37N 91"05E 10 MayN7981R COYM 9 74 44 79"37N 91 "05E 10 MayN7982 adult F 160 207 116 79"06N 92°lOE 11 MayN7983 COYF 14 70 48 79"06N 92°10E 11 MayN7984 adultF 185 194 122 76°40N 92"32E 14 MayN7985 COYM 20 105 65 76°40N 92"32E 14 MayN79863 adultF 192 193 128 75"33N 88°48E 15 MayN7987R COYF 28 112 66 75"33N 88°48E ISMayN7987L COYM 32 112 66 75"33N 88°48E ISMayN7988 adultF 160 174 116 76°49N 89°51E ISMay

'Length for adullS is straight line; length for COYs is total length

2Cubs of the year

3Positive antibody titer to the canine distemper virus

TABLE 2. Movement characteristics of female polar bears near the Severnaya Zemlya Islands,Russia 1991-92

Animal Total Mean Mean rate of# distance movement movement

n (km) km (SE) km/24h (SE)

7980 109 3,489 32.0 (5.2) 6.83 (1.14)7982 60 2,634 43.9 (6.9) 8.08 (0.85)7984 10 944 94.4 (2204) 5.87 (2.37)7986 06 617 102.8 (1704) 12.59 (4.22)7988 47 3,031 64.5 (lOA) 8.03 (1.01)

TABLE 3. Seasonal rates of movement for female polar bears near the Severnaya Zemlya Islands,Russia 1991-92

Ice Movement (km) Rate of movement (km/24h)season n mean range mean range

Recede 23 52.1 (0.9-179.2) 8049 (0.86--29.61)Minimum 102 31.8 (004-382.9) 6.23 (0.00-95.74)Advance 47 77.5 (1.7-440.8) 9.06 (0.71-31.44)Maximum 60 43.8 (1.2-198.7) 8.96 (1.14-34043)

169

Scale: 200 km

Franz

Josef

~ ,~~~ ~nd~'"~Jb,..~

%

~to"~

~

a

Novaya Zemlya

Severnaya

Zemlya

e:e

FIG. 1. capture locations and incidence of positive (black diamond) and negative (triangles) antibody titers to canine distempervirus for five female polar bears in east-eentral Russia, May, 1991

Research on Polar Bears in Severnaya Zemlya (Russia) 1991-92

A

c

•. <emaya

~;~emIYa

B

D

""'"-

~SevemaYa

. Zemlya

~.

E 200km-

FIG 2. Movements of five satellite collared female polar bears in the east-central Russian arctic,May 1991-November 1992. (A through E denote individuals; asterisks indicate capturelocations)

171

Scale: 200 km ~~~

Franz

l::»<;,~<:":,:

Josef

,"~~G> Land

I@ ~ '"

~A~..III~~

•

Severnaya

Zemlya

•<Q;,

•

•\~

• •.... ~ ·6 · • ••• • • d

• •r'P

--.lN

FIG 3. Geographic distribution of locations of five female polar bears in east-eentral Russia, 1991-92

Research on Polar Bears in Severnaya Zemlya (Russia) 1991-92

MAXIMUM

RECEDE

NOV

OCT

SEP

AUG

MINIMUM

DEC

JUL

JAN

JUN

FEB

\MAR

APR

MAY

\/'

FIG 4. seasonal ice designations for severnaya Z:3mlya, Russia

173

Po/arRears

Sequence Analysis of the Mitochondrial DNAMolecule of the Polar Bear

K. Bodin, Department of Molecular Genetics, The Wallenberg Laboratory, University of Lund, Sweden.A. Gullberg, Department ofMolecular Genetics, The Wallenberg Laboratory, University ofLund, Sweden.U. Amason, Department ofMolecular Genetics, The Wallenberg Laboratory, Urtiversity ofLund, Sweden.

The complete mtDNA molecule of the polar bear wassequenced. The length of the type sequence is 16,725base pairs. The organization of the molecule conformswith that of other mtDNAs that have been sequencedin their entirety. The polar bear study is part of aphylogenetic project with the aim of elucidating thcmtDNA relationships between the pinnipeds, and be­tween pinnipeds and terrestrial carnivores. This studyis based on comparisons of complete mtDNA sequences

174

in a limited number ofspecies, one ofwhich is the polarbear. The study will also comprise comparisons basedon a selected gene in a larger number of species. Thepresent sequence information makes it possible to con­struct PCR primers that have complete complementar­ity with the mtDNA of the polar bear. The availabilityof primcrs of this kind will facilitate the amplificationof regions that may constitute primary choices forpopulation study based on mitochondrial DNA.

Summary of Status Report for North BaffinPolar Bears

E.W. Born, Greenland Fisheries Research Institute, Tagensvej 135, 2200 Copenhagen N.DenmarkM.K. Taylor, Department of Renewable Resources, Government of the NOlthwest Territories, Canada.Government of Northwest Territories, CanadaA. Rosing-Asvid, Greenland Fisheries Research Institute,Tagensvej 135, DK-2200 Copenhagen N,DenmarkI. Stirling, Canadian Wildlife Service, 5320 122 St., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada TSH 3S6

On the basis of the movement dal2 available to date, itappears that the boundary between management zonesF and 01 is not warranted. The majority of the bearsfrom these two Zones appear to be intermixed on thepack ice in Baffin Bay and then spend the ice-freeseason (late summer and fall) on land along the eastcoast of Baffin Island north of Cape Dyer, the northcoast of Baffin Island, and the south-eastern coast ofDevon Island. Bears regularly move back and forthbetween Baffin Island and Greenland. Individual ani­mals are likely to show a high degree of seasonalfidelity to particular coaS121 areas, and segregation ofsubpopulations may occur during the icc-free season.A small, but undetermined, number of polar bears alsoremain along the coast of West Greenland during thesummer, particularly in the region of Melville Bay.Most maternity denning in this population appears tooccur in Canada although some has also been recordedin Melville Bay in Greenland.

The population estimates for Zones F and DI arc2000 and 470 respectively. The present Canadian quol2sare 105 (F) and 50 (01) while the average harvest ofpolar bears in West Greenland is estimated to rangefrom 40 to 60, making an annual t0121 of 195 to 215.Thirty-one percent of the t0121 harvest is female. Appli­cation of the generalized formula suggests a sustainableharvest of only I IS. Consequently, on the basis of theavailable dal2, the possibility of an over-harvest mustbe considered.

However, before recommending any changes to po­lar bear management for this area, several points shouldbe considered. The population inventory studies onwhich the above estimates are based were not able toensure comprehensive sampling of the entire area.Good information on polar bear movements in the

175

offshore areas has only recently been aquired usingsatellite radio-collars. The boundaries proposed forthese populations were developed in the early I970swithout the benefit of either scientific or traditionalknowledge. Elimination of these limil2tions is the focusof the current cooperative research program.

