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Dr.Y.Kalyan Kumar, Lecturer in Physical Education, SJGC,Kurnool, India | 368

PHYSICAL FITNESS

Physical fitness : It is the ability of an individual to carry out his daily routine without getting

tired and having extra amount of energy to meet any kind of unforeseen emergency.

Wellness : It is the ability to live life fully, with vitality and meaning. It is dynamic and multi-

dimensional. Wellness incorporates

have derived, to their full benefit. They may need to modify their habits and lifestyle for better

hygiene.

Health Education is of great importance for everyone, since it provides knowledge about

personal and environmental hygiene. People learn to keep their body and surroundings clean

and clear from dust and germs. This helps in preventing any communicable diseases.

Health education provides awareness about the communicable diseases, their prevention and

cure. This helps in controlling the spread of diseases like Malaria, AIDS, Swine flu,

Tuberculosis and more.

Health education helps us to become aware of the dietary requirements of our body, and what

one needs to intake in appropriate quantities. The caloric intake depends on age, sex, and nature

of work of a person. School children are given nutritious diet under the scheme ‘mid day meal’

to meet the required balanced diet.

Health Education helps detect diseases at an early stage. Physical deformities/ diseases/like

poor eye sight, hearing disabilities, malnutrition may be detected at an early stage. Once

detected in time, people can be informed about corrective methods.

Postural correction can help avoid a lot of

problems like back pain, hunched back, knee joints pain, etc. Corrective posture and regular

exercises help us a lot.

physical, emotional, spiritual, intellectual, interpersonal, social and environmental dimensions.

Physical fitness and wellness is required for proper growth and development. It enables the

body’s physiological systems to function more efficiently and smoothly. Physical fitness is not

only one of the most important keys to a healthy body but also the basis of dynamic and

creative intellectual activity.

(i) It improves the quality of life. In our daily life a physically fit person can manage the

routine work efficiently and without getting fatigue.

(ii) It helps in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. A physically fit person is less prone to

coronary heart diseases.

(iii) It improves the efficiency of cardiovascular system.

(iv) Helps in harmonious growth and development.

(v) Fulfils proper nutritional requirement.

(vi) It helps in better management of stress and tension.

(vii) Delays the aging process.


(viii) Quick recovery after injury or illness. Recovery from fatigue is also faster and quicker.

(ix) Improvement of motor abilities. Our strength, speed, flexibility, endurance, and

coordination are improved to a great extent.

(x) Better quality of work. It regulates and improves overall body functions. Response becomes

more accurate therefore less wastage of energy.

(xi) Better functioning of system leading to good health and optimum development of

body.

(xii) Attain good shape, size, structure and controlled weight. We can also remove postural

deformity through it.

Physical fitness is a state of health and well-being and, more specifically, the ability to perform

aspects of sports, occupations and daily activities. Physical fitness is generally achieved through

proper nutrition, moderate-vigorous physical exercise, and sufficient rest.

(HEALTH - Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. The

World Health Organization (WHO) defined human health in its broader sense in its 1948

constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the

absence of disease or infirmity." This definition has been subject to controversy, in particular as

lacking operational value, the ambiguity in developing cohesive health strategies, and because

of the problem created by use of the word "complete", which makes it practically impossible to

achieve. Other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates

health and personal satisfaction.)

(Well-being, wellbeing, or wellness is a general term for the condition of an individual or

group. A high level of well-being means in some sense the individual or group's condition is

positive.)

An alternative approach focuses on avoiding definitions, which demand precise descriptions of

the term. Instead, following a three-year global conversation, convened by Alex Jadad, "health"

has been conceptualized as the ability to adapt and self-manage when individuals and

Components of Physical Fitness and Wellness, Communities face physical, mental or social

challenges[Before the industrial revolution, fitness was defined as the capacity to carry out the

day’s activities without undue fatigue. However, with automation and changes in lifestyles

physical fitness is now considered a measure of the body's ability to function efficiently and

effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hypo kinetic diseases, and to

meet emergency situations.


Fitness

Fitness is defined as the quality or state of being fit. Around 1950, perhaps consistent with the

Industrial Revolution and the treatise of World War II, the term "fitness" increased in western

vernacular by a factor of ten. Modern definition of fitness describe either a person or machine's

ability to perform a specific function or a holistic definition of human adaptability to cope with

various situations. This has led to an interrelation of human fitness and attractiveness which has

mobilized global fitness and fitness equipment industries. Regarding specific function, fitness is

attributed to person who possess significant aerobic or anaerobic ability, i.e. strength or

endurance. A well-rounded fitness program will improve a person in all aspects of fitness,

rather than one, such as only cardio/respiratory endurance or only weight training.

A comprehensive fitness program tailored to an individual typically focuses on one or more

specific skills, and on age or health-related needs such as bone health. Many sources also cite

mental, social and emotional health as an important part of overall fitness. This is often

presented in textbooks as a triangle made up of three points, which represent physical,

emotional, and mental fitness. Physical fitness can also prevent or treat many chronic health

conditions brought on by unhealthy lifestyle or aging.

Working out can also help some people sleep better and possibly alleviate some mood disorders

in certain individuals.

Definitions

David R.Lamb: Physical fitness is defined herein as the capacity to meet the present and

potential physical challenges of life with success.”

AAHPER: Fitness is the state which characterizes the degree to which the person is liable to

function.

Webster Encyclopaedia: It is the ability of a person to do daily routine work without fatigue,

moreover to participate in playful activities and still reserve enough capacity to meet any

emergency.

Dr.Kroles: Physical fitness is successful adaptation to the stresses of one’s lifestyle.

Kirchner: Fitness is that state which charecterizes the degree to which the person is able

function. Fitness is an individual matter. It implies of each person to live most effectively with


his potential. Ability to function depends upon physical, mental, emotional and social

components of fitness, all of which are related to each other and mutually independent.

Nixon: Physical fitness refers to the organic capacity of the individual to perform the normal

task of daily living without under tiredness, or fatigue having reserves of strength and energy

available to meet any emergency demands suddenly placed upon him.

Bruco Balle: Physical fitness depends on the bio dynamic potential which is composed of

functional and his metabolic potentials.

Edward Borty: Physical fitness implies that the body systems are capable for carrying on their

activities satisfactorily.

J.F.Kennedy: Physical fitness is not only one of the most important keys to healthy body; it is

the basis of dynamic and creative intellectual activity.

Developing research has demonstrated that many of the benefits of exercise are mediated

through the role of skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ. That is, contracting muscles release

multiple substances known as myokines which promote the growth of new tissue, tissue repair,

and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various

inflammatory diseases.

