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Leisure Studies

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Pleasurable challenges: competing with the ageingbody and mind through Ballet for Seniors

Anja Ali-Haapala , Gene Moyle & Graham Kerr

To cite this article: Anja Ali-Haapala , Gene Moyle & Graham Kerr (2020) Pleasurable challenges:competing with the ageing body and mind through Ballet�for�Seniors , Leisure Studies, 39:4,532-544, DOI: 10.1080/02614367.2019.1670720

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2019.1670720

Published online: 28 Sep 2019.

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Pleasurable challenges: competing with the ageing body andmind through Ballet for SeniorsAnja Ali-Haapala a, Gene Moyle b and Graham Kerr c

aEducation and Engagement, Queensland Ballet, Brisbane, Australia; bCreative Industries Faculty, QueenslandUniversity of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; cInstitute for Health and Biomedical Innovation & Faculty of Health,Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia

ABSTRACTGlobally, people’s life expectancies are increasing and we are living longerthan past generations. In Australia, people aged 65 years and older areexpected to represent 22% of the country’s total population in 2057. Atpresent, 65 years is the retirement age in Australia and, as a result, it marksthe opportunity for many older Australians to start spending more timeengaging in leisure activities. This article examines ballet class participationas one such leisure activity. Drawing from a case study of QueenslandBallet’s weekly Ballet for Seniors class, this article analyses the focus groupdiscussions of 10 class participants (aged 46 to 82 years), class observations,and teacher interviews. One of the key findings of this case study was thatmore challenging class content led to a greater sense of satisfaction andpleasure among the class participants. It is proposed that part of thepleasure of dancing ballet as an older adult are the physical and cognitivechallenges that are embedded in the structure of ballet.

ARTICLE HISTORYReceived 19 December 2018Accepted 12 September 2019

KEYWORDSBallet; challenge; dance;older adults; play; pleasure

Introduction

With an ageing population, more older Australians are experiencing retirement and are spending moretime engaging in leisure activities such as recreational dance classes. There are many opportunities inAustralia for older adults to undertake structured dance participation through dedicated ‘seniors’ or‘over fifties’ activities. These include dance classes, workshops, social dance events, and rehearsals thatlead to performance outcomes. The dance genres that these activities draw from include ballet,1 tap andjazz dance,2 contemporary dance,3 ballroom dance,4 clogging and square dance,5 and ‘mature dance’.6

In this article, we draw on a larger study that examined recreational ballet dancing through a casestudy of Queensland Ballet’s weekly Ballet for Seniors class (see Ali-Haapala, Moyle, & Kerr, 2018). Thisresearch had three points of focus: active older adults’ motivations to participate in recreational balletclasses, their perceived wellbeing as a result of ballet class participation, and pedagogical strategies forteachers leading ballet classes for active older adults. The present article focuses on analysing how morechallenging class content can lead to a greater sense of satisfaction and pleasure among class participants.To do this, we firstly discuss previous research on ageing, dance and pleasure with specific focus placedon the pleasure of dancing ballet. The concept of recreational ballet dancing as ‘play’ provides the lens toanalyse the findings. Secondly, we outline the research methods with a brief description of the Ballet forSeniors class that was central to the data collection process. Finally, we discuss the elements of the balletclass that provided challenge to class participants, and the participants’ reactions to an increased level ofchallenge: greater pleasure, sense of achievement, and greater engagement during classes.

CONTACT Anja Ali-Haapala anja@ali-haapala.com.au Queensland Ballet, Brisbane, Australia

LEISURE STUDIES2020, VOL. 39, NO. 4, 532–544https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2019.1670720

© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

Ageing, dance and pleasure

Research that has investigated recreational dancing in older age has tended to focus on physical healthand wellbeing (see Hwang & Braun, 2015). However, research on emotional wellbeing has furtherreported that dancing can lead to an enhanced mood (Eyigor, Karapolat, Durmaz, Ibisoglu, & Cakir,2009; Hui, Chui, &Woo, 2009), a temporary lift of anxiety (Gouvêa, Antunes, Bortolozzi, Marques, &Bertolini, 2017), a sense of accomplishment (Brown,McGuire, & Voelkl, 2008), and forgetting worriesand problems (Quiroga Murcia, Kreutz, Clift, & Bongard, 2010). While this, mostly quantitativeresearch, indicates that dancing can positively influence health, it has excluded analyses of the danceactivities and thus, which components of these activities contribute to health outcomes. There is,however, a body of qualitative research that has included dance practice in the investigation.

