planning in the islamic tradition

7/29/2019 Planning in the Islamic Tradition

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INSIGHTS 01:3 (2009) pp. 37-68

Planning in the Islamic Tradition

The Case of HijrahExpedition

Javed IqbalAssistant Professor, Faculty of Management Sciences

International Islamic University, Islamabad

Muhammad Mushtaq AhmadAssistant Professor, Faculty ofShrah and Law

International Islamic University, Islamabad

A B S T R A C T

This paper describes the origin of planning as a managerial functionemphasizing the contribution of Islam in this process. The term scientific

managementthough was first floated in 1911, this paper argues thatmanagement principles existed in some form, from an Islamic point ofview, since the inception of humanity as they were, in some shape, partof the knowledge of all things which Allah taught to Adam (peace be onhim) and they were practiced by the Prophet Muammad (peace be onhim) as well when Islam re-dawned on the soil of Arabian Peninsula.

Taking Hijrah, one of the major events in the life of the ProphetMuammad (peace be on him), as an exemplar to illustrate the notion ofplanning and execution by the Prophet (peace be on him) as a strategy to

achieve his objectives, this paper attempts to apply Weihrich andKoontzs planning model to evaluate the Prophet (peace be on him)s

strategy to leave securely from Makkah and to reach Yathrib safely. Thepresent authors contend that Hijrah expedition when studied in the light

of modern Management Sciences perfectly conforms to the managementmodel propounded in the 21st century. However, the facts remainedhidden in the pages of history, which this paper attempts to unveil.


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Planning in the Islamic Tradition: The Case ofHijrah Expedition

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Introduction

The term scientific management though was first floated byFrederick Winslow Taylor (18561915) in 1911,1 the concepts andprinciples of management and planning initiated in some form withthe inception of humanity on earth. This contention is based on theQurnic assertion that Allah taught Adam [dam] (peace be on him)knowledge of all things before his deployment on the earth as HisVicegerent. 2 Moreover, the two persons deployed on the earthinevitably planed and managed their affairs related to their boarding,lodging, worship, security and protection from other creatures.These management concepts kept on developing with the passage oftime, due to further divine guidance in the form of revelation tovarious later prophets3 as well as in the form of accumulation ofhuman experience. The Prophet Muammad (peace be on him)when established an Islamic state in 1/622 in Mad nah invented andexecuted several modern managerial concepts such as planning,organizing, leading, controlling, span of control and others, most ofwhich were applied at macro level (state level). In view of thepresent writers the affairs conducted by the Prophet (peace be on

him) can be taken as a legitimate examples of the application of thescientific managerial concepts as H. Weihrich and H. Koonztmaintain that management theories and practices are applicable at alllevels of organizations and in any kind of organization profitable,not-for-profit, service, manufacturing and trading.4 Since little efforthas been devoted in the literature to look into the application ofmanagerial concepts in the affairs conducted by the Prophet (peace

1. Frederick Winslow Taylors The Principles of Scientific Management was published 1911 as the firsttreatise on the management science.

2. See, the Qurn 2: 3035.

3. See, for example, The Qurn 12: 4376; 27: 1744.

4. See, H. Weihrich and H. Koontz, Management, Asia edn. (Singapore: McGraw Hill Education,2005), p. 5.


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..Javed Iqbal and Muhammad Mushtaq Ahmad

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be on him) and the rightly guided caliphs and in later Islamictradition at the micro or organizational level, this paper is an attempt

to examine it. The paper contends that the Prophet (peace be onhim) invented and executed several modern managerial conceptseven before establishment of the Islamic state in Madnah whileconducting his prophetic mission in Makkah also. Therefore, Hijrahexpedition has been taken as a major event to be analyzed from theprospect of planning, a key managerial function today. The purposeof the paper is thus to dig out the roots of modern management inthe pages of Islamic history. It would help managers and generalreaders to know the contribution of Islam in the development ofadministrative sciences and management practices.

Rationale of the PaperSince Islam is a complete code of conduct and guides humans inevery sphere of life it naturally provides a way of managingindividual and organizational matters. Organizational matters areimportant because most people ought to work in some type oforganization; as a sole trader, as a partner in partnership businesses,as a member in corporate bodies or governmental authority. Inaddition, everyone is part of a family (in Muslim societies at least)that is also a social organization. So as a member of a formalorganization (business, governmental etc) or informal organization (a

family), one has to perform managerial function such as planning,organizing, coordinating and controlling, and acts like a manager insome capacity.5 A manager manages resources of an organizationthrough making certain decisions. Most of these decisions requireplanning. For example, every small and large size organization needsto make annual budget that requires informed estimation (inadvance) about the amount of money that will be acquired fromvarious sources and the amount of money that will be spent onvarious heads in the coming year. It is a form of plan or planning. 6

5. The Prophet (peace be on him) rightly said, everyone of you is responsible (manager) and everyoneof you is accountable for his/her responsibility. See for full text of this adth, Muammad b. Ismlal-Bukhr, a al-Bukhr, Kitb al-Jumuah, Bb al-Jumuah f l-Qur wa l-Mudun.

6. See, Weihrich and Koontz, Management, pp. 56.


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Muslims generally tend to ignore planning at formal or informallevels. Therefore, this article is an attempt to examine the life of the

Prophet (peace be on him) in general and his Hijrah expedition inparticular to demonstrate the fact that planning is the way (sunnah) ofthe Prophet (peace be on him) and it should be practiced as such.This paper shows that the Prophet (peace be on him) hadmeticulously planned his Hijrah expedition. Then with the help ofAllah and his planning strategy the Hijrah became a successfulventure. It may be noted that the Prophet (Peace be on him) hadapplied strategic planning not only at the occasion ofHijrah but alsoat other occasions in his life, like in Gazwahs, political pacts withother tribes and so on, utilizing available resources to carry out the

individual and organizational matters through planning.Secondly, the writers on management theory and practice ignore thecontribution of the Prophet (peace be on him) and the Muslims ingeneral on the topic. For instance, C.L. Bovee, et al., examined thehistorical development of management thoughts since 5000 BC todate but they did not mention the name of Muammad (peace be onhim) or any of the previous Prophets (peace be on them); the rightlyguided caliphs (al-Khulaf al-Rshidn) or any Muslim practitioner/scholar.7 This article is an attempt to demonstrate the contributionof Islam towards the practice of planning.

Thirdly, there is lack of planning in the lives of common Muslimsdespite the fact that the Prophet (Peace be on him) planned at leastall major matters in his life. Planning implies deciding in advance;e.g. he decided well in advance about, the battle of trench (Ghazwatal-Khandaq). The key question was where to position Muslims armyto face marching allied forces of the Pagan and Jewish tribes ofArabia. The decision to build a trench around the city before thearrival of marching allied forces was adopted. Thus a unique planwas drawn to encounter allied forces of Arabia led by the Makkans.8Thus this paper argues that the Prophet (Peace be on him) planned

7. See, C.L. Bovee, John V. Thill, M.B. Wood and G.P. Dovel, Management (New York: McGraw HillInc., 1993), pp. 4263.

8. Martin Lings, Muhammad: his life based on the earliest sources (London: George Allen & Unwin andIslamic Text Society, 1983), pp. 215219.


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his matters, so following his life example (sunnah) Muslims also needto plan their projects and ventures.

