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Plautus

Picture of a bust of Plautus

Born c. 254 BC

Sarsina, Umbria

Died 184 BC

Rome

Nationality Roman

Information

Period Ancient Rome

Genre comedy

Dramatic devices stock characters

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Titus Maccius Plautus(/ plts/; c. 254 184 BC), commonly known as "Plautus", was a Roman

playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest surviving intact works in Latin

literature. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the genre devised by the innovator of Latin literature, Livius

Andronicus. The word Plautine/ pltan/ refers to both Plautus's own works and works similar to or

influenced by his.

Contents

1 Biography

2 Manuscript tradition

3 Historical context

3.1 Roman society deities

3.2 Second Punic War and Macedonian War

4 Influences

4.1 Greek Old Comedy

4.2 Greek New Comedy

4.3 Fatherson relationships

4.4 Farce

4.5 Prologues

4.6 Character

4.6.1 The Clever Slave

4.7 Understanding of Greek by Plautus audience

4.8 Disputed originality

4.9 Contaminatio

5 Stagecraft

5.1 The importance of the ludi

5.2 Geography of the stage

5.3 Relationship with the audience

5.4 Stock characters

5.4.1 The clever slave

5.4.2 The lusty old man

5.5 Female characters

5.6 Unnamed characters

6 Language and style

6.1 Overview

6.2 Archaic features

6.3 Means of expression

6.4 Poetic devices

6.5 Jokes and wordplay

6.6 Meter

6.7 Vigor and immediacy

7 The influence of Plautus

7.1 The Middle Ages and early Renaissance

7.2 Plautus and Shakespeare

7.3 Later periods

8 Surviving plays

9 Fragmentary plays

10 See also

11 Notes

12 References

13 External links

Biography

utus - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plautus

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Not much is known about Titus Maccius Plautus' early life. It is believed that he was born in Sarsina, a small town in Umbria in central Italy, in around 254

BC.[1]

According to Morris Marples, Plautus worked as a stage-carpenter or scene-shifter in his early years.[2]

It is from this work, perhaps, that his love of

the theater originated. His acting talent was eventually discovered; and he adopted the names "Maccius" (a clownish stock-character in popular farces) and

"Plautus" (a term meaning either "flat-footed" or "flat-eared," like the ears of a hound).[3]Tradition holds that he made enough money to go into the

nautical business, but that the venture collapsed. He is then said to have worked as a manual laborer and to have studied Greek dramaparticularly the

New Comedy of Menanderin his leisure. His studies allowed him to produce his plays, which were released between c. 205 and 184 BC. Plautus attained

such a popularity that his name alone became a hallmark of theatrical success.

Plautus's comedies are mostly adapted from Greek models for a Roman audience, and are often based directly on the works of the Greek playwrights. He

reworked the Greek texts to give them a flavour that would appeal to the local Roman audiences. They are the earliest surviving intact works in Latin

literature.

Plautus's epitaph read:

postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget,

scaena est deserta, dein Risus, Ludus Iocusque

et Numeri innumeri simul omnes conlacrimarunt.

Since Plautus is dead, Comedy mourns,

Deserted is the stage; then Laughter, Jest and Wit,

And Melody's countless numbers all together wept .

Manuscript tradition

Plautus wrote around 130 plays,[4]

of which 20 have survived, making him the most prolific ancient dramatist in terms of surviving work. Despite this, the

manuscript tradition of Plautus is poorer than that of any other ancient dramatist, something not helped by the failure of scholia on Plautus to survive. Thechief manuscript of Plautus is a palimpsest, in which Plautus' plays had been scrubbed out to make way for Augustine's Commentary on the Psalms. The

monk who performed this was more successful in some places than others. He seems to have begun furiously, scrubbing out Plautus' alphabetically

arranged plays with zest before growing lazy, then finally regaining his vigour at the end of the manuscript to ensure not a word of Plautus was legible.

Although modern technology has allowed classicists to view much of the effaced material, plays beginning in letters early in the a lphabet have very poor

texts (e.g. the end of Aulularia and start of Bacchides are lost), plays with letters in the middle of the alphabet have decent texts, while only traces survive

of the play Vidularia.

Historical context

The historical context within which Plautus wrote can be seen, to some extent, in his comments on contemporary events and persons. Plautus was a

popular comedic playwright while Roman theatre was still in its infancy and still largely undeveloped. At the same time, the Roman Republic was

expanding in power and influence.

Roman society deities

Plautus was sometimes accused of teaching the public indifference and mockery of the gods. Any character in his plays could be compared to a god.

Whether to honour a character or to mock him, these references were demeaning to the gods. These references to the gods include a character comparing a

mortal woman to a god, or saying he would rather be loved by a woman than by the gods. Pyrgopolynices fromMiles Gloriosus(vs. 1265), in bragging

about his long life, says he was born one day later than Jupiter. In Curculio, Phaedrome says "I am a God" when he first meets with Planesium. In

Pseudolus,Jupiter is compared to Ballio the pimp. It is not uncommon, too, for a character to scorn the gods, as seen in PoenulusandRudens.

However, when a character scorns a god, it is usually a character of low standing, such as a pimp. Plautus perhaps does this to demoralize the characters.

Soldiers often bring ridicule among the gods. Young men, meant to represent the upper social class, often belittle the gods in their remarks. Parasites,

pimps, and courtesans often praise the gods with scant ceremony. Tolliver argues that drama both reflects and foreshadows social change. It is likely that

there was already much skepticism about the gods in Plautus era. Plautus did not make up or encourage irreverence to the gods, but reflected ideas of his

time. The state controlled stage productions, and Plautus plays would have been banned, had they been too risqu.[5]

Second Punic War and Macedonian WarThe Second Punic War occurred from 218201 BC; its central event was Hannibal's invasion of Italy. M. Leigh has devoted an extensive chapter about

Plautus and Hannibal in his recent book, Comedy and the Rise of Rome. He says that the plays themselves contain occasional references to the fact that

the state is at arms...[6]

One good example is a piece of verse from theMiles Gloriosus,the composition date of which is not clear but which is often

placed in the last decade of the 3rd century BC.[7]

A. F. West believes that this is inserted commentary on the Second Punic War. In his article On a

Patriotic Passage in theMiles Gloriosusof Plautus, he states that the war engrossed the Romans more than all other public interests combined.[8]The

passage seems intended to rile up the audience, beginning with hostis tibi adesse,or the foe is near at hand.[9]

At the time, the general Scipio Africanus wanted to confront Hannibal, a plan strongly favored by the plebs.[10]

Plautus apparently pushes for the plan to

be approved by the senate , working his audience up with the thought of an enemy in close proximity and a call to outmaneuver him. Therefore, it is

reasonable to say that P lautus, according to P.B. Harvey, was willing to insert [into his plays] highly specific allusions comprehensible to the

audience.[11]

M. Leigh writes in his chapter on Plautus and Hannibal that the Plautus who emerges from this investigation is one whose comedies

persistently touch the rawest nerves in the audience for whom he writes.[12]

Later, coming off the heels of the conflict with Hannibal, Rome was preparing to embark on another military mission, this time in Greece. While they

would eventually move on Philip V in the Second Macedonian War, there was considerable debate beforehand about the course Rome should take in this

conflict. In the article Bellum Philippicum: Some Roman and Greek Views Concerning the Causes of the Second Macedonian War, E. J. Bickerman

writes that the causes of the fateful war were vividly debated among both Greeks and Romans.[13]

Under the guise of protec ting allies, Bickerman

tells us, Rome was actually looking to expand its power and control eastward now that the Second Punic War was ended.[14]

But starting this war would


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not be an easy task considering those recent struggles with Carthagemany Romans were too tired of conflict to think of embarking on another campaign.