Qualitative research has focused on such dance practices as social dance and ballroom dance(Cooper & Thomas, 2002; Skinner, 2013; Stevens-Ratchford, 2016), modern sequence dance (Cooper& Thomas, 2002), line dance (Joseph & Southcott, 2019), shag dance (Brown et al., 2008), and squaredance (Schneider &McCoy, 2018). This literature illustrates the pleasure of being challenged by danceand overcoming these challenges (Schneider & McCoy, 2018; Stevens-Ratchford, 2016). For example,Schneider and McCoy (2018) found that learning a relatively complex dance activity ‘is in itselfa rewarding pleasure for older adults’ (p. 59). Other aspects of dancing that have been associated withpleasure are: socialising (Brown et al., 2008; Cooper & Thomas, 2002; Schneider & McCoy, 2018;Stevens-Ratchford, 2016), humour (Cooper & Thomas, 2002), the music played in dance sessions(Schneider & McCoy, 2018), dressing up for dancing (Cooper & Thomas, 2002; Schneider & McCoy,2018), and viewing oneself as a dancer (Brown et al., 2008).7

The pleasure of dancing ballet, however, has received little critical inquiry. This may be due toa dominant academic discourse which has concentrated on the harmful aspects of ballet, such asbody image distortions and eating disorders, body overuse, authoritarian teaching approaches,and traditional gender roles (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012). However, by focusing on the harmfuleffects, this literature has ignored an ‘essential feature’ of ballet for many dancers: pleasure (Kolb& Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 108). The limited literature available reports several pleasuresexperienced by adult recreational ballet dancers (Houston & McGill, 2013; Kolb &Kalogeropoulou, 2012; Whiteside & Kelly, 2016).

Most significantly, the pursuit of ballet as a hobby has been argued to be an importantcontributor to pleasure. Although for many professional and pre-professional dancers, ‘danceceases to be a relief from work and instead constitutes the very essence of their labours’ (Kolb &Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 114), recreational dancers may derive pleasure from ballet for leisure.When a hobby – an activity for leisure and ‘relief from work’ – even aspects typically consideredharmful, can turn pleasurable (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 114).

Several researchers have identified authoritarian teaching approaches as a harmful aspect of ballet(Lakes, 2005; Smith, 1998; Zeller, 2017). Whiteside and Kelly (2016), however, reported that author-itative teaching, which maintains the teacher’s power and authority, was a source of pleasure forrecreational dancers. In their study, recreational ballet dancers valued an autocratic, demandingteaching approach because they associated this with their ideas of an authentic ballet class experience.As the participants desired to be like professional ballet dancers, they wanted to experience what theyperceived as ‘authentic’ ballet class. In reporting similar findings, Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012)added that recreational dancers in their study enjoyed the ‘relinquishing of control’ (p. 116) to theteacher. Ballet classes, thus, might offer a space where adults are unburdened with responsibility and,instead, can indulge in following instructions. However, while authoritative teaching has beenidentified as a source of pleasure, there have been reported instances where a traditional authoritarianteaching approach has been harmful to recreational dancers:

Several cases of verbally and even physically abusive teacher behaviour were reported and cited as reasonsfor giving ballet up altogether, or considering quitting. This goes to reiterate the obvious point that pleasureand success in class depend largely on the teaching environment, and that significant differences exist

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between authoritarian and authoritative teaching styles. Vitally, classes imbued with discipline and con-structive teacher critique are experienced as pleasurable because of the stable framework and clear guidelinesthey provide for achievement and progression. (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 117)

‘Authoritarian’ teaching has been broadly described as a relationship of ‘enforced submission toan authority figure’ (Smith, 1998, p. 125). This paradigm positions teachers as the only source ofknowledge, demanding blind respect, trust and total compliance from their students (Zeller, 2017,p. 100). It has been considered to involve oppressive, even abusive, behaviours from teachers, suchas humiliation, negative comparisons between students, and hitting students in extreme cases(Lakes, 2005). Alternatively, the ‘authoritative’ teaching approach that Kolb and Kalogeropoulou(2012, pp. 16–17) suggested appears to hold onto the framework of teacher authority and studentsubmission but rejects the abusive behaviours that authoritarian approaches use to enforce thisrelationship. This distinction between authoritarian and authoritative teaching appears to bea critical factor for enabling or diminishing the recreational dancers’ experiences of pleasure.Indeed, the discipline expected by an authoritative teacher was reported to be a key reason fordancing by Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012). From this limited evidence, authoritative teachingappears to elicit pleasure for recreational dancers through providing a perceived authentic balletexperience, taking off the responsibility by transferring control to the teacher, and providing clearframeworks for dancers to assess their progress.

Similarly, physical pain might be considered another harmful aspect of ballet, especially whenassociated with body overuse and injury in professional and pre-professional contexts (Coplan, 2002;Oswald, Baron, Byl, & Wilson, 1994; Smith et al., 2015). Recreational dancers, nevertheless, havereported positive associations with painful physical sensations. For example, ballet dancers in Kolband Kalogeropoulou's (2012) study considered pain an indicator that ballet technique is worth strivingfor: ‘the more difficult and arduous the attainment of the goal, the more valuable its accomplishment’(p. 119). Therefore, the pleasure associated with pain might be considered a satisfaction in workingtowards and achieving something difficult.Whiteside and Kelly (2016, p. 23) found that the experienceof pain, exhaustion and even injury contributed to recreational dancers’ desire for an authentic balletexperience, even if not an explicit form of pleasure. While there is limited evidence, these studiessupport the claim that dancing for leisure may transform ‘harmful’ aspects, such as authoritativeteaching and physical pain, into pleasurable elements of ballet classes.

