pitarch_the jaguar and the priest

8/13/2019 Pitarch_the Jaguar and the Priest

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v The Jaguar nd the Priest4 The European Within 7 8

The Magic Mounta in 7 9A Perpetual Fiesta 8 3Castilian Features in the lab 8 6The Ethnic Contrast between H eart and Head a 9Loss of the Senses and Exposing the Hea rt 91

5 Animism as Histpry 9 8Birds of the H eart, Livestock. Me tal Tools 9 9Priests 1 2Scribes and Writi ng 112Cattle Ranchers 116Christian M usic 118The lab Mothers-Fathers and Coffee Cult ivat ion 12Soul History and the Body 121

6. Narrative, Ritual, Silence 1 2 6The Past in Narrat ive 1 2 6Exceptions to Neutrality 132Ritual 135Christian Rituals, Indian S imulation 137Difficulties of Dialogue with the Castilians 143Crosses 147New Religious Identifications 151

7 1 The M irro r in the Saints 155The Body o f the Saints 1 5 7Saints in N arrative 1 6 2Images of O rigins in the M irro r 165

8 A Case of Healing: Text and Ritual 1 6 8The Ceremony 169The Text 176Commentary 1 9 3

Conclusion: The Fold 2 2Person, History, and Mem ory , 2 5The Counterpoint between th'e Indigenous andthe European 2 7

Appendix: n O u t l i l ~ c f Tze l tn l Souls 213Notes 215Glossary 231Bibliography 233


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ForewordR Y \ \ , i GNE R

For nlost peoples, ever ythin g tllat matters-tl~e .character of personthat we oftell confuse witli personalir): rhc al~tici pnro ry ntelligence thntis necessary for all meaningful forms of innovarion, rhe energies thatbind us to th e people and places we lovc-is joined tog cthc r in this \vordtllnt w call rlir "soul." It is the soul that gets to decide whether thrreis a Go d or not, and generally, like thing s in this mirror-reflectionuniverse, this is reciprocated. M ore tl)an rhat, for the Tzeltal people ofC:a~icuc, t gers to decidc just bo u rhis happens and ;uhy Perhaps theseother\r.isc obscure people of the h4csican highla~ids ave jnsr T C ~ J C ~ I J -Bend some thing that the Old bVurld pcoplcs have long forg otten , \vI~ichis that n,itliout the ilmnm the acute holographic ~r~te~uity ,hat unfoldsaround eecry significan t lesson, rhr lcsson itself is wortldess. Th is isbook o f just such significant lessons and the d ra~ tia hnt follows uponthem as tlie tliu~ ide r ncompasses the lighuning, \\~i tho utrhicIi it \\pouldl~ av e o \voice.

in :istonisIiing ]lum ber of cor re sp on dc ~s rs xist bctwcen h,lesicnnideas of the soul nnd the one s found aniotlg the pcoples of interior NewGoinc ;i arid \h orisinal :\usrmlia. i\cc ordi ng ro JcITrey C l ; ~ r k ,he \T'irupcol~ le f the S outh ern I-Iighlands Province of Papu:i N e w Goinen speakof the pbjri r i r i hody of a person as the "picture-soul" of rllat licrsoli.l ' h is is an c. r : icr l i j iur~-~roundeversal of tlic w y in rvliicl~Europeanlicol>les 11:ii.e ~r:tditionall ; appro ach ed t he rc lnrioll 11rr \\.rcn .olition sn< l~il~ysic,llity,houg11 t does rcsemble Plato's "c;lve" analogy. It io\.crts thesc11se :irirl in ~a gc ry f ~ P ~ Xtsclf.

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CHAPTERIntroduction

hat Are the Souls??'he Tzeltal people of Cl ~i ap ,s,Mexico, claim that human bcings llolda 1:eterogeneous com binr t ion of souls in the hear t , f rom a minimum offour to masimurn of sixteen. One of these souls, knotvn as c b n l c l , takesth e form of a huma n body; it resides in the beart a nd, as a doublc, alsol ives in s idc a m oun ta in where , together ~ i t hhe res t of the souls f romth e snme lineage, it fornls a society parallel to tha t of humans. I n con-tmst, other souls cnllcd b have a nonhum an form. Th cp map bc ani-mals of any species, such as hurumidgbirds, bu tterflies, aguars, rodents,or creatures of rile r iv er , o r a t ~ n o s ~ l l & i chenomena like ligh tnin g bolts,wirals , or rainboxs ; others are spir i ts of Europea~~ppearance, such nsCntholic priests, Castilian scribes, scl~oolteacliers, r evangelical inusi-cians. I-Iu~nan eings may have up to thirte en of these beings.

Nct,crtheless, although in appearance thesesouls enlbody beings thatfor the most port may be found in the ordinary natural world, in real-ity they are oth er beings; they are no t of this world but come fro111 heot11er side. Some come from I~eaven nd enter th e embryo at rhc rno-lner l t ofconception; othcrs are tmnmiit ted to the fetus by ;L relativc from

the generat ion of the grandparents at the t ime of their de~thin otherwords, they co11:e from death. Th is other side represents n existencethat is different from that o f our ord inary world. \Ire could call this slatesacred, .IS ~rr ldcrs tood o mean that \vhicl~ s tl ~e ther. 111 he TLCII I

Inngu:lge, this stnte is know n as c l ~ n 1 r rD i i lc l , the sarnc \r,ords that areused to clesign:~tc he souls, a state that is th e opposite o f the / i n i n l n lst::te, thc everyllnp plane o existcl:ce. T h e T~.cl~:zloslnos cxn 11e di-


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The Jaguar and the riestEdu nrd o \'ireirns rle Cn stro (1998) denls wit11 th e auc stion o f rlie I I : I ~

umlizarion of cultu re and tlie culturalizntion of nature ill a par t icul:~r lylocid contribution ro th e held of Anierit~dinli tudies. If the Europe ans,observe s \'ir,ciros dc Cilst ro, lrnve I ~n~l l t i cu l tu r a l i s tc~sr~rologyasedon the concept of the unity of nature and the plural i ty of cultures , theArnerindinns, in con trast, have "multinaturalist" cos~n olog ies nsed on'tlie idea of spiritual unit); an4 bod ily diversity. T h e first "postulates :Iphysical continuity and ;I metaphysical discontinuity" between 11u111nnsa l ~ d ll other living beings: tbe body in tegrates naturnl beings into on ec :~ tegory ; he s ou l o r the s ~ i r i t or the iilind) js \ i I~al iffe rcnr intc : 11sf ro m o t l ~ c r i v i ~ ~ geings, the ot l ler hand, Amerindian cos~no logy"postu1:~tesI rnet:il)llysicnl continu ity and n physicnl c ontin uity l)etli,eenthe bei~ iys f tlie cosnlos. Th e spirit or soul integrates ashile thelbody differentiates" (1908, .t79). t\s a conscquencc, in Indian terms, rhcI~ od g na to bc fn >ricatedbccansc, contr ary to Europen n colntnoll sense.it is not conceived as so~n eth ingnnate or inherited biologically hut :IS isocial ol~ject clo~iging o th domain of invention 2nd thr artificinl.

111 sl~ort,f a.e m r the body and do the soul, in digenou s pcoplcs n1.i.t l ~ cot>l nd o the hod ;. ,\s Ilrngn er (1981, 98) remarks: "M'hcrcas errn ra ~ i d xcess are expectable tendencies of an individual self, to be 'cor-rected' lhy iliscipline anrl education, the soul, as a comperntircly 'pns-sive' qu,~l it); f discer nme nt, con only he 'lost.' h nd n.hcn tlic soul islosr, the only recourse is t o vcrtorc it? o ' find' it, rather in the way thata ~xrsp ccrir: e r insight is ' found,' and not to constrain or educate it. Asoul is not disc~plined." n effect , T~ el ta l ouls are not susc e~~ tibleot1-:1nsformation or domesticatinn; they are a req ui re ~n e~ ito r t l ~ e rocessof l~er son al ocialization, but the), tl~emselves annot he instructed incultu1.:11 con ven tion s. In fact, ns \\re shall see, this iden is actu;~ll , cr-pressed by the E e l e l in one of the nnmcs rhey give to the group ofsouls: mlclrik Fnrnrmed fro m t he ve rb to/ meaning " to co~ne," ts literal~ n e n n i n gs "wbat is already given to us," that is, the part of us tl ~n t, n-

.like the body, is inherited.h~lcsoalncricnn t h n ~ ~ r : ~ ~ ~ h ~las nc\fertl~elessended to lpl:lcc the so ulin a position similar to the oue it occupies in C11risti:ln anrllropology.Fro111 l~e l l r is t ia~~oint o f rrien; tlle aspect in n per so l1 thn t r~ ~ u s tclnolded 2nd disciplined in order to at tain a n approprintely moral col ~di-tion is thc soul, which is where ethical substance resides. T he "path toperfection" is of the soul, and nlrhou gl~ he body doubtless i~iterveries, tdoes so only to r l ~ e xtent tbnt it enbances or hindcrs n-ll;tt is p.tr excel-lence the Christian telos: salvation of the soul. A,lnreover, i l l the Chris -

tian vic\v, the soul reprcscnts the essence of individual identity; the tleshwill disnppuar after death, but the "self" will remain in a vertiginousvision, wherher it be hell or everlnsting glory.

111 Indinn rernls, I~o ~v esc r,o r a l i ~ ys in thc body, 2nd 0 the extentthat \ye may spcakof innin personnl identity, this is the body; in normalcondit ions , tbe "I" is tlie body. Perhaps because of itsvolatile linture andbccnuse it is placed with in the humn n body, th e In(lia11 soul has tcnd cdto he defined in iVIcsoa~ncrican tudies as an "essence" or a "co-essence"to th e extent th:>r it is shared rvitb other beings. But it is not difficult toslot the Cllrisrinn iden into this first sense, the idea of the soul as theessence of rhc self, defined as rvliat is per1il;lncnt and necessary in thepersou. ~ I I principle of identity, that is, easelice 2s opposed to nppear-nnce (G uti ir rez Es tivez 2002) . From the Indian r ie~ vpo int , o\verer ,np1x:Irance is thc locus of personal identity and n~orality.On r is whntone sho\ \. s to o the rs . T l ~ eirr11 of the body is n,l ~n tnitiares rhe processof d if fu rc nt in ti on , t h a t is , h u ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ i z a t i o nnd , u l t i~~ ia te ly ,ridinriization.T he body gradunlly takes its slinpe tlirougli nurt ure alid the develop-ment of l)odilygestrrs. If tlie Clirisrian ln o r~ l r n l ~ c r ~ t i a es culci ,ztion oft l ~ coul , i l~ei ihc indigenous imperat ive is culciv atio~~f t l ~ e otly.