Activity guidelines

The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans was created by the Office of Disease

Prevention and Health Promotion. This publication suggests that all adults should avoid

inactivity to promote good health mentally and physically. For substantial health benefits, adults

should participate in at least 150 minutes (two hours and 30 minutes) a week of moderate-

intensity, or 75 minutes (1 hour and 15 minutes) a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical

activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity.

Aerobic activity should be performed in episodes of at least 10 minutes, and preferably, it

should be spread throughout the week. For additional and more extensive health benefits, adults

should increase their aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes (5 hours) a week of moderate-

intensity, or 150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity. Additional health benefits

are gained by engaging in physical activity beyond this amount. Adults should also do muscle-

strengthening activities that are moderate or high intensity and involve all major muscle groups

on 2 or more days a

week, as these activities provide additional health benefits.


Training

Specific or task-oriented fitness is a person's ability to perform in a specific activity with a

reasonable efficiency: for example, sports or military service. Specific training prepares athletes

to perform well in their sport.

Examples are:

100 m sprint: in a sprint the athlete must be trained to work anaerobically throughout the race,

an example of how to do this would be interval training.

Century Ride: cyclists must be prepared aerobically for a bike ride of 100 miles or more.

Middle distance running: athletes require both speed and endurance to gain benefit out of this

training. The hard working muscles are at their peak for a longer period of time as they are

being used at that level for longer period of time.

Marathon: in this case the athlete must be trained to work aerobically and their endurance must

be built-up to a maximum. (The marathon is a long-distance running race with an official

distance of 42.195 kilometres (26.219 miles, or 26 miles 385 yards), usually run as a road race.

The event was instituted in commemoration of the fabled run of the Greek soldier Pheidippides,

a messenger from the Battle of Marathon to Athens, who reported the victory. The marathon

was one of the original modern Olympic events in 1896, though the distance did not become

standardized until 1921.)

Olympic marathon distances

Year Distance (km) Distance (miles)

1896 40 24.85

1900 40.26 25.02

1904 40 24.85

1906 41.86 26.01

1908 42.195 26.22

1912 40.2 24.98

1920 42.75 26.56

1924 onward 42.195 26.22


Glycogen and "the wall"(Hitting the wall)

Carbohydrates that a person eats are converted by the liver and muscles into glycogen for

storage. Glycogen burns rapidly to provide quick energy. Runners can store about 8 MJ or

2,000 kcal worth of glycogen in their bodies, enough for about 30 km/18–20 miles of running.

Many runners report that running becomes noticeably more difficult at that point. When

glycogen runs low, the body must then obtain energy by burning stored fat, which does not burn

as readily. When this happens, the runner will experience dramatic fatigue and is said to "hit the

wall". The aim of training for the Marathon, according to many coaches, is to maximize the

limited glycogen available so that the fatigue of the "wall" is not as dramatic. This is

accomplished in part by utilizing a higher percentage of energy from burned fat even during the

early phase of the race, thus conserving glycogen.

Many fire fighters and police officers undergo regular fitness testing to determine if they are

capable of the physically demanding tasks required of the job.[16] Members of armed forces

will often be required to pass a formal fitness test – for example soldiers of the US Army must

be able to pass the Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT).

Hill sprints: requires a level of fitness to begin with, the exercise is particularly good for the

leg muscles. The army often trains doing mountain climbing and races.

Plyometric and isometric exercises: An excellent way to build strength and increase muscular

endurance. Sand running creates less strain on leg muscles than running on grass or concrete.

This is because sand collapses beneath the foot softening the landing. Sand training is an

effective way to lose weight and become fit as its proven you need more effort (one and a half

times more) to run on the soft sand than on a hard surface.

Aqua jogging is a form of exercise that decreases strain on joints and bones. The water supplies

minimal impact[clarification needed] to muscles and bones which is good for those recovering

from injury. Furthermore, the resistance of the water as one jogs through it provides an

enhanced effect of exercise (the deeper you are the greater the force needed to pull your leg

through).

Swimmers perform squats prior to entering the pool in a U.S. military base, 2011

Swimming: Squatting exercise helps in enhancing a swimmer's start.

In order for physical fitness to benefit the health of an individual, an unknown response in the

person called a stimulus will be triggered by the exertion. When exercise is performed with the

correct amount of intensity, duration and frequency, a significant amount of improvement can

occur. The person may overall feel better but the physical effects on the human body take


weeks or months to notice and possibly years for full development. For training purposes,

exercise must provide a stress or demand on either a function or tissue. To continue

improvements, this demand must eventually increase little over an extended period of time.

This sort of exercise training has three basic principles: overload, specificity, and progression.

These principles are related to health but also enhancement of physical working capacity.

High intensity interval training

High intensity interval training (HIIT) consists of repeated, short bursts of exercise, completed

at a high level of intensity. These sets of intense activity are followed by a predetermined time

of rest or low intensity activity. Studies have shown that exercising at a higher intensity has

increased cardiac benefits for humans, compared to when exercising at a low or moderate level.

When your workout consists of an HIIT session, your body has to work harder to replace the

oxygen it lost. Research into the benefits of HIIT have revealed that it can be very successful

for reducing fat, especially around the abdominal region. Furthermore, when compared to

continuous moderate exercise, HIIT proves to burn more calories and increase the amount of fat

burned post- HIIT session. Lack of time is one of the main reasons stated for not exercising;

HIIT is a great alternative for those people because the duration of an HIIT session can be as

short as 10 minutes, making it much quicker than conventional workouts.

Aerobic exercise

Cardiorespiratory fitness can be measured using VO2 max, a measure of the amount of oxygen

the body can uptake and utilize. Aerobic exercise, which improves cardiorespiratory fitness,

involves movement that increases the heart rate to improve the body's oxygen consumption.

This form of exercise is an important part of all training regiments ranging from professional

athletes to the everyday person. Also, it helps increase stamina.

A female jogging at a beach in U.S. for maintaining/improving her physical fitness.

Examples are:

Jogging – Running at a steady and gentle pace. This form of exercise is great for maintaining

weight.

Elliptical Training – This is a stationary exercise machine used to perform walking, or running

without causing excessive stress on the joints. This form of exercise is perfect for people with

achy hips, knees and ankles.

Walking – Moving at a fairly regular pace for a short, medium or long distance.

Treadmill training – Many treadmills have programs set up that offer numerous different

Workout plans. One effective cardiovascular activity would be to switch between running and


walking. Typically warm up first by walking and then switch off between walking for three

minutes and running for three minutes.

Swimming – Using the arms and legs to keep oneself afloat and moving either forwards or

backwards. This is a good full body exercise for those who are looking to strengthen their core

while improving cardiovascular endurance.

Cycling – Riding a bicycle typically involves longer distances than walking or jogging. This is

another low stress exercise on the joints and is great for improving leg strength.