The population estimate for Zone F is based on anunder-funded study in which the sampling design var­ied in different years, the results of which are now 14years old. The original estimate of 1647 was believedto be an underestimate and was increased to 2000 bythe Canadian Polar Bear Technical Committee. Therevised estimate of 2000 is considered to be conserva­tive.

The methodology used to estimate the population sizein Zone Dl seems to have fewer flaws than that used inZone F. Although the capture effort was restricted tothe shore-fast ice and floc edge, the movement 0012collected by satellite telemetry suggest this would notviolate the assumption ofequal catchability. Theexten­sive movements recorded so far do not support the ideaofsegregatedcoas121 and offshore populations. However,the appearance of a large number of unmarked animalsin the last year of the study indicates that the distribu­tion of these polar bears is not completely understood.

The northern boundaries currently indicated for areaF were drawn using very limited reconnaissance dal2.These borders are likely to be altered as more informa­tion on movements is obtained.

In 1979, on the basis of 183 polar bear sightingsduring aerial surveys for marine mammals, a largepopulation of polar bears was estimated for an areacomprising approximately the western half of thenorthern Baffin Bay polar bear habil2t adjacent to both

Polar Bears

Canada and Greenland. At the same time, a large popu­lation of ringed seals in the offshore ice was alsoidentified. Although these observationscannotbe directlyinterpreted in relation to the population estimates, it isconsistent with the perception of a substantial popula­tion ofpolar bears in the offshore pack ice that is sharedbetween Canada and Greenland.

Lack of knowledge on the distribution and move­ments of polar bears in the North Baffin area make itdifficult to provide an unambiguous estimate of popu­lation numbers. Additionally the harvest records fromGreenland are incomplete and irregular, so the totaland average kill from this area is uncertain. The statusof this population cannot be stated with certainty becauseof these difficulties. However, if the polar bears are being

176

over-harvested over the total study area, the popula­tionis sufficiently large to sugggest that it will not besignificantly depleted during the time needed to ob­tain a more comprehensive understanding of thepopulation. We believe adequate funding and tech­nology are in place to facilitate a study of adequatescope and depth to resolve the distribution and move­ment questions, and this should be completed beforemanagement options are reviewed by all the parties.Although we do not recommend reductions in thepresent quotas, we do recommend that hunters in allareas try to reduce the kill of females by being moreselective for males. In addition to theongoingcooperativeresearch program, we recommend that the Greenlandpolar bear harvest be monitored and recorded.

Basic Concepts of Polar Bear MaternityDen Census

N.G. Chelintsev, All-Russian Research Institute on Nature Conservation and Reserves. Moscow 113628,Znamenskoye-Sadki, RussiaS.E. Belikov, All-Russian Research Institute on Nature Conservation and Reserves. Moscow 113628,Znamenskoye-Sadki, Russia

Experience in censusing polar bear dens indicates thatthree variants of maternity den census are possible: I)ground census only; 2) aerial census combined withground survey; 3) aerial census only.

Ground census only

This observation variant can be conducted on foot, bydog, or snowmobile. The sample area should equal15-20% of the total area deemed suitable for polar bearmaternity dens. The number ofdetected maternity densshould equal 20-30% of total number of reproducingfemales that denned within the total denning area.

Almost all maternity dens within the sample area canbe detected by ground survey. The total number ofreproducing females in the total denning area is estimatedby extrapolating the density of maternity dens over thesample area to the total denning area of correspondingstratum. Estimation algorithms developed by Jolly(1969) and Chelintsev (1977, 1980, 1992) can be used.

The following rules should be applied when planningthe ground survey:

a) The number of sample plots in each stratum mustexceed two;

b) The sample plot(s) within a given stratum mustcorrespond to the habitat condition of the entirearea of stratum;

c) For each stratum, the ratio of sampling area tototal stratum area must be approximatelyproportional to the square root of maternity dendensity in a given stratum to minimize thestatistical error.

177

A ground survey is conducted by 5-10 specialistsover a two-three week period. The observations areoften complicated by arctic conditions. The standarderror of the reproducing female population estimatedepends on the size of sample area and degree ofasymmetry in den placment throughout the samplearea. Relative standard error may reach 20-30%.

Aerial census combined with groundsurvey

The combined aerial survey and ground survey methodof den census was first used on Wrangel Island duringspring 1973 by S.M. Uspensky and S.E. Belikov.Ground surveys of the model plots (sample plots)should correspond to den opening dynamics of the totaldenning area of the corresponding stratum. Ifden open­ing dynamics differ in different parts (regions) of thetotal denning area, corresponding model plots areselected in each part (e.g. west and east parts of WrangelIsland or shore and center of island).

The ground survey crew determines the total numberof maternity dens within each model plot by carefulobservation of plot area during the entire period ofdenopening. The aerial survey is conducted on the modelplots and sample areas of each stratum. On WrangelIsland, the area of the aerial sample comprised 50-70%of the high den density stratum area, while the area ofthe aerial sample within the low den density stratumcomprised 30-40% of the total area in that stratum.Aerial surveys of each model plot and sample areaswere conducted once in 1973 and twice in 1976 duringthe den opening period.

Aerial surveys should be conducted when the majorityof dens are open and can be readily detected from theplane. The detectability coefficientofopen den must be

Polar Bears

Aerial census only

(1991). According to Method 2, the coefficient K2 iscalculated by following fonnula (using our symbols):

Method I and Method2differ in the following manner.

a) for Method I, values Sand Hare not defmed; instead,it is enough to know the value of A which is easilydefined.

b) for Method I, the bias in the estimate of Kr iscaused by desynchronization of den openings onstratum sample areas and den openings ofcorresponding model plot(s). If the synchro·nization of den openings increase, the biasreduces to zero.

(3)Kr=MHjSB,

This method was used for counting dens on the Chuk·otka mainland (Stishov 1991) because ground surveycrews cannot detect a sufficient numbers of maternitydens in areas with a low density of maternity dens.Censuses on Wrangel Island in 1973 and 1976 indicatethat a one·day aerial survey of a model plot would

c) for Method 2, the coefficient Kz is defined by theaverage number ofopen dens on model plot(s) forall days of period H, but the number of opeu denswhich may be detected by plane on the stratumarea in aerial survey sample day(s) varies fromday to day. Therefore, the coefficient Kz, whichis calculated for the entire period H, may differfrom the sample value of coefficient K for theaerial survey day(s).

d) The number of open dens recorded on aerialsurvey day(s) using Method I is more relative toMethod 2, because aerial surveys by Method 1areconducted during period when den openings aremost intensive and on days when the number ofopen dens is highest.

where S is the total lifetimes of den openings (in days)on the model plot(s); H is the total number ofdays theground observations on model plot(s) were conductedand when aerial surveys were possible; B is the numberof aerial survey days. Ratio S/H is the average numberofopen dens perday during the time period Hand SB/His the average number of open dens per B days. Thenumber of maternity dens (N) on stratum area inMethod 2 is calculated by fonnula (I), where the coef·ficient Kr is replaced by the coefficient K2.

