plant diversity ii: the evolution of seed...

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LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lectures by

Erin Barley

Kathleen Fitzpatrick

Plant Diversity II: The Evolution

of Seed Plants

Chapter 30 Overview: Transforming the World

• Seeds changed the course of plant evolution,

enabling their bearers to become the dominant

producers in most terrestrial ecosystems

• Seed plants originated about 360 million years

ago

• A seed consists of an embryo and nutrients

surrounded by a protective coat

• Domestication of seed plants had begun by

8,000 years ago and allowed for permanent

settlements


Figure 30.1

Concept 30.1: Seeds and pollen grains are

key adaptations for life on land

• In addition to seeds, the following are common to

all seed plants

– Reduced gametophytes

– Heterospory

– Ovules

– Pollen


Advantages of Reduced Gametophytes

• The gametophytes of seed plants develop within

the walls of spores that are retained within

tissues of the parent sporophyte


Figure 30.2

PLANT GROUP

Mosses and other

nonvascular plants

Gametophyte

Sporophyte

Sporophyte

(2n)

Gametophyte

(n)

Dominant

Reduced, dependent on

gametophyte for nutrition Dominant

Reduced, independent

(photosynthetic and

free-living)

Ferns and other seedless

vascular plants

Dominant

Reduced (usually microscopic), dependent on surrounding

sporophyte tissue for nutrition

Seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms)

Angiosperm Gymnosperm

Microscopic

female

gametophytes

(n) inside

these parts

of flowers

Microscopic female

gametophytes (n) inside

ovulate cone

Microscopic

male

gametophytes

(n) inside

these parts

of flowers

Microscopic male

gametophytes (n)

inside pollen

cone

Sporophyte (2n) Sporophyte (2n)

Sporophyte

(2n)

Gametophyte

(n)

Example

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Figure 30.2a

Mosses and other

nonvascular plants

Gametophyte

Sporophyte

Sporophyte

(2n)

Gametophyte

(n)

Dominant

Reduced, dependent on

gametophyte for nutrition

Example

Figure 30.2b

Dominant

Reduced, independent

(photosynthetic and

free-living)

Ferns and other seedless vascular plants

Sporophyte

(2n)

Gametophyte

(n)

Gametophyte

Sporophyte

Example

Dominant

Reduced (usually microscopic), dependent on surrounding

sporophyte tissue for nutrition

Seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms)

Angiosperm Gymnosperm

Microscopic

female

gametophytes

(n) inside

these parts

of flowers

Microscopic female

gametophytes (n) inside

ovulate cone

Microscopic

male

gametophytes

(n) inside

these parts

of flowers

Microscopic male

gametophytes (n)

inside pollen

cone Sporophyte

(2n) Sporophyte

(2n)

Gametophyte

Sporophyte

Example

Figure 30.2c

Heterospory: The Rule Among Seed Plants

• The ancestors of seed plants were likely

homosporous, while seed plants are

heterosporous

• Megasporangia produce megaspores that give

rise to female gametophytes

• Microsporangia produce microspores that give

rise to male gametophytes


Ovules and Production of Eggs

• An ovule consists of a megasporangium,

megaspore, and one or more protective

integuments

• Gymnosperm megaspores have one integument

• Angiosperm megaspores usually have two

integuments


Figure 30.3-1

Immature

ovulate cone

Integument (2n)

Spore wall

Megaspore (n)

(a) Unfertilized ovule

Megasporangium

(2n)

Pollen grain (n) Micropyle

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Pollen and Production of Sperm

• Microspores develop into pollen grains, which contain the male gametophytes

• Pollination is the transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the ovules

• Pollen eliminates the need for a film of water and can be dispersed great distances by air or animals

• If a pollen grain germinates, it gives rise to a pollen tube that discharges sperm into the female gametophyte within the ovule


Figure 30.3-2

Immature

ovulate cone

Integument (2n)

Spore wall

Megaspore (n)

Female

gametophyte (n)

Egg nucleus

(n)

Discharged sperm nucleus (n)

Pollen tube

Male gametophyte (n)


Megasporangium

(2n)


(b) Fertilized ovule

The Evolutionary Advantage of Seeds

• A seed develops from the whole ovule

• A seed is a sporophyte embryo, along with its

food supply, packaged in a protective coat


Figure 30.3-3

Immature

ovulate cone

Integument (2n)

Spore wall

Megaspore (n)

Female

gametophyte (n)

Egg nucleus

(n)

Discharged sperm nucleus (n)

Pollen tube

Male gametophyte (n)


Megasporangium

(2n)


(b) Fertilized ovule (c) Gymnosperm seed

Seed coat

Spore wall

Food supply (n)

