1

11-1480523-001867-01 NIER-GP2014-016

Planning Report on

“Dust sand storm mitigation strategies

appropriate for the source regions in

Mongolia”

November 2013

2

CONTENTS

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ 3

List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER 1. Background, objective and necessity of the research project ................. 5

CHAPTER 2. Desertification status of the dust sand storm source regions in

Mongolia ............................................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER 3. Assessment of some previous international cooperation projects to reduce

dust sand storm ................................................................................................................ 10

CHAPTER 4. Water management proposal to restore ecology in the dust sand storm

source regions ..................................................................................................................... 13

4.1 Macroscopic and microscopic water management plans ............................ 13

4.2 Artificial enhancement of precipitation using weather modification

technologies ........................................................................................................... 17

CHAPTER 5. Localization projects for restoring ecological conditions at the dust sand

storm source regions .......................................................................................................... 22

CHAPTER 6. Organizing an international forum for mitigating dust sand storm

damage ................................................................................................................................ 25

CHAPTER 7. Implementation of the proposed activities .............................................. 27

CHAPTER 8. Conclusions ................................................................................................ 28

Reference ............................................................................................................................ 30

Appendix ............................................................................................................................. 31

3

List of Tables

Table 1. List of tree-planting projects where Korean Government or NGO is

participating ......................................................................................................................... 11

List of Figures

Figure 1. Trajectories of Asian Dust reaching the Korean Peninsula during 1965-2004

(Kim, 2008) ........................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 2. Change of land cover type during 2000-2010 in Mongolia (Mongolian

Government, 2013) ............................................................................................................... 6

Figure 3. Projected glacier area around Kharkhiraa River (Davaa, 2013) .................... 7

Figure 4. Rapidly increasing mineral production in Mongolia – (left) coal and (right)

tungsten (Mineral Resources Authority of Mongolia, 2012) ............................................ 8

Figure 5. Photo of open-pit mines and damaged vegetation ............................................ 9

Figure 6. Photo contrasting the afforested region (left side) with the neighboring regions

(right) .................................................................................................................................. 11

Figure 7. Example of spatial distribution of static wet index ........................................ 16

Figure 8. Example of small water reservoir to be installed under the tree root .......... 16

Figure 9. Numerical simulation result of implanting small water reservoir. SM stands

for soil moisture .................................................................................................................. 17

Figure 10. Distribution of 16 years (1997-2012) average cloud fraction in Mongolia for

(top) January and (bottom) July ...................................................................................... 18

Figure 11. Wind frequency roses for Ulaangom (1997-2012 average) .......................... 19

4

Figure 12. Wind frequency roses for Choibalsan (1997-2012 average) ........................ 20

Figure 13. Monthly average (1997-2012) cloud amount for various regions in Mongolia

................................................................................................................................................ 21

Figure 14. The exceeding of carrying capacity averaged for 1986-2001, black numbers

show number of years with exceeding capacity (Ministry of Nature and the

Environment of Mongolia, 2006) ........................................................................................ 22

Figure 15. Third Korea-Mongolia Joint Workshop on Dust Sand Storm Mitigation

Strategy ............................................................................................................................... 25

5

1. Background, objective and necessity of the research

project

Dust sand storm is mostly caused by fine particles blown from the desert regions or the

regions at risk of desertification located in China and Mongolia during the spring season.

Dust sand storm not only damages properties but also human health, and so reducing dust

sand storm is an important task. In order to reduce dust sand storm, it is important to prevent

desertification in the source regions. During the “15th Tripartite Environment Ministers

Meeting among People’s Republic of China, Japan and Republic of Korea (TEMM)” the

ministers from the three countries, Korea, China and Japan, acknowledged the importance of

preventing desertification in the source regions and agreed to exert joint effort to achieve this

goal.

Since more than half of the dust sand storm reaching the Korean Peninsula originates

from or passes through Mongolia (Fig. 1), this report will mainly focus on Mongolia.

Fig. 1. Trajectories of Asian Dust reaching the Korean Peninsula during 1965-2004 (Kim, 2008).

6

2. Desertification status of the dust sand storm source

regions in Mongolia

Mongolia is located in the northern highlands of the central Asia and has long and cold

winters and short summers, which is typical for a high latitude continental climate. Annual

precipitation is between 200 and 220 mm but has large spatial heterogeneity: 300-400 mm in

the mountain regions, 150-250 mm in steppe regions and 50-150 mm in the desert regions.

There are about three thousand species of plant in Mongolia, of which 150 are endemic.

For animals, 138 species of mammal, 457 species of fowl, 74 species of fish and 31 species

of reptile are known to inhabit the country.