As W. M. Owens writes in his article Plautus Stichusand the Political Crisis of 200 B.C., There is evidence that antiwar feeling ran deep and persisted

even after the war was approved."[15]

Owens contends that Plautus was attempting to match the complex mood of the Roman audience riding the victory

of the Second Punic War but facing the beginning of a new conflict.[16]For instance, the characters of the dutiful daughters and their father seem obsessed

over the idea of officium, the duty one has to do what is right. Their speech is littered with words such aspietasand aequus, and they struggle to make their

father fulfill his proper role.[17]The stock parasite in this play, Gelasimus, has a patron-client relationship with this family and offers to do any job in order

to make ends meet; Owens puts forward that Plautus is portraying the economic hardship many Roman citizens were experiencing due to the cost of

war.[18]

With the repetition of responsibility to the desperation of the lower class, Plautus establishes himself firmly on the side of the average Roman citizen. While

he makes no specific reference to the possible war with Greece or the previous war (that might be too dangerous), he does seem to push the message thatthe government should take care of its own people before attempting any other military actions.

Influences

Greek Old Comedy

In order to understand the Greek New Comedy of Menander and its similarities to Plautus, it is necessary to discuss, in juxtaposition with it, the idea of

Greek Old Comedy and its evolution into New Comedy. The ancient Greek playwright that best embodies Old Comedy is Aristophanes. Aristophanes, a

playwright of 5th century Athens, wrote plays of political satire such as The Wasps, The Birdsand The Clouds. Each of these plays and the others that

Aristophanes wrote are known for their critical political and societal commentary.[19]

This is the main component of Old Comedy. It is extremely conscious

of the world in which it functions and analyzes that world accordingly. Comedy and theater were the political commentary of the time the public

conscience. In Aristophanes The Wasps, the playwrights commentary is unexpectedly blunt and forward. For example, he names his two main characters

Philocleon and Bdelycleon, which mean pro-Cleon and anti-Cleon, respectively. Simply the names of the characters in this particular play of

Aristophanes make a political statement. Cleon was a major political figure of the time and through the actions of the characters about which he writesAristophanes is able to freely criticize the actions of this prominent politician in public and through his comedy. Aristophanes underwent persecution for

this.

Unlike Aristophanes, Plautus avoided current politics (in the narrow sense of the term) in his comedies.[20]

Greek New Comedy

Greek New Comedy greatly differs from those plays of Aristophanes. The most notable difference, according to Dana F. Sutton is that New Comedy, in

comparison to Old Comedy, is devoid of a serious political, social or intellectual content and could be performed in any number of social and political

settings without risk of giving offense.[21]

The risk-taking for which Aristophanes is known is noticeably lacking in the New Comedy plays of Menander.

Instead, there is much more of a focus on the home and the family unitsomething that the Romans, including Plautus, could easily understand and adopt

for themselves later in history.

Fatherson relationships

One main theme of Greek New Comedy is the fatherson relationship. For example, in MenandersDis Exapatonthere is a focus on the betrayal between

age groups and friends. The father-son relationship is very strong and the son remains loyal to the father. The relationship is always a focus, even if its not

the focus of every action taken by the main characters. In Plautus, on the other hand, the focus is still on the relationship between father and son, but we

see betrayal between the two men that wasnt seen in Menander. There is a focus on the proper conduct between a father and son that, apparently, was so

important to Roman society at the time of Plautus.

This becomes the main difference and, also, similarity between Menander and Plautus. They both address situations that tend to develop in the bosom of

the family.[21]

Both authors, through their plays, reflect a patriarchal society in which the father-son relationship is essential to proper function and

development of the household.[22]

It is no longer a political statement, as in Old Comedy, but a statement about household relations and proper behavior

between a father and his son. But the attitudes on these relationships seem much different a reflection of how the worlds of Menander and Plautus

differed.

Farce

There are differences not just in how the father-son relationship is presented, but also in the way in which Menander and Plautus write their poetry.

William S. Anderson discusses the believability of Menander versus the believability of Plautus and, in essence, says that Plautus plays are much less

believable than those plays of Menander because they seem to be such a farce in comparison. He addresses them as a reflection of Menander with some of

Plautus own contributions. Anderson claims that there is unevenness in the poetry of Plautus that results in incredulity and refusal of sympathy of the

audience.[23]

Prologues

The poetry of Menander and Plautus is best juxtaposed in their prologues. Robert B. Lloyd makes the point that albeit the two prologues introduce plays

whose plots are of essentially different types, they are almost identical in form[24]

He goes on to address the specific style of Plautus that differs so

greatly from Menander. He says that the verbosity of the Plautine prologues has often been commented upon and generally excused by the necessity of

the Roman playwright to win his audience.[24]

However, in both Menander and Plautus, word play is essential to their comedy. Plautus might seem more

verbose, but where he lacks in physical comedy he makes up for it with words, alliteration and paronomasia (punning).[25]

See also "jokes and wordplay"below.

Plautus is well known for his devotion to puns, especially when it comes to the names of his characters. InMiles Gloriosus, for instance, the female

concubines name, Philocomasium, translates to lover of a good partywhich is quite apt when we learn about the tricks and wild ways of this

prostitute.


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Character

Plautus charactersmany of which seem to crop up in quite a few of his playsalso came from Greek stock, though they too received some Plautine

innovations. Indeed, since Plautus was adapting these plays it would be difficult not to have the same kinds of charactersroles such as slaves, concubines,

soldiers, and old men. By working with the characters that were already there but injecting his own creativity, as J.C.B. Lowe wrote in his article Aspects

of Plautus Originality in the Asinaria, Plautus could substantially modify the characterization, and thus the whole emphasis of a play.[26]

The Clever Slave

One of the best examples of this method is the Plautine slave, a form that plays a major role in quite a few of Plautus works. The clever slave in

particular is a very strong character; he not only provides exposition and humor, but also often drives the plot in Plautus plays. C. Stace argues that Plautustook the stock slave character from New Comedy in Greece and altered it for his own purposes. In New Comedy, he writes, the slave is often not much

more than a comedic turn, with the added purpose, perhaps, of exposition.[27]

This shows that there was precedent for this slave archetype, and obviously

some of its old role continues in Plautus (the expository monologues, for instance). However, because Plautus found humor in slaves tricking their masters

or comparing themselves to great heroes, he took the character a step further and created something distinct.[28]