The Self as European'The i n r e r ~ ~ n lis t inct ior~ o t lie person bet nw o the :~t t i f ici ; ~lnd the in-nnte, bet\veen body and soul, translates into a self /ot l~crpolar i ty . Theindigenous self is per~nancn tly ul>ject ro this com plem ent~ rp inlect ic,~vh ich , o tik e Psul R f,o el~ ri (1990) foyu12. n>ay be y,pre ssed as thetensioli bettvcen tbc l nsontitl/.~nrl hr rr(/n.r urhrr: 7 111s ~n te rn nl in-lecciu 1i:ls rwo ~najorl1lp1ications for the nvn t li c T ~ c l r a l hink of thepcrson, which rcprcscnt the m8in ;~spc cts f the nrgum ent of this book.

In the lirst place, if, as I l i a \~cuggested, nn Indian soul is an "other,"wl1:1t sort of "otber" is it? Basically, it is that of a E uto l~en n . t i s t r uethat souls fo rn ~ heterogeneous collrc~ ion f beings , l ike animals of nl l~ x c i c sant1 .~tm osp her ie nrl ot her phenom ena. W e sl~ oul d ocus, how-r ircr , on r l ~ e ct rhi lt in real ity we are nor r lenling with these bc i ~ ~ g sssuch , lhut with tbei r "other" sacred side. soul thnt is n jagu:lr is not a nordinary jnguar but t hr ch lrl vers ion of this :~ni m?l ,ts reverse. i\nd itis prcciscly this other side of existence tint is characterized 11 h;lvinga European culture. T o the es tent th at they are foulid in the renlm ofthe sacred, these anilnals that are Indian souls form collcctivitics with


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Thelagbar and hc Priest IntroductionEub olx x> character is tics in ~ vh ich nen~ber s ehnoe l ike Curopcn~is-i n n similar rein to xvl~at appens to the Indians a41en they slioa theirIothe r side" (fol- example, when the). get drunk ) and a d o p ~ :uropean

il or p lesican a t t i tudes. Th ere o re cases o f cer ta in sou ls , such as t l ~os e fCatholi c priests or schoolteachers, for which Europen n identity is veryevident; they nre European figures both in a physical and qualitativesense. I-Io\rever, :IS Xve shall see, this happens with both the an t nncl thejagu: lr , l igh tn ing bo l ts and ra inbows, sheep and ~ ner ~ i la ids .111oth er words, Indian/E uropenn polarity is the privileged figure ofdilfcrence. An i~n als , pirits, the dead, and othe r forrns of "otherness"t l in t make u p the n r ray o f lnd ian sou ls a re subsurned in a more fun-clamcntnl plnne of difference related to interethnic relations. \\ list ismore, thc distinction betmeen 11ody and souls reproduces the contrnstbetiveen th e Indian nnd th e Europenn: if th e body, s. llich is ol~te rrnos t,l ,ubl ic , and o rd inary , i s cu l t u r a l l~ mer ind ian , the hear ts (rind souls),which nre its nnrithcsis, are distinguished by their Eu rope an qualities.


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The Ja8uar a n d thc Priest Introduction 9tlie 112s : ~ n d 11cx11t of their relationship \\ ,it11 the E ur op em ~ro rld . XTi-ireiros de Cas tro 4 002 b) obserrres tlint if \Vestern nlodern ity favors at1olJec ti\~ist ype o f e])istcmology, in which kn owi ng is tlie equivalent ofobjectivizing (or de-sul>jecti\rizing), then th e ideal in Ame rindian kno\\~l -edge, especially if this is shamanistic, consiscs of exactly th e opposite.Knorving ia based on subjectivizing, converting 3 " so n ~ e t l i i~ ig "n to a"someborly," beenuse this is what makes i t possible to ad opt the point o fv ie \vof tha t whic li hns to be known. Thi s i s p rec ise ly what 'F~ cl t l l mem-ory consists of: [~crsonfiiizg he his tory of relatiolls \vith th e Europe:intvorlcl. If tlie forces of colonial and contcu iporary society ill Clli:ll~as rcto bc con ip~~chcndet lnd hand led, they mus t f irst be siibjecti\~izcd nto a"sqmebody" from whom a point of \r iear can be adopted. Those "some-bodies" are rhc souls..l'hc hoo k is clividcd into nine uhoptcrs, inc lud ing th is in t roduct i r~n nd

chnc1~1sion.Chap ter 2 is a description of tlie Tzeltal soul entities :indform s the basis o f the book . I t i s p redominant ly e thnogr ap l~ i c l l cl inr-acter, atid ill it I atte mpt to keep my interpretations to n niininiutii. Al-though I rarely cite individual names and only occasionally transcribecomments from conversations, in numerous instances in this chapterI have endeavored to ref lec t the concre te vay th ings about the sou lsare sa i l .

Chaprel. 3 is in som e ways nn estension of the p receding one , al-though \\.it11 a distinct emphasis. iMy interest lierr is in thc locations,c i rco t ii s tances, and favorab le con tests in which kn o\~ led ge f sou ls i s( l e \~ e lo l~ c d ,nclud ing the do tnest ic sphere , in terpre ta t ion of d reams,th e subject of go s~ ip , id tlie scruti ny of personal details in i\ . liicli signsof a specific soul's presence ar e sought according t o ho\v they manifestin tlic body and th e person's character. (Th e other major area mhereI;no\\. ledge of souls is elaborated upon-sliamanic ~.ituals nd healingchants-is ad(lressed in Cha pte r 8.

'The subsequenr chapters are, generally speaking, of a inore interpre-ta t ive character . Chapter 4 lesp lores the d is t inc t ion bet \ \ , cc~~he body2s thc ind igenous pole o f t l ~ e crson and the sou l as the pole o f E u r o -pe:iii cu ltore, nn atitithesis tliar f itids partieulnrlp stro ng c rprc ssio ~i nthc dual notion of f:re and heart. Ainong other aspects, it deals mithho\v the rb iilrol, the mounta in of souls, is represented as a modcrtl Me si-can or Eu ropean city \vhcre the In dians li\fe a bourgeois lifestyle, andIioiv the autononiy of th e souls associated with tlie loss of bodily con-trol-witb drunkenness, folDexample-leads to t h e a d o p t io n of E u r a -peat, urays of behavior.

C h a l ~ t wi iims to shon, ho\v tile field of ibclicfs thnt ~.c\~olvesr o ~ t l dsoiils consti ti~t es broad tnenns of recording and passi r~g n the liisruri-cal experience assncinted \vith Euro pean dom ination . In i t , a t te tnp t tomake v is i l~ lche connect ions bctween cer ta in types o f sou l s and t l ie h is-tory of rclatiol-:lte, olcls little significance for the Tzcltal. Th is circutn stance islinked to the native atti tude of silence u,irli regard to 1u.o areas (tinrm-rive :i~ ld luhlic ritual) liis~ori cally onsidcred esse ntial by tb c colonial51,xiisli aotliorities in tlir ir [holicy of Cl~risti aniznti on.

C11apte1-7 c s a n ~ i n c she nature of the saints found insirle tile churchin Cancuc. \4'hat kind o f beings are they? AIy argu nlrnt is that th csaints, like ally other spirit th at appears in th e ordi nary \vorld, are onlyln r t i a l l y f old ed , i n s~ i c l ~way t l ia r t l~eyliou: aga in partillly, what forhum an beings is liiddcn in tlie heart-in othe r words, souls. Exa min ingtlie saints therefore makes it possible to recognize souls (and, mo re gen-era lly , thc sacred) in th e way they g o around in th e o rd inary s ta te .

I4istorical au8areness and experience of illness are intitnately con-nected sp heres i n 'Tzeltal. 111 some respects, shanianic tre.ltmcnt of ill-ness pro(li1ces rea soning po\\.er abou t history: lo ng-term melnory-thatwhich exceeds the individual memory of those who \\,ere witnesses toe isen ts , and tha t \ rh ic l i fundamenta l ly concerns the l~ is to r ica l , re la t ionsIhetwceti natives ;ind Europeans -is stored 2nd futict ions in the heali ngchants th in the shamans rec i te in the p resence of pa t ients du r ing tbera-l ~ u t i cituals. Cliapter 8 presenrs on e of these heali l ig tests , p recededliy a (lescription of th e ceremotly in \vhich it was delivered, 2nd followcdb a c o ~ i~ t ii e ~ it n ryn the text. y nten t ion here is tha t the re ld i t ip o f ahealing text \ \ i l l shed light on the apparent correlation bctween illness,c l x r ie nc e of al teri ty , and h is tor ical awareness.

C o n v e rsa t i on s a b o u t So u l sAt the oursc t o f 111 . research, tlie issue o f "souls" \\,as no t alnon g 1nynla i~ l o t icerns. I liail decided to stud y itldigcilous religion, so in thoseearly stages devoted all my attention to public ccretilonies and formnlnarratives. Hut l f te r tile f irst months of f ieldwork, as I listened to con-


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2 The Jagua iand the Pricrt In troduct ion 3th at tiley know Sew narratives. irtual ly a11 cases, they give a similarreason: "we are only concerned wit11 clay-to-day activities, ~ r ir hxvith survi\fal; fu rth er~ no re , nlik e the 'Castilians, ' n .e have no writ-ing system and l la rc been u> ~; ~b leo record any th ing t l t ; ~ t ~:tpl,cned inth e lmst."

In r t cd , the i -cpl ics to m:~ny f y queries refe rred vaguely b ut insis-tently lo soul elements and the world surroun ding theni: medical knowl-edge , cu r ing r i tua ls , d ream in terp re ta t ion , exp lo rat ion o f personal char - ,acter , tes t ing fo r l~hysica l ecu l iar i t ies, an r l o ther c l~ l t u ra l echr~ iqnestha t wi l l make th e i r appearance in what fol lo \vs. Of ten the answer t o myq l ~ e s t i o p s ook the forrn of tlle recitation of a fragment or a s h ; ~ m a n i cheal iog p rayer o r the rccoon t ing o f some happen ing (an even t tha t hap-pened tu su,neonc or O ones el0 in whieh "somctlling" nbnormnl plnyerla role.