Literature Review

Planning as an exclusive subject has rarely been discussed inliterature with reference to Islam. Some hints in this respect may befound in some scholarly works, which can be categorised in threecategories. One group examined some elements of planning whilewriting the biography of the Prophet (peace be on him) withoutfocusing on planning as a subject of study. Such writers, Muslims andnon-Muslims, are considerable in number; Martin Lings work hascaught attention of many scholars in this regard, he described the life

of the Prophet based on the earliest sources.9 Muammad usaynHaykals The Life of Muammad, 10 Srat al-Nab by Allmah ShiblNumn 11 and The Life of Muhammad by Abdul Hameed Siddiqui[Abd al-amd iddq]12 are considered some of the classic workson the subject. The second group in their writings focused on one ofthe various aspects of or key characteristics of the prophet (peace beon him) such as the work of Afzalur Rahman [Afal al-Ramn],Muhammad as a Military Leader,13 wherein he focused on leadership ofthe Prophet (peace be on him) as a commander-in-chief and outlinedvarious aspects of his military leadership including military and war

strategy14

in the light of associated success stories. The third groupfocused on study of the life of the Prophet (peace be on him) in thelight of implications of fundamental Islamic teaching and producedworks such as The Concept of Administrative Accountability in Islam15 and

9. See, note 8 above for the bibliographical information of this work.

10. Muammad usein Haykal, The Life of Muammad, tr. from Arabic, Ismal Rg A. Al Frq(London: Shorouk International, 1983).

11. Allama Shibli Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi [The Life of the Prophet (Peace be upon him)], tr. fromUrdu, M. Tayyib Bakhsh Budayni (Lahore: Kazi Publications, 1979).

12. Abdul Hameed Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad(Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1969).

13. Afzalur Rahman, Muhammad as a Military Leader(London: The Muslim School Trust, 1980).

14 See, ibid., especially pp. 35-56.

15. Riaz Mahmood, The Concept of Administrative Accountability in Islam (Lahore: Maqbool Academy,2001).


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Islam and Good Governance 16 shedding some light on some of themanagerial issues.

However, planning, as a distinct subject, has rarely been dealt with.This paper attempts to examine planning as a function of a managerin Islamic perspective. The purpose is to identify the roots ofplanning in the Islamic teachings and in the life of the Prophet (peace

be on him) with special reference to the event of Hijrah, themigration of the Prophet (peace be on him) from Makkah to Yathrib,showing that though the term Scientific Managementbecame widely inuse in 1911 the Concepts of Scientific Management had been inpractice since long and they were also practiced by the Prophet(peace be on him) in the Islamic state of Madnah (1st/7th century)

as well as before his migration to Madnah during his propheticmission in Makkah.

Weihrich and Koontz suggested an eight step planning model whichhas been demonstrated in figure 1.17 This will be used to evaluate theHijrah expedition to demonstrate that the modern managementconcepts had been in practice during the life time of the Prophet(peace be on him). It would negate the views of many contemporarymanagement scholars that the practices of management were therecent developments.

Awareness of

opportunity

Quantifying

plan b y ma kingbud get

Determining

alternativecourses

Comparingalternative

courses

Choosing themost promising

one

Formulating

supporting plan

Consideringplanni ng

pre mis es

Setting

objectives

Figure 1 Weirich and Knootz planning model

16. Syed Wajid Rizvi, Islam and Good Governance (Lahore: Maqbool Academy, 2005).

17. See, Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 106.


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Planning as an Islamic Heritage

Planning literally refers to decide something in advance or for thefuture. Planning according to Robins and DeCenzo is concernedwith identifying the organizations objectives or goals, establishingan overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing acomprehensive hierarchy to integrate and coordinate activities.18Weihrich and Koontz include eight steps in their planning model:

being aware of opportunities, setting objectives or goals, consideringplanning premises, identifying alternatives, comparing them in lightof goals, choosing one of them for action, formulating supportingplans, and quantifying plans by making budgets.19

The closest Arabic equivalent of the word plan or planning is takh,whereas the words tadbrand taqdralso contain meanings which arecommon with the meanings of planning in some aspects. Similarlythe Arabic word makr though cannot be taken as a parallel ofplanning connotes the competing secret planning and strategy whichapproaches to scheming.20 English translators of the meanings of theQurn, however, have usually translated the word makras planning,in various contexts in which it has been used with reference to Allahthe Almighty. This might be because of the reason that Islamicscholars of the past and the present all agree (have ijm) that makrand the similar other words with negative connotations do not befitto the majesty of Allah the Almighty Creator as He is Exalted fromhaving negativity towards His creations and thus these words are notused and cannot be taken in their negative connotations for Him.Their use for Allah the Almighty in various yt of the Qurn, thus,is in the sense of mushkalah; i.e. using the same word twice todescribe both the deed (in the first place) and its reward (in the

18. Stephen P. Robbins and David A. De Cenzo, Fundamentals of Management (Upper Saddle River, NJ:Pearson Education International, 2005), p. 88.


20. See for various shades of meanings of these words, Muammad b. Mukarram Ibn Manr al-Ifrq,Lisn al-Arab, first edition (Beirut: Dr dir, n.d.), vol. 7, pp. 281-287, vol. 4, pp. 265-268, vol. 5,p. 75, vol. 5, p. 183; J. Milton Cowan, ed., The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Ithaca,NY: Spoken Language Services, 1976), p. 245, p. 270, pp. 745-746, p. 917.


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second place) or in the sense of reply (al sabl al-jawb) that yournegativity and intrigues will eventually befall upon you as Allah the

Almighty will protect the Prophet (peace be on him) and thebelievers from your negativity and intrigues, and you will eventuallyface the consequences of your negativity and intrigues in this worldas well as in the hereafter. It implies that whenever the word makrisused with reference to Allah the Almighty it is used in its positiveconnotation, meaning a firm plan (al-tadbr al-mukam).21 The Qurnin this context has several times used the word makr for Allah theAlmighty in contrast to the schemes of the ones who reject themessage of Islam (submission to none but the Creator in all affairs)and try to curb it, stating: while they plot Allah also plan (a firm

plan),22

while they perceived it not;23

and the best of planners isAllah;24 Apparently al-Qadr (the pre-recoding of all that was andwill be) 25 of Allah might be an example of planning, however,striking a simile between the attributes and works the Creator Allahand those of the creations is arguable.

Therefore, leaving aside the issue of linguistic parallels as well as thenotion of planning in the creation and the works of Allah, we turn tothe occasions in the Qurn where Allah teaches humans to plan theiraffairs. A careful study of the Qurn reveals that this objective isachieved in two ways: firstly, by quoting the examples of planning

from the lives of the Qurnic role models i.e. the Prophets (peacebe on them) and secondly, by asking people, in various contexts

21. See for more details, al-fi Isml b. Umar Ibn Kathr al-Dimashq, Tafsr al-Qurn al-Am,ed., Ysuf Abd al-Ramn al-Marashl, 5 vols. (Beirut: Dr al-Marifah, 1409/1989), vol. 1, pp.107108; Ab l-Fal Mamd al-ls, R al-Man f Tafsr al-Qurn al-Am wa Sab al-Mathn, 30vols. (Beirut: Dr Iy al-Trth al-Arab, 1405 AH), vol. 3, pp. 178179.

22. See, the Qurn 3: 54; 8: 30; 27: 50. English translation of the meaning of the yt of the Qurn inthis paper is mainly based on The Holy Qurn, Text, Translation and Commentary, tr. Abdullah Ysuf Al,New Revised Edition (Brentwood, MD: Amana Corporation, 1409/1989). The authors, however, forthe sake of greater clarity have made some modifications.

23. See, the Qurn 27: 50.24. See, the Qurn 3: 54.

25. See, the Qurn 6: 59; 9: 36; 10: 61; 11: 6; 17: 4, 58; 20: 52; 22: 70; 27: 57; 33: 6; 34: 3; 35: 11;50: 4; 52: 2; 56: 78; 57: 22.


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pertaining to this as well as the next life, to plan their affairs.