Understanding of Greek by Plautus audience

Of the approximate 270 proper names in the surviving plays of Plautus, about 250 names are Greek.[29]

William M. Seaman proposes that these Greek

names would have delivered a comic punch to the audience because of its basic understanding of the Greek language.[30]

This previous understanding of

Greek language, Seaman suggests, comes from the experience of Roman soldiers during the first and second Punic wars. Not only did men billeted in

Greek areas have opportunity to learn sufficient Greek for the purpose of everyday conversation, but they were also able to see plays in the foreign

tongue.[31]

Having an audience with knowledge of the Greek language, whether limited or more expanded, allowed Plautus more freedom to use Greek

references and words. Also, by using his many Greek references and showing that his plays were originally Greek, It is possible that Plautus was in a way

a teacher of Greek literature, myth, art and philosophy; so too was he teaching something of the nature of Greek words to people, who, like himself, had

recently come into closer contact with that foreign tongue and all its riches.[32]

At the time of Plautus, Rome was expanding, and having much success in Greece. W.S. Anderson has commented that Plautus is using and abusing Greek

comedy to imply the superiority of Rome, in all its crude vitality, over the Greek world, which was now the political dependent of Rome, whose effete

comic plots helped explain why the Greeks proved inadequate in the real world of the third and second centuries, in which the Romans exercised

mastery".[33]

Disputed originality

Plautus was known for the use of Greek style in his plays, as part of the tradition of the variation on a theme. This has been a point of contention among

modern scholars. One argument states that Plautus writes with originality and creativitythe other, that Plautus is a copycat of Greek New Comedy and

that he makes no original contribution to playwriting.

A single reading of theMiles Gloriosusleaves the reader with the notion that the names, place, and play are all Greek, but one must look beyond thesesuperficial interpretations. W.S. Anderson would steer any reader away from the idea that Plautus plays are somehow not his own or at least only his

interpretation. Anderson says that, Plautus homogenizes all the plays as vehicles for his special exploitation. Against the spirit of the Greek original, he

engineers events at the end... or alter[s] the situation to fit his expectations.[34]

Andersons vehement reaction to the co-opting of Greek plays by Plautus

seems to suggest that they are in no way like their originals were. It seems more likely that Plautus was just experimenting putting Roman ideas in Greek

forms.

Greece and Rome, although often put into the same category, were different societies with different paradigms and ways of life. W. Geoffrey Arnott says

that we see that a set of formulae [used in the plays] concerned with characterization, motif, and situation has been applied to two dramatic situations

which possess in themselves just as many difference as they do similarities.[35]

It is important to compare the two authors and the remarkable similarities

between them because it is essential in understanding Plautus. He writes about Greeks like a Greek. However, Plautus and the writers of Greek New

Comedy, such as Menander, were writing in two completely different contexts.

Contaminatio

One idea that is important to recognize is that of contaminatio, which refers to the mixing of elements of two or more source plays. Plautus, it seems, is

quite open to this method of adaptation, and quite a few of his plots seem stitched together from different stories. One excellent example is his Bacchides

and its supposed Greek predecessor, MenandersDis Exapaton.The original Greek title translates as The Man Deceiving Twice, yet the Plautine version

has three tricks.[36]

V. Castellani commented that:

Plautus attack on the genre whose material he pirated was, as already stated, fourfold. He deconstructed many of the Greek plays finely

constructed plots; he reduced some, exaggerated others of the nicely drawn characters of Menander and of Menanders contemporaries and

followers into caricatures; he substituted for or superimposed upon the elegant humor of his models his own more vigorous, more simply

ridiculous foolery in act ion, in statement, even in language.[37]

By exploring ideas about Roman loyalty, Greek deceit, and differences in ethnicity, Plautus in a sense surpassed his model.[38]

He was not content to

rest solely on a loyal adaptation that, while amusing, was not new or engaging for Rome. Plautus took what he found but again made sure to expand,

subtract, and modify. He seems to have followed the same path that Horace did, though Horace is much later, in that he is putting Roman ideas in Greek

forms. He not only imitated the Greeks, but in fact distorted, cut up, and transformed the plays into something entirely Roman. In essence it is Greek

theater colonized by Rome and its playwrights.

Stagecraft

In Ancient Greece during the time of New Comedy, from which Plautus drew so much of his inspiration, there were permanent theaters that catered to the

audience as well as the actor. The greatest playwrights of the day had quality facilities in which to present their work and, in a general sense, there was


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always enough public support to keep the theater running and successful. However, this was not the case in Rome during the time of the Republic, when

Plautus wrote his plays. While there was public support for theater and people came to enjoy tragedy and comedy alike, there was also a notable lack of

governmental support. No permanent theater existed in Rome until Pompey dedicated one in 55 BCE in the Campus Martius.[39]

The lack of a permanent

space was a key factor in Roman theater and Plautine stagecraft.

This lack of permanent theaters in Rome until 55 BCE has puzzled contemporary scholars of Roman drama. In their introduction to the Miles Gloriosus,

Hammond, Mack and Moskalew say that the Romans were acquainted with the Greek stone theater, but, because they believed drama to be a

demoralizing influence, they had a strong aversion to the erection of permanent theaters.[40]

This worry rings true when considering the subject matter of

Plautus plays. The unreal becomes reality on stage in his work. T. J. Moore notes that, all distinction between the play, production, and real life has

been obliterated [Plautus play Curculio].[41]

A place where social norms were upended was inherently suspect. The aristocracy was afraid of the power

of the theater. It was merely by their good graces and unlimited resources that a temporary stage would have been built during specific festivals.

The importance of the ludi

Roman drama, specifically Plautine comedy, was acted out on stage during the ludior festival games. In his discussion of the importance of the ludi

Megalensesin early Roman theater, John Arthur Hanson says that this particular festival provided more days for dramatic representations than any of the

other regular festivals, and it is in connection with these ludithat the most definite and secure literary evidence for the site of scenic games has come down

to us.[42]

Because the ludiwere religious in nature, it was appropriate for the Romans to set up this temporary stage close to the temple of the deity being

celebrated. S.M. Goldberg notes that ludiwere generally held within the precinct of the particular god being honored.[43]

T. J. Moore notes that seating in the temporary theaters where Plautus plays were first performed was often insufficient for all those who wished to see

the play, that the primary criterion for determining who was to stand and who could sit was social status.[44]

This is not to say that the lower classes did

not see the plays; but they probably had to stand while watching. Plays were performed in public, for the public, with the most prominent members of the

society in the forefront.

The wooden stages on which Plautus' plays appeared were shallow and long with three openings in respect to the scene-house. The stages were

significantly smaller than any Greek structure familiar to modern scholars. Because theater was not a priority during Plautus' time, the structures were built

and dismantled within a day. Even more practically, they were dismantled quickly due to their potential as fire-hazards.[45]

Geography of the stage

Often the geography of the stage and more importantly the play matched the geography of the city so that the audience would be well oriented to the locale

of the play. Moore says that, references to Roman locales must have been stunning for they are not merely references to things Roman, but the most

blatant possible reminders that the production occurs in the city of Rome.[46]

So, Plautus seems to have choreographed his plays somewhat true-to-life. To

do this, he needed his characters to exit and enter to or from whatever area their social standing would befit.