Embryo (2n)

• Seeds provide some evolutionary advantages

over spores

– They may remain dormant for days to years,

until conditions are favorable for germination

– Seeds have a supply of stored food

– They may be transported long distances by

wind or animals


Concept 30.2: Gymnosperms bear

“naked” seeds, typically on cones

• Gymnosperms means “naked seeds”

• The seeds are exposed on sporophylls that form

cones

• Angiosperm seeds are found in fruits, which are

mature ovaries


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Figure 30.UN01

Nonvascular plants (bryophytes)

Seedless vascular plants

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Gymnosperm Evolution

• Fossil evidence reveals that by the late Devonian

period some plants, called progymnosperms,

had begun to acquire some adaptations that

characterize seed plants


Figure 30.4

• Living seed plants can be divided into two clades:

gymnosperms and angiosperms

• Gymnosperms appear early in the fossil record

about 305 million years ago and dominated

Mesozoic (251–65 million years ago) terrestrial

ecosystems

• Gymnosperms were better suited than

nonvascular plants to drier conditions


• Angiosperms began to replace gymnosperms

near the end of the Mesozoic

• Angiosperms now dominate more terrestrial

ecosystems

• Today, cone-bearing gymnosperms called

conifers dominate in the northern latitudes


• The gymnosperm consist of four phyla

– Cycadophyta (cycads)

– Gingkophyta (one living species: Ginkgo biloba)

– Gnetophyta (three genera: Gnetum, Ephedra,

Welwitschia)

– Coniferophyta (conifers, such as pine, fir, and

redwood)


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Phylum Cycadophyta

• Individuals have large cones and palmlike leaves

• These thrived during the Mesozoic, but relatively

few species exist today


Figure 30.5a

Cycas revoluta

Phylum Ginkgophyta

• This phylum consists of a single living species,

Ginkgo biloba

• It has a high tolerance to air pollution and is a

popular ornamental tree


Ginkgo biloba leaves and fleshy seeds

Ginkgo biloba pollen-producing tree

Figure 30.5b

Figure 30.5ba

Ginkgo biloba pollen-producing tree

Figure 30.5bb

Ginkgo biloba leaves

and fleshy seeds

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Phylum Gnetophyta

• This phylum comprises three genera

• Species vary in appearance, and some are

tropical whereas others live in deserts


Figure 30.5d

Ovulate cones Gnetum

Ephedra

Welwitschia

Figure 30.5da

Welwitschia

Figure 30.5db

Ovulate cones

Welwitschia

Figure 30.5dc

Gnetum

Figure 30.5dd

Ephedra

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Phylum Coniferophyta

• This phylum is by far the largest of the

gymnosperm phyla

• Most conifers are evergreens and can carry out

photosynthesis year round


Figure 30.5e

Douglas fir

Common juniper

European larch

Sequoia

Wollemi pine Bristlecone pine

Figure 30.5ea

Douglas fir

Figure 30.5eb

European larch

Figure 30.5ec

Sequoia

Figure 30.5ed

Common juniper

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Figure 30.5ee

Wollemi pine

Figure 30.5ef

Wollemi pine

Figure 30.5eg

Bristlecone pine

The Life Cycle of a Pine: A Closer Look

• Three key features of the gymnosperm life cycle

are

– Dominance of the sporophyte generation

– Development of seeds from fertilized ovules

– The transfer of sperm to ovules by pollen

• The life cycle of a pine provides an example


Animation: Pine Life Cycle

• The pine tree is the sporophyte and produces sporangia in male and female cones

• Small cones produce microspores called pollen grains, each of which contains a male gametophyte

• The familiar larger cones contain ovules, which produce megaspores that develop into female gametophytes

• It takes nearly three years from cone production to mature seed


Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Mature sporophyte (2n)

Pollen cone

Microsporocytes (2n)

Microsporangia

Microsporangium (2n)

Pollen grains (n)

MEIOSIS

Figure 30.6-1

30_06PineLifeCycle_A.html

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Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)


Ovulate cone

Pollen cone


Microsporangia

Microsporangium (2n) Surviving megaspore (n)

MEIOSIS

Megasporangium (2n) Pollen grain

Pollen grains (n)

MEIOSIS

Megasporocyte (2n)

Integument

Ovule

Figure 30.6-2

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)


Ovulate cone

Pollen cone


Microsporangia


Archegonium

Surviving megaspore (n)

MEIOSIS


Pollen grains (n)

MEIOSIS

Female gametophyte

Megasporocyte (2n)

Integument

Sperm nucleus (n) Egg nucleus (n)