The best examples for the first notion in the Qurn can be seen, forinstance, in the story of Ysuf (peace be on him):

1. The Qurn describes that when the king of Egypt sought theinterpretation of his dream from Ysuf (peace be on him)through his official, Ysuf (peace be on him) informed him theinterpretation of the dream as well as described to him the actualplan as how to deal with the seven years of abundance and theseven years of drought, i.e. during the seven years of abundanceleave the harvest that you shall reap in the ear, except a little, ofwhich you shall eat26 to preserve it for the next seven years.

2.

The Qurn describes the elegant plan that Y

suf (peace be onhim) adopted for the removal of the blame of the women from

himself and for his ascendance to the ruler-ship of Egypt, in adignified manner.27

3. The Qurn unfolds the gracious plan that Ysuf (peace be onhim) worked out for a gradual reconciliation with his brothersand reunion of the family and the way he implemented itsuccessfully.28

4. The Qurn quotes the plan that Yaqb (peace be on him)suggested to his sons to safeguard themselves from the jealousy

of the people.

29

Some examples for the second notion in the Qurn can be seen, forinstance, in the following injunctions:

1. The Qurn time and again asks and motivates people to plancarefully to be among the successful ones in the hereafter, theones who will be people of Paradise, as people of Paradise andthe people of the Fire are not equal. For instance the Qurnstates: O you who believe! Be conscience of Allah, and letevery soul be mindful of (carefully plan) what (provision) has he

26. See, the Qurn 12: 47. See also, the Qur

n 4849.

27. See, the Qurn 12: 4346 and 5057.

28. See, the Qurn 12: 58100.

29. See, the Qurn 12: 6368.


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sent forth for the morrow. Yea, Be conscience of Allah: forAllah is well-acquainted with (all) that you do. And be you not

like those who forgot Allah; and He made them forget their ownsouls! Such are the rebellious transgressors! Not equal are theCompanions of the Fire and the Companions of the Garden: it isthe Companions of the Garden, that will achieve Felicity.30

2. The Qurn teaches people the basics of healthy and sustainablefinancial planning by advising them: i) not to obliterate thewealth/property which Allah has made a means of support forthem by giving it in the custody of immature or feeble minded,31or by squandering spendings, 32 or by rib-bearing (usurious)transactions;33 ii) to keep the money in circulation in productivetrading;34 iii) to gain wealth through fair trading and other just

means by taking or sharing risk35 or providing services;36 iv) notto acquire wealth through theft, robbery, rib, maysir(gambling), unfair deceitful trading and other unjust means byshifting risk to others, transgression, lying or deception;37 v) tobe careful and moderate in spending.38

3. The Qurn advises people with a practical plan for healthy andsustained economic relationships and doubt-free safe economictransactions by asking them that when you deal with each otherin transactions involving future obligations, whether it be smallor big, reduce them to faithfully accurate writing under

supervision of witnesses, and it should be for a fixed period. TheQurn emphasizes that this method is more suitable as evidenceand to prevent doubts.39

30. See, the Qurn 59: 1820.




34. See, the Qurn 2: 275; 4: 29.

35. See, the Qurn 2: 275; 4: 29.

36. See, the Qurn 28: 26.37. See, the Qurn 2: 275278; 3: 120; 4: 161; 39: 30.

38. See, the Qurn 17: 2627, 29.

39. See, the Qurn 2: 282283.


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4. The Qurn advises people with practical plan for safeguarding thepolitical independence of the Islamic State. They are ordained by

the Creator Allah to acquire and keep ready the necessaryresources of war related material such as animals, weapons andtraining, as it will dismay and keep off the enemy.40

Once we examine the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace be o him) we seethat the Prophet (peace be o him) also employed two methods toteach humans to plan their affairs: firstly, by planning his own affairsas the role model for the ummah and secondly, by asking people, invarious matters of this as well as the next life, to plan their affairs.

The first notion in the Sunnah can be seen in the fact that the Prophet(peace be on him) planed various military expeditions after

establishment of an Islamic state in Madnah. Foremost among thefeatures of his war planning was that he would manage theinformation carefully ensuring the secrecy to take the adversary bysurprise.41 Thus, many a times even those among his companionswho were very near to him would not know about the exactdestination.42 Sometimes, he would avoid the general route towardsthe destination and take a different route.43 These measures played a


41 . For example, he ordered to capture a woman carrying a letter to Makkah containing the

information that Muslims were getting ready for a massive retaliation campaign against the Makkans fortheir breach ofudaybiyyah peace treaty. See, Lings, Muhammad, pp. 292293 and 291; Haykal, TheLife of Muammad, pp. 399400 and 396397.

42. Ab Dwd Sulaymn b. al-Ashath al-Sijistn, Sunan Ab Dwd, Kitb al-Jihd, Bb al-Makr f l-arb. For example, when the Muslim army was marching towards Makkah, many of them were notsure about the intended destination. While this was generally the practice of the Prophet (peace be onhim), at times due to some other considerations he would make the destination clear. For instance, inthe case of Tabk expedition he declared in explicit terms the intended destination as well as thepossibility of a direct encounter with the Byzantine forces led by the Emperor himself. This proved to

be a tough test for the hypocrites and they were exposed as they preferred not to participate in thisexpedition. The Qurn discusses this event at length in Srah al-Tawbah.

43. For instance, while on his way to Makkah with his companions to perform umrah in the sacred

month in year 5 AH, he got the news that the Makkans had dispatched troops to stop them fromperforming umrah, he left the general route and proceeded to Makkah adopting a different route. TheMakkans were taken by surprise when they came to know that the Prophet (peace be on him) hadreached udaybiyyah at the outskirts of Makkah, while the Makkan forces had gone a long way on thegeneral route. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, pp. 134-135; Lings, Muhammad, p. 248.


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vital role in achieving the arch objective of his war policy of avoidingor at least minimizing the bloodshed saving maximum lives possible

providing them opportunity to choose submission to none but theCreator Allah in all affairs.44 In pursuit of the same policy he alwayswas found willing and eager to strike peace treaties though for time

being apparently they seemed more favourable to the other party.45

The planning actions of the Prophet (peace be on him) also includedcollection of food stuff, transportation and war trained animals, andvarious kinds of necessary weaponry besides administration ofinformation and taking security measures. For example, he collectedthe necessities before advancing towards Tabk.46 Digging a trenchat the outskirts of the city was the part of the grand plan drawn in

consultation with the companions to safe guard Madnah from Alliedforces of the Arab and Jewish tribes.47 Allah approved the plan made

by the Prophet (peace be upon him) and his companions about the

44. For example, in the case of udaybiyyah expedition described in the above note at that criticaljuncture, he could have opted to takeover Makkah but he was sure that it would result in greatbloodshed. Then, there was every possibility that many among the Makkans who had secretly embracedIslam would be killed in war. See, the Qurn 48: 22-26. Furthermore, there might have been a violentreaction from other Arab tribes who would be added by the Jews of Khaybar. Therefore, instead oftrying to enter Makkah, he stayed back at udaybiyyah and proposed to hold talks with the Makkans.He accepted almost every condition of the Makkans for negotiating peace. Finally, it was agreed upon

that Muslims would not perform umrah that year and that they would have the right to do so thefollowing year. This condition annoyed many Muslims, but the Prophet accepted it as it suited well tothe arch objective of his policy plans as the Makkans were agreeing on putting an end to war for tenyears. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, p. 140-141; Lings, Muhammad, p. 253.