Two scholars, V. J. Rosivach and N. E. Andrews, have made interesting observations about stagecraft in Plautus: V. J. Rosivach writes about identifying

the side of the stage with both social status and geography. He says that, for example, the house of the medicuslies offstage to the right. It would be in the

forum or thereabouts that one would expect to find a medicus.[47]Moreover, he says that characters that oppose one another always have to exit in

opposite directions. In a slightly different vein, N.E. Andrews discusses the spatial semantics of Plautus; she has observed that even the different spaces of

the stage are thematically charged. She states:

Plautus Casinaemploys these conventional tragic correlations between male/outside and female/inside, but then inverts them in order to

establish an even more complex relationship among genre, gender and dramatic space. In the Casina, the struggle for control between men and

women... is articulated by characters efforts to control stage movement into and out of the house.[48]

Andrews makes note of the fact that power struggle in the Casinais evident in the verbal comings and goings. The words of action and the way that they

are said are important to stagecraft. The words denoting direction or action such as abeo(I go off), transeo(I go over),fores crepuerunt(the doors

creak), or intus(inside), which signal any characters departure or entrance, are standard in the dialogue of Plautus plays. These verbs of motion or

phrases can be taken as Plautine stage directions since no overt stage directions are apparent. Often, though, in these interchanges of characters, there

occurs the need to move on to the next act. Plautus then might use what is known as a cover monologue. About this S.M. Goldberg notes that, it marks

the passage of time less by its length than by its direct and immediate address to the audience and by its switch fromsenariiin the dialogue to iambic

septenarii. The resulting shift of mood distracts and distorts our sense of passing time.[49]

Relationship with the audience

The small stages had a significant effect on the stagecraft of ancient Roman theater. Because of this limited space, there was also limited movement. Greek

theater allowed for grand gestures and extensive action to reach the audience members who were in the very back of the theater. However the Romans

would have had to depend more on their voices than large physicality. There was not an orchestra available as there was for the Greeks and this is reflected

in the notable lack of a chorus in Roman drama. The replacement character that acts as the chorus would in Greek drama is often called the prologue.[50]

Goldberg says that, these changes fostered a different relationship between actors and the space in which they performed and also between them and their

audiences.[51]

Actors were thrust into much closer audience interaction. Because of this, a certain acting style became required that is more familiar to

modern audiences. Because they would have been in such close proximity to the actors, ancient Roman audiences would have wanted attention and direct

acknowledgement from the actors.[52]

Because there was no orchestra, there was no space separating the audience from the stage. The audience could stand directly in front of the elevated

wooden platform. This gave them the opportunity to look at the actors from a much different perspective. They would have seen every detail of the actor

and hear every word he said. The audience member would have wanted that actor to speak directly to them. It was a part of the thrill of the performance,

as it is to this day.[53]

Stock characters


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Plautus range of characters was created through his use of various techniques, but probably the most important is his use of stock characters and situations

in his various plays. He incorporates the same stock characters constantly, especially when the character type is amusing to the audience. As Walter

Juniper wrote, Everything, including artistic characterization and consistency of characterization, were sacrificed to humor, and character portrayal

remained only where it was necessary for the success of the plot and humor to have apersonawho stayed in character, and where thepersonaby his

portrayal contributed to humor.[54]

For example, inMiles Gloriosus, the t itular braggart soldier Pyrgopolynices only shows his vain and immodest side in the first act, while the parasite

Artotrogus exaggerates Pyrgopolynices achievements, creating more and more ludicrous claims that Pyrgopolynices agrees to without question. These two

are perfect examples of the stock characters of the pompous soldier and the desperate parasite that appeared in Plautine comedies. In disposing of highly

complex individuals, Plautus was supplying his audience with what it wanted, since the audience to whose tastes Plautus catered was not interested in the

character play,

[55]

but instead wanted the broad and accessible humor offered by stock set-ups. The humor Plautus offered, such as puns, word plays,distortions of meaning, or other forms of verbal humor he usually puts them in the mouths of characters belonging to the lower social ranks, to whose

language and position these varieties of humorous technique are most suitable,[56]

matched well with the stable of characters.

The clever slave

In his article "The Intriguing Slave in Greek Comedy," Philip Harsh gives evidence to show that the clever slave is not an invention of Plautus. While

previous critics such as A. W. Gomme believed that the slave was [a] truly comic character, the devisor of ingenious schemes, the controller of events, the

commanding officer of his young master and friends, is a creation of Latin comedy, and that Greek dramatists such as Menander did not use slaves in such

a way that Plautus later did, Harsh refutes these beliefs by giving concrete examples of instances where a clever slave appeared in Greek comedy. [57]For

instance, in the works of Athenaeus, Alciphron, and Lucian there are deceptions that involve the aid of a slave, and in Menanders Dis Exapatonthere was

an elaborate deception executed by a clever slave that Plautus mirrors in hisBacchides. Evidence of clever slaves also appears in Menanders Thalis,

Hypobolimaios, and from the papyrus fragment of hisPerinthia . Harsh acknowledges that Gommes statement was probably made before the discovery of

many of the papyri that we now have. While it was not necessarily a Roman invention, Plautus did develop his own style of depicting the clever slave.

With larger, more active roles, more verbal exaggeration and exuberance, the slave was moved by Plautus further into the front of the action.

[58]

Becauseof the inversion of order created by a devious or witty slave, this stock character was perfect for achieving a humorous response and the traits of the

character worked well for driving the plot forward.

The lusty old man

Another important Plautine stock character, discussed by K.C. Ryder, is thesenex amator. A senex amator is classified as an old man who contracts a

passion for a young girl and who, in varying degrees, attempts to satisfy this passion. In Plautus these men are Demaenetus (Asinaria), Philoxenus and

Nicobulus (Bacchides), Demipho (Cistellaria), Lysidamus (Casina), Demipho (Mercator), and Antipho (Stichus). Periplectomenos (Miles Gloriosus) and

Daemones (Rudens) are regarded assenes lepidibecause they usually keep their feelings within a respectable limit. All of these characters have the same

goal, to be with a younger woman, but all go about it in different ways, as Plautus could not be too redundant with his characters despite their already

obvious similarities. What they have in common is the ridicule with which their attempts are viewed, the imagery that suggests that they are motivated

largely by animal passion, the childish behavior, and the reversion to the love-language of their youth.[59]

Female characters

In examining the female role designations of Plautus's plays, Z.M. Packman found that they are not as stable as their male counterparts: a senexwill usually

remain asenexfor the duration of the play but designations like matrona, mulier, or uxorat times seem interchangeable. Most free adult women, married

or widowed, appear in scene headings as mulier, simply translated as woman. But in Plautus Stichusthe two young women are referred to assorores,

later mulieres, and then matronae, all of which have different meanings and connotations. Although there are these discrepancies, Packman tries to give a

pattern to the female role designations of Plautus.Mulieris typically given to a woman of citizen class and of marriageable age or who has already been

married. Unmarried citizen-class girls, regardless of sexual experience, were designated virgo.Ancillawas the term used for female household slaves, with

nusreserved for the elderly household slaves. A young woman who is unwed due to social status is usually referred to as meretrixor courtesan. A lena,

or adoptive mother, may be a woman who owns these girls.[60]