Due to desertification, the areas of forest and steppe vegetation have decreased while

dry-steppe, desert-steppe and desert areas have increased. In the year 2000, the areas

classified as forest, steppe, dry-steppe and desert-steppe covered 8.18%, 23.54%, 10.51% and

29.08% of the country, respectively. However, in the year 2010, it had changed to 7.33%,

19.32%, 13.18% and 30.39%, respectively, showing that about 5% of the whole regions has

changed from forest/steppe, to dry-steppe/desert-steppe/desert during the decade (Fig. 2).

Frequent dust storms occur in the Mongolian deserts and the regions surrounding it due

to the dry atmosphere, strong winds and low vegetation cover. Dr. Davaa, a hydrologist at

Mongolia’s National Agency of Meteorology and Environmental Monitoring (NAMEM),

projected that the river flux would decrease gradually and that such decrement will be large in

the western mountain region where the spatial extent of glaciers are decreasing due to climate

change (Fig. 3).

7

Fig. 2. Change of land cover type during 2000-2010 in Mongolia (Mongolian Government, 2013).

Fig. 3. Projected glacier area around Kharkhiraa River (Davaa, 2013).

Damage to the steppe regions near the desert is considered to be the largest cause of

desertification expansion in Mongolia, and overgrazing is considered to be the largest cause

8

of steppe region damage – the livestock population of Mongolia is currently about 50 million

while less than 30 million is thought to be a sustainable level. Goats, especially, eat not only

the leaves of a plant but also the stem and root, which cause serious damages to soil structure

and stability. Increasing demand for cashmere, high-quality wool, has dramatically increased

the goat population and has had an effect on the desertification of the regions.

Mining is another cause of desertification in Mongolia. Mining industry in Mongolia has

experienced very rapid growth in the 21st century. Coal, tungsten (Fig. 4), copper,

molybdenum are the minerals that have attracted many foreign investments and, fluorspar

and gold mines are also being actively developed.

Fig. 4. Rapidly increasing mineral production in Mongolia – (left) coal and (right) tungsten

(Mineral Resources Authority of Mongolia, 2012).

Most of the mines in Mongolia are developed as open-pit mines, which turn over the

entire surface of the area, severely damaging the existing vegetation (Fig. 5).

9

Fig. 5. Photo of open-pit mines and damaged vegetation.

Although such mine development has caused severe damage to the environment,

ecology and landscape, it is not regulated with enough caution due to the fact that in

Mongolia mining is one of the main sources of foreign investment and hard currency and the

local economies surrounding the mines depends on them.

In addition, unplanned roads and deforestation are also thought to contribute to

desertification in Mongolia.

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3. Assessment of some previous international cooperation

projects to reduce dust sand storm

Currently, the Korean government, some private enterprises and non-governmental

organizations (NGOs) are conducting projects with international cooperation at various sites

in Mongolia. The Korea-Mongolia Greenbelt Project, conducted by the Korea Forest Service,

aims to construct a greenbelt crossing Mongolia longitudinally during a 30 year period, and is

currently going on at two locations, Lun Som and Dalanzadgad. According to Dr. Youn, a

senior researcher at Korea Forest Research Institute, the aim of the Korea-Mongolia

Greenbelt Project is not simply planting trees but also empowering local Mongolians with

skills through education and by giving the opportunity to support professional researchers.

Besides the Korea-Mongolia Greenbelt Project, which is conducted by the Korean

government, there are similar forestation projects conducted by several Korean NGOs,

including the Green Asia Network (Table 1).

For this report, various tree-planting sites in Mongolia, where international cooperation

projects are underway, were visited, including the sites at Erden, Baganuur, Lun Som and

Bayannuur. Popular and Siberian elm or Golden Tree were planted to form a windbreak forest

while fruit trees were planted in the inner parts of the region. Fruit trees contribute to the

income of local inhabitants, who now regard the trees as very valuable and expend more

effort in conserving them. Because only a few years have passed since the project started, the

trees are still in the earliest stages of growth, but already a significant difference was

observed when the afforested region were compared with the neighboring regions (Fig. 6).

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Table 1. List of tree-planting projects where Korean Government or NGO is participating.