45. For example, the Treaty of udaybiyyah for the time being apparently seemed to be morefavourable to the Makkans though it later proved to be a great success for Muslims. The illustriousanaf jurist Ab Bakr Muammad b. Ab Sahl al-Sarakhs said that the foremost benefit of this treatywas that it broke the alliance of the pagans of Makkah with the Jews of Khaybar. The Prophet (peace beon him) immediately turned to Khaybar which was swiftly taken over because the Makkans could notcome to the rescue of Khaybar. Three years later, when the Makkans violated the Treaty ofudaybiyyah and the Prophet marched towards Makkah, the Jews were not there to support theMakkans. See, Ab Bakr Muammad b. Ab Sahl al-Sarakhs, al-Mabs (Cairo: Dr al-Fikr, 1970), vol.10, p. 86. Moreover, during these three years a great number of inhabitants of Makkah and other Arab

tribes had embraced Islam. These included, inter alia, some great military commanders like Khlid b.al-Wald and Amr b. al-. Hence, it facilitated peaceful takeover of Makkah without any bloodshed.

46. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, p. 236.

47. See, ibid., vol. 2, pp. 106109.


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prisoners of Badr.48 Before the Battle of Badr, the Muslim armyestablished its camp near the big water wells, a key source of survival

and a pivotal element of psychological warfare.49 Prophet (peace beupon him) also well planned his migration journey to reach Yathrib.His migration plan was foolproof and achieved its objective as wewill see below.

Some examples of the Prophet (peace be on him) instructingMuslims to plan their matters can be seen, for instance, in thefollowing injunctions:

1. Planning for the life hereafter is the fundamental belief andthe trigger for action, which shows how central is thenotion of planning in Islamic framework. The Prophet

(peace be on him) often motivated the companions to planand prepare for life after death.50

2. Family is a very crucial basic unit in an Islamic society. Ahappy healthy Islamic family unit contributes to theformation of a healthy, progressive and prosperous Islamicsociety and the state. Therefore, the Prophet (peace be onhim) gave clear injunctions which motivate a Muslim toplan for securing and sustaining such a family life.51

48. The Prophet (peace be on him) planed to benefit from those prisoners of Badr who knew readingand writing in having his companions to learn reading and writing. So he made teaching ten persons

how to read and write as one of the forms of ransom for the release of prisoner of Badr. See, ibid., vol.2, p. 28; Amad b. anbal, Musnad Amad, vol. 1, p. 247; Ibn Sad, abqt, p. 14.

49. See, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 2, p. 14.

50. Shaddd ibn Aws reported that the Prophet (peace be on him) said: Wise is the one who controlsand masters his/her self and conduct his/her actions taking into consideration what is after death andFoolish is the one who follows his desires and builds the hopes upon Allah. See, Ab s Muammad

b. s al-Tirmidh, Sunan al-Tirmidh, Kitb ifat al-Qiymah wa l-Raqiq wa l-War an Rasl Allh,Bb 25; Ab Abd Allh Muammad b. Yazd al-Qizwn, Sunan Ibn Mjah, Kitb al-Zuhd, Bb Dhikr al-Mawt wa l-Istiddi lah; Amad b. anbal, Musnad Amad, Kitb Awwal Musnad al-Madaniyyn, Bbadith Shaddd b. Aws.

51. The Prophet (peace be on him) further asked the Muslims to choose [carefully] the spouses toplace the semen so marry the compatibles. See, Muammad b. Yazd al-Qizwn, Sunan Ibn Majah.

Kitb al-Nik

, B

b al-Akf

; Ab

Bak A

mad b. al-

usayn b. Al

al-Bayhaq

, al-Sunan al-Kubr

, Kit

bal-Nik, Bb Itibr al-Kafah. In another report the Prophet (peace be on him) asked the Muslims to

choose [carefully] the spouses and not to place their semen except with the compatibles by marrying thecompatibles. See, Ab l-asan Al b. Umar al-Draqun, Sunan al-Draqun, Kitb al-Nik. Inanother report the Prophet (peace be on him) asked the Muslims to choose the spouses to place the


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The above discussion clearly shows how central is the notion ofplanning in Islamic framework.

The Context ofHijrah Expedition

The expedition ofHijrah to Yathrib was the most significant event inhis mission and in the history of Islam since it marked beginning of anew phase in his prophetic carrier with the inception of the Islamicstate at the dawn of the modern era of information.

It is worth noting that Hijrah expedition to Yathrib was different inmany aspects from two earlier events of Hijrah to abashah(Abyssinia). When Muslims were persecuted in Makkah, some ofthem sought refuge in abashah, apparently at the instance of the

Prophet (peace be on him)52 because the Nazarene ruler ofabashahwas expected to give shelter to Muslims. 53 The Hijrah to Madnah

semen because women give birth to children resembling to their brothers and sisters, so marry thecompatibles. See, Ab Nam Amad b. Abd Allh al-Ibahn, Marifat al-abah, Kitb MusnadAdth al-Nis al-Musammayt min hunn wa l-Mukanniyt, Bb ishah al-iddqah bint al-iddq.The Prophet (peace be on him) described that a women are sought for marriage for four things: for herproperty; for her lineage; for her beauty; and for her way of life, and asked Muslims to choose thespouses on the basis of their way of life. See, Muammad b. Isml al-Bukhr, a al-Bukhr, Kitbal-Nikh, Bb al-Akf fl-Dn. The Prophet (peace be on him) has further given instruction as how totreat and deal with spouses, children, parents, relatives in different situations. See books ofadth,

Chapters on the Marriage, Divorce, Rights of the Parents, Upbringing of Children, and Relations withthe relatives.

52. Lings, Muhammad, pp. 81-85.

53. The Qurn calls Nar to the followers of Prophet s [Jesus] (peace be on him), but at two placesit refers to a group of Christians in these words, those who call themselves Nar. The Qurn 5: 14and 5: 82. According to scholars of the Qurn, this refers to the ruler ofabashah and his companions.See, Ab Jafar Muammad b. Jarr al-abar,Jmi al-Bayn (Cairo: Mabaah Muaf al-Bb, 1954),vol. 7, p. 2. Who else called themselves Nar? It has been recorded in Acts of the Apostles that thedisciples of Jesus were called Nazarenes (Acts 24: 5) and it was Saint Paul who preferred the titleChristians for his followers (Acts 11: 26). As opposed to the Christians, the Nazarenes were strictobservers of the Law (the Torah). The Biblical sources suggest that the title Nazarenes was a referenceto the village Nazareth where Jesus was born. See, The GospelAccording to Matthew 2: 23. The Qurn

hints that this title also had a reference to the fact that the disciples of Jesus accepted his call and offeredhim their support (nurah). See, the Qurn 3: 52 and 61: 14. The ruler of abashah, thus, did notbelieve in the Trinitarian dogma. This might further explain his friendly attitude towards Muslims.Muslim sources also testify that he embraced Islam. See, Muammad b. Isml al-Bukhr, a al-Bukhr, Kitb al-Manqib, Bb Mawt al-Najsh.


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was not for the purpose of seeking refuge, but for the purpose ofestablishing an Islamic state in that territory.

The Qurn points out that Allah the Almighty always sent HisMessengers in the major cities to address the ruling elites first,54 tore-establish the rligio-socio-political order based on submission tonone but the Creator in all individual as well as collective affairs55 orin other words based on absolute justice.56 In the same pattern, theProphet (peace be on him) was raised among the ruling tribe ofMakkah which was the largest city as well as the cultural, businessand religious centre of Arabia. After ten years of continuousstruggle, when the ruling elite of Makkah did not accept the call ofIslam, he turned to if, the second largest city of the Arabian

Peninsula housing the second biggest shrine after Kabah. Theresponse of the ruling elite and commoners ofif was, to say theleast, disappointing.57 This left him searching for an alternate placefor initiation of a rligio-socio-political order based on submission tonone but the Creator in all individual as well as collective affairs.