Unnamed characters

Like Packman, George Duckworth uses the scene headings in the manuscripts to support his theory about unnamed Plautine characters. There are

approximately 220 characters in the 20 plays of Plautus. Thirty are unnamed in both the scene headings and the text and there are about nine characters

who are named in the ancient text but not in any modern one. This means that about 18% of the total number of characters in Plautus are nameless. Mostof the very important characters have names while most of the unnamed characters are of less importance. However, there are some abnormalitiesthe

main character in Casinais not mentioned by name anywhere in the text. In other instances, Plautus will give a name to a character that only has a few

words or lines. One explanation is that some of the names have been lost over the years; and for the most part, major characters do have names.[61]

Language and style

Overview

The language and style of Plautus are not easy or simple. He wrote in a colloquial style far from the codified form of Latin that is found in Ovid or Virgil.

This colloquial style is the everyday speech that Plautus would have been familiar with, yet that means that most students of Latin are unfamiliar with it.

Adding to the unfamiliarity of Plautine language is the inconsistency of the irregularities that occur in the texts. In one of his prolific word-studies, A.W.

Hodgman noted that:

the statements that one meets with, that this or that form is "common," or "regular," in Plautus, are frequently misleading, or even incorrect,and are usually unsatisfying.... I have gained an increasing respect for the manuscript tradition, a growing belief that the irregularities are, after

all, in a certain sense regular. The whole system of inflexionand, I suspect, of syntax also and of versificationwas less fixed and stable in

Plautus time than it became later.[62]

Archaic features


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The diction of Plautus, who used the colloquial speech of his own day, is distinctive and non-standard from the point of view of the later, classical period.

M. Hammond, A.H. Mack, and W. Moskalew have noted in the introduction to their edition of theMiles Gloriosusthat Plautus was free from

convention... [and] sought to reproduce the easy tone of daily speech rather than the formal regularity of oratory or poetry. Hence, many of the

irregularities which have troubled scribes and scholars perhaps merely reflect the everyday usages of the careless and untrained tongues which Plautus

heard about him.[63]

Looking at the overall use of archaic forms in Plautus, one notes that they commonly occur in promises, agreements, threats,

prologues, or speeches. Plautus's archaic forms are metrically convenient, but may also have had a stylistic effect on his original audience.

These forms are frequent and of too great a number for a complete list here,[64]

but some of the most noteworthy features which from the classical

perspective will be considered irregular or obsolete are:

the use of uncontracted forms of some verbs such as mavolo("prefer") for later malo

[65]

the emendation of the final -eof singular imperatives

the retention of -u- in words such as maxumus,proxumus, lacrumareetc., and of -vo- before r,sor t, where the use after ca. 150 BC[66]

would favor

-ve- (as vostrumfor later vestrum)

the use of the -ierending for the present passive and deponent infinitive

the forms ofsumoften joined to the preceding word (as bonumst"it's good" for bonum est"it is good")

the dropping of the final -sof 2nd-singular verb forms and the final -eof the question-particle -ne(http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-ne#Latin) when the

two are joined (as viden?for videsne?"you see? you get it?")

the retention of short -in noun endings in the second declension for later -

the retention in many words of qu-instead of later c-(as in quominstead of cum)

the use of the -aigenitive singular ending (as on early inscriptions, from original -as)[67]

the retention of final -don nouns and pronouns in the ablative singular (the -dwas later lost, its vestige felt in compensatory lengthening of the

preceding vowel)

the occasional addition of a final -pte, -te, or -metto pronouns

the use of -isas a nominative plural ending.[68]

These are the most common linguistic peculiarities (from the later perspective) in the plays of Plautus, some of them being also found in Terence, andnoting them helps in the reading of his works and gives insight early Roman language and interaction.

Means of expression

There are certain ways in which Plautus expressed himself in his plays, and these individual means of expression give a certain flair to his style of writing.

The means of expression are not always specific to the writer, i.e., idiosyncratic, yet they are characteristic of the writer. Two examples of these

characteristic means of expression are the use of proverbs and the use of Greek language in the plays of Plautus.

Plautus employed the use of proverbs in many of his plays. Proverbs would address a certain genre such as law, religion, medicine, trades, crafts, and

seafaring. Plautus proverbs and proverbial expressions number into the hundreds. They sometimes appear a lone or interwoven within a speech. The most

common appearance of proverbs in Plautus appears to be at the end of a soliloquy. Plautus does this for dramatic effect to emphasize a point.

Further interwoven into the plays of Plautus and just as common as the use of proverbs is the use of Greek within the texts of the plays. J. N. Hough

suggests that Plautuss use of Greek is for artistic purposes and not simply because a Latin phrase will not fit the meter. Greek words are used when

describing foods, oils, perfumes, etc. This is similar to the use of French terms in the English language such asgaronor rendezvous. These words give thelanguage a French flair just as Greek did to the Latin-speaking Romans. Slaves or characters of low standing speak much of the Greek. One possible

explanation for this is that many Roman slaves were foreigners of Greek origin.

Plautus would sometimes incorporate passages in other languages as well in places where it would suit his characters. A noteworthy example is the use of

two prayers in Punic inPoenulus, spoken by the Carthaginian elder Hanno, which are significant to Semitic linguistics because they preserve the

Carthaginian pronunciation of the vowels. Unlike Greek, Plautus most probably did not speak Punic himself, nor was the audience likely to understand it.

The text of the prayers themselves was probably provided by a Carthaginian informant, and Plautus incorporated it to emphasize the authenticity and

foreignness of Hanno's character.[69]

Poetic devices

Plautus also used more technical means of expression in his plays. One tool that Plautus used for the expression of hisservus callidusstock character was

alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of sounds in a sentence or clause; those sounds usually come at the beginning of words. In theMiles Gloriosus,the

servus callidusis Palaestrio. As he speaks with the character, Periplectomenus, he uses a significant amount of alliteration in order to assert his clevernessand, therefore, his authority. Plautus uses phrases such as falsiloquom, falsicum, falsiiurium (MGl. 191). These words express the deep and respectable

knowledge that Palaestrio has of the Latin language. Alliteration can a lso happen at the endings of words as well. For example, Palaestrio says, linguam,

perfidiam, malitiam atque audaciam, confidentiam, confirmitatem, fraudulentiam (MGll. 188-9). Also used, as seen above, is the technique of assonance,

which is the repetition of similar sounding syllables.