Year Conductor Location Spatial

coverage (ha)

2003-2005 Northeast Asian Forest Forum Ö mnögovi 20

2005 Northeast Asian Forest Forum Ulaanbaatar 10

2003- Northeast Asian Forest Forum Sükhbaatar, Selenge 2,600

2002- Green Asia Network Bagannuur, Ulaanbaatar 40.9

2007- Green Asia Network Bayannuur, Bayan-Ö lgii 121

2009- Green Asia Network Dundgovi 38.9

2010- Green Asia Network Erdene, Töv 116

2000-2005 Green Asia Network Ulaanbaatar

2008-2009 Green Asia Network Khan Uul, Ulaanbaatar 7

2005-2007 Korea Rotary Dalanzadgad, Ö mnögovi

and 7 other places

80

2006-2008 Korea Rotary Karakorum, Ö vörkhangai

and 3 other places

40

2007-2009 Korea Rotary Choir, Govisümber 48

2008-2010 Korea Rotary Orkhon, Darkhan-Uul 62

2010 Korea Rotary Erdene, Töv

2007-2016 Korea Forest Service Lun Som, Töv and

Dalanzadgad, Ö mnögovi

1,198

(3,000 planned)

Fig. 6. Photo contrasting the afforested region (left side) with the neighboring regions (right).

A greater biomass and diversity of vegetation was found at the afforested region

compared to its neighboring regions. Forestation activities not only focus on planting trees

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but also try to help Mongolian people to adjust their lifestyles so that they can contribute to

stopping desertification, along with other efforts to derive the greatest benefits from the

afforestation. The projects are still at an early stage, but evidence suggests that such projects

are expected to contribute to the prevention of desertification.

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4. Water management proposal to restore ecology in the

dust sand storm source regions

4.1 Macroscopic and microscopic water management plans

Water management plans can be implemented in two ways: macroscopic and

microscopic. In a macroscopic approach, large quantities of water are transferred either

horizontally from one geographical region to another or vertically by developing ground

water aquifers. In general, more data is needed to evaluate the total useable amount of ground

water than is required for evaluating horizontal water transfer, including the data that is

currently unavailable. Therefore this report focuses on horizontal water transfer. There are

many historic examples from various civilizations where water was transferred from one

geographical region to another.

There are many things to consider when water is to be transferred from one place to

another (Water Transfer Group, 2002). In general, technological and economic concerns are

the most important, but nowadays there is little technological difficulty. Critically, the region

to be supplied with transferred water must have significant demand of water for a period

stretching from the present well into the foreseeable future and they should have already

undertaken thorough measures to reduce water demand. Water transfer can be selected as a

way of water management only if such a method turns out to be the most economic solution.

Moreover, it must be verified that the region that would supply the water will not sacrifice its

future development due to a scarcity of water brought about by the water transfer.

Ecological and environmental impact assessments of such water transfer should not be

considered as auxiliary but should be tightly incorporated within the project. In many

14

previous water transfer projects, most of the impact assessments only regarded the quantity of

the water in question. However, biodiversity also demands attention due to the fact that

invasive species can be transferred together with the water. It must be verified that the water

transfer will not result in environmental and ecological degradation in either of the two

regions. If certain measures are taken to compensate for the expected degradation, then the

water transfer may also be allowed to take place.

Providing water where there is additional demand is ethically a humanitarian issue,

while exporting the water to such a region is a method of fostering an assured and

cooperative environment between the regions. However, if the region that provides the water

finds that the demand for water is not sufficiently regulated at the destination, it may refuse to

provide water. Therefore, such ethical issues need to be taken into account during the first

stage of planning in an open and transparent manner.

Judicial reinforcement is also required for water transfer. Establishing a “water transfer

committee” that possesses independent monetary and administrative enforcement with the

ability to authorize the water transfer can be one such method of achieving this.

For a successful water transfer project, a well-designed and transparent decision-making

procedure, which guarantees the engagement of every stakeholder, is essential. Encouraging

fluent communication between different stakeholders enables the building of confidence and

trust among the group and enables the project to gain transparency. Institutional and political

dimensions of water transfer and management should also be considered, including the

sustainability of the transfer.

In Microscopic approaches of water management, on the other hand, focus is on the

individual tree level so that each tree can be helped to live to its maximum longevity. A

successful microscopic approach should start with the search for the locations where soil

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moisture can be maintained over long durations. Next, a small water reservoir can be

constructed underneath the tree root so that water can be contained in the reservoir and enable

the tree to survive during the dry season.

The hydrological processes (i.e. evaporation, infiltration and runoff), that take place

under or at the surface after precipitation is dependent on the geographical features of the

land. The wet index is normally used in hydrological models to represent such features,

which can be classified using a static index, pseudo-dynamic index or dynamic index (Beven

and Kirkby, 1979; O'Loughlin, 1986). There are benefits and shortcomings in utilizing any of

the three indexes.

Wet index can be expressed in the following formula.

,

where Wi is the wet index or the topographic index, Ai is the area of the surface at i-th grid

and tanß is the slope between the i-th grid and the surrounding grids. Static wet index, being

the simplest index, is useful to find the optimal location to plant trees. Figure 7 is an example.

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Fig. 7. Example of spatial distribution of static wet index.