Other pleasurable aspects related to social connections. The social pleasures of ballet span frominterpersonal social interactions to broader signals that communicate being part of a ballet communityand association with an elite art form. In their study of older adults (aged between 60 and 82 years ofage) living with Parkinson’s disease, Houston and McGill (2013) reported several social pleasuresassociated with ballet classes. These included meeting new people and engaging in conversationsbefore and after classes. For some, the initial meeting at ballet classes developed into other socialactivities away from ballet. Additionally, during ballet classes, some participants reported enjoymentin holding hands during exercises highlighting the pleasure of human touch.

Furthermore, recreational ballet dancers have reported understanding ballet vocabulary asa source of pleasure (Whiteside & Kelly, 2016). Learning the language of ballet signified belongingto a select group that was ‘in the know’ (Whiteside & Kelly, 2016, p. 19) and suggests pleasure inexclusivity. Indeed, the same dancers credited ballet vocabulary as an element that contributes toballet’s ‘elite’ and even ‘superior’ status over other dance genres. Consequently, an associationwith an elite artform prompted pleasure (Whiteside & Kelly, 2016). Additionally, the consistentuse of ballet vocabulary across the globe provided a comforting ‘stability’ and ‘constancy’ to theballet experience for travelling dancers (Whiteside & Kelly, 2016, p. 19). It also enabled thesedancers to verify their ‘in the know’ status in new ballet contexts.

Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012) reported the pleasure of being challenged through ballet as a keyreason for recreational dancers (18 to 67 years of age) to attend classes. Ballet is commonly acknowl-edged as being physically challenging, but Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012, p. 119) also highlighted its

534 A. ALI-HAAPALA ET AL.

intellectual challenge. For example, one dancer in their study described ballet as ‘just as good exercisefor your brain as for your body’ (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 119). Another participant statedthat ballet offered more challenge – and this might suggest more pleasure – than other dance genres:‘I do love other dance forms as well, for example, jazz, I find it fun, but I don’t find it as challenging,and maybe that’s why I don’t find it as rewarding’ (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 118). Thisfinding invites more nuanced investigation of the nature of challenges offered through ballet classesand the experiences of pleasure that recreational adult dancers may derive from them.

Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012) explored recreational dancers’ experiences of ballet throughthe theoretical framing of ‘pleasure’ and ‘play’. ‘Pleasure’ was understood in a ‘broad, inclusivesense to mean a positive affect’ (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 111). This included intellectualsatisfaction and physiological satisfaction (such as those created by food or sex) as well as pleasureof achievement. This definition drew on philosophy, social sciences and neurobiological literaturewhich tended to relate pleasure to feeling happiness, satisfaction and gladness, resulting from anexperience that is perceived to be enjoyable or attractive (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012). Caillois(1961) theory of ‘play’ added to a more nuanced definition of pleasure. Caillois (1961, p. 9–10)proposed that play is free and not obligatory, separated by limits in time and space, uncertain inoutcome, unproductive in that it does not lead to creating new goods or wealth, governed by rules,and a make-believe reality in comparison to real life. Within these broad characteristics that applyto all play, Caillois proposed categories of play with corresponding pleasures. Kolb andKalogeropoulou (2012), following Caillois’ categories of pleasure and play, highlighted specificpleasures and play in recreational ballet classes.

Firstly, Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012) argued that ballet’s turning movements, such aspirouettes (turns on one foot) and chainés (rapid turns on two feet that travel in a line),8 createthe possibility for vertigo and dizziness. These correspond to Callois’ ilinx, the pleasure of vertigowhere one’s perception momentarily loses stability and the dancer derives pleasure in masteringthese forces. Secondly, while ballet is not usually a competitive activity, except for competitionsand syllabus examinations, Kolb and Kalogeropoulou found that the pleasure of competitive play,that Callois named agôn, can be felt in ballet classes: ‘implicit competitiveness imbues many balletclasses where participants strive to surpass their own prior performance, or outdo others intraining situations and end-of-year concerts’ (p. 118). This ‘implicit competitiveness’ was echoedby the participants in our study.

In summary, the existing literature accounts of several pleasures emanating from recreationaldancing. The pleasure of dancing ballet may derive from the intent to dance for leisure when evensuch aspects as authoritative teaching, discipline and physical pain can become enjoyable. Socialpleasures of forming acquaintances and friendships, and associated social status, such as knowing balletvocabulary and feeling part of an ‘elite’ art form, were also parts of participation in ballet. Most notably,however, the pleasures of being physically and cognitively challenged and the implicit competitivenessidentified by Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012) offer a point of departure for this current article.

Methods

The findings presented in this article are drawn from a research project entitled Ballet Moves forAdult Creative Health, a partnership between Queensland Ballet and Queensland University ofTechnology (see Ali-Haapala et al., 2018). The research project aimed to identify older adultmotivations to participate in recreational ballet classes, their perceived wellbeing as a result ofdancing, and appropriate pedagogy for active older adult participants. The research designconsisted of action research cycles within the context of Queensland Ballet’s weekly Ballet forSeniors class in Brisbane, Australia, from July to October 2017.