For each stratum (and each part of thedenning area with different dynamics ofdenopening) the spatially exlrapolated numberof open dens (F) is calculated based on thedata from the aerial survey of the samplearea. Ifaerial survey Iransects are notevcnlyspaced throughout the the slratum area.Chelintsev's method ofbisecting the stratumarea into smaller zones with two quasi·samples in each zone may be used(Chelintsev 1980, 1992; Belikov el al.1991).

The estimate of the number of maternitydens (N) within each stratum area iscalculated using the following formula:N=FKr (I)where F is spatial extrapolated number ofopen dens on the aerial survey day (days).The stratum corresponding coefficient KI isestimated by the following fonnula:Kr = MIA, (2)where M is the total number of maternitydens on model plot(s) of the correspondingstratum; A is the number of open dens(maternity and temporary) which aredetected on the same model plot(s) duringthe aerial survey.

The statistical (standard) error of the estimate of N iscaused in the ftrst place, by the values Mand A. In 1973on Wrangel Island, M was equal to 33 and A was equalto 12 (for one aerial survey day). In 1976, M was equalto 13 and A was equal to seven (for two aerial surveydays). The relative standard error of the estimate Kr forthe given values of M and A approaches 30-40% andexceeds the relative error of the spatial extrapolation(Chelintsev 1977). To decrease the standard errorof theestimate ofKr, a model plot must be increased.

The above estimation procedure (Method I) differsfrom the method (Method 2) described in Gamer el al.

b) "Temporal eXlrapolation":

The estimation of the number of maternity dens isaccomplished in two steps (Chelintsev 1977):

a) "Spatial eXlrapolation":

identical for the entire stratum and the correspondingmodel plot(s). The width of aerial census slrips onslratum territory and corresponding model plot(s) mustbe the same, so that den detectabilities of these twoareas do not differ.

178

detect 20--30% of the total number of reproducingfemales on the plot It could by supposed that by con­ducting aerial surveys over a three-four day period thatit may be possible to count the number of open denswhich is approximately equal to the total number of

References

Belikov, S.E., N.G. Chelintsev, V.N. Kalyakin, A.A.Romanov, and S.M. Uspensky. 1991. Results ofaerial counts of the polar bear in the Soviet Arcticin 1988. Pp. 75-79 In: S.C. Amstrup and 0. Wiig,(eds.) Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Tenth WorkingMeeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear SpecialistsGroup. IUCN Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107 pp.

Chelintsev, N.G. 1977. Estimation of the absolute dcnnumber based on the sample census. pp. 66--{l5. In:The Polar Bear and its Conservation in the SovietArctic. Moscow. (In Russian).

Cheltintsev, N.G. 1980. The methods ofestimating theanimal abundance by the data of sample counts. pp.26- 35. In Biological Basics of Hunting. Moscow.(In Russian).

Chelintsev, N.G. 1992. Mathematical backgrounds ofthe sample animal census. pp. 3-11. Bull. MOIP.Section BioI., N6. (In Russian).

179

Basic Concepts ofPolar Bear Maternity Den Census

reproducing females. An over-estimate is possible if thenumber of temporary dens is large. Ifaerial surveys areconducted on the sample area, then spatial extrapola­tion for the different strata can be accomplished usingthe Jolly or Chelintsev method.

Garner, G.W., M.S. Udevitz, and L.L. McDonald.1991. USSR polar bear denning surveys: method­ology and application. (Draft). 10 pp.

Jolly, G.M. 1969. Sampling methods for aerial cen­suses ofwildlife populations. East African Agr. For.J.34:46-49.

Stishov, M.S. 1991. Results of aerial of tile polar denson the arctic coasts of the extreme northeast Asia.pp. 90--92. In S.c. Amstrup and 0. Wiig, (cds.)PolarBears: Proceedingsofthe Tenth Working Meet­ing of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialists Gronp.IUCN Gland and Cambridge. ii + 107 pp.

Recent Studies on Heavy Metals in Polar Bearsfrom Greenland with reference to other Marine

Mammals

R. Dietz, Greenland Environmental Research Institute, Tagensvej 135, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark

Data on zinc, cadmium, mercury and selenium weredeveloped for muscle, liver and kidney tissue from 38polar bears caught in the Scoresby Sound area, centralEast Greenland. Data on cadmium and mercury werecompared to a number of other marine species. Cad­mium levels were lower in all analyzed tissues of thepolar bear compared to the ringed seals from the samearea. Ringed seal blubber, constituting an importantpart of the polar bear diet. had low cadmium levelsbeing often below detection Iimi t. This finding providesa probable explanation for the low cadmium concentra­tion in the polar bear tissues. Mercury levels in muscletissue were likewise lower in polar bears compared toringed seals, whereas the opposite was the case for liverand kidney tissue. This finding shows that trophicaccumulation factors are dependant on the tissue beingcompared. Contrary to other marine mammals, polarbears had higher mercury levels in kidney than in liver.The previous geographical trend for cadmium andmercury found in Canada could be extended to coverEast Greenland as well. Hence higher cadmium levelswere found in Greenland while the opposite was the

180

case for mercury. As previously found, mercury andselenium showed molar ratios close to unity in liver. Asimilar ratio was found in kidney tissue, where cad­mium and selenium molar ratios were also 1: I.

Significant correlations were found between the con­centration of mcrcury in hair and in liver and kidney.Based upon these findings, mercury levels in 135 hairsamples collected from East Greenland between 1973and 1990 were examined. Significant differences werefound for sampling year and different geographicalareas, but the effect.' of these two parameters could notbe separated. Sex and season were not significant con­tributors to the model, and neither were any of the firstorder interactions. Concentration of mercury increasedsignificantly with age, most pronounced for animalsless than eight ycars ofage (annual increase ofapproxi­mately 0.6 gig w.w.). Mercury in hair of mother andcub pairs from whole Greenland showed significantcorrelations (r= 0.779; n=23). Significantcorrelationswere also found between cubs of the same litter (r =0.966; n =11).

On ICC's Environmental Strategy and somelocal Polar Bear Problems

I. Egede, Inuit Circumpolar Conference, POBox 204, 3900 Nuuk. Greenland

The Innuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) is a non­governmental organisation that takes care of the gen­eral interests of the Inuit from Chuchotka, Alaska.Canada and Greenland. The organisation was foundedin 1980.

When people from a widespread area meet to expresstheir concerns, there will always be a wide range ofideas. needs and expectations expressed. Within a shorttime such issues can be innumerable, contradictory andconfusing.

So, already at the second General Assembly, held in1983, the ICC recognised the necessity of working outan overview of its policy-what we now for short callour "ARCfIC POLICY". I consider it to have been afarsighted and wise initiative to develop the ArcticPolicy paper, which was approved at the last GeneralAssembly in 1992. It is nOw published as "PRINCI­PLES AND ELEMENTS FOR ACOMPREHENSIVEARCfIC POLICY".