Sprinting - Running short distances as fast as possible

PHYSICAL FITNESS

MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF PHYICAL FITNHESS AND WELLNESS

There are different views of different physical educationistsregarding physican fitness . Some

say that it is related to work . For some good physique may rflect fitness, for a doctor it is the

proper functioning of all body system . In fact it is a term with wide meaning . It is capacity of

an individual to do his day's routine work effectively and efficiently without undue fatique .

after the work is over, he is able to recover fast and quicker.

The level of physcal fitness varies from individual to individuals . It varies with nature of work,

size of individuals, shape, structure, age , sex ,adaptability, sports or other activity etc .Physical

fitness requires efficient motor mechanism {movemetnt of body}. efficient organic mechanism

{physiological functioning} and efficient mental functioning {psychological setup}. A fit

individuals possesses sufficient reserve energy to meet emergencies.

PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL FITNESS DEVELOPMENT

Principles of physical education are the scientific and systamatic approach to improve physical

fitness . these guide us that how one should proceed to develop further . These are :-

(1) Regular Exercise . one should do exercise daily and do it regularly without any long break .

(2) Proper Loading :- Athlete or player should be over -loading properly to improve further .

(3) Scientific & specific training :-One should follow scientific & specfic training of exercise

acc. to requirement of the activty .

(4) Individual difference :- This is to be considered properly because every one is different

frome each other .


COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS AND WELLNESS

There are five physical fitness components . these are directly interrelated . eachj components

has its own importance in different games and sports .

These are (1) Strenght (2) Endurance (3) Speed (4) Flxebelity (5)Co-ordination/agility.

(1) Strenght:-It is a ability to overcome resistence . Strenght can b defined as the amount of

force a muscle can exert .

(2) Speed:-It is the abilty to perform movements as faster as rate . In other words it is the ability

to move the body as fast as possible .

(3) Endurance:- It is the ability to sustain or continue activity . In other words it is the ability to

resist fatique

(4) Flexibility:- It is the ability of joints to move in max. rainge . In the other words flexibility is

the ability to execute movements with greater amplitude or range .

(5) Co-ordination Ability or Agility:-It is the ability of the body to perform movements with

perfection and effeciency.

The six skill related components of fitness: agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time,

and speed.

Understanding the fitness Components on a deeper level. ...

Agility.

Balance.

Power.

Reaction Time.

Coordination.

Speed.

Skill Related Fitness Components or Motor Skill Performance Related Fitness related to the

quality of one’s movement skill.

o Fitness is defined as good health, especially good physical condition resulting from exercise

and proper nutrition.


o Physical fitness is divided into five health and six skill-related components. Skill or

performance related fitness involves skills that will enhance one’s performance in athletic or

sport events. Health-related fitness involves skills that enable one to become and stay physically

healthy. (Cardiovascular fitness, Muscular Endurance, Muscular Strength, Flexibility, and Body

Composition)

Six Components of Skill-Related Fitness

There are six skill-related fitness components: agility, balance, coordination, speed, power, and

reaction time. Skilled athletes typically excel in all six areas.

Agility- the ability to change direction quickly while the body is in motion. For example,

changing directions to hit a tennis ball. (Football & Basketball)

Balance-the ability to keep an upright posture while standing still or moving. For example, in-

line skating & stretching.

o Static Balance- the ability to maintain one’s equilibrium in a fixed position.

o Dynamic Balance- the ability to maintain one’s equilibrium while the body is in motion.

Equilibrium- a state in which opposing forces or actions are balanced so that one is not stronger

or greater than the other.

Coordination- the ability to use your senses together with your body parts, or to use two or

more body parts together. For example, dribbling a basketball. Using hands and eyes together is

called hand-eye coordination.

Power- the ability to perform one maximum effort in a short period of time as possible. For

example, fullbacks in football muscling their way through other players and speeding to

advance the ball and volleyball players getting up to the net and lifting their bodies high into the

air.

Reaction Time-the ability to react or respond quickly to what you hear, see, or feel. For

example, an athlete quickly coming off the blocks early in a swimming or track relay, or

stealing a base in baseball.

Speed- the ability to perform a movement or cover a distance in a short period of time. Many

sports rely on speed to gain advantage over your opponents. For example, a basketball player

making a fast break to perform a lay-up, a tennis player moving forward to get to a drop shot,

and a football player out running the defense to receive a pass.


There is no universally agreed upon definition of physical fitness and of its components.

Definitions for physical fitness include the following:

A set of attributes that people have or achieve that relate to their ability to perform physical

activity (Howley & Franks, 2003).

A set of attributes, primarily respiratory and cardiovascular, relating to the ability to perform

tasks requiring expenditure of energy (Stedman’s Concise Medical Dictionary for the Health

Professions, 2001).

The ability to perform moderate to vigorous levels of physical activity without undue fatigue

and the capability of maintaining such ability throughout life (American College of Sports

Medicine, 1998).

More contemporary terminology has defined physical fitness as contributing to either health-

related fitness or skill/performance-related fitness. Manitoba’s combined PE/HE curriculum

emphasizes the health-related components of fitness—that is, the physical and physiological

components of fitness that have a more direct impact on health status. Health-related fitness

may be defined as follows:

The state of physical and physiological characteristics that define the risk levels for the

premature development of diseases or morbid conditions presenting a relationship with a

sedentary mode of life (Bouchard & Shephard, 1994).

The health-related fitness components include

• muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility

• body composition

• cardiovascular endurance

In contrast, skill/performance-related fitness relates to those attributes that are important for

performance outcomes in specific sports, movements, or occupations. The skill/performance-

related fitness components include agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and

speed.

Factors that determine the level of an individual’s physical fitness are multidimensional and

hierarchical. In general, the determinants of physical fitness may be classified as

• genetically determined (influenced by maturation and heredity)

• behaviourally determined (influenced by physical activity, diet, and other habits)


• environmentally determined

Principles of Fitness Development

Physical fitness development is a vital component of Manitoba’s combined PE/HE curriculum.

It is, therefore, important for educators to understand the fundamental principles that govern

adaptation to physical activity and ultimately lead to the development of physical fitness.

Although these principles are well accepted for the adult population, keep in mind that it is

currently unknown how well they conform to the training response of children and youth.

Nevertheless, a review of these principles helps educators understand how children may

respond to physical activity.

1. PHYSICAL FITNESS or CO ORDINATION

2. TECHNICAL SKILL 3.TACTICAL

4. EDUCATION

A) Beliefs(నమ్మ కాలు), values(విలువలు), motives (ఉదే్దశా్య లు), interests(అభిరుచులు),

attitudes(వైఖరులు)

B) Cognitive abilities (అభిజా్ఞ సామ్ర్ధ్య ా లు) e.g. Perception (అవగాహన), thinking(ఆలోచన),

memory etc

C) emotional abilities (భావోదే్ద గ సామ్ర్ధ్య ా లు) e.g. Control of Emotions.