LEISURE STUDIES 535

Procedure

Action research9 was employed to provide an opportunity to test modified approaches to balletpedagogy in partnership with the Ballet for Seniors teachers. As an approach to knowledgecreation, action research ‘brings together action and reflection, theory and practice, in the pursuitof practical solutions’ (Bradbury, 2015, p. 1). Action research is, in part, characterised by an intentto understand and improve practice, researching ‘with’ the community that is being studied, andcyclical patterns of planning, acting and reflecting (Bradbury, 2015, p. 2). This research methodassisted us to understand how elements of ballet class affected the experience of participantsprincipally, and secondarily, teachers’ experiences. The choice of predominately qualitative meth-ods was consistent with some previous research on older adult dancers (see Brown et al., 2008;Joseph & Southcott, 2019; Stevens-Ratchford, 2016).

Class participant focus groups, class observation and teacher interviews were the primary datacollection tools that have informed the current article. Additional tools, including a wellbeingquestionnaire and teacher workshop, were used in the research project but did not inform theresults presented in the current article.

While there was a team of researchers working on the project, the Lead Researcher, Anja Ali-Haapala, was the only researcher conducting data collection and analysis. Therefore, the classparticipants and teachers interacted with the same researcher in each action cycle.

Participants

With ethical approval from Queensland University of Technology, existing Ballet for Seniorsteachers and participants were invited to take part in the research alongside their regularinvolvement in weekly classes. Ten class participants agreed to participate in the study. Theywere women between 46 and 82 years of age who were in paid employment (6) or retirement (4).Most class participants had previous dancing experience, with seven having learned ballet whenthey were girls and/or young women. Therefore, Ballet for Seniors marked a return to dancingballet for most of the participants. The class participants have been given pseudonyms in thisarticle for their anonymity.

The class had a rotating roster of teachers. Three teachers agreed to participate in the researchand to be identified in publications: Tamara Zurvas, Melissa Tattam and Martha Godber. Theseare teachers with extensive ballet experience who taught into Queensland Ballet’s Public DanceClasses programme.

Data collection and analysis

Class participant focus groupFocus groups were undertaken with groups of five class participants to provide ample opportunityfor participants to contribute to the discussion. These focus groups were scheduled immediatelyfollowing select classes in Action Cycles One and Three. The intent was to develop an under-standing of the class participants’ experiences of ballet classes. The focus group moderationadopted a structured approach (Morgan, 2008, p. 354) where the researcher used a schedule ofset questions to guide conversation about a defined research agenda and asked impromptu follow-up questions for comments that were not clear or seemed important for the research. It is the classparticipants’ perspectives that lead the current article.

Using Braun and Clarke's (2006) approach to thematic analysis, the resulting data first under-went verbatim transcription undertaken by the Lead Researcher, with the aid of research assis-tants. The data were coded against the research questions (e.g. ‘class content’, ‘class context’,‘pedagogy’), and then coded to identify interesting features of the data (e.g. codes within ‘classcontent’ included ‘wanting more challenge’ and ‘achievable movements’). These codes were then

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grouped into themes (e.g. ‘difficulty’ within ‘class content’). At the end of the analysis, the themeswere reviewed and defined. The current article focuses on one theme that emerged from thedataset: challenging movements and sequences were pleasurable to the class participants and ledto an increased sense of achievement.

Class observationTen Ballet for Seniors classes were observed throughout the action research cycles to gain first-hand experience of how classes operated. Field notes were guided by a framework consisting of‘class context’ (i.e. observations about the room and objects within it), ‘class content’ (i.e.exercises, movements within exercises, time spent on each section of class), ‘teacher/pedagogy’(i.e. teacher actions and instructions), and ‘participants’ (i.e. participant actions and interactions).These field notes were written using an iPad during classes, then expanded within 48 hours ofeach class. At the end of the action cycles, a comparative analysis was undertaken to identifycommonalities between classes in each action cycle. This information contextualised the partici-pants’ focus group discussions.

Teacher interviewThe teachers participated in one-hour semi-structured interviews (see Ayres, 2012). The topicsdiscussed included: the teachers’ background and experience (Action Cycle One), teaching inten-tions for Ballet for Seniors (Action Cycle One), approaches to class content and pedagogy (ActionCycle One), and reflections on implementing the modified Ballet for Seniors framework (ActionCycle Three). Like the researchers’ observation, the teacher interviews were another data sourcethat contextualised the experience of class participants by unpacking the intent and logic behindthe classes. The teacher interviews were analysed with the same method used for the classparticipant focus groups.

‘Ballet for Seniors’

Based on the observations, Ballet for Seniors classes followed many ballet class conventions. Theexercises aligned with the standard ballet class structure of barre exercises followed by centrepractice. However, the centre practice deviated from a typical ballet class: there was oftena choreographic sequence included in centre practice and there were no turning or allegro(jumping) exercises. The movements at the start of the observation in Action Cycle One appearedto be a basic, beginner level. Barre exercises (beginning exercises where dancers hold ontoa wooden bar for support) often used a basic en croix pattern (movements are performed in thedirections of front, side and back). Centre practice involved legwork à terre (movements whereboth feet stay in contact with the floor). In contrast, the movements during later observations inAction Cycle Three had increased the level of difficulty. New en l’air positions (movements whereone foot is off the floor, therefore, the dancer balances on one leg), such as arabesque (one leglifted and extended behind the body) and attitude (one leg lifted and bent behind the body), wereincluded in centre practice.