Because trees obtain water required for photosynthesis through their roots, the survival

of the trees become threatened when the moisture near the roots is depleted or remains below

a certain threshold. Therefore installing a small reservoir (Fig. 8) that could contain water that

would otherwise percolate down through the lower ground would make it feasible for a tree

to survive during the dry season. Soil and climate condition, and the type of tree are

important considerations when planting the reservoir under the tree in order to maximize the

tree’s longevity.

Fig. 8. Example of small water reservoir to be installed under the tree root.

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Numerical simulation was performed for illustrative purpose. It turned out that small

water reservoir can drastically increase the tree’s longevity by up to 70% for the first 20 years

(Fig. 9) based on the reduced number of days with less than 5 mm of soil moisture.

However, the Mongolian climate is still too harsh for small tree to survive (i.e., still

more than 50 days with soil moisture less than 5 mm). It implies that microscopic water

management alone cannot assure the survival of the trees and additional treatments must be

accompanied with it.

Fig. 9. Numerical simulation result of implanting small water reservoir under the tree. SM

stands for soil moisture.

4.2 Artificial enhancement of precipitation using weather

modification technologies

Weather modification, which aims to increase the total precipitation amount, may be

regarded as a method to increase available water in the dust sand storm source regions.

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Already, the Mongolian government is conducting many cloud-seeding experiments, but

these experiments lack scientific verification. In order to perform a scientifically concrete

analysis, experiments with concentrated facilities and well organized program are required.

The desert regions of Mongolia are very arid, which makes it difficult for cloud-seeding

experiments to achieve their aim. Therefore this report suggests performing experiments at

two carefully selected regions, Ulaangom and Choibalsan. Ulaangom has relatively greater

cloud cover when compared to other regions within Mongolia (Fig. 10), which makes it a

suitable target region to obtain robust experimental data and skills to undertake cloud-seeding.

Fig. 10. Distribution of 16 year (1997-2012) average cloud fraction in Mongolia for (top)

January and (bottom) July.

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Ulaangom is a mountainous region and therefore a ground seeding generator can be used.

The area has a higher mountainous region to its east and exhibit high relative humidity during

the winter. During the precipitation the relative frequency of northwesterly winds increases

(Fig. 11), suggesting that performing cloud-seeding experiments under northwesterly wind

condition during the winter would enhance the possibility of obtaining successful results.

Such results can be verified by the increment of snowfall amount.

Fig. 11. Wind frequency roses for Ulaangom (1997-2012 average).

Although Choibalsan is not currently suffering from desertification, the threat cannot be

ignored since the desertified area is expanding. It is unlikely to obtain successful results if

cloud seeding experiments are performed over the already desertified region. However,

performing cloud seeding experiments is highly desirable over the regions near desert where

cloud resources still exist but vulnerable to desertification if no preventative action is taken.

20

Experiments at Choibalsan can be such a case and should commence after accumulating

enough experience and knowledge from the well-organized experiments at Ulaangom. Unlike

Ulaangom, Choibalsan is situated at a much lower altitude, which requires rockets or aircrafts

to perform the seeding experiments. The wind diagrams indicate that the relative frequency of

easterly winds increase during the precipitation (Fig. 12). Another thing to note is that unlike

Ulaangom, Choibalsan exhibits low humidity so some methods (e.g. water reservoirs) must

be developed to reduce the evaporative loss of valuable precipitation.

Fig. 12. Wind frequency roses for Choibalsan (1997-2012 average).

Bayankhongor can also be suggested because it can strategically cover the originating

regions of the Baidrag, Tui, and Ongi rivers, which flow down to Gobi desert. However, due

to the already proceeded desertification, the lakes in Bayankhongor are drying up and cloud

resources are scarce (Fig. 13). In general the region does not have suitable meteorological

conditions for cloud seeding.

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Fig. 13. Monthly average (1997-2012) cloud amount for various regions in Mongolia.

This report suggests a two-step approach for cloud seeding experiment. First, Ulaangom

seems to be suitable as a test bed site. Next, after accumulating experience at Ulaangom, the

experiment can be expanded to Choibalsan, a more challenging region but a region of great

benefit if successful. Before starting these long term project, however, geographical and

social factors also have to be thoroughly examined.

In addition, in order to verify the cloud seeding experiment, a well-equipped

observational network is necessary, which should be acquired before the start of the

experiment. About 50 automatic weather stations (AWS), more than 2 radiosonde sites, more

than 2 radars, multiple ground generators and rockets and a long-term plan to perform the

experiment and to analyze the results are necessary. A research aircraft is also necessary not

only to disperse the seeding material but also to measure meteorological conditions aloft and

to identify the optimal location for the experiment.