Indeed , sou ls a l , so r l~1 good d~.al f the Tzelta l curiosity, restlessness,and reflection. Undoubtedl : there are n ~ a n y ocial and persort:~l ela-t ionships a t s take whose th reads open ly o r su r rep ti t iously i n terneareth is tn owle ~ lge , t iaking it a subject of intense attr lc tion . Yet for thatvery reason, it is not an easy topic to address. Hon'eser sure-footedlyt h e s l ~ a m a n smay bq believed t o opcratc u, i~ ll in t , it docs not consti-tnte a str ictly esoterie l ~o dp f knon.ledge. Ra ther, it is a sort of publicsccreL, sharcd collcceivcly; everyone kno\vs it, a n d knows that ereryolleelse 1i11o\vs t, yet they all nllrst act as if they d o not. Tb e u tmos t discre-tion is rcqllirecl \vl1e11 tack ling th ese mat ters , and it must be (lone indi-rectly ;ar~d ~i~plici cly.n fact, whenever there is talk of souls, tb c entirerich repertoire of b ram ma tical particles and rhetorical resources \\.it11\v l~ icl l l le Tzel tal l :~ ng ua g an so f ten a s ta tement 's fo rce o r a question'sv io lence sp r ings in to nc t ion . Th i s nay Ibe c l ~ ;~ me ter ize ~ lIS :I vnaueness(11:1r is en l~ an ce d y T~ elt al ' spolysemousnrss ;~n rl ul-thcl. co~nl, licatcdI> the itativcs' regul;~ru se o f e u p l ~ e m i s ~ n so deno te the d i t le ren t sou lC IC I I IC I I~S

'I 'l lere is, of course, no canonical body of Tzelt;~l knotrlcrlge that(lchncc a.hat :I soul is. For this reason, my inquiry l:~ckedany p ~ ~ c i s en ~ e t l t o d .As the k ind o f e thnograph ic tes t imony tha t I adduce in these11qe s si l sl~o\v, hat I111n11aged o learn is tbe res ult of inany inforninlcllats that normally took place under pe rfectly ordina ry circumstances,p t t s s e v i ~ ~ gn attimde, so 'to speak, of "going with the flow." I :~ lso e-l ieve tha t the na tu re o f kno \vledgr ab ou ~ ou ls l l ; ~ ~ingccl ihc orerolltone o f th is s tudy , which exp la i~ t s hy i t s sc l ic~ne s no t aho l l y ar t icu -Ixrcd anrl ah y not a l l t h e r lnts :>re developed in narmri5.e fo rn ~. kin to

\vhat t he Tz eltal f ind in terestin g in a person, a.11at I d o is not so inuchsnpl,ly I hnished profile ( :lit individunl), but to u~~ de rs co reieccs th:ltmay be coml,ared w i th o ther f ragments and to ske tch po in ts o f agree-meut and analogy.

Never the less , I was ablc to pursue a more systematic exploration ofthe held of soul clements by means of r lulnerous recorded one-on-onet a lk s w i th t h r e e p e o pl e : Su n P ' i n , A l o ~ l so ' a al , : ~ n d o r c n z o L o t . O nthe one hand, this procedure not only g;lve me deeper insight but alsoallo$veovestere no t in f o r~ nan tsnt h e c o n ve n ti o na l s e n se o f t h e t e r m . T l ~ cntcrriecvs-usually conductedin their homes, in private, and with n lot of time on our hands-be-catrle r; ,re opporton itie s for us to talk, to open up, to ponder a cu l tu ra lclonlain abou t which they fe lt genuine curiosit): but a~ hi cl i he y rvoulclhave l , eeu u~ lab leo dea l wi th exp lic i tly under any o t l tc r c i rcumsr ~ncch .

T h e olltcolne wns a series of single-sol ~ject onversations that CI-catecl,to I cer ta in cstenr , a novel resul t . Thcr e is no nccd , t l~ cn ,o insist tlrntthe e lc t r lc~ l la l che ~ne hat 1 fo l lo \ \~n t h e n es t c l ~ a l ~ r e roes no t ex is t assuch. I t is, rather, n virtual script, n cornpromire so lu t ion be t aw n, on thealle l~ancl,my need to f ind sufficiently f irm ground a] n ~ a i n t : ~ i nI levelo l l~nd crsta nd inp , nd on the o ther , \\ :hot the th ree peo l, lc wi th \ rh on ~su s t a i ~ l e < liscussions were prepared , to differing degrees, to sncrilice forthe sake of si~nplif icntion.TVithout tlleir I~ighlya1u:lhle collaboratior~,I n.oulrl 11are heen unable to carry o ut an et l~n ogr aph y fsouls ; needlessto sa ; I :In1 fully resl~ ons ible ar clle res ult ir~ g cl~ r~oi .rap l~), .

S u n P ' in , t h e sh a m a n (cb nBiQunr) I worked with, w s over l if t? ye;lrsold. As :I young man, he had lived for a year or tcvo in ;In Institute XIcional Indigcnisra hoan ling school for Indians in San Cr ist bl~ al le 11sC ; ~ s a sthe main Span ish-speak ing c i ty in the C hiapns h igh lands reg ion ,


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1 4 The Jaeuar and thc ricrt ntroduction 5I I ~ ~ I Iaken to Snlina Cru z, in the rrei;hboring state of Oas aca, so that11e ~i iig ht ee the oce:ln, although he was m ost inipressed I tlie railwaythere .'C)nce back in Cancuc, he held some political post until, clue LO:I liout of i .~etio~ralnfighting r11:it lie preferred ]rot to discuss (at onepoint, he was evcn jailed i l l Ouusingo), he had to renounce hisaspirations. Sonle years later, and after several crises, including separa-tions fro111 trr o a-ivcs, hc had a drear11 dur ing the illness of one of iisd:lugliters :lnrl tlius discovered that his true vocation mas to lbe a sha-man. I I i s fo rmcr con tact wi th the Alesican r ro rl rl imhued l i i ~n i th a naura o f ecc e~i t r ic i ty fu r ther enhanced 11) 111y close co lla bo mt io ~~r i~ l ih im) tha t l ie h imself cu lt ivated v i th care , fo r esa~np le , n the way l iedressed: he \rare the traditional Indian knee-length wllite cotton tunic,c ~ ~ i b r o i ~ l e r e ( l-itli red wool ynrn, h u t on top he used to spor t tlirea(l-bare wlist-length jacket; also, unlike most men in the conimunit?. hef:tlr-oresntilling overthe pos sibility of affiliating himse lf wit11 th e Cath olics or a-it11 one ofthe ex ~ngc licn l roups tha t 111d begun to sprin g np in t he Ca ncue 1J:il-ley so me decades earlier. T ha t \soulrl liave saved I i i i ~ l ro111 Ila vi~i g ocont inue to mke part in the liestas around Carnival and tlle collateral

l iquor in tox icar iol l . H e had completed l i is p r i~ na ry chool s tud ies inC a n c u c an d s l~ o k e nd wro te a l i t t le Spanish . From my very f i r s t ~n on th si n Cancuc, he was my Tzeltal teacher in exchange for writi ng lessonsin Spa11ish. Unlike P' in or ICaal, Loretlzo Lo t had scarcely an y autllor-it), wit11 n,hich to speak of souls. I rememher l i i r~ i lancing ~ iervouslyaround us f rom t in ie to t ime, af raid tha t so lneone or son ie th ing mightIhe listening to o ur conversation; yet he was one of tlie peojlle with w homI could speak most freely about that world, due in ] ,art to the fact that,f rom ear ly on, I felt conifdrta~lle lien raising Illy personal douhts andeonjcetures ovcr method u.it11 1ri111.O n e of llis niajor coll criburions in: ).b e c o ~ ~ s id e r c dhe vcry form in which o ur cooversations developed.

For the t ru th is tha t convent ional fo rms of Tzelra l co~lr~c rsa t i onrcs r ~ ~ o r i gIre princi[ial i~ir pedinie nts or all outsider to utiderst;in~l lie do-m:iin of souls and self . Karely are such opinion s cx11l-rsscd in t crm s ofopposition, :lnd there is no sueli thin g as a discussion const ructed on theb as is o f l in k e d, ~ n u tu a l l y p p o s in g a r ~ u ~ n c ~ r t s - n o t l l i n gl ~ a thears yresem1)lancc to any kind of dialectic a rgo ~n en t. ypically, it is the per-sorr wit11 tlie mo st au thor ity ~ I I Oocs most o f the speak ing and answer-ing , ~al i i le l~ e thers p resen t la rgely take tu rns back ing up t l ie op in ioncx lxessed, a t most add ing a f in ish ing touch or som e in terest ing deta i l ,even th oug l~ he cor robora t ing ev idence occasional ly seems to I le say ingquite tlie corirr:~r-y.Mucli to my dc sp ir , n ly quest ions n lm ot r iever re-ceived ;I straigh t answer, a difficulty that also plagued my conversations\ritll u n P'in and Alonso ICnal. Mo re ofccn rhan not, was regaledwith a long neco unt ofs o~ ii e vent, described in ininute detail, at the elidof which I was lef t baff led as to i r ~el~var ice o my in i t ia l quest ion . ( I ttu r ns ou t these s to r ies o f even ts usual ly do con ta in s~ na l l etails that op-cra te IS c111es; bt ~ tor anyone wi th d i f ficu lt ies in unde rstan d i~ lg ze l ta land i gnor a~rr f its idionlatic resources, f inding th em is like looking fora neerlle in n haystack .) In con trast , Lorenzo Lo t had learned to sus ta i~ ian "accumulative convcrsation," and he always made a great ef fo r t tocl:il,or:~reo n \vli:~t e was explaining to me.

The Town of C a n c u cCaiicnc is :I municipality or local adrninistratirc district \\ , it11 roughly?? 000 inhabit ants ( in 1990), all speakers of Tzcltnl Ma yan, a lan guagetliat at [Kcsent has nround 35 0,000 spe;ikers tlirougliout tlie rcg iur~ . ti s, c o n se q ~ ~ c n t ly ,n Ind ian co mmunity ( there is no Spanish-speak ing


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The Ethnography of Souls 3

C H A P T E RThe Ethnography o f Souls

\\i. slioitld sta rt \\-it11 a discussion of cert ain basic tcrms. In C a n c u c , n~ x r s o ns compos ed of n body (Lk'etnf), m ade u p of flesh and lbl~)o(l, nda gro~111 f "sou ls0 (cb'r~lcl;plural cI~'111elrik) esiding \vitliin the Ilenrt ofeach incli;.idual. T h e term rorrl is nsed here for the sa ke of convcnlenc e.T l t e c o ~ i \~ c n t io n a lransla tion of th e \vord's root (cb'111) in bot h li cl tn land T zotz il is "lioly" or "sacred." I-Io\vever, i n a str ict sen se, cl~'111le-

t tlotes a thing's radical "other." Th us , it is a purely relati\.e concelIt, and~vli cn pplied to th e notion of person hood, rbklcl may be defined as "tliehotly's othcr."

T h i s "ho


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[1qn111qnan's iflb-a red oni for m an d a mu sk et (7rrichnor rhnJ/~~,j. he y are :~l so rven th e season's order s regarding shifts andthc locations \vhcl.e they nre to lie in ambush for the winds.

T h o s e Ca n c u q u e r os w h o su spe c t t h at t h c p r h e ~ u se l \ ~ e snay be mete-ors rcc i tc s tandnrd songs u ri rh rhe speci fic ob jec t ive o f co~ lv i nc i ~ lgheirI,lb n ot to expos e themselves to any unne cessa ry da nger. If th e inb is a\vlnd, for example, it is reminde d not to enter empt y tree tronks, as theyare easy targets for ligh tni~l g; nd no t to seek shclter in rounded st ones,but rather in sharp-cclgecl ones that will disperse the shots. An appe;~lis also made for the lightning bolts to stay :>sleep in their orchids, toforget til dntc o f the a l lnun1 ca l l to the i r general ~ne et i ng , o t to checkthe date of it in their books, even for the ink in nrhich it is \\ . r itten to beerased, and s o on . Th is concern is more t han just i fied , :IS a mind hit by all:~sll f lightnillg will al~ no st ertainly die. Th e sanle \\ ,i ll happen to r ileI I C ~ S O ~ In C ~ L I C I I C ,r n r least pxrt o f his bod y will sllouv sigrls of burnin g.T h e chances o f i t l lappen ing are no t i s remote as one m igh t imagine .; Th e ye, tr 199 was, nccarding to rhe Tzeltal, not especially relnarkablefor the amoun t of red lightning, but \t least five people died fro m this[ I

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46 The Jaguarand the Priest The Ethnography of oulr 47cause. r\ccidents SL I I I as sollieone drunk fall ing into the hearth in 11isliorilc and encling up badly b i~ rn ed re not uncoliinioo.