The teaching was observed to be flexible and responsive to the class participants. Classparticipants were positioned as the experts of their bodies and given the power to make decisionsabout their participation. The teachers positioned themselves as ballet experts who offeredexercises and technical information. However, the class atmosphere was relaxed allowing forjokes and laughter. The teachers expressed intentions to create pleasurable ballet experiences forthe class participants through light exercise and fun. For example, one teacher explained: ‘it’sphysical activity to the point of just feeling wellness, I guess. So it’s not strenuous on the body’(Tamara Zurvas, teacher, Action Cycle One).

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Challenges within ballet class

Class participants reported a clear desire to be challenged within the ballet classes (Action CycleOne) and experienced a greater sense of achievement and satisfaction as a result of beingchallenged (Action Cycle Three). We identified nine challenging elements for the class partici-pants. These elements were categorised as cognitive challenges and physical challenges and werethe skills that class participants used to compare their achievements to their prior performance.

Cognitive challenges were most commonly discussed, which suggested that ballet classes might,first, be considered challenging for the ageing brain, and, second, for the ageing body. This findingexpands the previous research emphasis on physical trials faced by older adult dancers (Kolb &Kalogeropoulou, 2012). The cognitive challenges identified by the participants were: rememberingmovement sequences; navigating changes in directions; learning choreography; a fast teaching pace;and changing the dance studio which requires class participants to reorient themselves in a new space.

By remembering movement sequences, the class participants practiced their memory. Thisincluded recalling steps that were taught within a class (e.g. performing a movement sequence afterthe teacher has set the exercise) and recalling steps from previous weeks, as there were often repeatedmovement sequences from one week to the next. For example, Margaret explained: ‘the holding of thepattern, taking in that information and then getting yourself going with the music, and evenremembering what’s the first step. I can never remember what’s the first step of anything’ (Classparticipant, Action Cycle Three). Changing directions – moving in a particular direction (e.g. left orright) and the direction that class participants would face (e.g. en face – facing directly forward – andcroisé – facing in an angled direction) – were particularly challenging for some participants. Inaddition, the class participants often mentioned choreography as being difficult. It appeared thatchoreographic sequences involved a culmination of challenges, as is discussed below.

In Action Cycle One, the pace at which the teachers set exercises and gave information wasinitially discussed as an element that could be faster: ‘Not so much the tempo, but it’s the learninga lot more quickly’ (Robyn, class participant, Action Cycle One). The class participants felt thatthey could learn at a quicker pace and did not require extensive demonstrations before perform-ing exercises to music. In Action Cycle One, the pace of teaching was comfortable for the classparticipants, often involving an exercise being talked through and/or demonstrated two to threetimes. The later teaching pace in Action Cycle Three was quicker, with less repetitive demonstra-tion of the exercises: ‘It’s sort of more, show us once and then you go through it’ (Julie, classparticipant, Action Cycle Three).

An unusual challenge that emerged was shifting into a different dance studio where the ‘front’(i.e. the mirrored wall) faced a different direction than the regular studio. For some of the classparticipants, the change of space was a little disorienting at first. However, Anne expressedenthusiasm for this change:

[. . .] we become creatures of habit, though. Being in the same room, going to the same barre, doing the samething. So every now and then I think it is alright to have a change because it gets your brain working. (Classparticipant, Action Cycle Three)

While the cognitive challenges are listed here individually, the class participants describeda cumulative effect. For example, Margaret’s description of choreography also incorporated theelements of remembering movement sequences and changes in direction.

I find the choreography difficult. I personally find the mental, left-right, changing foot, turning around, youknow, inside, outside foot, left, front stage, backstage, arms, all that is the challenge for me and holding ontoall of that. So, I would say that I’m certainly being challenged mentally as well as physically. (Margaret, classparticipant, Action Cycle Three)

This indicated that the class participants experienced many layers of information (e.g. remember-ing movement sequences, use of directions, spatial relationship to other class participants) witheach additional layer adding to the overall cognitive challenge of dancing ballet. In addition to the

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cognitive challenges raised by the class participants, the teachers also discussed music with a fasttempo as adding to ballet’s challenges.

The physical challenges that were identified included balance, cardiovascular exertion, andgroup work (i.e. group formations). While balance has often been a focus of physical healthresearch for older adults (see Hwang & Braun, 2015), balance was only mentioned as a challengetwice in the current study (once by a participant, and once by a teacher). This suggested balancewas a less prominent challenge compared to the cognitive challenges that were mentionedfrequently. However, it is worth noting that balance was regularly exercised during classes.

Cardiovascular exertion was discussed as ‘working hard’ and coming out of ballet class ina sweat. This challenge related to the degree to which class participants could push their bodies interms of energy output.