D) Personality traits (వా క్తగిత లక్షణాలు) e.g. regularity, Sincerity, hard work

E) habits(అలవాట్లు) e.g. habits of eating, sleeping, hygiene, spending of leisure time etc.

Athletes need multilateral physical development as a training base as well as overall physical

fitness.

The purpose is to increase endurance and strength, develop speed, improve flexibility, and

refine coordination, thus achieving a harmoniously developed body.

Characteristics of Sports Training Components

The ability to develop a high power output in single action during competition such as kicking

in soccer an jumping in basketball (force).

The ability to perform prolonged exercise (endurance).


The ability to sprint (speed).

The ability to exercise at high intensity which are the basis on acceleration, maximum velocity

and multidirectional change of movement (agility).

Structure of Sports Performance

Somatic factors

Fitness factors

Technical factors

Tactical factors

Psychical factors

TRAINING LOAD & RECOVERY

Sports training consists of activities and movements which generally lead to high fatigue.

Fatigue (అలసట) is the direct product of load caused by physical activity or exercise. Fatigue

is essential for starting the adaptation (అనుసరణ) process in the organism (జీవి) which

ultimately lead to increase in performance capacity.

Size of load

The size of load is understood as a multi-dimensional magnitude which is created by load

characteristics:

Exercise intensity

Exercise volume

Rest interval

Way of rest

Increase the size of the load can be in several ways:

Increase of volume

Increase of intensity


TRAINING & COMPETITION DEMANDS

A) Quality(నాణా త) of execution of the exercise

B) Type of Physical exercise or Training means

C) Intensity(తీవ్వత) of Load

D) Volume (పరిమాణం)of Load

The above given factors are also called load factors or Load components.

From this point of view the total of training and competition demand is also referred to as

External Load.

INTENSITY

Intensity exercise is characterized by a degree of effort. (There is a difference do 100 push-ups

in 1 hour or 20 minutes). Exercise intensity is on the outside manifested as movement velocity,

movement frequency, size of resistance being overcome; and it is related to the way of

performance energy coverage.

We distinguish the ways energy coverage:

Maximum intensity (phosphagen system) (ATP – CP).

Sub maximal intensity (fast glycolysis) (LA).

Moderate intensity (slow glycolysis) (LA – O2).

Low intensity (slow glycolysis, fat oxidation) (O2).

Hear rate indirectly reflects load intensity (heart rate increases with increasing load):

HR< 150 beat/min (O2)

HR 150 – 180 beat/min (LA – O2)

HR > 180 beat/min (LA)→(ATP – CP)

Maximum intensity (phosphagen system) (ATP – CP).

As the fastest way to resynthesize ATP, the phosphagen system is the predominant energy

system used for all-out exercise lasting up to about 10 seconds. However, since there is a

limited amount of stored CP and ATP in skeletal muscles, fatigue occurs rapidly.


It is estimated the ATP-PC system can create energy at approximately 36 calories minute.

Sub maximal intensity (fast glycolysis) (LA).

Anaerobic glycolysis is the transformation of glucose to lactate when limited amounts of

oxygen (O2) are available. Anaerobic glycolysis is only an effective means of energy

production during short, intense exercise, providing energy for a period ranging from 10

seconds to 2 minutes.

It is estimated glycolysis can create energy at approximately 16 calories per minute.

In fast glycolysis, more power can be generated, but pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid and

fatigue ensues quickly.

Moderate intensity (slow glycolysis) (LA – O2)

Fast Glycolysis and Slow Glycolysis. Glycolysis can be broken up into two different parts – fast

glycolysis and slow glycolysis. The determining factor is the direction in which the end product,

pyruvate, goes. Within fast glycolysis the pyruvate is converted into lactate.

Moderate and Low intensity (slow glycolysis) estimated to create approximately 10 calories per

minute.

DEGREE OF LOAD

The degree of load is also called the Internal Load. The Degree of load is the direct product of

the process of tackling training and competition demands.

Load : Process of tackling training & competition demands

Disturbance of Homeostasis ( psychic & Physiological)

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

Progression: (పురోగతి)making improvements slowly

Reversibility(అధో:): if you don’t use it, you lose it

Overload: how the body responds to hard work

Variation (వైవిధా్ ం) avoid boredom and staleness

Individuality: (వా క్తతిే ం) training to meet the needs of the individual


Specificity: (నిరి యసాాట) fit for what? To the demands of the game and the player’s style

Adaptation: (అనుసరణ) the effect training has on the body

Long-term planning: it may take years

Recovery: Both during the weekly cycle and the annual cycle

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING PROGRESSION

Too quick an increase in training load:

• Body has no time to adapt, which may result in injury

• Basis for the progressions:

• Moving from easy to difficult

• Gradually increasing the frequency(పౌన: పుణా ము), intensity(తీవ్వత), time, weight and

duration of the exercises, drills or sessions

• Record every training session to measure progress

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING REVERSIBILITY

Loss of improvements produced from training

It can be caused by:

Reducing the training load

Stopping the activity

Long periods of inactivity should be avoided

Recuperation(తిరిగి బలము ను పందడం) is needed before returning to the previous level of

training

It takes a lot longer to improve fitness than it does to lose it

It can take between 6-8 weeks to develop a significant aerobic base, while a significant

decrease can occur in 10 days of inactivity

The best way to stay fit is never to be unfit


PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING OVERLOAD

Increased the specific demands on the body

Use overload by adjusting:

Frequency: Number of training sessions per week/month/year, number of repetitions of a

particular stroke within a training session

Intensity: Level of exercise (high = 80% of maximum level, low = 50% )

Time: Duration of training, (not the rest intervals!)

Type, quality and quantity

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING VARIATION

When training is dull ---> danger:

Lack of concentration, poor performance, and mental burn out, more possibilities of injury

Vary activities and training routines:

Change the training site

Incorporate friendly competition

Work on different aspects of performance

When training becomes dull, change it!

Hard sessions should be followed by easier ones

Work should be followed by rest and recovery

Long workouts should be followed by short ones

An intensive session should be followed by a relaxed one.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Factors which affect individual fitness:

Hereditary factors


Age and lifestyle

Training and fitness level

Illness, injury and diet

Rest and recovery

Change the programme as the player grows and develops.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING SPECIFICITY

The training programme must suit the specific demands of tennis and of the player

Tennis requires short bursts of intense work interspersed with frequent periods of rest within a

long period of intermittent physical effort.

Simply playing tennis will not provide the workloads needed.

PRINCIPLE OF ADAPTATION

Muscles, tendons and ligaments adjust to the stresses caused by the training

• The body adapts slowly

• Start by working within the fitness levels of the players

Types of adaptation:

– Improved circulation, respiration and heart function

– Improvements in strength and muscular endurance.