With the Arctic Policy document we now have areference book for our work in the ICC. In addition itcan also be used by other NGOs as a catalogue of ideas.

We do not perceive the document as a final one. Itwill have to be revised and kept alive through thecoming years.

The Arctic Policy document has six chapters:

I. Inuit Rights, Peace, and Security Issues

2. Environmental Issues

3. Social Issues

4. Cultural Issues

5. Economic Issues

6. Educational and Scientific Issues.

The Environmental Issues chapter takes up nearly30% of the publication.

181

Our people have always known that we lived in adelicate and fragile environment. As we grew up wewere taught to protectour streams, our waters, our landsand our game. And until only a few years ago we livedunder an illusion that our homelands were so isolatedthat we in a relaxed way could look upon the industrialpollution in North America and Eurasia-as long as welived in balance with our own environment.

Thc last year's knowledgc about the global warming,the ozone layer depIction, the Arctic haze, ocean dump­ing ofall kinds of litter, the transboundary pollution byPCB and other persistent chemicals, the Exxon Valdezoil spill and many other examples have taught us thatwe have to take part in international policy-makingconcerning the environment.

From the introduction to the mentioned Arctic Policypublication I can quote:

"From an Inuit viewpoint, Arctic policies must pro­vide more than a prescribed course ofaction. They mustreflect a vision of the Arctic that promotes fairness andsocial justice for northern peoples. Arctic policies mustsupport the aspirations of indigenous peoples and nur­ture their cultural development. Equally important,Arctic policies must fully recognise and respect funda­mental indigenous rights."

The chapter on Environmental Issues deals with en·vironmental protection and the relationship betweenconservation and development.

It stresses that the Arctic constitutes a delicate envi­ronment on which Inuit depend. It talks about theinterdependency between Inuit and the surroundingworld, about aboriginal subsistence, the need for na­tional and international laws to develop sustainable useof the resources: it also mentions international anti­harvesting pressure groups as partofourenvironmentalproblems.

Po/arBears

Aside from these general infonnative remarks, I shallmention some more specific concerns about polar bearsthat have been brought to ICC's auention.

Chuchotka

Luidmilla Ainana, who is one of the two Chuchotkanexecutive council members of the ICC, said last sum­mer:

"I would (also) like to speak on the problems whichwe are trying to resolve in co-operation with ... theAssociation of Indigenous Peoples of the North. Allthese problems can be associated with the gravest po­litical and economic crisis, which swept the fonnerUSSR. This defonnation of the society has affected theIndigenous Peoples of Russia's North through:

1) the decline of traditional economy, including thesea-mammal hunting, which is the basis oflnuil'ssubsistence,

2) to a considerable extent we have lost ourtraditions, our culture and language. These losseswill lead to the extinction of our spiritual valuesand ethnic consciousness,

3) Unemployment among the indigenous peoples,

4) It has had an impact on the demography-theYupiit are only about 1500 individuals. Thelife-span is 8.8 years shorter for men, while it isabout 10 years shorter for women, compared withthe rest of Russia,

5) Environmental deterioration as a result of thebarbarian industrial expansion, irrationalconstruction and natural resource utilisation. Thepresent state of the air, the water, the flora and thewild life has an economic, ethnic and socialmeaning to the aboriginal peoples.

In the last decades the sea mammal hunt has resultedin alarming conditions in our society."

To return to our main subject here, the polar bears,Ainana continues: "1 must raise still another issue: It isprohibited to harvest polar bear in Chuchotka. You see,native people fed on polar bears meat since time imme­morial. Some rites and family celebrations are based onpolar bear harvesting. It was a component of our cul­ture. The population of polar bears increase now fromyear to year. Polar bears become a nuisance in theremote coastal villages. That is why my people must beallowed to harvest polar bear."

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Luidmilla Ainana ends this part of her "Overview ofCurrent Issues in Chuchotka" saying: "As I understand,the above mentioned problems represent a componentof a great phenomenon, which has the name Infringe­ment of the National Interests of Native Peoples; somenon-natives are arrogant to us and unwilling even to­day to see in the aboriginal populations of Russia'sNorth and Far East as a colourful diversity of ethnosis.We are persistent on preserving our distinctive ethnicaland cultural values."

Thule or Avanersuaq

Even the importance of the polar bear hunt in Avaner­suaq will be known to the participants of this meeting,I want to include some facts in this overview:

Polar bear pants are not only the preferred kind ofclothing for the hunter in this area, they are also anecessity if you want to be able to cope with the severeclimate in a decent way in the traditional hunting.

Maybe more important is the cultural aspect of thepolar bear hunt. For centuries the polar bear hunt hasbeen the proof of the individual hunter's ability andskills. Any able man can normally hunt seals, walruses,bclugas and other sea mammals to feed his family andhis dog team. But it takes a skilled person to havecollected enough food for the family, and to havebrought his equipment and dogs up to a state, that hecan leave his family for the four to six weeks period apolar bear hunt in the Melville Bay or to Kane Basinlasts. A polar bear hunt like this is also looked upon asa very prestigious event in one's life, and as one of thepeak experiences a hunter must have through his life­a proof of manhood.

It is worth mentioning that the Avanersuarmiut forcenturies up to about 40 years ago have been the onlypeople who have been using the area of EllesmereIsland for subsistence hunting.

During the same 40 years three factors have limitedthe livelihood of the Avanersuarmiut:

1) the building up of the international boundary orborder between Canada and Greenland,

2) the placement of the Thule Air Base, and

3) the resulting move from Uummannaq to Qaanaaq.

On ICC's Environmental Strategy and some local Polar Bear Problems

The mentioned issues are dealt with in following ICCresolutions:

We know that just some decades ago, the subsistencehunt of the polar bear would neverthreaten the bears asa species. But now with the growing populations in theArctic, the modem means of transportation, modemguns and scopes, the lack of money income for thehunters in our areas, and the rapid cultural changesamong our peoples we realise that we unintentionally,ourselves can become a threat to this precious game.

I want to thank you for your invitation to the repre­sentatives of the hunters from Alaska, Canada andGreenland through ICC. We have learned a lot fromyou, and I hope, that we have been able to give an inputto your meeting that is beyond your traditional methodsfor data hunting.

selective hunt? Many other questions must be answeredin the future, as they are crucial to our politicians intheir efforts to make sustainable use of the polar bears.