Every year during the hajj (pilgrimage) season, people from everycorner of the Arabian Peninsula would gather in and around Makkah.The Prophet (peace be on him) deemed it an opportunity to meetwith the influential elite of the various tribes.58 He got a positiveresponse, in the 11th year of his prophethood, from six men from

the tribal elite of Kazraj from Yathrib, all of whom accepted Islam.However, being aware of the tribal feuds there, particularly betweenthe two main tribes of Aws and Khazraj, the Prophet (peace be onhim) shared with these six noble men the wish and hope ofreconciliation between the two tribes through the message ofsubmission to none but the Creator in all affairs. The six menpropagated the message in Yathrib with all enthusiasm and during

54. See, the Qurn 28: 59. See for a detailed analysis of this issue: Amn Asan Il, Dawat-i-Dn aurUs karq-i-Kr(Lahore: Frn Foundation, 1999), pp. 48-65.



57. Lings, Muhammad, pp. 96-100.

58. Ibid., pp. 105-107.


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the next hajj season twelve men belonging to both tribes of Yathribgave pledge allegiance to the Prophet (peace be on him), and hence,

he won the support from the elite of both the tribes.59 He then senthis envoy with them to convey the message of Islam to commonmasses there. 60 After only one year of rigorous efforts of theProphets envoy with the help of the elite of the two tribes broughttremendous positive response from the masses as well and thereremained almost no home where Islam has not entered. The nexthajj season brought seventy two men and nineteen women to meetto the Prophet (peace be on him) and ask him to migrate to their citystate to head and lead the religio-socio-political order of the citystate on the basis of submission to none but the Creator in all affairs.

The Prophet (peace be on him) took pledge of allegiance from theleaders of the two tribes for the same.61 Now once it was settled thatYathrib had won the honour to be the hub of his prophetic mission tothe mankind the Prophet (peace be on him) allowed his companionsin Makkah to migrate to Yathrib. Soon the Muslim individuals andfamilies most of them departed Makkah little by little. However, theProphet (peace be on him) held himself back but all prepared toleave, waiting for the divine command. Once he received the Divinecommand he swiftly put his solid plan into execution.

Hijrah as an Organizational Activity

Let us now turn to examine Hijrah as an organizational level activity.Although the Prophet (peace be on him) had planned and executed alarge number of campaigns, nevertheless, planning for the Hijrahexpedition to Yathrib was the most significant event in his mission.As explained above Hijrah of the Prophet (peace be on him) marked

beginning of a new phase in his prophetic carrier with inception ofthe Islamic state at the dawn of the modern era of information. Hisgoal in the Hijrah plan was to leave Makkah peacefully and to reach

59. See for details, Numn, Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 1, pp. 233-235.60. See, ibid., vol. 1, p. 235.

61. See, ibid. vol. 1, pp. 235-237. See also: Muhammad Hamidullah, The Life and Work of the Prophet ofIslam (Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1998), pp. 115-128.


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Yathrib safely. He gathered resources and assigned responsibilities todifferent personnel to achieve this goal: seven personnel were

involved in the venture; two camels were hired for transport and ittook about two weeks to complete the journey (see Table 1 below).

C.L. Bovee, et al. define organization as a group of two or morepeople who work together in a consciously structured setting toachieve group goals. 62 According to them there are two keyconcepts in the formation of an organization: a deliberate structureand group goals. Once we analyse Hijrah expedition there wereinitially seven persons (see Table 1 below) involved in this venture,however, when the Prophet (peace be on him) left the cave it wasreduced to three persons venture: the Prophet (peace be on him),

Ab Bakr [Abd Allh b. Ab Qufah (d. 13/634)] and the guide.This group or team was organized (structured) in a systematicmanner. The Prophet (peace be on him) was the leader, Ab Bakrwas the deputy leader and other participants were subordinates.Secondly the team had a common goal i.e. safe arrival of the Prophet(peace be on him) in Yathrb. 63 The goal of other participants(number 36 in Table 1) was to help the Prophet (peace be on him)to leave Makkah safely. This shows that there was a structured ororganised group with implicit or explicit responsibilities and theteam had a defined goal. Table 1 below shows list of responsibilities:

Table 1: Personnel and their functions64

S.No. Name Responsibility

1 The Prophet (peace be on him) Head of the venture

2 Ab Bakr Deputy

3 Al b. Ablib Representative

4 Abd Allh (Son of Ab Bakr) Information officer

62. Bovee, et al., Management, p. 7.

63. For a detailed description of Hijrah expedition, see Lings, Muhammad, pp. 118124; Numn,Sirat-un-Nabi, vol. 1, pp. 239250; Haykal, The Life of Muammad, pp. 163172 and Siddiqui, The Life ofMuhammad, pp. 147167.

64. Compiled from, Lings, Muhammad, pp. 118124.


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5 mir b. Fuhayrah (the shepherd) Removing the foot prints on thetrack to cave Thawr

6 Asm (Daughter of Ab Bakr) Supply Chain Manager (FoodSupplier)

7 Bedouin Scout/guide

In addition, the Prophet (peace be on him) was not working forhimself rather his endeavours were devoted for the education,training and development of mankind in a way that they may achievesuccess in this world as well as in the hereafter. Moreover, he didnot migrate alone; he migrated in a group. To form the group, heleft his residence and went to Ab Bakrs house in a conscience

effort to form the team to accomplish the job. He had informed AbBakr, in advance, to get ready for this journey. Informing Ab Bakrwas the part of the Hijrah plan since plan means deciding action(s) inadvance. The Prophet (peace be on him) had also asked commonMuslims to migrate from Makkah to Yathrib65 because he had a planto migrate himself later on.

The team of two friends, the Prophet (peace be on him) and AbBakr made a second unique decision when they chose to approachthe cave Thawr, towards the south on the way to the Yemen, insteadof north, the usual way to Yathrib, to keep the enemy in surprise and

make them out of reach of a possible search. The team could havewalked straight away towards Yathrib; however, they stayed threedays in the cave, to ensure the safety and to evade evil pursuit ofMakkans. The Makkans after three days of rigorous search came to

believe that one way or the other Muammad (peace be on him) andAb Bakr had gone out of their reach and their hopes to capturethem dwindled and it was cautiously reported to the Prophet (peace

be on him) by Abd Allh b. Ab Bakr (d. 11/632) who was deputedto gather news of actions and plans of Quraysh.

He used to deliver information about the news and circumstances in

the city to the Prophet (peace be on him) daily after the sunset. To

65. See, Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 152153.


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make the communication secrete, the information officer, wasfollowed by the herd of sheep of mir b. Fuhayrah (d. 4/625). His

journey to and from the cave Thawr was so natural with nopossibility of giving any clue about the presence of the noble teamthere. The story has been put concisely by Nadvi:

Sayyidin Ab Bakr directed his son Sayyidn Abd Allh that everyincident which took place in Makkah must be reported to him at nightand also told his [freed] slave mir b. Fuhayrah that he should keepthe sheep for grazing in the vicinity of Makkah and then bring the flocknear the cave of Thawr. In this way the foot steps of Abd All h wereblotted out and no one could suspect their hide out.66

Meanwhile Asm bint Ab Bakr (d. 73/692) was responsible todeliver food on the daily basis. She visited the destination with Abd

Allh, her brother and information officer of the expedition. Heractions were also foolproof since she travelled with Abd Allh thatruled out any special deputation towards the cave Thawr. She thusmanaged the supply chain proficiently as no one could find any clueof existence of the noble team in the vicinity of Makkah. Themanagement of the supply chain was a unique venture since it didnot need weapons to reinforce the army rather it required the supplyof food at limited scale but secrecy was the most important elementwhich she successfully managed.

mir b. Fuhayrah, the shepherd, also looked after the herd in a

manner acceptable by the Prophet (peace be on him) and coincidedwith the demand of the time. His purpose was to spoil the footprintsof travellers to and from the cave. He grazed the sheep without anyindication that the Prophet (peace be on him) is hiding nearby andthat he had been deputed to undo the footprints of Abd Allh andAsm. It suggests that all the persons involved had been workingcohesively as a team in order to achieve the common goal.