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5. Localization projects for restoring ecological conditions

at the dust sand storm source regions

In order to preserve the steppe regions, the livestock population of Mongolia needs to be

maintained below 30 million (Dietz et al., 2005) whereas the actual current population is

reported to be about 40 million in 2012. Furthermore, exceeding of carrying capacity in

several regions is more than 150% (Fig. 14).

Fig. 14. The exceeding of carrying capacity averaged for 1986-2001, black numbers show

number of years with exceeding capacity (Ministry of nature and the environment of Mongolia,

2006).

Therefore a quota system is required to reduce the livestock population. China and

Australia have placed quotas on livestock populations in order to prevent overgrazing and

desertification. However, considering the current conflict within Mongolia about water

resources and mining developments, livestock population quotas may lead to disasters similar

to those observed in Central Africa, Botswana and Borneo unless the enthusiastic support of

23

the nomads for the quota system is guaranteed.

In order to place quotas, the carrying capacity of grassland should be thoroughly

investigated for each region as well as the ratio of different species of livestock within the

population, and the number of farmers should also be controlled. However, placing the quotas

may not be easily done since the Mongolia government does not have sufficient

administrative power to implement it, especially in the countryside.

In order to reduce the livestock population, the livestock industry needs to shift from the

current mass breeding mainly supplying domestic needs, to producing high quality meat

mainly for exportation. The recent emergence of facilities with Hazard Analysis and Critical

Control Points (HACCP) certificates may have a significant impact on meat production and

export.

In order to reduce the livestock population, the government needs policies to encourage

sedentary settlements among nomads. China is already implementing policies for nomad

settlement. Such policies should encourage the nomads to settle down at a fixed place, and let

them take the opportunity and responsibility of the settled region so that they may find a

sustainable way of living. Such a policy should also provide education and support to the

settlement town and help them find various ways to diversify their incomes. For instance, ice

wine is produced in the Canadian provinces and northeast China with a similar climate to

Mongolia so the production of ice wine or other tree fruits could become a high added-value

economic opportunity for some Mongolian nomads to diversify their earnings away from

livestock grazing. China, Australia and Central Asian regions also exhibit similar climate and

they have successfully developed models to earn incomes through desert tourism, which the

Mongolian government could consider feasible. Genghis Khan of Mongolia is a historic

figure well known worldwide and Mongolia has many other cultural assets that may be

24

appropriate for tourism and hence contribute to local people’s income.

However, the Mongolian government needs to overcome some obstacles including the

lack of social overhead capital (SOC), good road networks, water and sewage systems, etc.

Novel methods of earning income require not only new technology but also infrastructure

which takes time to prepare. Importantly education for nomads on sustainable land

management is necessary in order that they can enjoy long-term prosperity in the settlement.

25

6. Organizing an international forum for mitigating dust

sand storm damage

On September 26-27, 2013, the Third Korea-Mongolia Joint Workshop on Dust Sand

Storm Mitigation Strategy was held in Korea (Fig. 15).

Fig. 15. Participants at the Third Korea-Mongolia Joint Workshop

on Dust Sand Storm Mitigation Strategy.

Not only the experts from Mongolia and Korea but also an expert from China was

invited to the workshop. Invited experts provided illustrative information on desertification.

Dr. Batnasan from UNICEF Mongolia introduced the current regional scale efforts to prevent

desertification. Dr. Davaa from NAMEM (National Agency for Meteorology and

Environment Monitoring) presented the change of water resources in Mongolia based on

numerical models and climate change data while Dr. Erdenebat from NAMEM presented the

current status of dust storms and cloud-seeding experiments in Mongolia. Prof. Yang from

26

China illustrated how northern Chinese regions are suffering severely from desertification.

Lastly, Dr. Youn from the Korea Forest Service explained the Greenbelt project in Mongolia,

which the Korean government is supporting as part of international cooperation to reduce

dust sand storm damage. The participants of the workshop came to an agreement that an

international joint effort on research and hardware development in the areas of weather

modification, water resource management, ecology and landscape, is necessary in order to

prevent further desertification and occurrence of dust sand storm, as well as to preserve the

environment. Such agreement resulted in a Terms Of Reference (TOR) for further

international joint research (see appendix).

27

7. Implementation of the proposed activities

The proposed activities in this report should be initiated by the appropriate Mongolian

government agency and can be performed jointly by the Mongolian experts and the experts in

the related fields in the neighboring countries such as Korea and China. To implement the

proposed activities, the appropriate Mongolian government agency should secure financial

resources. There can be two ways to secure financial resources. One is to apply for financial

support to Global Environment Facility (GEF), which funds activities related to environment

conservation in the underdeveloped countries such as Mongolia. The other is to apply to

Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), the aim of which is to help

underdeveloped countries such as Mongolia in their effort to enhance economic, social and

environmental development. The appropriate Mongolian government agency should initiate

the discussion with KOICA by submitting the application for the proposed activities and by

explaining the importance of the proposed activities as an effort to mitigate or prevent the

Mongolian desertification problem, which is beneficial both to Mongolia and Korea.