Group work related to challenges associated with physically navigating dancing with other people.For example, the class had previously learned a version of the Danse des petits cygnes (Dance of theCygnets) from Swan Lake. This sequence involved groups of four dancers interlocking their arms forthe duration of the dance. The class participants found this difficult to achieve: ‘we couldn’t even getour hands crossed properly’ (Susan, class participant, Action Cycle One).

Ballet movements were also identified to provide physical challenges, but the participantslacked specificity about which movements were challenging and which were not.10 Margaretdid, however, express a distinction between performing a ballet movement with and withouttechnical accuracy:

[. . .] any of those exercises that you try to do you can realise that there are so many areas that when you’redoing it, you’re not doing it well. So, are your feet flat? Are your knees open? Is your back straight? Are yourshoulders straight? You know, even within a small plié, rond de jambe thing, you know, you see her [theteacher] do it so beautifully and so fluently, and we’ve got a long way to go. Laughs. (Margaret, classparticipant, Action Cycle Three)

Ballet for Seniors classes presented cognitive and physical challenges, with the number of cognitivechallenges reportedly outweighing the physical challenges. It may have been the case that whilethe teachers could exclude ballet’s more physically complex movements, the underlying conven-tions of ballet involve layered cognitive processes such as remembering moving sequences,navigating direction changes and coordinating the timing of steps with music.

Desirable and pleasurable challenges

Following Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012), we suggest that when the class participants werechallenged they felt the pleasure of competitive play, specifically the enjoyable feeling of ‘surpass-ing their own prior performance’ (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012, p. 118). This desire to bechallenged presented very early in the data collection process, as it was the first point raised byclass participants in Action Cycle One focus groups. For example, the participants discussedwanting to be ‘extended’ through ballet’s technique and even ‘pushed’ by the teachers to workharder: ‘it would be nice to be able to stretch up and outwards’ (Elizabeth, class participant). Asa casual drop-in class, Ballet for Seniors was open for any individual to commence dancing in anygiven class. Therefore, it was common to have new and less experienced people participating inthe class. For regular class participants who had attended for many months, some even years, thisbeginner level was no longer challenging:

Robyn: I think there’s like the beginner seniors and I think there’s almost ready to go for an advancedseniors.

Christine: Where we just do a little bit more challenge.

Robyn: Where it’s just a little bit more challenging and a little bit faster. (Class participants, Action CycleOne)

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Some participants went further to say that they wanted more frequent classes of longerduration (Action Cycle One). The class participants’ attitudes towards ballet suggested a wantto improve their abilities, the type of ‘implicit competition’ against their prior performanceidentified by Kolb and Kalogeropoulou (2012). This also meant competing against their ageingminds and bodies.

Threaded throughout the focus group discussions were comments about aspects of ageing withwhich the participants competed:

I think at our age, it’s like having a record and you just can’t have that in the same groove going ‘round and‘round and ‘round. It’s got to keep playing, you know. And I think that’s what your brain is, you’ve got tokeep it going. (Anne, class participant, Action Cycle Three)

To remember our repertory work from one week to another is not easy at our age. [. . .] They [brain cells] areslowing down and to be able to remember that [choreographic sequence] week after week and then add to itand remember, add to it, remember. That’s really good stuff for our age. (Robyn, class participant, ActionCycle One)

Well I frighten myself every day, because I still think sometimes in my head that I’m only 40. And that’s whyI hurt myself [laughs], because I run down the street or do something. [. . .] “Yes, I can still do it,” I mean,but then you realise, “Well, I can only do it so far.” (Susan, class participant, Action Cycle One)

As both a cognitive and physical challenge, ballet appeared to present an arena for the classparticipants to test themselves and compete with their ageing minds and bodies.

The Ballet for Seniors teachers responded to the class participants’ desire to be ‘stretched’through ballet. In our research, the teachers implemented participant feedback gained in theresearch process to their lesson plans. This approach might be considered a more democraticapproach than the authoritative teaching that has been previously reported to elicit pleasure (Kolb& Kalogeropoulou, 2012; Whiteside & Kelly, 2016). Later in the research, during Action CycleThree, we observed that the classes were designed to offer more challenges to the participants.These included cognitive challenges (e.g. faster teaching pace) and more physically challengingmovements. The participants reported that they noticed these new challenges and that thesechallenges led to a greater sense of achievement and feeling more engaged in the class.

Some class participants felt a sense of achievement when they were able to perform themovement sequences set by the teacher. For example, ‘[i]t just seemed a little bit stronger andharder and that today, and I just felt quite a few of them [the exercises], I did them. You know,I achieved it’ (Susan, class participant, Action Cycle Three). As the class participants appeared tobe competing with their ageing minds and bodies, rising to the challenges set by the teacherssignified achievement.