Evaluation ofHijrah Plan with a Contemporary Model

Weihrich and Koontzs model includes: being aware of

opportunities, setting objectives or goals, considering planning

66 . See, Mawlav Mun al-Dn Nadv, Khulaf-i Rshidn (Aamgadh: Dr al-Muannifn,1364/1925), p. 9.


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premises, identifying alternatives, comparing them in light of goals,choosing one of them for action, formulating supporting plans, and

quantifying plans by making budgets.67 Evaluation of the Hijrah planwith this model would demonstrate that the current managementpractices had been in use since centuries and were also applied by theProphet (peace be upon him), but were not studied from this angle.

Awareness of Opportunities

The first step in Weihrich and Koontzs model is to dig out newopportunities in the market such as expansion of operations in theexisting or new markets. Contrary to the opportunities, sometimesone has to reposition oneself in the face of threats posed by the

competitors or environment. For example, Netscape was a marketleader with 96% share in 1996 in the Internet browsing software,

but was threatened by the Microsoft (MS) when it introduced theInternet Explorer. Netscape had to reposition itself (since it couldhold only 1% of the market share in 2007)68 and MS had captured alion share of the market, 79% in 2007.69 Similarly the needs andwants of customers are changing which create new opportunities formanagers and planners, for which they have to be vigilant, forexample, Vodafone, UK, had to reintroduce black and white LCDhandsets when market survey showed a significant demand for them.

The idea of Hijrah (migration) was initiated when in the wake ofQurayshs continuous stern opposition of the message of Islam andthe ever increasing severe persecution of the believers, the Prophet(peace be on him) started searching for an alternate territory forinitiation of the rligio-socio-political order based on submission tonone but the Creator in all individual as well as collective affairs. Thesecond stimulus for migration came from the invitation of the Peopleof Yathrib to the Prophet (peace be on him) and Muslims to migrateto Yathrib to establish such a rligio-socio-political order in their citystate. The third impel for migration came from the Prophets


68. See, Clickz, , (2007), p. 1.

69. Ibid.


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acceptance of this invitation with the permission of Allah. The finalpush for Hijrah came from allowing the Muslims, with the will of

Allah, to migrate from Makkah, individually or in groups, toYathrib. The Prophet (peace be on him) himself, however, did notleave Makkah but waited for the Divine command in this regard.Meanwhile, in anticipation of receiving the Divine command to leavefor Yathrib he and Ab Bakr planned for the expedition someticulously that the Prophet (peace be on him) was able toconfidentially put his plan into execution with full secrecy as soon ashe received the Divine command that he should leave for Yathrib thesame night.70

In business terms, the invitation from Muslims of Yathrib can be

analogous to the Weihrich and Knootzs concept of what thecustomer want in the realm of opportunities. 71 The Muslims ofYathrib realizing the obligations of their faith, visualizing theuniversal scope of the mission of the last and the final Prophet andMessenger of Allah (peace be on him) and knowing the rewards ofhelping and serving him in his prophetic mission wanted to fulfiltheir obligations, support, serve and help the Prophet (peace be onhim) in his mission seeking the rewards that it entails in the form ofsuccess in this world as well as in the hereafter. Their future actionsproved them to be true in their intentions and promise. The Prophet

(peace be on him) also praised their services when he chose to staywith them and declared Madnah to be his homeland instead of his

birthplace even after Makkah fell into his lap. The people of Madnahbecame the nucleus of spreading the message of Islam all over theworld and the city state of Madnah became the base station of it. In

business terms Madnah turned out to be the global headquarter ofthe message of Islam from where the message (the product) wasmarketed at large scale in four corners of the world. It had beendeveloped as a centre of production (the house of most of therevelation), distribution, and propagation of the sacred product in

various markets of the globe. Madnah drew into a silicon valley of

70. See, ibid., 154155.

71. Weihrich and Koontz, Management, p. 104.


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Islam for rest of the time. The customer, the Muslims of Mad nah,demanded the right product at the right time. And the Hijrah plan

was instrumental in converting Yathrib into Madnat al-Nab or al-Madnah al-Munawwarah, global hub of the light of Islam dispensingit to the whole world dispelling the darkness ofjhiliyyah day by day.

Setting Objectives

The second step in Weihrich and Knootz model is setting theobjectives for the entire organization as well as each of its subunits.Objectives specify the expected results; indicate the end points to bearrived at, the focus area and what deliverable is to beaccomplished. 72 Research shows setting objectives increases

performance.73

Given that the objectives for the entire Hijrahexpedition as well as each of its episodes/steps were set clearly bythe Prophet (peace be on him) in consultation with the otherparticipants wherever consultation was necessary. In thecontemporary language as Robin and DeCenzo argue the objectivesare decomposed into divisional, departmental and cost centrelevels.74 The Prophet (peace be on him) had divided the overallobjective into many sub-goals. The grand objective was to safelyreach Yathrib as it was all ready to become the hub for fulfilment ofthe prophetic mission. The journey had been divided into three

stages (sub-objectives): leaving Makkah and reaching the caveThawr, staying in the cave until proceeding to Yathrib becomes safe,and setting out for final destination. The Prophet (peace be on him)set these three sub-objectives carefully and accomplish themsuccessfully. He reached the cave with Ab Bakr secretly and stayedin the cave three days until the enemy perceived that somehow theteam had gone out of their reach as it was reported to the Prophet(peace be on him) by his information officer Abd Allh b. Ab Bakr

72. See, ibid., p. 8 and 105.

73. See, E.A. Locke, E. A. Towards a theory of task motivation and incentives, OrganisationalBehaviour and Human Performance, vol. 3 (1968), pp. 15789.

74. See, S.P. Robins, and D. A. DeCenzo, Fundamental of Management (New Jersey: Pearson EducationInternational, 2005), p. 95.


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that most of the searchers had given up their efforts to catch themigrants. Finally, the team left the cave and set out for the final

destination carefully adopting an unusual route. The objective ofreaching Yathrib safely was thus achieved successfully.

Considering Planning Premises

According to Weihrich and Knootz planning premises areassumptions about the environment in which the plan is to becarried out,75 such as markets, sales volume, prices, cost, technicaldevelopments and political and social environment.76 The last twoare directly applicable in the context of the Hijrah plan. The socio-political and security conditions were such that the hostile

adversaries were trying their utmost to take the life of the Prophet(peace be on him) and to fail the plan. It seems similar to a situationthat when a new player enters into a business; existing and theestablished organizations try to kill it. They do so by launching aprice war, hostile promotion campaign and exploitation of newcomers weaknesses.

The people of Makkah viewed Muhammad (peace be on him) athreat to their religion (their business, in terms of management),culture, life style and the political system. They tried many strategiesagainst the Prophet (peace be on him) and his followers to stop them

from spreading the word of Islam (i.e. the message of submission tonone but the Creator Allah in all affairs). They applied thepsychological tactics, false propaganda, monetary restrictions andincentives, and physical torture to name a few, in order to keeppeople away from the message of Islam but none of their efforts

became successful in the marketplace, i.e. to stop people fromentering into the fold of Islam. Making the Hijrah plan fail and totake the life of the Prophet (peace be on him) was their last resort toprotect their religion, customs and the way of life, an out of dateproduct. The Makkans were trying to keep their out of date

product in the market by virtually destroying the proponent of a


76. See, ibid. pp.105106.


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better product that was getting popular in the indigenous as well asin the international markets. Putting the Prophet (peace be on him)

under the sword was the best solution that could end the campaignagainst their organization/way of life.