Pollen tube

FERTILIZATION

Ovule

Figure 30.6-3

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)


Ovulate cone

Pollen cone


Microsporangia


Seedling

Archegonium


MEIOSIS


Pollen grains (n)

MEIOSIS

Female gametophyte

Megasporocyte (2n)

Integument

Sperm nucleus (n) Egg nucleus (n)

Pollen tube

Seed coat (2n)

FERTILIZATION

Food reserves (n)

Seeds

Embryo (new sporophyte) (2n)

Ovule

Figure 30.6-4

Concept 30.3: The reproductive

adaptations of angiosperms include flowers

and fruits

• Angiosperms are seed plants with reproductive

structures called flowers and fruits

• They are the most widespread and diverse of all

plants


Figure 30.UN02

Nonvascular plants (bryophytes)

Seedless vascular plants

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Characteristics of Angiosperms

• All angiosperms are classified in a single phylum,

Anthophyta, from the Greek anthos for flower

• Angiosperms have two key adaptations

– Flowers

– Fruits


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Flowers

• The flower is an angiosperm structure

specialized for sexual reproduction

• Many species are pollinated by insects or

animals, while some species are wind-pollinated


• A flower is a specialized shoot with up to four

types of modified leaves

– Sepals, which enclose the flower

– Petals, which are brightly colored and attract

pollinators

– Stamens, which produce pollen

– Carpels, which produce ovules


• A stamen consists of a stalk called a filament,

with a sac called an anther where the pollen is

produced

• A carpel consists of an ovary at the base and a

style leading up to a stigma, where pollen is

received


Video: Flower Blooming (time lapse)

Stamen Anther

Filament

Stigma Carpel

Style

Ovary

Petal

Sepal

Ovule

Figure 30.7

Fruits

• A fruit typically consists of a mature ovary but

can also include other flower parts

• Fruits protect seeds and aid in their dispersal

• Mature fruits can be either fleshy or dry


Animation: Fruit Development

Tomato Ruby grapefruit

Hazelnut

Nectarine

Milkweed

Figure 30.8

30_07FlowerTimeLapse_SV.mpg

30_08FruitDevelopment_A.html

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Figure 30.8a

Tomato

Figure 30.8b

Ruby grapefruit

Figure 30.8c

Nectarine

Figure 30.8d

Hazelnut

Figure 30.8e

Milkweed

• Various fruit adaptations help disperse seeds

• Seeds can be carried by wind, water, or animals

to new locations


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Wings

Seeds within berries

Barbs

Figure 30.9 Figure 30.9a

Wings

Figure 30.9b

Seeds within berries

Figure 30.9c

Barbs

Figure 30.9d

Barbs

The Angiosperm Life Cycle

• The flower of the sporophyte is composed of both male and female structures

• Male gametophytes are contained within pollen grains produced by the microsporangia of anthers

• The female gametophyte, or embryo sac, develops within an ovule contained within an ovary at the base of a stigma

• Most flowers have mechanisms to ensure cross-pollination between flowers from different plants of the same species


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• A pollen grain that has landed on a stigma

germinates and the pollen tube of the male

gametophyte grows down to the ovary

• The ovule is entered by a pore called the

micropyle

• Double fertilization occurs when the pollen tube

discharges two sperm into the female

gametophyte within an ovule


• One sperm fertilizes the egg, while the other

combines with two nuclei in the central cell of the

female gametophyte and initiates development of

food-storing endosperm

• The triploid endosperm nourishes the developing

embryo

• Within a seed, the embryo consists of a root and

two seed leaves called cotyledons


Anther Mature flower on sporophyte plant (2n)

Pollen grains

Tube cell

Generative cell

Microspore (n) MEIOSIS

Microsporangium


Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Figure 30.10-1


Megasporangium (2n)

Ovary

Antipodal cells

Central cell

Synergids

Female gametophyte

(embryo sac) Egg (n)


Pollen tube

Sperm (n)

Pollen grains

Tube cell

Generative cell

Microspore (n)

Male gametophyte

(in pollen grain) (n)

Ovule (2n)

MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS

Microsporangium


Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Figure 30.10-2


Megasporangium (2n)

Ovary

Seed

Antipodal cells

Central cell

Synergids

Female gametophyte


Egg nucleus (n)


Pollen tube

Sperm (n)

Style

Sperm Pollen tube

Stigma

Pollen grains

Tube cell

Generative cell

Microspore (n)

Male gametophyte


Ovule (2n)

MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS

Discharged sperm nuclei (n)

FERTILIZATION

Microsporangium


Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Figure 30.10-3


Germinating seed

Megasporangium (2n)