LONG-TERM PLANNING

Needed to sustain the effort and commitment over a period of years to reach high achievement

level

Plan short-term and mid-term goals that will lead to the long-term objectives

Discuss and agree a realistic training plan

Each session should have a value for the player.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING RECOVERY

The effect of training is to destroy tissue,


there will be little or no adaptation if

training occurs every day

There are two types of recovery:

– Active recovery: other sports, etc.

– Rest recovery: no activity.

TRAINING CYCLES

In sports training we have three types of training cycles

1. MACRO CYCLE

2. MESSO CYCLE

3. MICRO CYCLE

MACRO CYCLE

This is considered the longest cycle of training. Its duration can be from 3-4 months to 12

months or even longer. Simply we can say its one year plan. Macro cycle is formed by a certain

arrangement of Meso-cycle can have two aims.

1. achievement of top form at a particular time

2. increase of performance capacity to higher level.

Macro cycle is clearly divided in to three periods.

1. preparatory period

2. competition period

3. Transition period

But in case of double or trible periodization there are two or three macro cycles in a year. The

motor development principles have a strong determining influence on the formulation of

Macro-cycle in basic and advanced stages.


SINGLE PERIODIZATION

MACRO CYCLE I

PERIOD P C T

MONTHS 1 2 3 4-9 10-12

PREPARATORY PERIOD

The duration which ranges from 2/3 to ¾ of the total duration of the training cycle. During this

period, utmost emphasis is laid on the development of various components considered basic to

performance. The preparatory period has three phases.

PREPARATION PERIOD PHASE-I

1) To regain the previous training state

2) To condition the sports person to take higher training loads in the succeeding phases of

preparatory and competition periods.

3) To develop these factors which form the base for these specific factors of performance

The Phase-I is characterized by sharply increasing training volume but with very less increase

in training intensity. Simply it is conditioning dominated phase.

PREPARATION PERIOD PHASE-II

In this phase performance-related factors are developed using high training volume and load.

General Exercise of high value and special exercises in combination are used to achieve the

conditioning objective, which underlines the development of special motor abilities.

Technical training is limited to learning and perfection of techniques of the sport, tactical

training is given least importance.

PREPARATION PERIOD PHASE-III

This Phase is meant to prepare the sportsperson for competition through special and

competition exercises that aim to develop and integrate the important factors for achieving the

desired performance level.

In this Phase, there is sharp decrease in training volume on the one hand and sharp increase in

training intensity on the other.

The volume of Tactical training is increased aiming at improved tactics for the competition.


COMPETITION PERIOD

During this period the athlete must achieve top form and also to maintain it for a sufficiently

long time. The training structure during competition period depends on the duration of the

competition, number and frequency of competition and their dates and the performance of the

athlete.

TRANSITIONAL PERIOD

The span of this period, which is characterized by low training volume and low training

intensity, should not be more than 4 to 6 weeks.

For recovery and relaxation, General exercises of low intensity need to be used.

There should be no competition in this period.

DOUBLE PERIODIZATION

PERIOD P C P C T

MONTHS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

TRIPPLE PERIODIZATION

PERIOD P C P C P C T

MONTHS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

MESO CYCLE

Meso-cycle is training cycle of medium duration. It is composed of a definite arrangement of 3-

6 micro cycles or weekly cycles. Generally, a Meso-cycle has one or two aims which can

logically be achieved 3-6 weeks. In a Meso-cycle aiming at direct preparation for a competition

the training should aim at achieving top form.


Matweyew (1981)discribed 6 types of Meso-cycles.

Harre(1986) described 8 types of Meso-cycles.

1.INTRODUCTORY MESO-CYCLE

A Meso cycle is normally started with an introductory meso- cycle. Its duration can be from 3-4

weeks. This meso- cycle is characterized by Low intensity, rapidly increasing volume and

predominant use of general training means.

It aims at regaining the previous training state and development of General base.

In special cases, if required, this meso- cycle can be repeated again.

II BASIC MESO- CYCLE

Basic meso- cycle is mainly used in the Preparatory period. It aims at the Selected motor

abilities or skills. It is characterized by High training Volume and Intensity at stabilization of

the achieved Psycho-biological adaptations. In stabilization meso- cycle, the load is not further

increased but is kept constant. The Stabilization meso- cycle can be of 2-3 weeks duration.

Basic meso- cycle is normally used more than once in the Preparatory period to ensure the

development of various performance factors in a desired sequences.

III PREPARATORY AND CONTROL MESO- CYCLE

It aims at the conversion of highly developed performance factors in to high complex sports

performance capacity. It also aims at Checking and Assessment of performance and

performance capacity.

Training is characterized by predominant use of special exercises and participation in a series of

competitions which are of the nature of ‘build up’ competitions.

IV PERFECTION MESO-CYCLE

This meso- cycle aims at removal of weakness and correction of errors which have been found

by means of tests, controls or competitions.

In this meso- cycle training load is optimum.

Perfection meso- cycle normally should be kept after the preparatory and control meso- cycle

for best effect.


V COMPETITION MESO-CYCLE

This is a typical meso- cycle used in competition period.

It aims at the development of complex performance capacity and tactical efficiency under

competition conditions.

VI INTERMEDIATE MESO-CYCLE

These meso- cycles are usually used in between two competition meso- cycles or before the Pre

competition meso- cycle. It is of two types.

A) It aims at further development of the factors which from the basis of performance, It is also

aimed at removal of weakness, It is Characterized by high volume of special exercises, low

competition load, High Training volume but low intensity

B) This type is primarily aimed at giving recovery and relaxation to the sportsman during a long

competition period.

VII PRE- COMPETITION MESO-CYCLE

This meso- cycle is used before the main competition. It is also called the meso- cycle for direct

preparation for the competition. It aims at achievement of top form, though high use of

competition exercises, for the main competition.

In the last one or two micro-cycles before the competition the training load is drastically

reduced to ensure recovery and relaxation.

MICRO CYCLE

It is called cycle consists of 3 to 10 days. When the duration of Micro-cycle is seven days, It is

called weekly cycle. The duration of a Micro-cycle in case of trained sportsman is normally 5-

10 days. The last training session or day of a Micro cycle aims at recovery and relaxation. A

Micro cycle is much closer to the day – to – day training process and hence enables optimal

loading of the sportsman.

Approximate time for recovery after various types of load

After demanding training of maximal strength......... 48-72 h

After demanding and long aerobic training …............. 48 h

After easy aerobic training ……………........................24 h


After demanding anaerobic-endurance training ……… 48 h

After easy anaerobic-endurance training ........……........24 h

After demanding speed training ........….........24 h

After easy speed training …..................12 h

The Greek Physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) incorporated the four temperaments into

his medical theories as part of the ancient medical concept of Humourism.