D en t1 1 f ron i o r s i g n s of b u rn s i s a f r e q u en t s y ~ n p t o m f b e i ~ ~ gu ~ i n d .Pnrt icular l . wcl l rem en ~l ~e teds an event tha t occurred o ne June inu.liicli tb ree or four me n were busyin g thernselves with th e first meerl-inp of th e corntiFld, \vlien sudd enly a violent storm broke o ut, forcingthem to seek she l ter be nc i t l ~ t ree . A t length , one of t li e rn dec ided nott o w ai t f or t l ~ etor m to sub side and instead se t off for l ionie. Later, tvlient lie o the rs re tnrncd a long t l i e pa th , rhey found hi m dend, burne t l to nc i~id e r . h ey cnrr icd l iim home, and he was buried th e next morning.Rut \rl icn they liad finished fi l l ing in the grave, a myrintl of l ightningbolts begnn to strike the site , bolts Rasliing il l t l ie sky 2nd then strik-ins , I1as1i ing and s t r ik i~i~ .t was believed that tlie liglltning bolts \\.eres l ~ o \ v i n glieir joy at havin g put a rvind to d eath. If there nre no \vinds,t le red l ightn ing bolts d o not appear, alt l iouglr in 1990, \vintls fl:itreiiedtlic cornfields \vli i le red l igli tning did nothing to prevent i t . Aprii~cipnldreamed tl iat the niotiier of l ightn ing l~ ad ied t lrnt season r\~itl ioot lao-i ~ i g esign ated all . successor , tvliich is why th e flaslies of ligh tni ng ac r en.andering a roun d rliscoricer~ed; her e was also talk of soriie olrl tvomann.110 1r:rd receritl? d ied, 1,ilt nb c onclusive e splan ation \\ as ever reac l~ ed.The "Illness-Giver" labT h e fourtl i 2nd last kind of lnb souls are a ri i ised bag of beir ~gs, l irfer-enr only i n appearance , s ince they a l l s l~n re he condi t ion of be ing nk 'rl,ir~icl, illness-giver." If tlie b we have ~nent ioned hus far are cnp;ibleunrle r ce r ta in c i rcumstances of barming humans of f le s l i and blood,most o f t li e t ime th e r i sk they imply is pass ive , t l ~a ts, soliieolic gro ws illI~ccause ne of h i s b lhas died or 112s suffered in s om e \\.:I?. By cont ras t ,tlrese'kilrds ofl nh nrc diffe ren t from th e rest in t1i:it the . actiaely seek tocause illness ; tlie . ar e liornicidal h6 ven if thei r niotir es can not nI\vaysI ,e un~lc r s tood.

-r l ic ~i ios t u um ndi ng of these cha rac te rs goes by t li c n :lmc of [lilt,from the Spnnish pniir.e cs,u, "fatl ier," nlso referred to in ch:int coul~ lersas ke18.ir0, "clerSymanv (Spanis h clirigo). TIi ey ar c al,out o ne rn cter tall,chubby, bnlrl , wit11 ankle-length vestm ents 2nd s l~o es. l ic re is n o d o u b tthat i l iey are Catholi c priests, tvit l i tvhoni the y are explicitly con~ pn red .A l iran explained to nie hotv l ie had o nce passed by the village cliurcli oftl ie to wn of Os cl ~u c here l ie cnilgl~t ight of a pii lc . It \ \ ,as not, in fi ict,lnh a t all, 1 11t real Cliristinn, praying in tlie ntrium, although he reall .'did look like n pile-fat and bald, \\,it11 multicolo red clo thes.

: \c ti ~ al l\ ; t h e re a re s e u er : ~ l in d s of l ~ i l c . h e m o s t c o n i n ~ o ~ ~re t l ie" l i l a c k t ~ t l ~ e r s "qk'nl pile; also k no\\,n IS rsors ' pile , "fntlier-l~at"). T he irclotli ing is black, and according to some, the ^ a rc only ac t ive a t n ight .O n t lre o t l re r l i a~id , l re "doyt iuie fa the r" ( L~bn lc Ip~i I~ )s clotl ied in a\vliitc hab it and is conipletelg bald except fo r a t l ~i ck and above his ears.Somet i l r~es e wears a hood that conceals his 11cad and face. T o help m eg e t I goo< pic ture of h i s appearance , La~nusave mc as an example thestatue of a d:iyti~ ne dc in the city of San Crist6hal-a bust sculptedin commem ora t ion of Fm y Bartolo mt de Las Casas , b i shop of Chinpasand "Dcf e~id er f the Indiansn-\\ ,here l ie is shown complete with ton-su re. T l ~ eeaders of t l ie pilc are the mirpn, "bishops" (Sp:~nisliobispos),plurn lxr in app eira nce, because they \ ear several garm ents ,o n e on top of anot he r , each i tem of a di ffe rent color; they a l so n . ea r ve ryshiny black shoes. Mucli rarer is a fou rth type of priest: the jesritn, tha tis to say, "Jesuit" (Sl~auislic sr~i r i r ) ; ccordi~~go S u n P'in, he is a l i ioresolitary being. I-Ic is also different in appearance. N o on e knows what l iewrits but l ie is rallcr anrl cstrnordinarily thin, with sunken eyes and afine lon g nose. ':

In a ll t l i ei r ve rs ions, t l ~ e ile are slaves to an indonlitable desire toe;>t neat. Tliey have a \venkness for f oal , especially for t l ie Bird of t l icI-le:irt , in otl icr ivords, the s oul of e:icli Ind ian. T hi s makes then1 trulyt el - ri fyi n g b e i ~ ~ g s .t may be said tha t \vliereas felines invariably give riseto Lisci~iation, nd n ieteors are s poken of \\ ,i t11 an anibiguous reverence,\.lien it collies topiilc, it is not unusual for th e cliaracteristic self-restraint

i l l the cooversotion t o be replaced by :In excited, jolnpy tone, n ot uii l ikesonleone desc ri l~ inghe species of animal to which lie feels t l ic stronge starcrsio n. T he pile 21-e rl ic only beings c;ipablc of ext racting t he Bird oft li c He :~ rt , y means of s t range songs and ~rl i i s t le s . he y do not t r l i i st lelike In dia ns, wit11 n silirple shril l note, but mtlier they comp ose ;I melodytliat th e 11ir1l all in ot resist. Ear lier we snw hot , tlie Bird of th e l~ le nr tsextracted fro111 lie body, converted into larger size, 2nd cooked withhot j ri i c r , a l~ro ccdu ren \vhich a siniulacrum of the process of Ibaptismcan 1perl13ps ~ eecogl~ized.Moreover , thep i le in l ia l~i the r \ . oods and thecnvcs of thc colil land; \ratcliful 2nd slippery cu stome ~-s, hey ~prc fe r o tto l ~ eeen (nl tl iougli , a long wi th t l ie o the r lab , t l ~e y reque~ i t ly ppeari n d re a r i ~ s ,v ll cr e th ey t r a r ~ l l l , ~ule , ca r t , or m otor ca r) . None the less ,there :~rc feiv tell-t :de signs rl i :~tgive mvny t l i e i r p~usi r~i i ty :ll acridsmell of bu rn t tollacco, for esnnij1le, because t hey sm oke a lot . But thc y1i:lr-e actually been seen a few ti~iies.An el~lerl y vornnn told ine how,on e niglir svlien slic could no t sleep, sl ic l iad gon e out to t l ie patio of herliousc anrl there she cam e across a far bishop sit t ing on o ne of lie r stools,


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5 The Jaguar and the P riest I The Ethnography o ouls 5iicd zone, n.here anoth er of thei r cliurches in s located. In e:lrlier years,these nmsichl interludes coincided rvit l i a plet l ion of gas trointes t inalconlplaints tha t \\.ere furth er cornplieated by a measlcs epidelnic, killingse\.eral small children.

Earlier still, twenty or thi rty years ago, another kind of ln6, the~ ~ ~ c ' t i k t n t i k111o tlersf ater s) appeared, rvbich, with the passage of time,113s become terribly morbid. T he y seem to take the shape of old Inen: I I I ~ \.oluen n.ith gm y hair and beards, hnt they are invisible. T h e y 11~11all . sit on s ~n al l hairs aroun d a table in th e middle of roads to eat and(lr i~ ik liieken, soup, liquor, and coffee. Any passerby ru ns th e risk ofinarlaertently kno ckin g over the ir food, \vhich is invisible as n.ell. In re-tal iati on, t he llrc'tiktnti ,, rellio se the misc reant 's cl1'11lc1, n or de r to ob -biin from th e hcaling cerelnonics food that is at least as good. Ro mink oExtul, for example, had one of thesc niishal)~ ot long ago. I-Ie n.asrct \~r nin g ome one night , very drunk. N o sooner lhad lhe crossed thestrea m beside the sml ll coffe e \\farcliouse than he noticed th at some -rhi ng made ]him sto~ nb lc nd fall down. It \\-as a bunch of ilre' tiktnrik.annoyed l ~ e c a u c e hncl knocked over their food. I-Ie realized t hat tlicywere holding him back by the a nkle, so lie spent tbe \\.llolc night the reon the bank of the s tream, amid the puddles . As he s lel~ t ,ie "s aw " t h ~ tthey were demanding t no l i ters of liquor f rom him; at su~ir i se , nce hehad mallaged to make it home , he offered up the liquor at his houseliolda lh r. T he se 1/16 711e'tiktnti$ are II I~IL ,earth," but they have nothin g to dorr-ith the hl ou nta i~ l ords . In a way, they are manifestations of the eart hill I I \ I I I I I I I for111.The lab as Personal PowerUI) o lnow, we h:lrc looked at the different i~ossible inds of lnb. Let us110n8 urn to boa. the Tzeltnl use tliese In6 in ina tter s of persona l power.Everyone has at least one in4 altl~ougllmost people possess more thanone. O ne 111bper person is considered a m inim um, \vhile the nlaxim um~i;im ber s thirteen , but people osually base "se\~eral," hat is to say "t\voor three. '' It seems th at any co mbination of In6 types is possible \vithinan individual, for example, a puma, a butterfl : \\rind, a scho olte :~c her .a n and and a "mother-father." Even mutually incompatible lnb, such aslightning bolts and \vinds, or priests and scribes, may occur together\vithin the same individual. Th is notion led me t o ask one day :il~outhepossibility o f one person's conflictive In6 types killing ea ch otlier, llutmy query a8asmet \vith bewildyrnlent.