The Prophet (peace be on him)s premises of the plan were that thesuccess of the Hijrah plan will ensure the security of his life as well as

beginning of a new phase in the fulfilment of his prophetic missionand vice versa. Allah had a similar plan i.e. to protect the Prophet(peace be on him) by making the Hijrah plan successful so thatcompetitors could be defeated and His (Allahs) gifted product (thepurified message of Islam and updated version of Sharah in theshape of the Qurn and Sunnah) could prevail in the world.

The Prophet (peace be on him)s assumptions were based on thepremise that the external environment was extremely hostile to theplan especially the security situation was so risky that the migrantscould lose their lives during the implementation process. TheProphet (peace be on him) had a firm belief in the success of theplan. He handed over all the safe keepings of the people to Al andadvised him to return them to their owners and than reach toYathrib. He also encouraged Ab Bakr in the cave when he wasworried about the possibility of entrance of enemy inside the cave;do not worry Allah is with us.77

Determining Alternative Courses

Weihrich and Knootz say the fourth step in planning is to search andexamine alternative courses of action, especially those notimmediately apparent.78 It is the job of a planner to identify what isthe most promising alternative to accomplishing the objectives.79Prudent managers search economically viable, manageable andprofitable alternatives. Rationality plays a vital role in searching andselecting them. However, sometimes the given socio-political

77. The Qurn 9: 40. See for details, Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 157158.

78. Weihrich and Knootz, Management, p. 105.

79. Ibid., p.104.


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environment may put the apparently rational option at the back andthe intricate reasoning may take the lead. At times availability of

crucial information may lead to refine and revise the rationaldecisions and assumptions made prior to planning.

The Prophet (peace be on him) had two possible alternatives:(i) leave Makkah and travel towards Yathrib straight away and(ii) leave the city and stay at a nearby destination or hiding place,wait until a possible search dies out, and then start the journeytowards Yathrib. Prose and cons of both options are discussed in thenext step.

Comparing Alternatives

The fifth step in Weihrich and Knootzs model involves examiningweak and strong points of each alternative and weighing them inlight of premises and goals. Cash outlay, risk, profitability andpayback period are common criteria for evaluation of alternatives.80Cash outlay was not a big deal as detailed above, profitability andpayback period were not applicable since the organization wasoperating as not-for-profit basis. Security risk (security of thepersonnel) was the key factor in comparing the alternatives. Thesecond option was more secure than the first one as shown later on.

The journey required about two weeks time and the team was ridingon the slow moving camels due to the nature of the track andprobably due to the weather conditions. The first alternative couldnot offer the security because leaving straightaway to Yathrib meansall the warriors who besieged the residence of the Prophet (peace beon him) could follow them. The enemy was riding on the horseswhich were faster than the camels, thus there was a possibility ofencounter with the enemy. The encounter could turn into a fight;the Prophet (peace be on him) intended to avoid it.

Since the primary concern was to avoid an encounter with the

enemy, the second alternative was promising maximum probabilityof it. There was a good chance of encounter had the migrants

80. See, ibid., p. 106.


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travelled towards Yathrib straight away. Staying in the cave reducedthis possibility. The cave Thawr was chosen because the cave ir,

the other available cave which was the initial place of Prophet (peacebe on him)s worship, was known as such in Makkah. It could be thehot spot for searchers; therefore, the Prophet (peace be on him) didnot prefer it.

Three days in the Thawr enabled the migrants to receive informationabout the movements of Quraysh, their plans etc. The purpose ofthe stay was to wait until the search efforts died out. Thecompetitors had accepted the reality that the Prophet (peace be onhim) had left the city mysteriously and was out of their reach. Thatwas the reason they had given up the search operation.

The number of the searchers is not known but it could be estimatedthat their number was quite large including, inter alia, those whosurrounded the house of the Prophet (peace be on him). They weremotivated religiously as well as economically by the huge prize of100 camels. Given to the huge number of the ones who had gone outfor search there had been many groups besides the individuals. It isreported that a party of five or six men reached the Thawr inpursuits of the two migrants. They stood near the mouth of the cave,assessed the circumstances and then they spoke decisively, all inagreement that there was no need to enter the cave, since no one

could possibly be there.81 This was the help of Allah as He alwayshelped His prophets in the same way. Ibrahm (peace be on him) had

been saved under the flames of fire, Isml (peace be on him) underthe knife blade and Ms (peace be on him) in the palace of Firawn[Pharaoh]. The Prophet Muammad (peace be on him) when sawAb Bakr worried about the safety of the Prophet (peace be on him)due to possible entrance of enemy inside the cave has reminded himof this help, O Ab Bakr what do you think of the two with whomthe third is Allah? The Qurn has also alluded to this importantscene and the help of Allah corresponding it.82

81. See, Lings, Muhammad, pp.118119.

82. The Qurn 9: 40. See for details, Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad, pp. 157158.


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The strategy of delaying the main journey achieved its objectives. Asa result only one searcher (Surqah b. Mlik [d. 24/645]) could

reach the team on the way to Yathrib. Allahs help again saved thetravellers from him.83 The team travelled through an unusual waythat might be another reason for very low level of search.

The second option also coincided with the premise of the plan thatthe security was unsatisfactory and that the team would be followed

by the enemy. Thus it promised the maximum security at variousstages of journey: from home to the cave and from there to Yathrib.

Choosing the Most Promising Alternative

The sixth step in Weihrich and Knootzs model involves choosingthe most promising alternative. The evaluation of the availablealternative options in the previous step has shown that merits of thesecond option were more promising in terms of assumptions andachieving objectives than the first alternative. So the planner (theProphet peace be on him) did not hesitate to choose the better one.

Formulating the Supporting Plans

The seventh step in Weihrich and Knootzs model requiresformulating the supporting plans. The proponents of this planningmodel state that it should include plan for buying necessaryequipment, material, hire and train workers etc. In businessorganizations, a plan may need an additional plant and machinery,delivery vans, computers or other electronic devices and new type ofraw material/components. Existing employees may need new skillsto operate new equipment. Sometimes new employees may be hiredto put the plan into operation. Additional supply of resources may berequired to ensure smooth flow of raw material and components.Supporting plans are prepared for each of these elements.84

83. See, ibid., p. 159160.



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The Prophet (peace be on him) was executing a life saving plan. Heused two camels (the delivery transport), six persons (five of them

were volunteers and only one was hired) and a handful of food stuffto implement the plan. Ab Bakr arranged the animals on theinstruction of the Prophet (peace be upon him) who bought onefrom him. Besides that three supporting plans were made: a plan toremove foot prints of the noble team, a plan to ensure supply of foodin the cave, and a plan to gather and deliver the crucial information.The details of these plans have been discussed earlier in this paper.

Quantifying Plan by Making Budgets

According to Weihrich and Koontz, planning includes capital

expenditure and any other expenses involved.85 In business enter-prises, capital expenditure encompasses acquisition cost of plant andmachinery or anything that increases the earning capacity. These areinstrumental to convert a paper plan into reality i.e. to accomplishsomething, to produce a product or render a service or achieve anobjective.

The Hijrah plan was implemented with the cost of two camels;shared by the migrants, and hiring of a trustworthy expert of thedesert paths as a guide. All other resources and services were

voluntary. It cost the planners few hundred dnrs, the legal tenderof the time. Other important aspects of the plan can not bequantified such as physical difficulties, hardships of the journey, andpossibility of encounter with the enemy. In the given religio-socio-political circumstances these elements were inevitable leaving nopossibility of avoiding them or turning them into figures. Moreover,though all plans are implemented with a motivational spirit this planwas executed with exceptional courage and spiritual power whichdescended upon the noble team from the Divine treasures.