The Four temperament theory is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four

fundamental personality types: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic.

Low intensity (slow glycolysis, fat oxidation) (O2).

System Rate of ATP

production

Capacity of ATP

production

Fast glycolysis 2 4

Slow glycolysis 3 3

Oxidation of carbohydrates 4 2

Oxidation of fats and proteins 5 1

Neurobiological effects of physical exercise

The neurobiological effects of physical exercise are numerous and involve a wide range of

interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition. A large body of research in

humans has demonstrated that consistent aerobic exercise (e.g., 30 minutes every day) induces

persistent improvements in certain cognitive functions, healthy alterations in gene expression

in the brain, and beneficial forms of neuroplasticity and behavioral plasticity; some of these

long-term effects include: increased neuron growth, increased neurological activity (e.g., c-Fos

and BDNF signaling), improved stress coping, enhanced cognitive control of behavior,

improved declarative, spatial, and working memory, and structural and functional

improvements in brain structures and pathways associated with cognitive control and memory.

The effects of exercise on cognition have important implications for improving academic


performance in children and college students, improving adult productivity, preserving

cognitive function in old age, preventing or treating certain neurological disorders, and

improving overall quality of life.

In healthy adults, aerobic exercise has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after

a single exercise session and persistent effects on cognition following regular exercise over the

course of several months. People who regularly perform aerobic exercise (e.g., running,

jogging, brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have greater scores on neuropsychological

function and performance tests that measure certain cognitive functions, such as attentional

control, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory updating and capacity,

declarative memory, spatial memory, and information processing speed. The transient effects of

exercise on cognition include improvements in most executive functions (e.g., attention,

working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, problem solving, and decision

making) and information processing speed for a period of up to 2 hours after exercising.

Aerobic exercise induces short- and long-term effects on mood and emotional states by

promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to

acute psychological stress. Over the short-term, aerobic exercise functions as both an

antidepressant and euphoriant, whereas consistent exercise produces general improvements in

mood and self-esteem.

Regular aerobic exercise improves symptoms associated with a variety of central nervous

system disorders and may be used as an adjunct therapy for these disorders. There is clear

evidence of exercise treatment efficacy for major depressive disorder and attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder. The American Academy of Neurology's clinical practice guideline for

mild cognitive impairment indicates that clinicians should recommend regular exercise (two

times per week) to individuals who have been diagnosed with this condition. Reviews of

clinical evidence also support the use of exercise as an adjunct therapy for certain

neurodegenerative disorders, particularly Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson's disease. Regular

exercise is also associated with a lower risk of developing neurodegenerative disorders. A large

body of preclinical evidence and emerging clinical evidence supports the use of exercise

therapy for treating and preventing the development of drug addictions. Regular exercise has

also been proposed as an adjunct therapy for brain cancers.

Psychological stress and cortisol

The "stress hormone", cortisol, is a glucocorticoid that binds to glucocorticoid receptors.

Psychological stress induces the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland by activating the


hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis). Short-term increases in cortisol levels are

associated with adaptive cognitive improvements, such as enhanced inhibitory control;

however, excessively high exposure or prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol causes

impairments in cognitive control and has neurotoxic effects in the human brain. For example,

chronic psychological stress decreases BDNF expression which has detrimental effects on

hippocampal volume and can lead to depression.

As a physical stressor, aerobic exercise stimulates cortisol secretion in an intensity-dependent

manner; however, it does not result in long-term increases in cortisol production since this

exercise-induced effect on cortisol is a response to transient negative energy balance.[note

Individuals who have recently exercised exhibit improvements in stress coping behaviors.

Aerobic exercise increases physical fitness and lowers neuroendocrine (i.e., HPA axis)

reactivity and therefore reduces the biological response to psychological stress in humans (e.g.,

reduced cortisol release and attenuated heart rate response).Exercise also reverses stress-

induced decreases in BDNF expression and signaling in the brain, thereby acting as a buffer

against stress-related diseases like depression.

Euphoria

Continuous exercise can produce short-term euphoria, an affective state associated with feelings

of profound contentment, elation, and well-being, which is colloquially known as a "runner's

high" in distance running or a "rower's high" in rowing. Current medical reviews indicate that

several endogenous euphoriants are responsible for producing exercise-related euphoria,

specifically phenethylamine (an endogenous psychostimulant), β-endorphin (an endogenous

opioid), and anandamide (an endocannabinoid).

Effects on neurochemicals

β-Phenylethylamine

β-Phenylethylamine, commonly referred to as phenethylamine, is a potent human trace amine

and neuromodulator which functions as endogenous amphetamine. Thirty minutes of moderate

to high intensity physical exercise has been shown to induce an enormous increase in urinary β-

phenylacetic acid, the primary metabolite of phenethylamine. Two reviews noted a study where

the mean 24 hour urinary β-phenylacetic acid acid concentration following just 30 minutes of

intense exercise rose 77% above its base level; the reviews suggest that phenethylamine

synthesis sharply increases during physical exercise during which it is rapidly metabolized due

to its short half-life of roughly 30 seconds. In a resting state, phenethylamine is synthesized in

catecholamine neurons from l-phenylalanine by aromatic amino acid decarboxylase at


approximately the same rate at which dopamine is produced.[82] In light of this observation, the

original paper and both reviews suggest that phenethylamine plays a prominent role in

mediating the mood-enhancing euphoric effects of a runner's high, as both phenethylamine and

amphetamine are potent euphoriants.

β-Endorphin

β-Endorphin (contracted from "endogenous morphine") is an endogenous opioid neuropeptide

that binds to μ-opioid receptors, in turn producing euphoria and pain relief. A meta-analytic

review found that exercise significantly increases the secretion of β-endorphin and that this

secretion is correlated with improved mood states. Moderate intensity exercise produces the

greatest increase in β-endorphin synthesis, while higher and lower intensity forms of exercise

are associated with smaller increases in β-endorphin synthesis.

A review on β-endorphin and exercise noted that an individual's mood improves for the

remainder of the day following physical exercise and that one's mood is positively correlated

with overall daily physical activity level.[78] Exercise-induced improvements in mood occur in

sedentary individuals, recreational exercisers, and marathon runners, but recreational athletes

and marathon runners experience more pronounced mood-lifting effects from exercising.

Anandamide

Anandamide is an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter that binds to cannabinoid

receptors.[79] It has been shown that aerobic exercise causes an increase in plasma nandamide

levels, where the magnitude of this increase is highest at moderate exercise intensity (i.e.,

exercising at ~70–80% maximum heart rate). Increases in plasma anandamide levels are

associated with psychoactive effects because anandamide is able to cross the blood–brain

barrier and act within the central nervous system. Thus, because anandamide is a euphoriant and

aerobic exercise is associated with euphoric effects, it has been proposed that anandamide partly

mediates the short-term mood-lifting effects of exercise (e.g., the euphoria of a runner's high)

via exercise-induced increases in its synthesis. In mice it was demonstrated that certain features

of a runner's high depend on cannabinoid receptors. Pharmacological or genetic disruption of

cannabinoid signaling via cannabinoid receptors prevents the analgesic and anxiety-reducing

effects of running.