28

8. Conclusions

Despite various international efforts, the desert regions in Mongolia are rapidly

expanding. Korean efforts, mainly focusing on forestation, are in their beginning stages and

still require more time to be evaluated. Although the efforts may not have yet achieved

anything significant, they are expected to contribute towards preventing desertification in the

long term.

Rehabilitating the vegetation at the dust sand storm source regions using appropriate

methods outlined above is an effective and economic way to prevent desertification. This

planning report outlined both macroscopic and microscopic approaches for water

management. One of the macroscopic methods is to transfer water from a region with

sufficient amount to a region where demand is high but water resources are scarce. In order to

transfer water not only technological and economical concerns have to be accounted for, but

also the environmental impact, as well as ethical and legal issues and social relations should

be assessed. Microscopic water management methods include investigation of the optimal

locations for soil moisture longevity and installation of simple water reservoirs (desirably

biodegradable) below the trees so that the trees may experience an increased survival rate

during their early years.

In Mongolia, cloud-seeding experiments have been conducted to various extents but

they have not been subject to thorough evaluation supported by scientific data and methods.

This report suggests implementation of scientifically designed cloud-seeding efforts in a

region suitable for such experiment in order to increase the likelihood of success and to build

and accumulate technical skills. Having acquired such skills, it would be more efficient to

conduct the experiment at a region vulnerable to desertification without such effort, but not in

29

the middle of the desert, to prevent future desertification.

Overgrazing is known to be one of the largest anthropogenic factors that cause

desertification. Quotas on livestock populations are necessary, which requires investigation of

the capacity of the land and its vegetation for all regions. Moreover, the Mongolian

government needs to assist the nomads in finding various new ways of diversifying their

income sources away from livestock grazing. Encouraging them to become sedentary and

live through other economic means, including tourism, specialty crop farming or

manufacturing, would contribute significantly towards preventing desertification.

Importantly, the Terms Of Reference for international joint research to prevent

desertification in the dust sand storm source regions was signed by Korean, Mongolian and

Chinese experts who participated at the Third Korea-Mongolia Joint Workshop on Dust Sand

Storm Mitigation Strategy. Although Mongolian and Korean efforts in preventing

desertification are limited at this point, continuous cooperation and joint research would

provide greater opportunity to improve the situation. For this reason what is written in the

current report can be used as a guideline for establishing the base on which joint research and

cooperation in the neighboring countries can be placed. Such effort should be continued in

order to prevent further desertification at the dust sand storm source regions.

Global Environment Facility (GEF) and Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA)

can be considered as a source of monetary fund required to implement the proposed activities

in this report.

30

Reference

Beven, K. J., Kirkby, J. N., 1979: A physically-based, variable contributing area model of

basin hydrology. Hydrological Sciences Bulletin, 24, 43-69.

Davaa, G. 2013: Towards adaptation and mitigations in the light of climate change and

environmental deterioration in Kharhiraa, Turgen and Ulz River basins, The Third

Korea-Mongolia Joint Workshop on Dust Sand Storm Mitigation Strategy, Seoul,

September 26.

Dietz et al., 2005: Carrying capacity dynamics, livestock commercialisation and land

degradation in Mongolia’s free market era. PREM Working Paper, 1-15.

Kim, J., 2008: Transport routes and source regions of Asian dust observed in Korea during

the past 40 years (1965-2004), Atmospheric Environment, 42, 4778-4789.

Mineral Resources Authority of Mongolia, 2012: Present situation of mineral resources of

Mongolia.

Ministry of Nature and the Environment of Mongolia, 2006: Climate change and sustainable

livelihood of rural people in Mongolia.

Mongolian Government, 2013: Geographic Atlas of Mongolia (In Mongolian).

O'Loughlin, E. M., 1986: Prediction of surface saturation zones on natural catchments by

topographic analysis." Water Resources Research, 22, 794-804.

Water Transfer Workgroup, 2002: Water Transfer Issues in California, Final Report to the

California State Water Resources Control Board.

31

Appendix

Terms of Reference for Joint Research on the

Development of Weather Modification, Eco-landscape and

Hydrology Technology to Combat Dust Sand Storms

1. Background and Importance

□ Dust Sand Storms (DSS) have several thousand years of history and

are considered as a serious environmental problem in Northeast Asia.