T h e nomc rical classifier used for In6 is krla."' S uch coun rcrs r efer to a1 gra~limatical article in Tzeltal that describes the shape or some otheri qualit , of tile thin g t l la t is being counted. Krtn is generally employedto count scparete things chat exist on the salile horizontal plane and

ch;i t possess some adjoining point of co~n~nunicar ion,ike the roomsof a house, should i t have more thni i one, con~ iecte d hrough a n open-ing, \\,licther i door\vay or ano ther apertu re. For exanlple, if you say in'1'7.eltal th at s om eo ne h as t hr ee 1,1b, you rro uld sn . ~IJode1 1 slnb re is1isinik, i rough tmnslation of \vIiich would be: "He is/has (ny) three (0.x)th ings jo i~ ~ c( lorizonrally (kr171) that ;ire his lnb (.r/lrli), that being with ahum an for111 (tnl) th at is a hurn:ln bein g (aiirik)." Ne\*ert heless, I must.idmit the expression is a little forced, formulated as a response to thecle ~na nds f in questi ons.

Broa(1ly speaking , the term 111h~ lesig nate s ooiethin g hidden , \.eilcd.:is in the expression slnb kbp, "l;inguage with ob scure ineaning." H (~ rr -e\-er, \vhcn referrills to t he soul entity, th e word lnb sounds too "strong"In u se in c o ~ ~ r . e r s : ~ t i o ~ ~ ,nd ~ ~ o \ \ . adayscomm on recourse is to employothe r term s that a re lialf synoliyllis , half euphemisms. For ins tance, the\vorrl llr~kr /(crcator o f illness or th e very substance of th e disease) is usetlif the lirb is a t h r ea t ; t he w or d i~ vc l"angel: which in fact design atesany soul co ~np onc nt) efers to one's o\vn In6 that are protective n~ id e-nig n; some tim es in so ngs, th e se ~n nn ti c arallel to 1/16 is ~L'IIJ,he root of"sleep/~lream."Non eth eles s, th e \vord enlployed 111ost oft en is undouht-edlyyi~ cl, quivalent to so~ne one's power," "f;~culty," is or her capacityto affect otllcrs or to be affected.

; 111 p n t , th e Inb are "po\ver," due to the 61ct that sonic o f their mostcharacteristic fac ~llties depend ing on their kind) tilake their presencekrlo\rn i l l the body or, more accurately, in the person as a whole. Indi-

i \ . id \~nls\ ,l ioce lnb are jaguars o r pulnas tend to be corp l~lcnt nd s t n ~ ~ l g ;] ~ cop levith ;I hawk 1/16 may have entmonlinal-y eyesight; those who arcnwer In6 Iiave no fear of s\vimming in rivers; those \vitli wind In6 arestormy by nature; Indians with "mother-father" lnb are said to hareshove-average \\.isdom beeause "they cnn see \\.hat happens beneatll

I the ear th ' s surface." Addit ional ly, s o ~ ~ i cn6 are accorded strengths that\vould never be ima gined, judging fro111 heir outujard appearance. Forexaniple, dcspi te i ts del icate appearance, tbc hu m~ uin gbir ds coilsideredI to be a po\verful lir6, perhaps on nccoulit of its ability to penetrate di-verse re;llms-~nainly the earth's interio r an11 th e sky-realms barr ed to1 other lheings.

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8 The Jaguaran the Priestmoan, writlie, and roll about on tlie floor, shouting very loudly ns if liewere in great paiii. Tliis \vent on for a few seconds until all of a sudden,silence fell. Sliortly aftcrmartl tlie mot her died. T h e talc stopped t herc.' I 'here \r.:~s pause, and then tlie conversation took anoth er tur n. I licrerdiscussed this account with anyone, but it is, I think, easy to interpret:tlie rnother atteinpterl to cede her lnb to her son, b ut his body did all iteould to reject it, as the lnb \\.as not innate. \? list, perhaps, the episodeleaves hanging in tbe air (very characteristically, it should be said) is\\plietlicr lie transference was finally successful or not.

111 any case, [lie incident speaks eloquently of the concern regardin gthe l~ossib ility f inothers trying to pass on their own lnl, to tlieir sons orclaogliters, gmndsons or grahddnughters. It is believed \yomen \vould be"usurping" (~ror lra~el)lie transniission of lnb on the father's side, \\,henthe y slioulcl in fzict restrict rlleir role in making the eonti~iuntion f tlicfather's line possible. It is rnken for gtantcd that a n equal numl~ er ndkind of lnb is inaintnined am ong tlie lineages, but not a mon g the clanscomposing each. O n tlie othe r hand, som e clans tend to sl~ecia lize nl ~ n t i c u l a rypes of1,1/,. Fo r example, a clan in n.Iiich many ~ii em ber s n-l ial~i tlie valley slopes fncin g\he town of Ca nco c is said to possess lnl, oftlie "writer beings" gro up. Inde ed, solne of tliem are specialists i l l s\rpim-~n in p oods and people across the r iver. O n th e ot l ier l ial~d, ince t l ieq uo ta of INII ~ e ri n e ; ~ ~ es limited, its unstable distribution is sul>jectto an ' i~nderg round t r t~gg leo reduce other clans' h for tlie benefit ofone's o\va clan's In11 T hi s is do ne thro ugh t he straightfor\varrl proc ess ofkilling eacli other.

'I'l~is s tlie only l~l:ine , lie world of the Inh, on a~liicli ~ i ccan note the influence of interclan politics. Apart from the odd, isolatedepisode, it all seerl'is a bit distant when viewed from tlie lperspecti\~e fordinary life in Cancuc.'*

Further InterpretationsSo f;ir o.e lia\re seen l l the aspects that exist in rhe general an.aralessof tlie l~ eo pl c, .hicli ar e widely known , even tliough the y are riot ex-:ictly publicly :~ck~ionsledged.-Io\vever, private con\ ~ers atio ~iscvealeclthat there were those \rho had worked ou t otlier relationships in muchgreater de pth, tliough rliey were unable to refer to concrete "e\.entsn toback them up. Tliese relationsl1ips, \\.hen heard independent15 reveal

The thnography o Saulr 59sollie points of convergence. Two of these coincidences arc especiallyrevealing.

First of 811, tlie true rh'tllel that rlu.cl1s in the cl~'iil1~11iountains alsopossesses lnb. Tliis means tlie Lll tliat are to be found duplicated insidea huma n b ody are also t o be found i n his rl~'r11el n ch'iihl. Secondly, th e"external" lilb have with in then1 a reflection of the silho uet te of the flesh-and-blood T ~ el ta l hose destiny they share ("silliouette," here, for \vharsolneone called cl'r~lcl-a very i~npr ecise erm in any case-and solnc-one else called tiokcrnl, that is, a "person's shndow"). A new l~oss ibi l i tymay be inferred from these t\rso explanations: an i~nr nedi ate elationshipexists 1)etn.een the cl' i ~lc lof he d' iibnland the Lb. If this is so, the rela-tio~isliipsbetween tlie soul coniponents may be imagined as forming arl-ia~igle,ach corne r ofu.hicli-Cancu c, tlie rl,'iilit~lmoun taill, the Inb-is


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Tile Jaguar end tlie Prlertgoing K hare inan? liens or a good coffee crop, or perliaps he is going tooccup . some religiou s post or become a shaman.

In practice, howe\.er, a dream's meaning is not so easily revealed.s l ~ c i t i c , ut nor cornpletely exceptional, case will serve to illusrrare thispoint. 111S u n P'in's house, where I had spent the night, the women gotI I ~efore daa.11, as usu:~l, nd mad e rheir way to the kirchcn-an areasheltered by some beams covered with a flat thatched roof, with walls ofban:inn lea\ ~es nd plastic sl~eeting-ro stoke the emb ers of the fire, star tniaking the cor n do og l~ , nd warm up the coffee. \ire men joined the mlater n~id oddlerl around the fire to take the edge off tlie cold. Allartfrom S u n P1 in,and his wife, their fo ur sons lived in the house, t\vo ofthem n.ir11 their wives and children. One of these wi\res, :I very young\\.onian, hall a drea~nhat nig ht and told it to her motl1er-in-law, \vho inturn told it to Su n, : )mid comments ofano ther sor t , when be came intotlie kitchen. T h e second ~e rs io n f the dreani's contents \\.as roughlyth :~t he "11nd been spebking" ni th a "C astilian" knx/1171), \,l,icl~ couldbe onderstood either as nlenning that she did indeed spenk \\:irh him,or tliat she had sesull intercourse with Ilinl. In fact, the two meaning sare not so very different in Canc uc, where a you ng ivornnri is nor al-loued to converse with n male who does not belong to ller own clan, .isI Inter fon~lrl ut, this is a dre nn ~ llat recurs quite often a mong \\,omen,s o ~ n e t i ~ i ~ e seing interpreted as foretelling a miscarriage. Nor was it, Ig:ithered, the iirst rime rhnt this \r,oman had had such a drennl.

IV i thou t a tm ch i~ igoo m uch i~npor tan ceo the dr ea ~n , u n ]"in still\vantecl to knorv m ore details. H e asked the yo ung girl to her face ro de-s c ribe the Cas t i l i a~ i ~llpearance. Ha d sbe seen llini before? A o. \i'11:1twere lhis clothes like? She didn't remembe r very \\,ell, but he w is s ca r-inga s h i r t. :\[I old shirt ? Quite old, but it looked clean. IVas he earl-yinga book or an ything else? No . Wh ere did t he enco unter take ])lace? Slledidn't knorr,. Wear the s trea m? No, it seemed ro be o n a path. r big pathor a little otie? She thoug ht i t \\,as a \vide path. Mras there a cross? Slle( l icl~i t ,ecal l seeing one. Butwas it so~ne\vIlcre n Cancuc? She rlidn'tthink so, she didn't recogniz e the place, but it was all open a rm. Did shehave the drenm e :d y or late in the night? Sh ortly before n-nking up.T he young girl \ .as giving brief nnswers in an allprol1riarelg g:irI)ledl i~shion. hen Sr~ n ' s r i fe asked her sorr~ echir~gli :~t could not COIIIpletely unking t:lre, rl~ ese nrer acr io~i .~nss by on ~i or ic ed , 11:1skerl byan al) l xrpr ixe mir ude or an impass ive face. Therefo re, hoa.cver m t~c hrhcir in~crprera rions re oriented toward the futu re, tlieTzelta1 are con-rcnr ro SC:III for s i~ i i :~ I sllnr reveal xhat is in the offing for person, inrnl~r l i he same way ns at~ i~os pher ichangcs forercll storms.

As \vc c:in see, tllr disco very of the llerson's identir ; as ma~iifesrecl nthe sragc of l~hgsic:~lppearance or the ineaning ol drc:lnis, is pervncledwit11 the sanie interl)rccarive attitude. W e ]nay proceed n little further inthis direction.