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Jokes and wordplay

Plautus' comedies abound in puns and word play, which is an important component of his poetry. One well known instance in the Miles Gloriosusis

Sceledre,scelus.Some examples stand in the text in order to accentuate and emphasize whatever is being said, and others to elevate the artistry of the

language. But a great number are made for jokes, especially riddle jokes, which feature a "knock knock - who's there?" pattern. Plautus is especially fond

of making up and changing the meaning of words, as Shakespeare does later.[70]

Meter

Further emphasizing and elevating the artistry of the language of the plays of Plautus is the use of meter, which simply put is the rhythm of the play. There

seems to be great debate over whether Plautus found favor in strong word accent or verse ictus, stress. Plautus did not follow the meter of the Greekoriginals that he adapted for the Roman audience. Plautus used a great number of meters, but most frequently he used the trochaic septenarius. Iambic

words, though common in Latin, are difficult to fit in this meter, and naturally occur at the end of verses. G.B. Conte has noted that Plautus favors the use

of canticainstead of Greek meters. This vacillation between meter and word stress highlights the fact that Latin literature was still in its infancy, and that

there was not yet a standard way to write verse.

Vigor and immediacy

Theservus callidusfunctions as the exposition in many of Plautus' plays. According to C. Stace, "slaves in Plautus account for almost twice as much

monologue as any other character... [and] this is a significant statistic; most of the monologues being, as they are, for purposes of humor, moralizing, or

exposition of some kind, we can now begin to see the true nature of the slave's importance." [71]Because humor, vulgarity,[72]and "incongruity" are so

much a part of the Plautine comedies, the slave becomes the essential tool to connect the audience to the jokethrough his monologue and direct connect ion

tothe audience. He is, then, not only a source for exposition and understanding, but connectionspecifically, connection to the humor of the play, the

playfulness of the play. Theservus callidusis a character that, as McCarthy says, "draws the complete attention of the audience, and, according to C.

Stace, 'despite his lies and abuse, c laims our complete sympathy.'"

[73]

He does this, according to some scholarship, using monologue, the imperative moodand alliterationall of which are specific and effective linguistic tools in both writing and speaking.

The specific type of monologue (or soliloquy) in which a Plautine slave engages is theprologue.As opposed to simple exposition, according to N.W. Slater,

theseprologueshave a far more important function than merely to provide information.[74]

Another way in which theservus callidusasserts his

power over the playspecifically the other characters in the playis through his use of the imperative mood. This type of language is used, according to

E. Segal, for the forceful inversion, the reduction of the master to an abject position of supplication the master-as-suppliant is thus an extremely

important feature of the Plautine comic finale.[75]

The imperative mood is therefore used in the complete role-reversal of the normal relationship between

slave and master, and those who enjoy authority and respect in the ordinary Roman world are unseated, ridiculed, while the lowliest members of society

mount to their pedestalsthe humble are in face exalted.[76]

The influence of Plautus

Intellectual and academic critics have often judged Plautus's work as crude; yet his influence on later literature is impressiveespecially on two literary

giants, Shakespeare and Molire.

Playwrights throughout history have looked to Plautus for character, plot, humor, and other elements of comedy. His influence ranges from similarities in

idea to full literal translations woven into plays. The playwrights apparent familiarity with the absurdity of humanity and both the comedy and tragedy that

stem from this absurdity have inspired succeeding playwrights centuries after his death. The most famous of these successors is ShakespearePlautus had

a major influence on the Bards early comedies.

The Middle Ages and early Renaissance

Plautus was apparently read in the 9th century. His form was too complex to be fully understood, however, and, as indicated by the Terentius et delusor, it

was unknown at the time if Plautus was writing in prose or verse.

W. B. Sedgwick has provided a record of theAmphitruo, perennially one of Plautus most famous works. It was the most popular Plautine play in the

Middle Ages, and publicly performed at the Renaissance; it was the first Plautine play to be translated into English.

The influence of Plautus's plays was felt in the early 16th century. Limited records suggest that the first known university production of Plautus in Englandwas ofMiles Gloriosusat Oxford in 1522-3. The magnum jornaleof Queens College contains a reference to a comoedia Plautiin either 1522 or 1523.

This fits directly with comments made in the poems of Leland about the date of the production. The next production of Miles Gloriosusthat is known from

limited records was given by the Westminster School in 1564.[77]

Other records also tell us about performances of the Menaechmi.From our knowledge,

performances were given in the house of Cardinal Wolsey by boys of St. Pauls School as early as 1527.[78]

Plautus and Shakespeare

Shakespeare borrowed from Plautus as Plautus borrowed from his Greek models. C.L. Barber says that Shakespeare feeds Elizabethan life into the mill of

Roman farce, life realized with his distinctively generous creativity, very different from Plautus tough, narrow, resinous genius.[79]

The Plautine and Shakespearean plays that most parallel each other are, respectively, TheMenaechmiand The Comedy of Errors. According to Marples,

Shakespeare drew directly from Plautus parallels in plot, in incident, and in character,[80]

and was undeniably influenced by the classical playwrights

work. H. A. Watt stresses the importance of recognizing the fact that the two plays were written under conditions entirely different and served audiences

as remote as the poles.[81]

The differences between TheMenaechmiand The Comedy of Errorsare clear. In TheMenaechmi, Plautus uses only one set of twinstwin brothers.

Shakespeare, on the other hand, uses two sets of twins, which, according to William Connolly, dilutes the force of [Shakespeares] situations.[81]

One

suggestion is that Shakespeare got this idea from PlautusAmphitruo, in which both twin masters and twin slaves appear.


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It can be noted that the doubling is a stock situation of Elizabethan comedy. On the fusion between Elizabethan and Plautine techniques, T. W. Baldwin

writes, Errorsdoes not have the miniature unity ofMenaechmi,which is characteristic of classic structure for comedy.[82]

Baldwin notes that

Shakespeare covers a much greater area in the structure of the play than Plautus does. Shakespeare was writing for an audience whose minds werent

restricted to house and home, but looked toward the greater world beyond and the role that they might play in that world.

Another difference between the audiences of Shakespeare and Plautus is that Shakespeares audience was Christian. At the end of Errors,the world of the

play is returned to normal when a Christian abbess interferes with the feuding.Menaechmi,on the other hand, is almost completely lacking in a

supernatural dimension.[83]

A character in Plautus play would never blame an inconvenient situation on witchcraftsomething that is quite common in

Shakespeare.

The relationship between a master and a clever servant is also a common element in Elizabethan comedy. Shakespeare often includes foils for his

characters to have one set off the other. In Elizabethan romantic comedy, it is common for the plays to end with multiple marriages and couplings of pairs.