- Thule People's Right to Hunt Polar Bearon Ellesmere Island

- The mCN Specialist Group on Sustain­able Use of Wild Species

- Support of the Restoration of TraditionalInuit Hunting Rights

Seen from a ICC perspective the work in your groupis very important. Trustworthy estimates of the polarbear populations in our areas are crucial to us. Whichareas do the populations cover? What is the reproduc­tion rate for polar bears? What is the impact of theglobal pollution on the individual polar bear and to thespecies in general? Are quotas the way to secure asustainable yield? Or do we find the answer in a sex-

89-33

92-20

92-19

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Polar Bears killed in Svalbard 1987-92I. Gjertz, Norsk Polarinstitutt. 9170 Longyearbyen. NorwayS. Aarvik, Sysselmannen pa Svalbard. 9170 Longyearbyen. NorwayR. Hindrum, Sysselmannen pa Svalbard. 9170 Longyearbyen. Norway

All polar bear hunting in Norwegian territory has beenbanned since 1973. Since 1973 polar bears have onlybeen shot in acts of self-defense. as precautionarymeasures or have been killed as acts of mercy. All suchcases are considered a police matter and are eitherinvestigated by. or authorized by Sysselmannen. Dataon bears killed has been obtained from Sysselmannensfiles. A total of 26 polar bears have been killed inSvalbard since January 1987. Twelve of these kills(46%) occurred in July and August. These same monthsconstituted the period with most killings in self-defense(53%). June and November were the only months without bears being killed. Fifteen of these 26 cases were

184

self-defense. four precautionary measures. six acts ofmercy and one unknown. Twelve of the 15 self-defensecases (80%) occurred at remote cabins or tents. Nocases occurred in populated areas. Of all self-defensecases. seven involved tourists and six scientists. hence87% ofall self-defense cases involved non-residents ofSvalbard. Fourteen of the 23 bears killed and aged wereadults. Of the 21 bears killed for which sex is known.18 were males (86%). Eight of the 15 bears shot in self­defense were males. three were females and fourunknown. Of these 15 bears, six were adults. sevensubadults and two unknown.

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Polar Bears fromNorth America, Greenland and Svalbard

R..J. Norstrom, Environment Canada, Canadian Wildiife Service, Hull, Quebec K IA OH3 Canada

It has been suggested that the Arctic OCean may be­come one of the principal global sinks of organo­chlorine compounds such as PCBs, DDT, chlordaneand dieldrin because of the tendency for net atmos­pheric transport from warmer to colder areas. This mayhave some basis in fact, since recent estimates indicatethe net flux of PCBs from the atmosphere to the oceansurface is greater at higher latitudes (Iwata et al. 1993).Organochlorines have been detected in arctic air, snow,ice, water and biota (Barrie et al. 1992; Muir el al.1992). Knowledge of the circumpolar distribution andtemporal trends in concentrations oforganochlorines istherefore important in determining the sources andpotential significance of these contaminants to arcticmarine and maritime wildlife and thc humans thatconsume them. It has already been demonstrated thatlevels of PCBs are about three times higher in breastmilk ofInuit from northern Quebec than in the southernCaucasian population (Dewailly el al. 1989).

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is an excellentcandidate biomonitor for organochlorines. Polar bearsare the principal mammalian predators at the top of thearctic marine foodchain, and are distributed widelythroughout the Arctic and Subarctic circumpolar regions.Several studies have been published identifying or­ganochlorines and their metabolites in polar bear tis­sues, studying their bioaccumulation in the food weband determining geographical distribution of levels infat and liver. Most of the studies have been in theCanadian Arctic, but there is some information forAlaska, Greenland and Svalbard bears (Clausen el al.1974; Bowes and Jonke11975; Lentfer 1976; Edelstamet al. 1981; Norstrom et al. 1988; Muir et at. 1988;Norstrom et al. 1990; Letcher et al. 1992; Jarman et al.1992; Norheim et al. 1992; Bergman el al. 1993).

A proposal for a circumpolar survey of contamina­tion in polar bear fat was presented by the CanadianWildlife Service at the mCN Polar Bear SpecialistGroup in Sochi, USSR in OCtober 1988. The Depart­ment ofRenewable Resources of the NWT (M. Taylor,

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Yellowknife), the University ofSaskatchewan (M. Ram­say, Saskatoon), the University of Alberta (I. Stirling,Edmonton), the Kuujjuaq Research Centre (S. Olpinski,Kuujjuaq, Quebee), the Norsk Polarinstitutt (0. Wiig,Oslo), the Greenland Fisheries Research Institute(E. Born, Copenhagen) and the United States Fish andWildlife Service (S. Schliebe, Anchorage) agreed tocollaborate in the survey. Although the former USSRagreed to participate, no samples were acUJa1ly obtained.Unfortunately, the survey is therefore only hemi­spheric. Approximately 700 samples of fat from huntedbears and subcutaneous biopsies from research pro­grams were collected from across Canada, Alaska,Greenland and Svalbard in 1989-91. These have beenanalysed by the Canadian Wildlife Service for over 20different PCB congeners and organochlorines. Thesummary statistical analysis and briefdiscussion of thedata are presented in this report. A manuscript forpublication in the scientific literature, based on thesefindings, with all of the participants as co-authors, is inpreparation.

Samples were placed into 17 geographical groupsbased on the likelihood of similar exposure to contami­nanlS through a common food supply and commonrange. In the case ofCanadian bears, these groups weremodified from the Polar Bear ManagementZones usedby the Department of Renewable Resources of theNWT.

For purposes of statistical analysis, bears were putinto three sex categories, male (M), solitary females (F)and females with cubs (FC). Levels ofPCBs and chlor­dane in fat biopsy samples from western Hudson Bayshowed a tendency to decrease from cubs to approxi­mately five years ofage. Trends in levels with age weremuch less pronounced in mature adullS. Therefore, allstatistical comparisons among areas were made withresults from bears older than five years. In the case ofmultiple-compound classes, the data were summed togive the total for the class: S-DDT (DDT+DDE), S­Chlordane (mainly the metabolite oxychlordane and

Polar Bears

nonachlor-UI), and S-PCB (sum of 20 congeners) priorto statistical analysis. Details on the identity of thevarious individual organochlorine compounds andmost of the chemical methodology has been reportedpreviously (Norstrom et al. 1988; Muir et al. 1988).

The dataset was cleaned up by removing records forwhich some critical data (either biological or chemical)were missing. There were 300 bears in the final adultdataset. Statistical analyses were done using the SASGLMprocedure. To obtain normality, the data were logtransformed (square root for dieldrin). Where it wassignificant, sex (pcB and S-Chlordane) and sex by ageinteractions (PCBs) were eliminated by standardizingthe data to solitary females for purposes of comparinggeographical distribution free of these effects. Overall,females have 42% higher levels of S-Chlordane thanmales (P). Females with cubs also have 32% higherlevels of S-DDT than males. There is no significantdifference between the two groups of females for anyorganochlorine. The pattern is quite different for S­PCBs than for S-Chlordane and S-DDT. Males have50% higher levels than females (P<0.05).