A number of formulas are used to estimate HRmax Nes, et al.

Based on measurements of 3320 healthy men and women aged between 19 and 89, and

including the potential modifying effect of gender, body composition, and physical activity, Nes

et al found


•HRmax = 211 − (0.64 × age)

This relationship was found to hold substantially regardless of gender, physical activity status,

maximal oxygen uptake, smoking, or body mass index. However, a standard error of the

estimate of 10.8 beats/min must be accounted for when applying the formula to clinical settings,

and the researchers concluded that actual measurement via a maximal test may be preferable

whenever possible.

Tanaka, Monahan, & Seals

From Tanaka, Monahan, & Seals (2001):

•HRmax = 208 − (0.7 × age)

Their meta-analysis (of 351 prior studies involving 492 groups and 18,712 subjects) and

laboratory study (of 514 healthy subjects) concluded that, using this equation, HRmax was very

strongly correlated to age (r = −0.90). The regression equation that was obtained in the

laboratory-based study (209 − 0.7 x age), was virtually identical to that of the meta-study. The

results showed HRmax to be independent of gender and independent of wide variations in

habitual physical activity levels. This study found a standard deviation of ~10 beats per minute

for individuals of any age, meaning the HRmax formula given has an accuracy of ±20 beats per

minute.

In 2007, researchers at the Oakland University analyzed maximum heart rates of 132

individuals recorded yearly over 25 years, and produced a linear equation very similar to the

Tanaka formula, HRmax = 206.9 − (0.67 × age), and a nonlinear equation, HRmax = 191.5 −

(0.007 × age2). The linear equation had a confidence interval of ±5–8 bpm and the nonlinear

equation had a tighter range of ±2–5 bpm. Also a third nonlinear equation was produced:

HRmax = 163 + (1.16 × age) − (0.018 × age2).

Haskell & Fox

Fox and Haskell formula; widely used.

Notwithstanding the research of Tanaka, Monahan, & Seals, the most widely cited formula for

HRmax (which contains no reference to any standard deviation) is still:

HRmax = 220 − age

Although attributed to various sources, it is widely thought to have been devised in 1970 by Dr.

William Haskell and Dr. Samuel Fox. Inquiry into the history of this formula reveals that it was

not developed from original research, but resulted from observation based on data from

approximately 11 references consisting of published research or unpublished scientific

compilations. It gained widespread use through being used by Polar Electro in its heart rate

monitors, which Dr. Haskell has "laughed about", as the formula "was never supposed to be an

absolute guide to rule people's training."


While it is the most common (and easy to remember and calculate), this particular formula is

not considered by reputable health and fitness professionals to be a good predictor of HRmax.

Despite the widespread publication of this formula, research spanning two decades reveals its

large inherent error, Sxy = 7–11 bpm. Consequently, the estimation calculated by HRmax =

220 − age has neither the accuracy nor the scientific merit for use in exercise physiology and

related fields.

Robergs & Landwehr

A 2002 study of 43 different formulas for HRmax (including that of Haskell and Fox – see

above) published in the Journal of Exercise Psychology concluded that:

1.no "acceptable" formula currently existed (they used the term "acceptable" to mean acceptable

for both prediction of VO2, and prescription of exercise training HR ranges)

2.the least objectionable formula was:

HRmax = 205.8 − (0.685 × age)

This had a standard deviation that, although large (6.4 bpm), was considered acceptable for

prescribing exercise training HR ranges.

Gulati (for women)

Research conducted at Northwestern University by Martha Gulati, et al., in 2010[25] suggested

a maximum heart rate formula for women:

HRmax = 206 − (0.88 × age)

Gellish

A 2008 study from Lund, Sweden gives reference values (obtained during bicycle ergometry)

for men:

HRmax = 203.7 / ( 1 + exp( 0.033 × (age − 104.3) ) )

and for women:

HRmax = 190.2 / ( 1 + exp( 0.0453 × (age − 107.5) ) )

Other formulae

•HRmax = 206.3 − (0.711 × age)

(Often attributed to "Londeree and Moeschberger from the University of Missouri")

•HRmax = 217 − (0.85 × age)

(Often attributed to "Miller et al. from Indiana University")

Limitations

Maximum heart rates vary significantly between individuals. Even within a single elite sports

team, such as Olympic rowers in their 20s, maximum heart rates have been reported as varying

from 160 to 220. Such a variation would equate to a 60 or 90 year age gap in the linear

equations above, and would seem to indicate the extreme variation about these average figures.

Figures are generally considered averages, and depend greatly on individual physiology and

fitness. For example, an endurance runner's rates will typically be lower due to the increased


size of the heart required to support the exercise, while a sprinter's rates will be higher due to

the improved response time and short duration. While each may have predicted heart rates of

180 (= 220 − age), these two people could have actual HRmax 20 beats apart (e.g., 170-190).

Further, note that individuals of the same age, the same training, in the same sport, on the same

team, can have actual HRmax 60 bpm apart (160–220): the range is extremely broad, and some

say "The heart rate is probably the least important variable in comparing athletes."

Heart rate reserve

Heart rate reserve (HRreserve) is the difference between a person's measured or predicted

maximum heart rate and resting heart rate. Some methods of measurement of exercise intensity

measure percentage of heart rate reserve. Additionally, as a person increases their

cardiovascular fitness, their HRrest will drop, and the heart rate reserve will increase.

Percentage of HRreserve is equivalent to percentage of VO2 reserve.

HRreserve = HRmax − HRrest

This is often used to gauge exercise intensity (first used in 1957 by Karvonen).

Karvonen's study findings have been questioned, due to the following:

•The study did not use VO2 data to develop the equation.

•Only six subjects were used, and the correlation between the percentages of HRreserve and

VO2 max was not statistically significant.

Target heart rate

For healthy people, the Target Heart Rate or Training Heart Rate (THR) is a desired range of

heart rate reached during aerobic exercise which enables one's heart and lungs to receive the

most benefit from a workout. This theoretical range varies based mostly on age; however, a

person's physical condition, sex, and previous training also are used in the calculation. Below

are two ways to calculate one's THR. In each of these methods, there is an element called

"intensity" which is expressed as a percentage. The THR can be calculated as a range of 65–

85% intensity. However, it is crucial to derive an accurate HRmax to ensure these calculations

are meaningful.