This is something that is not seen in Plautine comedy. In the Comedy of Errors,Aegeon and Aemilia are separated, Antipholus and Adriana are at odds,

and Antipholus and Luciana have not yet met. At the end, all the couples are happily together. By writing his comedies in a combination of Elizabethan and

Plautine styles, Shakespeare helps to create his own brand of comedy, one that uses both styles. [81]

Also, Shakespeare uses the same kind of opening monologue so common in Plautuss plays. He even uses a villain in The Comedy of Errorsof the same

type as the one inMenaechmi,switching the character from a doctor to a teacher but keeping the character a shrewd, educated man. [81]Watt also notes

that some of these elements appear in many of his works, such as Twelfth NightorA Midsummer Nights Dream, and had a deep impact on Shakespeares

writing.[81]

Later playwrights also borrowed Plautus's stock characters. One of the most important echoes of Plautus is the stock character of the parasite. Certainly the

best example of this is Falstaff, Shakespeare's portly and cowardly knight. As J. W. Draper notes, the gluttonous Falstaff shares many characteristics with a

parasite such as Artotrogus fromMiles Gloriosus.Both characters seem fixated on food and where their next meal is coming from. But they also rely on

flattery in order to gain these gifts, and both characters are willing to bury their patrons in empty praise.[84]Of course, Draper notes that Falstaff is also

something of a boastful military man, but notes, Falstaff is so complex a character that he may well be, in effect, a combination of interlocking types.[84]

As well as appearing in Shakespearean comedy, the Plautine parasite appears in one of the first English comedies. InRalph Roister Doister, the character

of Matthew Merrygreeke follows in the tradition of both Plautine Parasite and Plautine slave, as he both searches and grovels for food and also attempts to

achieve his masters desires.[84]

Indeed, the play itself is often seen as borrowing heavily from or even being based on the Plautine comedy Miles

Gloriosus.[85]

H. W. Cole discusses the influence of Plautus and Terence on the Stonyhurst Pageants. The Stonyhurst Pageants are manuscripts of Old Testament plays

that were probably composed after 1609 in Lancashire. Cole focuses on Plautus influence on the particular Pageant of Naaman. The playwright of this

pageant breaks away from the traditional style of religious medieval drama and relies heavily on the works of Plautus. Overall, the playwright cross-

references eighteen of the twenty surviving plays of Plautus and five of the six extant plays by Terence. It is clear that the author of the Stonyhurst Pageant

of Naaman had a great knowledge of Plautus and was significantly influenced by this.[86]

There is evidence of Plautine imitation in EdwardesDamon and Pythiasand Heywoods Silver Ageas well as in Shakespeare'sErrors.Heywood

sometimes translated whole passages of Plautus. By being translated as well as imitated, Plautus was a major influence on comedy of the Elizabethan era. nterms of plot, or perhaps more accurately plot device, Plautus served as a source of inspiration and also provided the possibility of adaptation for later

playwrights. The many deceits that Plautus layered his plays with, giving the audience the feeling of a genre bordering on farce, appear in much of the

comedy written by Shakespeare and Molire. For instance, the clever slave has important roles in both LAvareandLEtourdi, two plays by Molire, and

in both drives the plot and creates the ruse just like Palaestrio in Miles Gloriosus.[87]

These similar characters set up the same kind of deceptions in which

many of Plautus plays find their driving force, which is not a simple coincidence.

Later periods

20th century musicals based on Plautus includeA Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum(Larry Gelbart, book, Stephen Sondheim, music and

lyrics).

The British TV sitcom Up Pompeiiuses situations and stock characters from Plautus's plays.

Surviving plays

Amphitryon

Asinaria

Aulularia

Bacchides

Captivi

Casina

Cistellaria

Curculio

Epidicus

Menaechmi

Mercator

Miles Gloriosus

Mostellaria

Persa

Poenulus

Pseudolus

Rudens

Stichus

Trinummus

Truculentus

Fragmentary plays

Only the titles and various fragments of these plays have survived.

Addictus

Ambroicus, orAgroicus("The Rustic Man")

Artamon("The Mainsail")

Condalium

Cornicularia

Dyscolus("The Grouch")

Lenones Gemini("The Twin Pimps")

Medicus("The Physician")

Nervolaria


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Baccharia

Bis Compressa("The Twice-Seduced

Woman")

Caecus("The Blind Man"), orPraedones

("Plunderers")

Calceolus("The Little Shoe")

Carbonaria("The Female Charcoal-Burner")

Clitellaria, orAstraba

Colax("The Flatterer")

Commorientes("Those Dying Together")

Foeneratrix("The Lady Moneylender")

Fretum("The Strait," or "Channel")

Frivolaria("Trifles")

Fugitivi("The Runaways"possibly by

Turpilius (la))

Gastrion, or Gastron

Hortulus("Little Garden")

Kakistus(possibly by Accius)

Parasitus Piger("The Lazy Parasite"), or

Lipargus

Phagon("The Glutton")

Plociona

Saturio

Scytha Liturgus

Trigemini("Triplets")

Vidularia

See also

A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum

History of Theater

Menander

Molire

Prosody (Latin)

Second Punic War

Shakespeare

Terence

Theatre of ancient Rome

Notes

^The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature(1996) Ed. M.C.

Howatson and Ian Chilvers, Oxford University Press, Oxford Reference

Online

1.

^M. Marples. Plautus, Greece & Rome8.22(1938), p. 1.2.

^S. O'Bryhim. Greek and Roman Comedy(University of Texas Press,

2001), p. 149.

3.

^"FJCL Latin Literature Study Guide" (http://www.fjcl.org/uploads/4/3/4

/0/4340783/latin_lit_study_guide.pdf). Florida Junior Classical League.

Retrieved 2 March 2014.

4.

^H.M. Tolliver. "Plautus and the State Gods of Rome (http://links.jstor.org

/sici?sici=0009-8353(195211)48%3A2%3C49%3APATSGO%3E2.0.CO%3

B2-D)", The Classical Journal48.2(1952), pp. 49-57.

5.

^M. Leigh. Comedy and the Rise of Rome.New York: Oxford University

Press, 2004. p. 24.

6.

Â. F. West. On a Patriotic Passage in the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus,

The American Journal of Philology8.1(1887), p. 18.

7.

^West, 24.8.

^West, 26.9.

^West, 28.10.

^P.B. Harvey. Historical Topicality in Plautus, Classical World79

(1986), pp. 297-304.

11.

^Leigh, 26.12.

Ê. J. Bickerman. Bellum Philippicum: Some Roman and Greek Views

Concerning the Causes of the Second Macedonian War, Classical

Philology40.3 (1945), p. 138.

13.

^Bickerman, 146.14.

^W. M. Owens. Plautus Stichus and the Political Crisis of 200 B.C.,

The American Journal of Philology121.3 (2000), p. 388.

15.

Ôwens, 386.16.

Ôwens, 392.17.

Ôwens, 395-396.18.

^Sutton, D. F.,Ancient Comedy: The War of the Generations (New York,

1993), p.56.

19.

^Writings and career of Plautus (http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient

/plautus001.html)in The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on

Civilization, vol. 2. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing

Company, 1906. pp. 159-165.

20.

^ abSutton 1993, p. 57.21.

^Sutton 1993, p. 59.22.

^Lloyd, R. F., "Two Prologues: Menander and Plautus," The American

Journal of Philology84.2 (1963, April), p. 141.

23.

^ abLloyd 1963, p. 149.24.

^Lloyd 1963, p. 150.25.

^Lowe, J.C.B., "Aspects of Plautus Originality in the Asinaria," The

Classical Quarterly42 (1992), p. 155.