"Comparing, Harmonizing like Voices"T h e Tzclr:ll verbno/) innybc tmnslarerl :IS " to learn," " to o~~d ersr and ,"iutits semantic mnge is in fact 1nuc11Sridcr. T h e vocabulary of the ' lielta lInngoagc cornpiled in rhe sisreenth cc~i tur y y the Spanish Dominic anfr iar Do ~n in go e i i~x-poss ihly around 1560 in the Tzelml-spcakingvillnge of Copanagu;isrla, \\.here hr a \\,as, with a few interr uption s, par-ish priest for allnost ru'e~ity-seven years (R ur 1986)-si~nulrancously


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C HAPT E R 5nimism as History

It is not difficlllt to recognize the relationship betrveer~certail] Tzel-tal souls-in the ir cond oct, their attribu tes, and their \.cry titles-andthe 111rlinn historical past. C har act ers i n thi s r eper tory of so111s inclutlelivestock froln t he Ol d M70rld, tools kno\vn t o be from E uro pe lhccauscthcy are rnnnofncturecl of metal, Catholic priests, royal officials, Mexi-can cattle mnchers, schoolteachers, and evangelical mi~sicians~rnongothers . In u thcr words, there are percept ib le conc orda ~~ce shat trans-f o r ~ l ~he interior of the heart not only into a discontinuous repetitionof exterior geogmphy, but also into n mirror, so ro spe3k, of the pnsr, nkind of l~istoric nl tlernory

1,I'e sho uld rec:ill tha t \,irtually all these "l~ is ~o ric alouls" are lab fromthe "lllnes~-gi ~et" rou p (flbk~fl?llc~),category that is unique 1,ecauseits 'common clenolninator is not ecology, as in [he case of orher sor ts oflnh C~ni~ i ia ls ,e teors , r iver crea tures) , bur ra ther t l ie facu lry of la ~~ gu ng e,t l lr o u gl ~ h i c l ~ hey inflict illness. Thi s type of being, \\sit11 its i~ ~t ri ns i-cxlly wicked character, seetns to liarre a long history. For example, in t heNaliua tradition prior to the Spanish Conquest, tlie horned earl \


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rope, it \?-as oscd as a lnessenger by Spaniards 2nd i t can b e seen todayin the public squares ofany Mexican town. T he Tzeltal rcganl it as a re-r , o l t i ~ ~ gnimal; in the torrrn of Tenejspn, nn alternate llarlie fot this birdis s t im~ rs , lso a loan word from Spn nish: s,irtint;s, nlen ning "Satan." T h e,gcx kIe is a black bird (11.loiothi.r~~irtinq Hu nn 1977, 197), wllore T~ cl t alnam e is a loan rrorcl from the spknisb zirntrru rllis derivation is inclicntedby the stress th e Tzelrnl place on t he pcnultimnte syllable, s ~s irr

\ brief note of clarification on Ln guag c is i n order n t this poi nt, rll-tlroug l~ he T.r.eltal language has borro\ved many \\fords from S pa ~~ is h,the nu mber of loan words ckyrockets wllen it comes to terms related tosouls or n l l t h ~ ts sacred (ib'iil) in general. \lrh:lt is significailt is thnt inT~ el tn l, ll urords are rol~t inc ly ccentuated on th e last syllal,le. I-Iorv-e r w s o ~ ~ ~ coan rr,ords preserve rl~eirdentity and thus [nay be recog-11ized ns SLICII,h:~n ks o th e fact that they continue t o be pronouuccd\\.it11 the ;lccellt on oth er syllables, d es p~ te he dif f iculty this representsfor the 'kel ta l . I'or es : ~ml ~le ,zeltal speakers ilnmediately irlcntif ? the\\.ord)xililc (fr om pndrc "filtl~er" r pries^'' i n Spnni311) :IS C:,stilj:ln loann.or[l. 111 f x r , rye hnon ill i~t he n-0x1 was bei ng pro rlot~ncerl h is n.:,yIJ rltc /ndigcuous popillation i n tlse Clliapas highlanrls since :IS cnrly :ISthc sistc cnth century. The refo re, even vocabulary ea11be il~volted n tllesc~ .ri ce f th e lhistoricnl record.

Slieej1 2nd goats nre also cons idcrer l r el ~u g~ ~: ~n t:~ ~ n l o c l o r r ~ o r ,le:~.ir~fes tet l , nd nntnr ;~ll j . nco~~~patiblev ith co r~~f ic l ds .urely they rvereintrodu ced ill small quantities ill the Cbiapns highlands during the sis-teenth cen tury by Spanish colonizers, and over time they were a(loprcrl11) sollle inrligenous group s (I'erezgrovas 1991). Canc uque ros d o not~>os s es sny of these animnls , al t l~ougl~h ~ y,re familiar with thcro I h -cause rr,olncn in soine Tzotzil coiru ~conitics o t \ cry ft1r n\wy raise sn~allflocks. TIlc T zu r~ il nly nsc th c \vool from sheep , and, significantly, inC t ~ n c u c ,ve ~l- ing .ool jackcrs is the esclusioe prerogative of tlle prinii -pales and rov n hall nuthor i t ie~,vho purchase them from the Tzotzi l . Onthe other hnnd, the Tzorzi l do not consurne the meat , nl t l ~o l~ gl ~liere isa suspiciot~ n the par t of can cuq uer os that they do so secret l?.

T i l e Z e l t a l p r inc ip le ender lying t l ~e i r efus: ll to cat these nn i~l ~a lssqu i te s in~ l~ le :he hu1n:ln bod ' literally inca rnate s \\,Ilat it ingests. The re -fore, according to Lorenz o Lot , Indians are essentinlly composed of cornand beans, p111s a pinclr o fch ili to give color to thc blood, a n d a little bitof f rui t and greel ls f r on ~ile forest. Lot dcscril>cd ho\v in some cha nts,maize is referred to as CIJ ' I~~C~U' ,b'rri b,~k'ctnl sacred breast." "s:lcrerlnear ), and bea ns as sc6'~l clpok kLb ("corn's second arm"), regar ded

ns its ornalncntation, bccnusc of rhc mny bean pln~~rsurine around rhecorn stalk and hccausc of t? I lo\scr . I t is coo ~~ no nl yupposed t11;l't i f onefed on slleel) conrinrznusly, o ~ ~ e ' sody n,ould bccolne pollu ted by r11e1rEurope: ,n :~nim;~lature and transfor ln into a Europen~~ody itself.'

N o r s l ~ o o l dwe overlook the contribution of the singular positionthese animals occupy in European culture in inl lu e~~ cin ytrdian idcnri-lication of birds and livestock as souls, whethcr tl~rough hristian nnr-r :~ r iv e n d i c o ~ ~ o g n p l ~ ) :r directly frun, Old Uiorl(l culture and folk-lore. Per11:lps t l ~ e epresencariun of thc Holy Spirit rllay I JC r eeog l~ izedin the pigeon; in viccrcgal religious art, the dove is :I s ta~ ldard nl lge forthe llol . Spirit enter ing che bodies of the faithful. hIoreover, it wouldnor lx out of to recall the metq>hor of the f ree reception of Gra cc; ~ o dhe gif ts: " the lnce of God is poured out by th e Holy Spir i t in on rhc ;~ r t s . . . ncleed, ill tile ~nernpl~orical;~nguagc t i~(>layed1y tlie illis-s ionnries , Chris t i:~n cva~~ge lis tsought to pour their n1ess:lge into tilehenrrs of lndlnns , 1s rep eat edl ~e info rce tl in s e rm ons 311d ~o ~~ fe s s io l~ a l s .l ' lle ro oster occurs in n s imilar pos i t ion as on ele~u ent f tile Passion, orthe 1n,11l> s one of the r ~ ~ n i nishes of Cas ter supper T l lc goat might h ccompnred w i th the Chr i s t in~ ~evil in his guise as n \)illy go:~t r ~ oreinforrn:~ldes c r ip t io~~s .n T ~ e l t n l ,hc Soat is called rnitslir,, p robably :n o r d of Nnhoatl


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therefore no t C hr is t ians, rnade long journeys in o rder LO trade wildplants and nninlals for salt, sllver coins, 2nd agricultural metal tools

Santa Eulnlia, in the Cochurnarbn mountains

PriestsI

T h e d i s t i~ l c t io ~ let\i .eeri the diurn al p i l e d dressed in whi te and th el~o ctu rlla l nes \vBo \\,ear lllnck may simply be t he result o f :I re~ldericyto discriminat e betrvcen categories 011 ihc & rounds of color differcnccs.IIo\vcver, it is also possible tha t tllc distinctio n is related to rlie differ-ellce between the \vhite vestments of the Dominicans and tlie black ofth e lay elerg).. I f this is rile case, as I am inclined to t hin k it is, therr it isn good indic ation of tbe level ofdetai l achieved ill histurical distinctio nsdcpasited in t hc hcar t .

Descrillr ions of the bishop I f 6 high l igh t the i r osten ta t ion , the i r mul-tiplc garlnellts of different colors, and the ir shiny shoe s. I t is not difli-cult to im agine why. No t only could bishops he seen in Ciudatl Real (SanCr ist ilba l dc Las Casas), the ep iscopnl sea t s ince the s i r teen th cen tury ;rhcy also made tours tilroJg11 villages (the viritnr, or "inspectionsx),trnvelitlg on a litter or, in rugged mountainous regions such as thosei ouncI in tlie Cli ~a pas ighlands, conveyed abo ut in sm all a~ernpo l l u i r s(a chair borne U I I i l ~ c ack of a porter, sustained by a turnpline), with t heLishop a n d his entire retinue carri ed by Indians. In the early se\.enteentlicen tury , Engl isl l t raveler Tl lo o~ as age recounted the fo llo \ving:

. .hl os t of tlie Ibishop's in culnc I: in thc fo rm of large offcrinps rcccircd nnnunlly f r o m the wain Indian towns, wherc tllcy so once a yell.to cnn hrm and augme nt rllc bishop's income, for lie will conlirm n oon< din d oes not offer at least four ~M/C T togetller \rich whi tc cancllewith :I I h o ~ have seen tlie mcalthiesr [Indians] offer [thc l,isl>ol,l aallit c candlc of n t least s ir poun tls in wei ght and a boar rtvo yar(ls Ion:and tirel\.c pennies wide, surroundetl from top to botroln w ith onc rcalcoins. EVCIIlic poor Indians arc proud to make this offe ring the chiefmastcrpiecc of th cir vanity. ( G g c 1987, 260-261)

Accordi ng to Xu n P ' in, tlie Jesuits are an entirely different cnse. IIon..ever, it appears unlikely that tlie Cancuqu eros liad any prolonged con-tac t wi th them n t any t ime in the i r past . For par t o f the se t~en tecn t l i nd

eighteenth ce~ , tu r i r r , herc was a Jesu i t s c l~ool n Ciudad Real , \~ r llerethe childrerl of Spaniards were taugllt moral tlleologg and gm~nnlar,aral since 19.58, tliere has bee11 a Jesuit ~ ~ ~ i s s i o nn t h e T z r l t a l village ofBncllaj611 (hln ure r 1983, 44+ that has extcnded its actir , ities to other'Ti.clml villages i r l the lowlands, a l though r l le )~ l larc ever reached Can-CIIC, s far as Lnorv. 111 any case, th e school existed only a short tirne,: ~ n dts relationship with the indigen ous populatiori nus st have heen min-i ll lal . T l lc r l~ issio t~s t o o r e ce l lt to e s p l a i ~ ~he precision wit11 nfhich theprofile of the Jesu i t lnb is delineated. O n tlle otller. I i;lnd, it is cert ai~ llyp ~ ~ s s i b l ehat awareness o f the no t en t i re ly good re la t io~~sl l ipetrveenthe O rde r of Drenchers (Don~ini cans ) nd the Com pan y of Jesos (Jesu-i ts) led to th e Domini can f r iars therusel \res del i ~~c at i ngor the Ind ianssueh a p recise por t n i t .