Ranges in concentrations were: S-Chlordane, 1.5­6.2mg/kg; dieldrin, 0.08-Q.49mg/kg; S-DDT. 0.09­0.68mg/kg; S-PCB, 1.7-15.7mg/kg. With fewexceptions, the geographical variation for each chemi­cal group was within a factor oftwo or three throughoutthe North American Arctic, and was not statisticallysignificant among areas. The most pronounced geo­graphical variation was the significantly higher level ofS-PCB (11-16mg/kg) in eastern Greenland, Svalbardand M'Clure Strait bears than in the other 14 areas,which averaged 3.7± 1.6mg/kg. There werc also highcrlevels of S-DDT in the M'Clure Strait area. Apart fromthese anomalies, geometric mean levels tended to in­crease gradually from west to east and south (Alaska­Svalbard-Hudson Bay), as was found in the NorthwestTerritories of Canada in a previous study (Norstrom etal., 1988). This trend was most obvious for S-DDTanddieldrin, and is consistent with long-range atmospherictransport of contaminants from the North Americancontinental land mass, which is expected to contributemore to the "background" levels in the eastern and

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southern Arctic west of Greenland. East of Greenland,Europe and Eurasia were probably responsible for thehigher PCB levels. The relatively uniform levels ofmost organochlorine compounds, especially S-Chlor­dane, indicates that they are well distributed in theArctic marine ecosystem of the western hemisphere,perhaps even close to equilibrium with global atmos­pheric cycling (Iwata et al. 1993).

The significance of these results to polar bear eco­toxicology is difficult to determine. Mean PCB levelsin fat are generally four to ten times below those whichare associated with reproductive effects in most wildmammals such as mink and grey seal (Olsson 1987).However, some individual bears have PCB levels (2Q.­30mg/kg in lipid) which are approaching the level ofconcern if polar bears are sensitive species. It is sus­pected effects may be most evident during fasting,especially on denning females, fetuses and newborncubs (Norstrom 1990). We have recently identifiedmethylsulphone metabolites of PCBs and DDE in Polarbear tissues (Bergman et al. 1993; Letcher et al. 1992).DDE methylsulphones have been implicated in anendocrine disease syndrome (hyperadrenocorticism)in Baltic grey seal which led to osteoporosis, possibleimmune deficiencies and reproductive failure(Bergman et al. 1986; Brandt et al. 1992).

Acknowledgements

Many individuals have contributed to this work besidesthe principal investigators mentioned above. Foremostamong these are the hunters (who provided most of thesamples), Mary Simon and Michael Mulvihill, whowere in charge of the chemical analysis, Brian Malone,who set up the database and performed the statisticalanalysis, Wendy Calvert, Andy Derocher, Dennis An­driashek and John Lee who were involved in obtainingand summarizing biological and geographical informa­tion for the Canadian Samples. Funding for chemicaland statistical analysis was obtained through the ArcticEnvironmental Strategy Program, Indian and NorthernAffairs Canada

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Polar Bears from North America, Greenland and Svalbard

References

Barrie, L.D. Gregor, B. Hargrave, R. Lake,D. Muir, RShearer, B. Tracey and T. Bidleman. 1992, Arcticcontaminants: sources occurrence and pathways.Sci. Total Environ. 122: 1-74.

Bergman, A., R.I. Norstrom, K, Haraguchi, H. Kurokiand P. Beland. 1993. PCB and DDE methyl sul­phones in mammals from Canada and Sweden.Environ. Toxico!. Chern., in press.

Bergman, A. and M. Olsson. 1986. Pathology of Balticgrey seal and ringed seal with special reference toadrenocortical hyperplasia: is environmental pollu­tion the cause of a widely distributed disease syn­drome? Finnish Game Res. 44:47-62:

Bowes, G.W. and C.I. Jonkel, 1975. Presence anddistribution of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) inarctic and subarctic marine food chains. J. Fish.Res.Board. Can., 32: 2111-2123.

Brandt, I., C.I. Jl'lnsson and B.-O. Lund. 1992. Com­parative studies on adrenocortolytic DDT-metabo­lites. Ambio 21:602-605.

Braune, B.M., RJ. Norstrom, M.P. Wong, B.T. Collinsand J. Lee. 1991. Geographical distribution of met­als in livers of polar bears from the NorthwestTerritories, Canada. Sci. Total Environ. 100:283­299.

Clausen, J., L. Braestrup and O. Berg. 1974. The con­tent of polychlorinated hydrocarbons in Arcticmammals. Bul!. Environ. Contam. Toxico!.12:529-534.

Dewailly, E., A. Nantel, J.-P. Weber and F. Meyer.1989. High levels of PCBs in breast milk of Inuitwomen from arctic Quebec. Bull. Environ. Contam.Toxico!. 43:641-646.

Edelstam, A.C., S. Jensen, J. Mowrer and M. Olsson.1981. Miljl'lgifter i polarhavet. Analyseresultat frilnYmer-expeditionen 1980. Expeditionen YMER­80, Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences, PolarResearch Committee, pp. 174-182.

Iwata, H.I., S. Tanabe, N. Sakai and R. Tatsukawa.1993. Distribution of persistent organochlorines inthe oceanic air and surface seawater and the role ofocean on their global transport and fate. Environ.Sci. and Techno!., in press.

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Jarman, W.M., M. Simon, RJ. Norstrom, SA Bums,C.A. Bacon, B.R.T. Simoneit and R.W. Rise­brough. 1992. Global distribution of tris (4-chlo­rophenyl)methanol in high tropic level birds andmammals. Environ. Sci. Techno!. 26:1770-1774.

Lentfer,J.W. 1976. Environmental contaminants andparasites in polar bears. Alaska Dept. of Fish andGame, Final Report, Job 5.5R. 22pp.

Letcher, R.I., R.I. Norstrom, A Bergman and D.C-G.Muir. 1992. Methylsulphone-PCB and DDE in po­lar bears -comparison to parentcompounds in the diet.Dioxin'92: Analytical Methods, Fonnation and De­struction, Exotoxicology. Finnish Inst. of OCcup.Health: Organohalogen Compounds 8:357-360.

Muir,D.C.G., R. Wagemann, B.T. Hargrave, D.I.Thomas, D.B. Peakall and R.I. Norstrom. 1992.Arctic Marine Ecosystem Contamination. Sci. To­tal Environ. 122: 75-134.

Muir, D.C.G., R.I. Norstrom and M. Simon. 1988.Organochlorine contaminants in Arctic marine foodchains: accumulation of specific PCB congenersand chlordane-related compounds. Environ. Sci.Techno!. 22: 1071.1079.

Norheim, G., J.U. Skaare and 0. Wiig. 1992. Someheavy metals, essential elements and chlorinatedhydrocarbons in polar bear (Ursus maritimus) atSvalbard. Environ. Pollut. 77: 51-57.

Norstrom, RJ.., M. Simon and D.C.G. Muir. 1990.Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo­furans in marine mammals in the canadian north.Environ.Poliut. 66: 1-19.