For other participants, a sense of achievement was attributed to exercising their bodies thatresulted in muscle soreness in the following days. This contributed to their pleasure of dancing:

Robyn: I’ll tell you what I like is if the next morning I get out of bed and think,‘Oo, that’s a little bit of a twingy.’Christine: ‘That hurts.’ Laughs.Anne: Oo, yes. Laughs. That’s right.Robyn: ‘The old calves are a bit tight on that one.’ And you just think, ‘That was ballet yesterday. Great. Thatmeans I’ve moved by body.’Christine: Yes.Robyn: ‘My body’s moving properly.’Anne: Yes, that’s it. (Class participants, Action Cycle Three)

In this case, muscle soreness was perceived as evidence that the class participants had moved theirbodies and had physically exerted themselves. While the pain was uncomfortable, it was a symbolthat communicated physical capability. This particular pleasure appears to differ from thepreviously reported pain-derived pleasures. Where the Ballet for Seniors participants foundpleasure in physical pain as a sign of physical activation and ‘moving properly’, Kolb and

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Kalogeropoulou (2012, p. 119) suggested that pain is a sign that the skills being developed aredifficult, and Whiteside and Kelly (2016) associated pain with authenticity. These three inter-pretations suggest that, not only might pain contribute to a positive ballet experience, there maybe several pleasures that can be derived from it.

As the class advanced during Action Cycle Three, the greater challenges were described as ‘moreinteresting’ and ‘a very engaging experience’ (Margaret, class participant). In previous situationswhere ballet classes had offered little to no challenge, as perceived by class participants, they reportedthat their interest in dancing ballet waned. Robyn described how one class had been quite disap-pointing and, for some of the class participants, it had ‘challenged whether they would even comeback’ (Class participant, Action Cycle Three). Robyn was not comfortable to talk any further aboutthis specific instance, but her comments highlighted that merely dancing ballet was not satisfactory:feeling challenged – testing herself – was necessary for being engaged in ballet class.

Over-challenge, however, was a source of dissatisfaction. If under-challenge led to a loss of interest,over-challenge was described as leading to feel ‘incompetent’ and not being able to ‘keep up’. Helenrecalled a ballet class where she could not see the demonstrating teacher who was also instructing ina faster pace:

I hated that. I couldn’t stand it. [. . .] I don’t know what’s going on and I feel a fool. You know, I don’t doballet very well, but I don’t normally feel totally incompetent and I actually did in that class. (Classparticipant, Action Cycle Three)

Helen’s comments highlighted that, while she acknowledged that her ballet skill was limited, thefeeling of competence was important for ballet dancing experiences. She needed to feel that shecould out-perform her prior efforts. When over-challenged, this feeling of competence was lostand ballet dancing shifted from a ‘fun’ to a ‘hated’ experience.

The possibilities of under-challenge, over-challenge, and pleasurable challenge highlight thesignificance of the teacher’s role in pitching the level of challenge offered during a ballet class.Under- and over-challenge could constitute situations where it is not possible to achievea previously unaccomplished task and feel the pleasure of competitive play. What constitutesthis pleasurable level of challenge, however, will likely differ between class participants. Zurvasexplained that ‘[s]ometimes you’ve got a group of people that know exactly what they’re doingand they’re waiting while you’re teaching a couple of other people’ (Teacher, Action Cycle One).Therefore, as a group-based activity, ballet classes present additional layers of complexity in howchallenges are offered by the teacher and experienced by class participants.

Conclusion and further research

Our research demonstrated that the cognitive and physical challenges offered through the Balletfor Seniors class provided pleasure for the participants. The class participants expressed a cleardesire to be challenged and to continue to cognitively and physically ‘stretch’ themselves throughballet. It appeared that testing oneself and competing against one’s ageing mind and body wascentral to this pleasure. Furthermore, while overcoming challenges presented by ballet class mayhave been the goal, perhaps participation in ‘implicit competition’ (Kolb & Kalogeropoulou, 2012)was just as pleasurable for the class participants.

This article has provided an initial step towards understanding older adults’ experiences in oneballet class. The findings support the importance of providing instruction that encourages ballet asa pleasurably challenging leisure activity. While this article has unpacked the experience ofchallenge in the Ballet for Seniors class, further research is required to identify and unpack themany types of pleasures that are experienced by recreational ballet dancers. These can furtherinform developments of safe and functional ballet pedagogy for older adults. Additionally, there isa need to critically consider how sub-groups of recreational ballet dancers – such as young adults,middle-aged adults, older adults, beginners, and experienced dancers – might experience different

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pleasures due to varying ballet experiences, life experiences, and reasons for dancing. This workwould benefit from theoretical influences beyond dance, such as an analysis of recreational balletclasses as ‘serious leisure’.

Notes

1. For example, the Royal Academy of Dance Australia list over 40 Australian dance studios that teach theirlicenced Silver Swans ballet classes (see Royal Academy of Dance Australia, n.d.). Non-syllabus ballet classesfor older adults are offered by dance companies, such as Queensland Ballet (see Queensland Ballet, n.d.) andThe Australian Ballet (see Willis, 2019), as well as private dance businesses, such as Dance DevelopmentCentre (see Dance Development Centre, n.d.), Dancing for Wellbeing (see Dancing for Wellbeing, n.d.), andRIPE Dance (see RIPE Dance, n.d.).

2. For example, a rotating tap and jazz dance class (i.e. 2 weeks of tap, then 2 weeks of jazz) for ages 55 yearsand over is offered by Sydney Dance Company (see Sydney Dance Company, n.d.).

3. For example, The Grey Panthers is a long-standing performance group with its members being predomi-nantly over 60 years of age (see Tracks Dance, n.d.).