In genw111, judging hy t l iei r p ree ~ninen ce n t l ie hear t o f t lle I~ ld i -ans, the C atho l ic Churc h and i t s p r iests , o f al l the co lon ia l inst i tu t ions,have been the most powerful force that llas affected Cancuc Since the~ni dd l e f r lie s is tee nr l~ cn tury , when the Domini can f r iars estab l ishedtlicmsclvcs in Cancuc, un t i l the expulsion of the last p r iest a t t l ie end ofthe n ineteen th cen tury , the p resence of the c lergy has heen one of the111ost pa ll~ al~ leigns o f ind igenous suhonl inat ion to co lon i ;~ l ower : thealier l in the very l iear t of the cuo ~n ~u ni ty .u r i n g t h e t h r e e c e n tu ri e s o fs u b j u p t i o n to the Spanish C rown, p r iests were t he on ly Spaniards \vhomere leaally per~nit ced o reside in Indian villages. In fact, tlley actuallytook up residence in th e social cen ter o f the community , in a roo ln a t -tached to rlie cliorcli building that is still today know n as konrento f romthe Spanish a.ord corzucirro refer ring to "convent" o r "monastery." Inth e yrs of the Cancuqueros, this detail is particularly significant, be-cause as we shall see later, tlie church-along with the other buildingsaroun d tlie plaza, including tlie town hall-is the oumistakahle Ih e~r t flie c o ~ ~ l m u n i i yn d is simultaneously a place rcprod uci~ lg ower tha t i salien to it

T h e central regi on of Chiapas was finally conquered I ? t h c Sp a n -ian ls in 528 2nd f rom that molnel l t , the ind igenous po l~u la t io n ~ smtr ibutaries of the Spanish Crown. As n result, indigenous society wasg n < lu a l l yworn dowr.n hy disease and the exaction of tribute, but it \\.asnot radically tmnsforrue d (\i 'asserstrorn 1983, 24 , cscept llcrliaps bythe s wift me:ikening of tli Indian nobility, once it was partly deprivedof its former tr i1)ure (Rem sal 1088, 1243). In 1545, th e first continge ntuf Dom inica n friars arrived in Cliiapns, fresh from Castile, accompany-in g t h e l i r s t i )i sho p o f C h ia p a s , F ra y B a r to lo m i d e L a s C a s ~ s .t \\.as t he

1 4 Thc Jaguar and lhe Prici tfriars, tnking 1.efuge in th e mell-kno\vn division bet\veen th e "Rel)ublic i s s ti l l f n i rh f~ ~ l l ycprocluced. Th er e is a s~n al l laza \\ .i t11 t l ie church and


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a f Spaninrds" 2nd t l ie "Republie of Indiansn-ant1 bear ing respon sil~il-i tg for thi s second "repoblic"-\\ ,I10 took upon tl iemselves cl ~e ask o finit iating s vceping chaliges in indigeno us society and cul ture .

F m y A n t o n i o d e R c n ie s al , t h e D o m i n i c a n c l iro n ie l er w h o w o t cabout Chinpas in rhe secor~d ecade of the seventeentl i centurf i 111akingfrce us e of t ests contem poran coos \ \-it11 the events, rccurdcrl t11c follo\v-irrg desc ript ion of the f i rst s teps taken a t id rhe in i t ia l i~ i t rn t ions . r ior rothe friars ' arrival to t l ie province,

tllc 1ndi;lns liacd in their hc.~tI icndo m n rlifferenl vil la ~cs , irh diffcr-ejlt r~ arhes , ifferen t lords, dif feren t go-ar.ernn,cnrs, liffcrcnt idols, 2nddiffcrenr lang oages, 2nd all as diffcrcnt as uilc dom ain or k ingdoni frorltanothe r; anrl l lecausc rhe villages are nu t; ~r nn ge d,y srrccrs in d ncigh-borliood, as in Euro pe, there rvas one housc hcre, another on c therc,and gct anorher a distance w ag , with 110 pattern, and for tllis reesoll

plncc of l ive hundrcd or fe\vcr inhabitants, which in those t imes nn svery fen,, occupied o ne league of hn d, and this is \vhy rhey arc no t verysociable among tlicnisclvcs, ;111d earlier tile), were continoally involvedin na rs , factions, and disputes amo ng thcmrelv cs. (Remcsal 1988, 2:24l)

'T l ~ e n h c c l i ru n i c le r d e s c r i l ~ e show the f i rs t i.rtl7irrionc.1 n,e rc under-taken:

. Tlic p ri cs ls b c g a r~ t ry ro ~ n i t e r i l l a ~ c snd arrange tlicrn inrlic rn al~n cr f a sociable republic so that they nfould be niorc quicklynsrumbled at mass and sermon[s], and all tliat was ncccss rry for th cirgoi,cl-nment. For this porposc, first theg made a plan, so t l iat e~cr) . t l i in gno uld bc built the same. First rhe).established the churcll, larger orstusller dcpcnding on the nolnbcr ofin hnbita nts. Near to i t , thcy placedthe lxiest's housc, in front ufrli c church a "cry large plaza, diffcrenrfrozlt tlzc cerneter): oppo site the liouse o f the ~Si r l i rn to r council, nextto rhnt the i.iil, 2nd near tha t thc inn or bostel, \v l~er e isitors ~voul dfind lodging. T h e resr of fhe vi ll a~ e as dividcd by a rope, the srrcctsstr:i igl, r : lnd wide, [r unnin g] north to south , east , west, inn gril l . O n c cthis \\.as done , tlic most in iport ant pa rt remainetl, and rhis a : ~ akingtlle l~i dia ns anr ro move in. (Rcrncsal 1098,L:Ztl-244)

In C a r ic u c, t l ~ e yi na ll y rn ov ed i n t o t he to w n, ~ I t l i o ~ ~ p l ~an) una \va re ofthe exac t date . Today in t l i c cente r of town, pa rr of t h i s o r ipina l l ayor~r

o ~ l ~ o s i r ~t the 10\1,11 hall, wirli its jail. I-Iowever, the ~riis sion;i ries eft noniark beyond the coril i t ics of this recta ngu lar space. Be)*ond it , rl ierc arcno lhlocks nor s t rec rs , nor any semblance of gr id . Tl ie houses xlr as fz~ra j>: lr t f rom each othe r 2nd pos i t ioned as randomly as in t l i c o ld days ofl i e : i t l i e ~ i i s ~ ~ i ,

I lemcsa l goes on to de ta i l the a t tempts t l i a t were t i l ade ro changehabi t s , especia lly rhose re la ted to the appearance o l hc body, in regan lto nli icli t he f: i thcrs plnyed th e role of "morhers":

I'hus tlicsc lpricsts, in orde r ro hy hands o n tlre Indians, who tvithdifficulty, seeing tlieni as from th e Spanish n;nion, pcrsunded th cm-selves to believe that s 'l~ athe) wcrc doing LO thcm was for the loacrhcy had for them atid for their own good, they act~.d s if they rveretlieir mo the rs. The , comber1 and cu t tlrcir hair, they clipper1 rllcir nail s,iliey~ vaslied lieir Lice and body, rlxy drcsscd rhcm in shi rrs, they putllatetl p3ntdonns or brceches on rllenr, thcy fnstened the clothes, theyIhelterl r l~ c~ n ,hey taught them io tailor ud sew nor diil they neglectto tell the111 lio a to dirchar'c their bodily req uirem ents decently, tlleybuilt thern l~ouscs,licy rew p ln ns for r l ~ c ~ n ,l~ ey ot e rre r) , t lr i~~ge ~ d yfor them. (Rem cs~ l 988, I : t8 t )

All t l ie ivli i le , t l ie missionaries did nnt overlook [lie reconstruction oft h e hc lr r, for they wcrc convinced char this rvas ivliere the principal o b-s tac le ro t rue convcrs ion could be found. So [ he fa thers :

. n t c ~ c d s if into thick rvootllnntl full of underbr ush slid brambles,lo open a trnil :and path th erc, to rem ove the bru sh, plow it, cultivate it,;and to rn ;~kche land rhat was so rocky, dry, anrl barren , like the Iheartsof thcsc iniserzble [creatures], beeolne fertile with the preach ing o f tlieGospels :~ nd ring fortl i a plcnriful harvcst of faith and p o d urorks t l iat\vould bring them to everlasring 1ifc.Thcy were l ik es few ertre ~n elyperfect joiners w ho crirercd ro dest roy tliese hard an d shapeless hits, ri n t rn d ~ l c cn ro t l l e ~ nhc forrnof Cl i r i s t ians ;~r id f courteous lucr i :andl x n l >l c i\.ing in republican harmon y; and bow well they have :~chievedthis end, cspcriencu sho ~vc d s many years ago. (Remesal 1988, I:4iZ)

Ne\.crtheless, today Can cuq uero s sti l l prefer to wear thcir 11.1ir and n ailslong. Ins tead of t rouse rs and shi r t s (except when worn for doing choresor a s t l i e ga rb \ tor11by "captains" of fesriwls), they dress in tunics , 2nd

1 6 The Jaguar and the Priest nimism r History 1 7


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cot ton c lo th ing cont inues to be woven o n t l le p re-Hisp nt~ ic ackstrapIOOIII.'As for the lleart and th e success of its "fertilization," Renies:il gotahead of himself, because even two and three centuries later, Cancucp~ r is l i r iest3 cont in ried lament ing again and again over the same prob-lem: the bardness of tlie Indian's heart.