Table 2 provides a summary of application of Weihrich and Koontzsmodel with Hijrah expedition.

85. Ibid.


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Table 2 Application of planning model inHijrah

Element of the model Example from Hijrah

1. Awareness ofopportunities

1. Searching new territory that can become the hubof Islamic way of life;

2. People of Yathrib invited the Prophet (peace beon him);

3. Allah commanded to migrate.

2. Setting the objectives 1. To obey Allah;2. To leave Makkah peacefully;3. To reach Yathirb safely;4. To establish an Islamic State;5. To propagate Islam.

3. Planning premises

(assumptions)

1. The environment was hostile and the securitysituation was risky;

2. Competition was tough, the enemy was trying tofail the plan;

3. Avoid encounter with the enemy.4. Determining the

alternatives1. The first alternative was to leave Makkah and

travel towards for Yathrib straightway;2. The second alternative was to stay in the suburb

of Makkah for few days until a possible searchdies out and than start journey towards Yathrib.

5. Comparing alternatives The second alternative was more promising in termsof assumptions and objectives.

6. Choosing the mostpromising alternative

The second alternative was chosen.

7. Formulating supportingplans

Three supporting plans were drawn and implemented:a) Gathering and delivering of information about

enemy;b) Supply of food;c) Removing foot prints of travellers, information

officer and food supplier.

8. Quantifying plan 1. The Prophet (peace be on him) bought a shecamel on credit for few hundred dnrs (the legaltender of the time).

2. Other services were voluntary exceptsome payment was made to the desert guide.


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Comparison of Traditional Planning with the IslamicApproach

The contemporary planning is based upon experience, statistical dataand requirements of an organization. Alternative courses of actionare chosen rationally or for political reasons. A Muslim managerplans to follow the command of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet(peace be on him).86 Thus, the act of planning in itself is an end

besides being a means to an end. In the contemporary businessmatters, a business manager plans to achieve organizationalobjectives whereas a Muslim manager plans to please Allah as well asto achieve business objectives. Secondly, a Muslim managermeticulously applies rationality, experience and the available

technology in his planning while seeking guidance and help from hisCreator,87 and then leaves its outcome to Allah. It does not meanthat a Muslims belief in destiny (qadr) paralyzes him. Rather, it leadshim to act and plan. A Muslim is under an obligation to use hisreason and to plan. However, he does not solely rely on his skills andpowers. Rather, if he gets the intended results, he is notoverpowered by a sense of pride,88 instead, he thanks his BeneficentCreator for allowing him to achieve the intended results.89 On theother hand, if he does not achieve the intended results, he does notlose heart, but he rigorously reviews his planning premises and the

goals. Along with seeking guidance and help from his Creator, hemakes renewed attempts till all possible alternatives are exhausted. Ifall these efforts fail in bringing the intended results, his belief in the

86. Planning for future is commanded by the Almighty as has been referred to in this paper on pp. 4547 above.

87. The Prophet (peace be on him) also taught his companions a special prayer for this purpose calledalt-al-jah. See, Abs Muammad b. s al-Tirmidh, Sunan al-Tirmidh, Kitb al-alh, Bb M Jfalt al-jah.

88. Qrn took pride in his skills for accumulating extraordinary amount and variety of wealth. TheQurn explicitly declares that this was one of the reasons why the wrath of Allah befell upon him. See,

the Qurn 28: 76-82.

89. The Qurn cites the example of Prophet Sulaymn [Solomon] (peace be on him) to show how abeliever ascribes every success to his Creator and Sustainer and how he thanks Him. See, for instance,the Qurn 27: 40.


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Infallible Wisdom of Creator tells him that it was better for him notto achieve those results. 90 Furthermore, because of his belief in

resurrection and the Day of Judgment, he knows that both theworldly successes as well as failures are of the nature of tests and thatthe ultimate success and failure is to be decided in the hereafter.91This is after he has exhausted all the possible alternatives.

Thirdly, a Muslim manager evaluates alternative courses of action byapplying scientific tools and techniques along with seeking guidancefrom Allah through alt al-Istikhrah, keeping in view thelegitimacy of the alternatives as well as the goals from the Shrahperspective. A Muslim manager can only indulge and strive forlegitimate (all) means, alternatives and goals because he is

forbidden from indulging or strive for illegitimate (arm) means,alternatives and goals. 92

A Muslim manager, thus, does gather resources as ordained by hisCreator and practiced by the Prophet (peace be on him). Havingchosen a legitimate (all) course of action, he trusts in Allah andhopes the goodness from Him leaving the outcome to Him. Thus,there exists a unique relation between a Muslim manager and hisCreator, Sustainer and Cherisher, a rare commodity in the world oftraditional management.

Concluding RemarksThe article traces out the origins of planning in the Islamic literature.The Qurn clearly mentions the concept and value of planning in

90. We earlier referred to the advice of the Prophet Yaqub [Jacob] (peace be on him) to his sons totake measures against the expected evils of others. He tells his sons that they must not think that thesemeasures could save them from what Allah had decided. See, the Qurn 12: 63-68.

91. The Qurn 3: 185-86; 28: 60-61

92. Istikhrah literally means seeking guidance to the right choice. The Prophet (peace be on him)recommended this prayer to his companions in every matter big or small. See, Muammad b. Ismlal-Bukhr, a al-Bukhr, Kitb al-Daawt, Bb al-Du ind al-Istikhrah. The Muslim jurists have

a consensus thatalt al-Istikh

rah cannot be performed for choosing between a lawful and an unlawfuloption. Rather the choice has to be between lawful options. Ifalt al-Istikhrah is performed with the

right intention, the right option becomes clear. It is not necessary that one should see a dream in thisregard. See, for further details, al-Mawsah al-Fiqhiyyah, 45 vols. (Kuwait: Ministry of ReligiousAffairs, 1983), 3: 241-247.


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the human endeavours. It teaches planning by striking the examplesof the Prophets (peace be on them) as well as by giving such

commands. The Prophets were sent primarily to invite mankindtowards submission to none but the Creator Allah (Islam). They wellplanned their missions and chalked out their strategy to achieve thegoal. The last and final Prophet/Messenger (peace be on him) wasno exception. One of his vital projects, the Hijrah, has been studiedhere in the light of modern management principles to demonstratethat the Hijrah plan of the Prophet (peace be on him) to achieve thegoal of leaving Makkah peacefully and reaching Yathrib safelyperfectly conforms to modern scientific planning models. TheProphet (peace be on him) took all the rational steps to achieve his

objectives logically which resulted in establishing an Islamic state inMadnah, and eventually in spreading the message of Islam all overthe world. Thus the term scientific managementthough was floatedin twentieth century the concepts and principles of management andplanning initiated in some form with the inception of humanitywhich kept on developing with the passage of time, due to furtherdivine guidance in the form of revelation to various later prophets(peace be on them) as well as in the form of accumulation of humanexperience. The Prophet Muammad (peace be on him) alsoinvented and executed several modern managerial concepts such asplanning, organizing, leading, controlling, span of control andothers, most of which were applied at macro level (state level).Heset the example so that people can follow it in every walk of life andplan their matter carefully and objectively to achieve theirenvisioned goals. Such planning in no way contradicts the faith andtrust in Allah. Rather, it is the logical and natural result of faith.*

*The authors wish to acknowledge the input of anonymous referees of the Insights for their valuablecomments on an earlier version of this article. The authors also wish to record their debt of gratitude tothe editor Insights for his intriguing questions and editorial suggestions which helped improve thecontent of this paper.

planning in the islamic tradition

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