4. For example, the Over 50s Ballroom Dancing Club offers weekly ballroom dancing lessons and socialdancing (see Over 50s Ballroom Dancing Club, n.d.).

5. For example, Brisbane City Council’s Fifty Plus Centre offers classes in clogging and square dance (seeBrisbane City Council, n.d.).

6. For example, adult dance studio, Move Through Life, offers several ‘mature dance’ classes each week that are‘a blend of different dance styles’ (Move Through Life, n.d.).

7. ‘Serious leisure’ and ‘successful ageing’ are concepts that have been frequently applied in this literature.‘Serious leisure’, in opposition to ‘casual leisure’, is considered ‘the systematic pursuit of an amateur,hobbyist, or volunteer activity sufficiently substantial and interesting for the participant to find a careerthere in the acquisition and expression of its special skills and knowledge (Stebbins, 1992, p. 3). It is a formof leisure that involves perseverance, commitment and effort (Joseph & Southcott, 2019, p. 76). ‘Successfulageing’ is a difficult concept to define, given the complexity of later life and vast differences betweenindividuals’ experiences (Brown et al., 2008, p. 74). However, it is generally thought to include elementsof health, wellbeing, high function, and active engagement in social and leisure activities (Stevens-Ratchford,2016, p. 291). Researchers have put forward arguments that the various social dance forms they have studiedcan be considered examples of serious leisure (Brown et al., 2008; Joseph & Southcott, 2019; Stevens-Ratchford, 2016) and successful ageing (Brown et al., 2008; Joseph & Southcott, 2019; Schneider & McCoy,2018).

8. All explanations of French ballet terminology have been written in consultation with the Technical Manualand Dictionary of Classical Ballet (Grant, 2012).

9. The first action research cycle focused on understanding the existing Ballet for Seniors class in terms ofpedagogy and the experience of class participants. The data collection methods used were class observation,class participant wellbeing questionnaire, class participant demographic questionnaire, class participantfocus groups, and teacher interview. The purpose of the second action research cycle was to developa modified approach to the Ballet for Seniors class, where the data collection method used was a teacherworkshop. The third action research cycle operated as a trial of the modified Ballet for Seniors framework,where participating teachers applied the framework to the Ballet for Seniors class over a total of 7 weeks. Thiscycle included data collection through class observation, class participant wellbeing questionnaire, classparticipant focus groups, and teacher interviews.

10. Zurvas (Teacher, Action Cycle One) identified movements that she considered to be appropriately challen-ging and too challenging for the Ballet for Seniors class. Small jumps and balances on one leg in the centre ofthe room were considered challenging and would be occasionally included in the class. Similarly, movementsequences that travelled across the floor and ‘push[ed] the legs to do bigger steps’ (Tamara Zurvas, teacher,Action Cycle One) were considered to be appropriately challenging for the class. However, Zurvas identifiedgrand battement (large beating action where one straight leg raised in the air), turns, and running as stepsthat she would not give in the centre of the room for Ballet for Seniors.

Disclosure statement

Dr Anja Ali-Haapala was engaged by Queensland Ballet to conduct this research.

542 A. ALI-HAAPALA ET AL.

Funding

This work was supported by the Queensland Government. Grant;Queensland Government [Advance QueenslandKnowledge Transfer Partnerships programme].

Notes on contributors

Anja Ali-Haapala – PhD, BFA (Hons). Dr Ali-Haapala studies how people engage with dance as audiencemembers and dance participants. In 2017 she was the Project Lead for Creative Health at Queensland Ballet. Inthis role she led Ballet Moves for Adult Creative Health, aresearch partnership with Queensland University ofTechnology. She has contributed to research projects on the topics of dance audience reception, dance and health,and career transition for professional dancers.

Gene Moyle – DPsych(Sport & Exercise), MPsych(Sport & Exercise), PGDipPsych, BA(Psych/HMS), BA(Dance),DipDance(ABS), Head of School – School of Creative Practice, QUT Creative Industries Faculty. Professor Moyle isan ex-professional ballet dancer and registered sport and exercise psychologist who has focused on the applicationand research of performance psychology and performance enhancement across the performing arts, elite sport, andthe corporate sectors. Her research has included projects that have explored outcomes and benefits of dance acrossvarious populations (including Parkinson’s Disease).

Graham Kerr – BSc, MPhEd, PhD. Programme Leader, Injury Prevention Programme, Institute of Health &Biomedical Innovation, QUT. Prof Kerr founded and leads the Movement Neuroscience Group at QUT. Hisresearch experience has ranged from fitness assessment and team selection of Olympic athletes to leading edgebrain stimulation techniques for treatment of neurodegenerative disease. It has included research on improvingposture, balance and gait in: children with joint hypermobility, athletes with leg injuries, people with venous legulcers, older people at risk of falling, people with tremor, people with Parkinson’s disease and older people at risk ofdementia. More recently his research has included developing dance, exercise interventions and non-invasive brainstimulation techniques for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease.

ORCID

Anja Ali-Haapala http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8692-2660Gene Moyle http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2133-4731Graham Kerr http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1008-256X

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