26.

^Stace, C., "The Slaves of Plautus," Greece & Rome15 (1968), p. 75.27.

^Stace 1968, pp. 73-74.28.

^Seaman, W.M., "The Understanding of Greek by Plautus Audience,"

Classical Journal50 (1954), p. 115.

29.

^Seaman 1954, p. 116.30.

^Seaman 1954, p. 115.31.

^Seaman 1954, p. 119.32.

^W.S. Anderson, The Roman Transformation of Greek Domestic

Comedy, The Classical World88.3 (1995), pp. 171-180.

33.

Ânderson 1995, p. 178.34.

Ârnott, W. G., "A Note on the Parallels between Menanders Dyskolos

and Plautus Aulularia,"Phoenix18.3 (1964), p. 236.

35.

Ôwens, W. M., "The Third Deception in Bacchides: Fides and Plautus'

Originality," The American Journal of Philology115 (1994), pp. 381-382.

36.

^V. Castellani. Plautus versus Komoidia: popular farce at Rome, in

Farce, ed. 5 J. Redmond (Cambridge and New York, 1988), pp. 53-82.

37.

Ôwens 1994, p. 404.38.

^S. M. Goldberg. Plautus on the Palatine, The Journal of Roman Studies

88 (1998), p. 2.

39.

^M. Hammond, A.M. Mack, W. Moskalew. Introduction: The Stage and

Production, inMiles Gloriosus . Ed. M. Hammond, A. Mack, W.

Moskalew. London and Cambridge, 1997 repr., pp. 15-29.

40.


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11/13

^T. J. Moore. Palliata Togata: Plautus, Curculio 462-86, The American

Journal of Philology112.3 (1991), pp. 343-362.

41.

^J. A. Hanson,Roman TheaterTemples , (Princeton, NJ, 1959), p. 13.42.

^Goldberg, 1998, pp. 1-20.43.

^T.J. Moore, Seats and Social Status in the Plautine Theater, The

Classical Journal90.2 (1995), pp. 113-123.

44.

^M. Bieber, The History of the Greek and Roman Theater, (Princeton, NJ,

1961.), p. 168.

45.

^Moore, 1991, p. 347.46.

^V. J. Rosivach, Plautine Stage Settings, Transactions and Proceedings

of the American Philological Association101 (1970), pp. 445-461.

47.

^N. E. Andrews, Tragic Re-Presentation and the Semantics of Space in

Plautus,Mnemosyne57.4 (2004), pp. 445-464.

48.

^S.M. Goldberg, Act to Action in PlautusBacchides, Classical

Philology85.3 (1990), pp. 191-201.

49.

^Goldberg, 1998, p.19.50.

^Goldberg, 1998, p.16.51.

^P.G. Brown, Actors and ActorManagers at Rome in the Time of Plautus

and Terence, in Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient

Profession , Ed. P. Easterling and E. Hall. (Cambridge, 2002.), p. 228.

52.

^Goldberg, 1998, p. 19.53.

^W.H. Juniper, Character Portrayals in Plautus. The Classical Journal31(1936), p. 279.

54.

^Juniper, 1936, p. 278.55.

^J.N. Hough, The Reverse Comic Foil in Plautus. The American

Philological Association73 (1942), p. 108.

56.

^P.W. Harsh, The Intriguing Slave in Greek Comedy, Transactions and

Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 86 (1955), pp.

135-142.

57.

^Harsh, 1955, p. 135-142.58.

^K.C. Ryder, The Senex Amator in Plautus, Greece & Rome31.2.

(Oct., 1984), pp.181-189.

59.

^Z.M. Packman, Feminine Role Designations in the Comedies of Plautus,

The American Journal of Philology120.2. (1999), pp. 245-258.

60.

^G.E. Duckworth, The Unnamed Characters in the Plays of Plautus,

Classical Philology33.2. (1938), pp. 167-282.

61.

Â.W. Hodgman. "Verb Forms in Plautus," The Classical Quarterly

1.1(1907), pp. 42-52.

62.

Êd. M. Hammond, A.H. Mack, & W. Moskalew, Miles Gloriosus

(Cambridge and London, 1997 repr.), pp. 39-57.

63.

^The reader is directed to the word studies of A.W. Hodgman (Nouns

1902; Verbs 107) to grasp fully the use of archaic forms in Plautine diction.

64.

^From magis volo"want more".65.

^R.H. Martin, Terence: Phormio(London: Methuen, 1969). P. 86 n. 29.66.

^The original ending is preserved in a few fossilized words such as

paterfamilias .

67.

^This list compiled from a number of word studies and syntactic texts listed

in the works cited section.

68.

^Sznycer, Maurice (1967).Les passages punique en transcription latine

dans le Poenulus de Plaute. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.

69.

^M. Fontaine,Funny Words in Plautine Comedy,Oxford, 2010.70.

^C. Stace. "The Slaves of Plautus," Greece and Rome2.15 (1968), pp.

64-77.

71.

Êasterling '76, p.12 "the delight in low humour we associate with Plautus"72.

^Stace 1968, pp. 64-77.73.

^N.W. Slater.Plautus in Performance: The Theatre of the Mind.

Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 152

74.

Ê. Segal.Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus. Cambridge: Harvard

University Press, 1968, p. 122

75.

^Segal 1968, p. 13676.

^L. Bradner. The First Cambridge Production of Miles Gloriosus."

Modern Language Notes, 70.6 (1955), pp. 400-403.

77.

^H.W. Cole. The Influence of Plautus and Terence Upon the Stonyhurst

Pageants.Modern Language Notes38 (1923) 393-399.

78.

^C.L. Barber, Shakespearian Comedy in the Comedy of Errors, College

English25.7 (1964), p. 493.

79.

^M. Marples, Plautus. Greece & Rome8.22 (1938), p. 2.80.

^ abcdeH. A. Watt. Plautus and Shakespeare: Further Comments on

Menaechmi and The Comedy of Errors. The Classical Journal20 (1925),

pp. 401-407.

81.

^T.W. Baldwin. On the Compositional Genetics of The Comedy of Errors .

(Urbana 1965), pp. 200-209.

82.

^N. Rudd. The Classical Tradition in Operation. (Toronto 1994), pp.

32-60.

83.

^ abcJ. W. Draper. Falstaff and the Plautine Parasite. The Classical

Journal33(1938), pp. 390-401.

84.

^H. W. Cole. The Influence of Plautus and Terence Upon the Stonyhurst

Pageants,Modern Language Notes38 (1923), pp. 393-399.

85.

^H. W. Cole. The Influence of Plautus and Terrence Upon the Stonyhurst

Pageants,Modern Language Notes38.7 (1923), pp. 393-399.

86.

^S. V. Cole. Plautus Up-to-Date. The Classical Journal16 (1921), pp.

399-409.

87.

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External links

Works by Plautus (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Plautus+Titus+Maccius) at Project Gutenberg

Biographical material on Plautus. (http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc21.html)

Works by P lautus (http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT305.HTM)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plautus&oldid=615992583"


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