Norstrom, R.I. 1990. Are Polar Bears Threatened byPCBs? CAl Commentary, Comi16 Arctique Inter­nationa. 2: 13-17.

Norstrom, R.J., M. Simon, D.C.G. Muir and R. Schwe­insburg. 1988. Organochlorine contaminants inArctic marine food chains: identification, geo­graphical distribution and temporal trends in polarbears. Environ. Sci. Techno!. 22: 1063-1071.

Olsson, M. 1987. PCBs in the Baltic Environment. In:PCBs in the Environment. J.S. Waid, ed., CRCPress, Vo!. 111, pp. 181-208.

Renzoni, A. and R.I. Norstrom. 1990. Polar Bears andMercury. Polar Record 26: 326-328.

The Catch of Polar Bears in NorthwesternGreenland

A. Rosing-Asvid, Greenland Fisheries Research Institute,Tagcnsvej 135, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark

E.W. Born, Greenland Fisheries Research Institute,Tagensvej 135, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) are an important compo­nent of the subsistence catch for those Innit living in themunicipalities ofAvanersuaq (Thule) and Upernavik innorthwestern Greenland. Infonnation on the catch ofpolar bears in Avanersuaq and Upernavik is limited, asin other areas of Greenland. In order to determine theage and sex composition of the catch of polar bears inthese areas, samples from the Inuit's catch have beencolleeted since early 1988. To obtain detailed informa­tion on the spatial and seasonal distribution and the sizeof thc catch, 70 hunters from Avanersuaq were inter­viewed in 1989. Of these 58 had taken polar bears. Thcyrepresented close to 100% of the regular hunters. In1990, 21 hunters were interviewed in the Upernavikarea. They represented less than 10% of the hunters inthe area. and therefore, the information about the num­ber of bears caught in the municipality of Upernavikmay be less representative. During spring (peak activityin April) and in October, hunters from Avanersuaqtravel north by dogsleds to hunt polar bears in the KaneBasin area between 780 30'and 800N where an esti­mated five to 10 bears are caught annually. The occur­rence ofbears in the central part ofthe Avanersuaq areais more sporadic; an estimated five bears are takenannually in these areas. Hunters from both Avanersuaqand Upernavik hunt polar bears in the Melville Bugtarea. In this area an important site for the spring polarbear hunt is found about 100km offshore at a shallow

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bank with stranded icebergs. Inuit from Avanersuaqtake an estimated 20 polar bears per year in the MelvilleBugt area where some bears are also taken by huntersfrom the municipality of Upernavik. The peak huntingactivity in this area is in March. During 1988 and 1989,the only two years in which the infonnation on numbersof polar bears taken in Avanersuaq is sufficiently rep­resentative, 24 and 48 polar bears were documented,respectively. We estimate that during the past 10 yearsor so, the total catch of polar bears in Avanersuaq hasaveraged 30-35 per year. According to the hunters, theoccurrence of polar bears in the Upernavik area hasincreased during the 1980s, and their range has extendedsouthward. The hunters suggested that these changesreneet a change in the distribution and duration of theice cover in northern Baffin Bay. Based on little infor­mation, we estimate that the annual take of polar bearsaverages about 20 polar bears in the municipality ofUpernavik.ln northwestern Greenland, the majority ofpolar bears are taken during sled trips in February­April. Of 61 catches (1988-92) in Avanersuaq forwhich the method of hunting was stated, only 1.6% ofthe bears were taken using skiffs powered with 40hpoutboard engines. Independent female polar bears (Le.older than two years of age) comprised about 37% ofthe catch in Avanersuaq and Upernavik. In northwest­ern Greenland, the majority of the hides are used forclothing and the meat is a highly priced food.

Genetic Heterogeneity in Polar Bears:the Canadian Data

M.A. Ramsay, Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. S7K OWO, CanadaY. Plante, Saskatchewan Research Council, CanadaM.K. Taylor, Department of Renewable Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, Canada.M. Crete, Direction de la fauna terrestre, 150 St. Cyrille Est, 5e etage, Quebec, Que. G lR 4Yl, Canada

We initiated this work because we wished to develop amethod that would allow us to delineate subpopulationsof polar bears in a rigorous manner. Our initial ap­proach was to use RFLP (Restriction Fragment LengthPolymorphism) analysis of mtDNA. Fifty polar bearswere sampled from each of the western Hudson Bayand Beaufort Sea/M'Clure Strait regions of Canada.These sites were chosen to be as far apart as possible aswe could sample within Canadian jurisdiction. Wecarried out analyses using 31 different restriction en­zymes. No polymorphisms were detected except forone female from Hudson Bay who was polymorphic fortwo enzymes. To verify the RFLP results, we appliedstandard nuclear DNA fingerprinting methods using

189

Jefferies and PB-47 probes. The results with both weresimilar and consistent with the mtDNA data. The prob­ability of any two bears having identical fingerprintswas 5 x 10-5 ; about seven orders of magnitude higherthan for people. Our data are in striking contrast to theRFLP data of Shields and Kocher (1991) who foundindividual differences of 0.37% among eight polarbears using 13 enzymes. UsingPCR(polymerasechainreaction) techniques we are now sequencing portionsof the mtDNA genome coding for cytochrome-B andthe hypervariable D-Ioop to allow more detailed com­parisons with the Alaskan data. Our results suggest thatpolar bars consist of at least two genetically discretepopulations.

Global Environmental Change: an InvoluntaryEcological Experiment with Polar Bears

as a Subject

M.A. Ramsay, Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. S7K OWO, Canada

Human activities over the past century have more thandoubled atmospheric concentrations ofnaturally occur­ring greenhouse gases such as C02 and CH3 as well asadding significant quantities of synthetic greenhousegases such as CFC-li and CFC-12- As a direct resultof these abnospheric perturbations, rapid and signifi­cant (Le., >5"C) global warming is predicted to occurover the next 50-100 years. Significantly for polarbears, most climate models predict that the greatestwarming will occur in the polar regions, especially theArctic. To put this magnitude of warming into perspec­tive, the increase in global wanning from the last glacialperiod to full interglacial was about 5° C. The conse­quences for polar bears of global warming are bothdirect and indirect. Mathematical models indicate thata moderate rise in Arctic temperature would reduce thesea-ice cover to <50% of that at present. Testing of themodels is ongoing. Over the past 10 years the maximumextent of Arctic sea-ice has declined about 2%, in

190

agreement with the model. A 50% decline in coverageof sea iee would almost certainly eliminate polar bearsfrom the southern parts of their range and reduce nutri­ent intake of bears in other regions. In the early stagesof ice reduction, bears in the more southern parts oftheir range would experience reduced feeding opportu­nities and lengthened ice-free periods in summer. Indi­rect effects include: I) an increased possibility of anepizootic (e.g., seal Morbillivirus) affecting arcticseals; 2) reduced marine primary productivity becauseof loss of ice algae populations, a significant change inphytoplankton populations, and phytoplankton reduc­tions as a result of increased UV exposure due to polarozone thinning. Directly and indirectly, the results ofglobal warming will prove catastrophic for existingpolar bear populations. Our role as researehers andmanagers is to design data collection programmes thatcan, as early as possible, confinn or falsify predictionsbased upon global warming models.