Ovary

Embryo (2n)

Endosperm (3n)

Seed coat (2n)

Seed

Antipodal cells

Central cell

Synergids

Female gametophyte


Egg nucleus (n)


Pollen tube

Sperm (n)

Style

Sperm Pollen tube

Stigma

Pollen grains

Tube cell

Generative cell

Microspore (n)

Male gametophyte


Ovule (2n)

MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS

Discharged sperm nuclei (n)

FERTILIZATION Zygote (2n)

Microsporangium


Nucleus of developing endosperm (3n)

Key

Haploid (n)

Diploid (2n)

Figure 30.10-4

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Video: Flowering Plant Life Cycle (time lapse)

Animation: Seed Development

Animation: Plant Fertilization

Angiosperm Evolution

• Darwin called the origin of angiosperms an

“abominable mystery”

• Angiosperms originated at least 140 million years

ago

• During the late Mesozoic, the major branches of

the clade diverged from their common ancestor

• Scientists are studying fossils, refining

phylogenies, and investigating developmental

patterns to resolve the mystery


Fossil Angiosperms

• Chinese fossils of 125-million-year-old

angiosperms share some traits with living

angiosperms but lack others

• Archaefructus sinensis, for example, has anthers

and seeds but lacks petals and sepals


(a) Archaefructus sinensis, a 125- million-year-old fossil

(b) Artist’s reconstruction of Archaefructus sinensis

Carpel

Stamen

5 cm

Figure 30.11

Figure 30.11a

(a) Archaefructus sinensis, a 125- million-year-old fossil

5 cm

Angiosperm Phylogeny

• The ancestors of angiosperms and gymnosperms

diverged about 305 million years ago

• Angiosperms may be closely related to

Bennettitales, extinct seed plants with flowerlike

structures

• Amborella and water lilies are likely descended

from two of the most ancient angiosperm

lineages


30_10PlantTimeLapse_SV.mpg

30_10SeedDevelopment_A.html

30_10PlantFertilization_A.html

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Microsporangia

(contain

microspores)

Ovules

Most recent common ancestor

of all living angiosperms

300 250 200 150 100 50 0

Eudicots

Monocots

Magnoliids

Star anise

and relatives

Water lilies

Amborella

Bennettitales

Living

gymnosperms

Millions of years ago

(b) Angiosperm phylogeny

(a) A possible ancestor of the angiosperms?

Figure 30.12

Microsporangia (contain microspores)

Ovules

(a) A possible ancestor of the angiosperms?

Figure 30.12a

Most recent common ancestor of all living angiosperms

300

Eudicots

Monocots

Magnoliids

Star anise

and relatives

Water lilies

Amborella

Bennettitales

Living

gymnosperms

Millions of years ago

(b) Angiosperm phylogeny

250 200 150 100 50 0

Figure 30.12b

Developmental Patterns in Angiosperms

• Egg formation in the angiosperm Amborella

resembles that of the gymnosperms

• In early angiosperms, the two integuments

appear to originate separately

• Researchers are currently studying expression of

flower development genes in gymnosperm and

angiosperm species


Angiosperm Diversity

• Angiosperms comprise more than 250,000 living species

• Previously, angiosperms were divided into two main groups

– Monocots (one cotyledon)

– Dicots (two dicots)