□ Impacts of DSS include harmful effects on public health, agriculture

and industry and these impacts have worsened due to increased DSS

intensity, frequency and ranges in recent years.

□ To cope with the problem of DSS, a DSS research joint action plan was

adopted during the 8th China, Japan and Korea Tripartite Environment

Ministry Meeting (TEMM) held in 2006.

□ A joint research proposal for the DSS joint action plan was adopted at

the 4th TPM held in 2007. The importance of DSS joint research was

greatly emphasized at the 8th and 9th TPM in 2011 and 2012.

TPM : China, Japan and Korea Tripartite President Meeting of

National Institute of Environmental Research

□ The necessity for collaborative research was overwhelmingly

recognized at the Second Korea-Mongolia Joint Workshop on Asian

Dust Mitigation Strategy held in Seoul on Oct. 4, 2012.

32

2. Purpose

□ Development of weather modification technology appropriate for the

DSS affected regions of Mongolia

□ Development of ecological and landscape techniques applicable for

the conservation of vegetated landscapes of the DSS affected

regions of Mongolia

□ Development of hydrological techniques to increase the survival rate

of trees planted in the arid regions of Mongolia

□ Promoting cooperation in environmental research of Korea, Mongolia and

China

3. Draft Research Proposal

□ Research period: 6 years (2014 ~ 2019)

□ Contents (See Appendix)

□ Research Team: Experts in Korea, Mongolia and China

4. Research Center and Focal Point

□ Research center: Korea (Yonsei University), Mongolia (NAMEM),

China (Tsinghua University)

□ Focal Point: Professor Yum, Seong Soo/ Department of atmospheric

Sciences, Yonsei University

Tel. 82-2-2123-5681 / HP. 82-10-8893-5681

e-mail: ssyum@yonsei.ac.kr

33

○ Focal Point is responsible for maintaining the research fund for

supporting all research members.

5. Research Performance Methodology

□ Composition of Sub-working Groups

○ Three sub-working groups shall be established in order to

perform the joint research effectively, one for application of

weather modification technology, one for application of landscape

and ecological technology for DSS sources of Mongolia, and one

for application of hydrology technology for DSS sources of

Mongolia, which will be led, respectively, by Prof. Yum, Seong Soo, Prof.

Kong, Woo--Seok, and Prof. Yoo, Chulsang.

○ Total number of experts shall be 9: three from each of the three

sub-working groups.

□ Function of Sub-working Groups

○ Focal Point is responsible for representing the three sub-

working groups.

○ All the members of the sub-working groups shall be responsible

for the planning and performance of their individual research.

○ Leader of each sub-working group shall be responsible for

submitting an annual report to the Focal Point by the end of

October every year.

○ All the members of the sub-working groups shall exchange the

data and discuss the research results.

34

○ As a general rule, the expert meeting of sub-working groups

shall be held once a year in November.

6. Cost

□ Korea shall prepare all the budgets

Units : US$ (1US$=1,086Won)

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

138,122 160,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000

7. Expected outputs

□ Prevention of the expansion of the DSS source regions

□ Conservation of the landscape and ecology at DSS source regions

□ Development of hardware technology to combat DSS

□ Realization of a creative economy in the field of DSS prevention

< Appendix> Research plan of each sub-working group

Application of Weather Modification Technology

<Proposal by Prof. Yum Seong Soo>

Final goal:

35

Development of weather modification technology appropriate for the

border regions of DSS origin

Goal for 1st stage (3-year plan):

Preliminary attainment of Mongolia specific weather modification

technology know-how in the regions of high feasibility

2014:

- Analysis of long term Mongolian meteorological data

- Assessment of the past and current Mongolian cloud seeding activities

- Selection of the regions of high feasibility of cloud seeding and of the

techniques appropriate to use in these regions

2015:

- Establishment of an intense monitoring site in the selected region for

objective and scientific evaluation of cloud seeding experiments

- Carrying out cloud seeding experiments in the selected region in

collaboration with Mongolian experts

2016:

- Carrying out cloud seeding experiments in a continuous manner and

evaluating the results

- Preliminary attainment of Mongolia specific weather modification

technology know-how in the regions of high feasibility

Goal for 2nd stage (3-year plan):

Practical application of the cloud seeding technological know-how

obtained during the first stage to the border regions of DSS origin

2017:

- Carrying out cloud seeding experiments in a continuous manner in the

region selected during the first stage

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- Selection of a border region of DSS origin with available cloud

resources and determination of the cloud seeding technology

appropriate for this region

2018:

- Carrying out cloud seeding experiments in a continuous manner in the

region selected during the first stage

- Establishment of an intense monitoring site in the selected region for

objective and scientific evaluation of cloud seeding experiments

- Carrying out cloud seeding experiments in the selected region in

collaboration with Mongolian experts

2019:

- Carrying out cloud seeding experiments continuously in the selected

region in the first and second stages

- Attainment of the cloud seeding technological know-how appropriate

for the region selected in the first stage

- Attainment of the cloud seeding technological know-how appropriate

for the region selected in the second stage

Application of Ecology and Landscape Technology

<Proposal by Prof. Kong Woo-Seok>

Final goal:

Development of Landscape and Ecological Solutions Suitable for the

DSS source regions of Mongolia

Goal for 1st stage (3-year plan) :

37

Acquisition of preliminary landscape and ecological knowhow regarding

arid and semi-arid regions in Mongolia

2014:

- Understanding of spatial distribution and relevant landscape of dry

desert and semi-arid steppe landscape of Mongolia

- Understanding of temporal distribution and relevant landscape of dry

desert and semi-arid steppe landscape of Mongolia

- Selection of the first stage intensive survey site and survey

methodology

2015:

- Understanding of spatial distribution and relevant ecology of dry desert

and semi-arid steppe ecology of Mongolia

- Understanding of temporal distribution and relevant ecology of dry

desert and semi-arid steppe ecology of Mongolia

- Selection of the first stage intensive survey site and survey

methodology

2016:

- Evaluation and analysis of dry desert and semi-arid steppe landscape

ecology and land use in Mongolia

- Acquisition of preliminary management knowhow regarding landscape

and ecology of arid and semi-arid regions of Mongolia

Goal for 2nd stage (3-year plan) :

Development and application of acquired landscape and ecological

management knowhow on the basis of first stage results suitable for

DSS source regions of Mongolia

2017:

38

- Continued evaluation and analysis of dry desert and semi-arid steppe

landscape ecology and land use in Mongolia

- Selection of improved reconstruction methodology for landscape

ecology in dry desert and semi-arid steppe regions of Mongolia

2018:

- Continued evaluation and analysis of dry desert and semi-arid steppe

landscape ecology and land use in Mongolia

- Improvement of landscape ecology at yellow dust source areas of

Mongolia and establishment of reconstruction site.

- Joint research with Mongolian scientists to improve and reconstruct the

landscape and ecology of arid and semi-arid regions of Mongolia

2019:

- Acquisition of relevant landscape and ecological knowhow suitable to

improve the existing problems in arid and semi-arid regions of Mongolia

- Selection of improved reconstruction methodology for landscape

ecology in dry desert and semi-arid steppe regions for the second stage

Technical application of Hydrology and Water Resources

<Proposal by Prof. Yoo Chulsang>

Final Goal:

Development of techniques to increase the survival rate of trees planted

in DSS affected regions of Mongolia

Goal of 1st stage (3-year plan) :

Evaluation of the possibility of water transfer in Mongolia and

development of techniques to increase the survival rate of trees planted

in an arid region

39

(1) modeling study

2014:

- Evaluation of surface water resources in selected rivers in Mongolia

- Decision of planting locations based on the spatial behavior of soil

moisture and evaluation of the survival rate of trees

2015:

- Technical evaluation of possible water transfer options in Mongolia

- Study in to the increased tree survival rate when using a small storage

tank buried near the tree root

2016:

- Economic evaluation of water transfer in Mongolia

- Estimation of the survival rate of trees when considering both the soil

moisture analysis and small underground storage tank in an arid region

Goals of 2nd stage (3-year plan) :

Evaluation of the possibility of water transfer in Mongolia and

development of techniques to increase the survival rate of trees planted

in an arid region

(2) experimental study

2017:

- Decision on optimal water transfer scheduling

- Selection of 1st forestation area, soil moisture analysis, and selection

of optimal planting locations

- Division of optimal and non-optimal, with and without underground

storage tanks when planting trees

2018:

40

- Decision of optimal irrigation methods to improve the forestation

performance

- Monitoring and evaluation of 1st forestation area

- Selection of 2nd forestation area, soil moisture analysis, and selection

of optimal planting locations

2019:

- Hydrological and irrigation analysis for evaluating the forestation

performance

- Monitoring and evaluation of 1st and 2nd forestation areas

41

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Planning Report on “Dust sand storm mitigation strategies appropriate for the source regions in Mongolia”

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Director : Jin-Seok Han

Editor : National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER), Atmospheric Environment Research Division

Yu Deok Hong, Im Seok Jang, Jeong Ah Yu

Published by Yonsei Univ.

Published on November 2013

Publisher : Seong Soo Yum, Jong Hwan Kim (Yonsei University)

Woo-Seok Kong (Kyung Hee University)

Chul-Sang Yoo (Korea University)

Il-Soo Park (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)

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ISBN 978-89-6558-226-7 93530