'The gradual change s in tlie priests' att itud e toi\.ard th e Indians (lidnot differ substantially froni what occurred in other areas during tliev ieeregal per iod , a l t l~oughhe tempos are somewhat d i f feren t . Dur ingtlle sisteentll ce ntury, th e Indians were, in th e eyes of the D omirlicans-th e m a jo r it y o f n ~ l i o n ~rrived from Sp ain and s ter e strongl y influencedI ? Lns Casas-cre atures with out will, "meek sheep,' ' tile passive stageoil a. liicli tlie new episode of tlie age-old strugglc beta.een G od a~lcl liedev il i s p layed ou t . T he t r iumphs of the f r iars ' mission of eva~ ~ge l iz a t i o~ iwere ill God ' s do ing : "This is t lie f inger o fGo d. Th is is His hnnd . Th isis I-lis porr-er, becaose it is inlpossible that this life be lived without Hispersonal aid and this doctrine be imp arted \vitllout Hi s personal liglit,"said ail astonished inspec tor of the o rder repeatedly rrdiile on a tour ofC l l i ; i l ~ : ~ w oerify progress in evangelization (Reinesal 1988, ] :?I?). Incontrast, the devil lurked behind each of the friars' failures: "This wasthe devil, n~ or ta l llclnp of the liealth of souls and much 111ote o of tlioseof tliose Incli:l~ls, ~liom ie had lheld in thra ll for so inan y ye:lrs, an d :I[)-pear ing to t hem wliere they were to en ter the Ch urch t o p :~r t ic ipate nGod ' s most d iv ine sacraments it was that of baptism, lle was so suc-cessful in ~le fan iin g i m and in placing I-Iim in sucli low repute in tliec .Ls of the Indians t hat tlikre was scarcely anyone who nislicd to re cei r .~I -I inl , :~ nd hey rr .ould soone r have their eyes str uck ou t than give overoile of their clrildren to be baptized" (Rernesal 1988, L:488). T l ~ e evil"gl;ew so fo~ld" f his little tr iumphs that lie rvas inspired to developnew ruses. Amo ng thco i is an a t tem pt to d iscred i t the f r iars by making"priests" appear :lr night, rvandering between t he Indians' houscs, as tlieIndians tlie~nselv es o~lipla ined Renlesal 1988, 1:494)-an i~rc iden thatcould be carly evidence of the activity of a pile.

c\fter rouglily 1600, the priests begin to concede grcater initiative onthe p ~l rt f the Indians. I . ittle by little, the province \\.as dotted with tlleciiscooery ofepis orlcs of idolatry, mainl y tlie cul t devoted to "idols" hid-den in c ams o r inc iden ts o f "nagual isn~ ."T h e f a th e r s t e n de d t o i n t c rp r e tthese occurrences not as the result of a continuity in native religiouspractices, 1)ut mtlier as regtessive lapses, r inged \\pith d en ~o ni celatioilsto ivliicli th e Indians inclined of their ow n volition. Thes e practices, or~ x r l i a p siniply tlie repression of tlic~i~,ncreased in tlie second 11llf ofth e ser:ente enth ce nt ur y (\%'asscrstrom 1983, 96-98; Arn111oni 1992).

Perhaps in tune rritli the zeal of tlie I iqu isit ion deployed years beforeby Bishops Bravo de la Serna and Nui?et. de la Vega, tlie first decade ofthe e igh teen th cen t ury saw a new sh if t in Church- Ind ian re la t ions inthe highlands region. iMiraculous apparitions of images of the Virginor o f Catho l ic sa in ts began to c rop up in some Ind ian v i l lages, espe-cially~Tzotril speaki~lgnes. As a result, cult associations, with var yingdegrees of formalit); quickly sprang up around thes e visions. In mostcases, tlie Inrlians tr ied to obtain ecclesiastical recognition for their nemcult, a, liich was denier1 to them, while parishes dismantled the sites ofrrsorsliil, , usually located outside tlie center of th e cornnlo nity (S im in ez1031, 2 5 i - 2 8 2 . Finally , a new appar i tion of theVi rg in in l i l in th e vil-l ag e of C a i~ c u ctself, once agnin discredited by c hurch officials, sparkeda major Indion rebellion.

I will only provide a briefzcco unt of tlie events liere, given that the yIlnve a l r e : ~ l ~eceived considerable attentio n in the liistor iogm pl~g fC:hi:~pas? Wth C~I ICUCs its logistical and m ilitaryc entet, the re11ellio11s11re:id to tliir t~z illages in the province of Cliiapas, includ ing Tzeltal- ,Txotzil- , and Chol-spe:lking coni~iiunities,which managed to raise a~ iz a b l e r m y , a l t l io l~ g hI poor ly armed one. D ur in g t lie opening weeksof the con flict, tlie rebels attacked ill g ges and haciendas inhabited bysome Spa11i:lrds and "castes" (a term referring to a \vide variety of mes-tizo peol~les),who w ere killed, rvllile a.olnen i\.ere taken c;~ pti ve. n f;lct,they ended up t:iking almost complete control of the region. CiudadReal, tlie provincial capital, where t he Spa niards llad du g tlieii~selves n,came u~ lde r er ious th rea t, un t i l a l ia r t ia l defeat of the rcbels a t I Iu ist lnhricfly detained th eir assault on tlie city. At the s ame tim e, th e 111diansorganiz ed theniselves politically. Tlie leaders of the movem ent, mos t ofn.11ont l~ a d een Indian s associated with tlie Cliurcli-sacrisrins, choirte:ichcrs, priests'ste\vards, and tlic like-some of whom could read andwrite, adoptcd :I q~lnsi-ecclesiasticd ecking o rder, undoubterlly reflect-ing tlie Castilian scheme of political hierarchy they were most familior\vitll. Th ey nan led themselves bishops, with vicars for each village, and~ier form etl he proper liturgical duties: nlnsses, coi~fes sions, aptisms,marriages. Tlie army, commanded by Indian captains, rvas also org:l-nizcd along the lines of th e Spanish nod el. T h e \\4iole movement wasd irec ted , f rom Can cnc, by a se lect g roup of people connected t o t l ieshri ne of tlie Virgil) tha t had appeared. I-Icr messages were interpreter1Ihy the young wolnan \vho had first discovered her, who ha(l taken tocalling herself i\ ' lnria de la Candela rin. I-Ion,e\,er, the reh ellio~r id n otlast long . Roughly four months l f ter i t s tar ted , Spanish t roops f ron iGuatcnlala (led in person by the president of tlie Aurlicncia, the S panish

iaa


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''pJapO-L .a-1Os


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r a n k a n d p o s it i on o f a l l t h e s u l ~ j e c ts v h o a d a n y t h i n g :lt all to do withthe case (th crc ivere fifteen of t lletn). I le was f urth er instructecl to takethei r statements (in lvrit ing) on e by one , asking t l le~ll or all the detailssurr oun ding the event , a s wel l as the grounds t l ~e y ad for the i r dec l :~-mt ions , and s o on and so for th , t aking specia l ca re tha t Rosa \~ ; i sque t .should not come in t o contac t wi tl l he r sui tor . On ce th i s had been corn-ple ted , he was to send th e re sul t s of h i s i~ lqui r ie s o th e b i shop i s so011 aspossiOlc unde r seal.

h y e l ic iano [ l id a s ins t ruc ted. H e hea rd lengthy s ra te tnents , u~hic l l ,once wri t t en down , he read back to the wi tnesses up ro thr ee t imes forthem to ra t i fy , a l though they did no t s ign th cn ~, s they did not knoxvlioir to write . Al thoug h the testim onies rer.ealed t l t :~t he rnarriecl couple~le tes tcd ach othe r and tha t t l i c a l leged deceased was a s t rong s \v i tn-It ler, that mas all they revealed. N o f urth er l ight \bras shed o n rhe matter.

Fr ay Fe l ic iano marr ied the rvonlal l on July 21, "b ut al vays nit11 rile sus-pic ion tha t the l~ nsb and las t aken f light. " A t the hegino ing of August ,he rece ived anoth e r miss ive from the bi shop dec la r ing the n la rr iage un-authorized and te l l ing him he had to continue with his invcstig;~tions.A I I I O I I ~the r t l l ings , he was told he had to f ind out whe the r Rosa hadtnade any "show of e lnot ion, or of pa in . . whe ther she had compla inc rlto the jus t ices , or to o t he r Indians ; or , on the conrm ry, had, to the adm i-ia t ion of he r ne igl~hor s , emained qui te unmoved by the whole inc ident ;: ~ n df :lt the titlte of rile event, she already had a rel:~tionslt ip f frierld-ship xrith the suitor. . . . Ros a i s ta tement was to be \ ri tnesscd, and th eo t h e r 1 n d i a n s h a d t o m a k e f r e s l ~ ta tements . Wh a t i s more , Rosa wouldl la v c t o " l ~ e eld in a secure place, unde r strict super vision of th e \ril lagejustices, as is the c ustom in cases where t her e is simil; tr risk of abscond-ing. . . . Fray Fe l iciano spent a l l of Augusr taking down new s ta tements ,before sending his find ings to Ciudad Real. In Septem ber, he received oIle\rse t of questions to put to th e parries involved: establish the relatiot~.ships of k inship and fr iendship tha t b ou ~t d hem a l l, and recognize a l lysentitnental t ics t l icy might have. In the meantime, Rosa was to tenlainin th e cha rge of sonle l~ol lc s t n t l i an wom an, because uit t il t he w here -ahouts of her prcvidus husband could be ascertained, a second weddingrras ou t of t l lc ques t ion. As for the sui tor who ha l l spru ng up ov ernight ,a s it were , the b i shop wro te tha t d i sc re t ion was to be ese rc ised in th esca rc l~ or a new \ \ ,oman for h im : r coitld sorely not be hard to find an-ot l le r one in thevi l lage .

So th e hearings contin ued, even t l1oug11 it was becom ing m ore : lndmore di ff icul t to ext rac t a lly new informat ion. Twice tnore , correspon-

c lence na s c sc l~ ange dwith the bishop. Fmy Feliciano Garcia 's final let-cer concluded with these xvords: . . . a t ~ dhus I beg tha t your p ie ty andl~ xi en ce toop to forgive \vI ia teve r f :~ lult s l~ese indings may l~a vc , or I; I I ~ f s c ; ~ r ~ tsperie nce, a11d of IIOIIC at all \ ~ I I I I it COI I I ~So paperu,ork ,and I am of the opinion tha t a t r i a l ad inf in i tom i s much more l ike lyt h ~ n y ev e r s u c c e ed i n g i n co m p l et e ly t i dy i n g n p t h e i ~ ~ ~ ~ e s t i g a t i o n s . "

'The plirase, . . cases xvhere th ere is sitnil ar risk of abscond ing," ispa rt icola r ly revea l ing in th i s e seharlge . At t lt :t r r i~ t~ e ,l t e re la t ionshipbc t \vce l~ r ie s t s and the Indians under the i r sway was no longer one ofprotec t ion, i f indeed it everlwas. Far from bein g a region of refu ge, givent h a t haven ~ 5 1 5 I IO ~C asily found in the Spanish cit ies whcrc one couldIISS u n ~ ~ o t i c e d ,a l lcuc I lad become a of confin c~nenr; ndinl l s donot jus t l eaoc Cancoc , they f lee from i t . T h e sour i rony of rile h i s ho p o rhis secretary n41o assumed that Rosa 's suitor \vould encoullter 11 dif-ficulty in finding other women to marrp is certainly justified, given that\ r; on le o g re a t ly o u t ~ ~ u m b e r e den, because ~ abi tua lly d impp earedio dodge tax cha rges , amon g othe r reasons .

I n 1821, Chiapas won independence from rile S p a ni s h C ro wn , a n -nexing i t se l f short ly af te rsva rd to Mexico in 1824. Th ese events do no tseem to have substan

pitarch_the jaguar and the priest

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