• DNA studies suggest that monocots form a clade, but dicots are polyphyletic


• The clade eudicot (“true” dicots) includes most

dicots

• The rest of the former dicots form several small

lineages

• Basal angiosperms are less derived and

include the flowering plants belonging to the

oldest lineages

• Magnoliids share some traits with basal

angiosperms but evolved later


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Basal Angiosperms

• Three small lineages constitute the basal

angiosperms

• These include Amborella trichopoda, water lilies,

and star anise


Water lily

Star anise

Amborella trichopoda

Basal Angiosperms Figure 30.13a

Water lily

Figure 30.13aa Figure 30.13ab

Star anise

Figure 30.13ac

Amborella trichopoda

Magnoliids

• Magnoliids include magnolias, laurels, and black

pepper plants

• Magnoliids are more closely related to monocots

and eudicots than basal angiosperms


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Figure 30.13b

Magnoliids

Southern magnolia

Monocots

• More than one-quarter of angiosperm species

are monocots


Orchid

Monocots

Lily

Pygmy date palm

Anther

Filament

Stigma

Ovary

Barley, a grass

Figure 30.13c Figure 30.13ca

Orchid

Figure 30.13cb

Pygmy date palm

Figure 30.13cc

Lily

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Figure 30.13cd

Anther

Filament

Stigma

Ovary

Barley, a grass

Barley, a grass

Figure 30.13ce

Eudicots

• More than two-thirds of angiosperm species are

eudicots


California poppy Dog rose

Pyrenean oak

Snow pea Zucchini

Eudicots Figure 30.13d

Figure 30.13da

California poppy

Figure 30.13db

Pyrenean oak

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Figure 30.13dc

Dog rose

Figure 30.13dd

Snow pea

Figure 30.13de

Zucchini

Figure 30.13e Monocot

Characteristics Eudicot

Characteristics

Embryos

One cotyledon Two cotyledons

Leaf venation

Veins usually parallel

Veins usually netlike

Stems

Vascular tissue scattered

Vascular tissue usually arranged

in ring

Roots

Root system usually fibrous

(no main root)

Taproot (main root) usually present

Pollen

Pollen grain with one opening

Pollen grain with three openings

Flowers

Floral organs usually in

multiples of three

Floral organs usually in multiples

of four or five

Figure 30.13ea

Monocot

Characteristics

Eudicot

Characteristics

Embryos

One cotyledon Two cotyledons

Leaf

venation

Veins usually

parallel

Veins usually

netlike

Stems

Vascular tissue

scattered

Vascular tissue

usually arranged

in ring

Figure 30.13eb

Roots

Root system

usually fibrous

(no main root)

Taproot (main root)

usually present

Pollen

Pollen grain with

one opening Pollen grain with

three openings

Flowers

Floral organs

usually in

multiples of three

Floral organs

usually in multiples

of four or five

Monocot Characteristics

Eudicot Characteristics

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Evolutionary Links Between Angiosperms

and Animals

• Animals influence the evolution of plants and vice

versa

– For example, animal herbivory selects for plant

defenses

– For example, interactions between pollinators

and flowering plants select for mutually beneficial

adaptations


Video: Bee Pollinating

Video: Bat Pollinating Agave Plant

Figure 30.14

• Clades with bilaterally symmetrical flowers have

more species than those with radially

symmetrical flowers

• This is likely because bilateral symmetry affects

the movement of pollinators and reduces gene

flow in diverging populations


Figure 30.15

Concept 30.4: Human welfare depends

greatly on seed plants

• No group of plants is more important to human

survival than seed plants

• Plants are key sources of food, fuel, wood

products, and medicine

• Our reliance on seed plants makes preservation

of plant diversity critical


Products from Seed Plants

• Most of our food comes from angiosperms

• Six crops (wheat, rice, maize, potatoes, cassava, and sweet potatoes) yield 80% of the calories consumed by humans

• Modern crops are products of relatively recent genetic change resulting from artificial selection

• Many seed plants provide wood

• Secondary compounds of seed plants are used in medicines


30_04BeePollinating_SV.mpg

30_04BatPollinating_SV.mpg

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Table 30.1

Threats to Plant Diversity

• Destruction of habitat is causing extinction of

many plant species

• In the tropics 55,000 km2 are cleared each year

• At this rate, the remaining tropical forests will be

eliminated in 200 years

• Loss of plant habitat is often accompanied by

loss of the animal species that plants support


• At the current rate of habitat loss, 50% of Earth’s

species will become extinct within the next 100–

200 years

• The tropical rain forests may contain

undiscovered medicinal compounds


Figure 30.16

A satellite image from 2000 shows clear-cut areas in Brazil surrounded by dense tropical forest.

By 2009, much more of this same tropical forest had been cut down.

4 k

m

Figure 30.16a

A satellite image

from 2000 shows

clear-cut areas in

Brazil surrounded by

dense tropical forest.

4 k

m

Figure 30.16b

4 k

m

By 2009, much more of this same tropical forest had been cut down.

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Figure 30.UN03

Time since divergence from common ancestor

Common ancestor “Bilateral” clade

“Radial” clade

Compare numbers of species

Five Derived Traits of Seed Plants

Reduced gametophytes

Heterospory

Ovules

Pollen

Seeds

Microscopic male and female gametophytes (n) are nourished and protected by the sporophyte (2n)

Microspore (gives rise to a male gametophyte)

Megaspore (gives rise to a female gametophyte)

Ovule (gymnosperm)

Integument (2n)

Megaspore (n)

Megasporangium (2n)

Pollen grains make water unnecessary for fertilization

Seeds: survive better than unprotected spores, can be transported long distances

Seed coat

Food supply

Embryo

Female gametophyte

Male gametophyte

Figure 30.UN04

Figure 30.UN05

Charophyte green algae

Mosses

Ferns

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Figure 30.UN06

Charophyte green algae

Mosses

Ferns

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Figure 30.UN07

plant diversity ii: the evolution of seed...

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