Grizzly Bear Sightings in Viscount MelvilleSound

Mitchell Taylor, Department of Renewable Resources. Government of Northwest Territories. PO Box1320. Yellowknife. NWT XIA 2L9. Canada

Background

On 4 May 1991 a grizzly bear was sighted about 40miles south of Dundas Peninsula. Melville Island (730

47' N. 1120 17' W). on the sea-ice of Viscount MelvilleSound. From tracks it was apparent that the grizzly bearhad been hunting seal pups in birth lairs. The remainsof two kills (presumably seal pups) were observed inthe vicinity of where the bear was seen. The bear wasimmobilized. ear tagged. lip tattooed. weighed. meas­ured. and examined. The bear was an adult male weigh­ing approximately 7001bs. The bear was in goodcondition. had no broken teeth. and no visible scars orwounds. The testes were small and not descended.indicating the bear was not mating. The bear was lightlydrugged. and was able to lift its head and move its pawsbefore we left it.

On 7 May 1991 Joseph Haluksitfrom Holman Islandencountered a grizzly bear about40km NW ofBarnardPoint. The grizzly bear was seen near a seven-foot.un-sexed two-year-old polar bear cub that had beenkilled and partially eaten. The grizzly bear had eatenpart of the hindquarters and partially buried the carcass.The grizzly bear appeared to be a large male and waspresumed to be the same bear that had been capturedearlier. From wounds on the polar bear. blood spreadaround the area. and tracks. the hunters concluded thatthe grizzly bear had killed the polar bear. then eaten thehindquarters.

Mr. Pat Ekpatok of Holman Island was reported tohave observed two polar bear cubs that had been killedand partly eaten by a grizzly bear. Mr. Ekpatok wascontacted on 17 May for details. and explained that hehad not seen any cubs or any bears killed by a grizzlybear or by any bear in spring 1991. The false report mayhave come from a misunderstood radio message whenPat was discussing one of the other sightings.

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Grizzly bears are known to venture onto the sea-iceto scavenge from polar bear kills and hunt adult andnewborn seals. Two grizzly bears have been observedin Wager Bay. one of which was on a seal kill. Bothresearchers and local people have observed grizzlybears and grizzly bear tracks on sea-ice in the AmundsonGulf area. Kurten suggested that polar bears evolvedfrom barren land grizzly bears that were forced onto thesea-ice when glaciers advanced north (as well as south)during the Pleistocene.

Zookeepers. particularly in the Soviet Union andEastern Europe. have experimentally crossed polarbears with grizzly bears. Polar bears and grizzly bearsreadily mate. and produce fertile offspring. These off­spring can mate with either polar or grizzly bears andalso produce fertile offspring. The offspring have vari­able colour and morphological characteristics fromboth species. The coat colour may be all white. allbrown. or patchy brown and white. A naturally occur­ring brown-patch polar bear cub was observed byChristian Vibe on NE Greenland which has no grizzlybears. Presumably the brown patch was a genetic rever­sion to the founding type (grizzly bears).

The explanation usually given for why hybrid polar­grizzly bears do not occur in nature is temporal segre­gation during the mating season (April-May for polarbears) and (May-June) for grizzly bears. This explana­tion may be inadequate for the Wager Bay. AmundsonGulf. and perhaps Viscount Melvillearea where the twospecies do overlap during the mating season. Perhapsgrizzly bears return to shore before they become repro­ductively active. or perhaps there is mate selection inthe wild that is not operative in zoos. It is even possiblethat occasional hybrids are produced. but are eliminatedby natural selection and are not observed.

No previous observations ofgrizzly bears killing andeating polar bears has been reported. Polar bears couldnot be considered easy prey. even for an adult male

Polar Bears

grizzly bear. The reported grizzly kills are of cubs orjuvenile polar bears. The grizzly bear handled by re­searchers on 4 May in Viscount Melville Sound was inprime condition. From the helicopter chase for darting,it was apparent that the bear was able to run faster thanthe typical polar bear of that size. The grizzly bear wasnot afraid of the helicopter as most polar bears are,rather it ran toward the helicopter as we approached.The observation of a grizzly bear in Viscount MelvilleSound is the most northern sighting ofany grizzly bearever reported.

I suggest that this grizzly bear has somehow learnedto exploit the sea-ice habitat in spring. Perhaps it ven­tured onto Banks Island or Victoria Island to exploitMuskox calves, perhaps it dispersed as a sub-adult,perhaps it is only a curious bear that has learned toexploit marine and terrestrial habitat. In the course ofhunting seal pups it probably encountered polar bears,and was able to kill one for food. Large male polar bearsare not as fast as female or sub-adult polar bears. Myimpression was that the grizzly bear we observed on4 May could catch a sub-adult or adult female polarbear.

Another factor is that the Viscount Melville polarbear population has been subjected to selective sportharvesting for males, particularly large males. Only20% of all adult bears seen in the Viscount MelvilleSound area were males, and only three were primeadults. The largest male bear seen was the grizzly bear.Perhaps the harvest has left the population more vul­nerable to grizzly predation than populations with morelarge males in breeding condition.

The grizzly bear will probably continue to exploitboth seals and polar bears. Once a food reward has beenobtained by a certain behaviour, most bears will persistin that behaviour. It is also not proven that there is only

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one grizzly bear at work. Perhaps there are severalgrizzly bears, and what is occurring is only a naturalextension of range.

On 4 May 1991, before encountering the grizzly bear,we came across a two-year-old cub that had been killedand partly eaten. We had been following the tracks ofa female and two-year-old cub that were being pursuedby a larger (male?) bear. Polar bears do attack andsometimes kill cubs during mating season.!n manyinstances two-year-old eubs are probably weaned(forced from the mother) by males during the time theyaeeompany females in breeding condition. Males mayalso kill cubs of any age. One theory is that by endinglactation and by repeated copulations, ovulation can beinduced in female polar bears. This results in a matingopportunity for the male. We did not study the tracks atthe site of the two-year-old kill, and presumed the killwas made as part of mating behaviour by a male polarbear.

Action taken

These events are being prepared for publication as ascientific note.

Current status/recommendation

Any additional mortality, especially of female bears, isa management concern for polar bears. However, theevidence that grizzly bear predation on polar bears isfrequent or even significant from a population perspec­tive is inconclusive. The Viscount Melville populationwill be visited in spring of 1992, and any polar bearsfound killed will be carefully examined for indicationsof grizzly bear predation. No control action appears tobe warranted at the present time.