Example for someone with a HRmax of 180 (age 40, estimating HRmax As 220 − age):

65% Intensity: (220 − (age = 40)) × 0.65 → 117 bpm

85% Intensity: (220 − (age = 40)) × 0.85 → 153 bpm

Karvonen method

The Karvonen method factors in resting heart rate (HRrest) to calculate target heart rate (THR),

using a range of 50–85% intensity:

THR = ((HRmax − HRrest) × % intensity) + HRrest

Equivalently,

THR = (HRreserve × % intensity) + HRrest


Example for someone with a HRmax of 180 and a HRrest of 70 (and therefore a HRreserve of

110):

50% Intensity: ((180 − 70) × 0.50) + 70 = 125 bpm

85% Intensity: ((180 − 70) × 0.85) + 70 = 163 bpm

Zoladz method

An alternative to the Karvonen method is the Zoladz method, which derives exercise zones by

subtracting values from HRmax:

THR = HRmax − Adjuster ± 5 bpm

Zone 1 Adjuster = 50 bpm





Example for someone with a HRmax of 180:

Zone 1(easy exercise): 180 − 50 ± 5 → 125 − 135 bpm

Zone 4(tough exercise): 180 − 20 ± 5 → 155 − 165 bpm

Heart rate recovery

Heart rate recovery (HRrecovery) is the reduction in heart rate at peak exercise and the rate as

measured after a cool-down period of fixed duration. A greater reduction in heart rate after

exercise during the reference period is associated with a higher level of cardiac fitness.[33]

Heart rates that do not drop by more than 12 bpm one minute after stopping exercise are

associated with an increased risk of death. Investigators of the Lipid Research Clinics

Prevalence Study, which included 5,000 subjects, found that patients with an abnormal

HRrecovery (defined as a decrease of 42 beats per minutes or less at two minutes post-xercise)

had a mortality rate 2.5 times greater than patients with a normal recovery. Another study by

Nishime et al. and featuring 9,454 patients followed for a median period of 5.2 years found a

four-fold increase in mortality in subjects with an abnormal HRrecovery (≤12 bpm reduction

one minute after the cessation of exercise). Shetler et al. studied 2,193 patients for thirteen years

and found that a HRrecovery of ≤22 bpm after two minutes "best identified high-risk

patients".They also found that while HRrecovery had significant prognostic value it had no

diagnostic value.

Possible points for measuring the heart rate are:

1. The ventral aspect of the wrist on the side of the thumb (radial artery).

2. The ulnar artery.

3. The neck (carotid artery).


4. The inside of the elbow, or under the biceps muscle (brachial artery).

5. The groin (femoral artery).

6. Behind the medial malleolus on the feet (posterior tibial artery).

7. Middle of dorsum of the foot (dorsalis pedis).

8. Behind the knee (popliteal artery).

9. Over the abdomen (abdominal aorta).

10. The chest (apex of the heart), which can be felt with one's hand or fingers. It is also possible

to auscultate the heart using a stethoscope.

11. The temple (superficial temporal artery).

12. The lateral edge of the mandible (facial artery).

13. The side of the head near the ear (posterior auricular artery).

SPORTS TRAINING

History of Sports Training

The roots and idea of periodization come from Hans Selye’s model, known as the General

Adaptation Syndrome which was first used by the athletic community in the late 1950s.

First systematic principles in training were probably used by the Greek athlete Milon who

implemented the principle of systematic planning as early as in the 6th Century BC.

SPORT TRAINING is a systematic process extending over a long period.

“ Matwejew” : “ sports training is the basic form of preparation of sportsmen”

“sports training, based on scientific knowledge, is a pedagogical process of sports perfection

which through systematic effect on psycho-physical performance ability and performance

readiness aims at leading the sportsman to high and the highest performance.”

WARMING UP

Warming up is a physiological and psychological preparation for the training/competition.

Effect of warming up : Body temperature is raised by the pulse rate up to 120-130 beats per

minute.

Stimulates the activity of the CNS, it improves coordination.

Helps the athlete to prepare himself psychologically ready to take up changeable tasks in the

competition.

Helps to prevent injuries.


WARMING UP TYPES

Psychological Warm-up

Physiological Warm up

Psychological Warming up: It makes the athlete mentally ready to bear stress. Psychological

preparation of sportsmen is an important aspect for better performance.

Method:

Psychological warming up is given one to two days before the competition and ends up few

hours before the competition. The main tasks of Psychological warming up are given below:

High level motivation in the form of encouragement is given Confusions, conflicts and

inferiority complexes should be removed by giving following information:

By telling about the importance of the competition.

By giving information of opponents, tactical behavior and performance levels.

Players should be informed about time and date of competition, ground, equipment, expected

climatic conditions etc.

Finally, the sportsmen should be mentally ready, alert, fearless and free from technical and

tactical conditions.

GENERAL WARMING UP

It is a first phase of Warm-up.

The common means in Muscular activity, where the athlete performs several exercises to all the

parts of the body.

The intensity should be Medium.

Duration of warm up can be 10-15 minutes before commencement of specific warm-up.

Example: Calisthenics, Stretching & Jumping exercises.

General warm up again divided in to

A) ACTIVE WARM UP : warm up through active physical involvement- Athlete involves in

various exercises to raise the pulse rate.

B) PASSIVE WARM UP : Without physical involvement- warm up through muscle

stimulation, sona bath, drugs, massage, etc.

2. SPECIFIC WARMING UP : Exercises and movements are performed related to the activity.

Technical and Material involvement.

Ex: Specific exercises related to skill and Technique.


Cooling Down or Limbering Down

A cool-down provides the body with a smooth transition from exercise back to a steady state of

rest.

The overarching goal of a cool-down is to reduce heart and breathing rates, gradually cool body

temperature, return muscles to their optimal length-tension relationships, prevent venous

pooling of blood in the lower extremities, which may cause dizziness or possible fainting, and

restore physiologic systems close to baseline.

The proposed benefits of a cool-down are shown below:

• Reduce heart and breathing rates

• Gradually cool body temperature

• Return muscles to their optimal length-tension relationships

• Prevent venous pooling of blood in the lower extremities

• Restore physiologic systems close to baseline

Cool down for 5-10 minutes with low intensity activity like slow walking. Helps your heart rate

and breathing to return towards resting levels gradually; helps avoid fainting or dizziness, which

can result from blood pooling in the large muscles of the legs when vigorous activity is stopped

suddenly helps to remove waste products from your muscles, such as lactic acid, which can

build up during vigorous activity (lactic acid is most effectively removed by gentle exercise

rather than stopping suddenly); and helps to prepare your muscles for the next exercise session.

Static stretching for 10 minutes or so is a great way to relax and improve flexibility.

Always remember to cool down after exercising. This gives your muscles a chance to relax and

prevents your blood pressure from dropping too rapidly, which can happen if your blood is

allowed to pool in your extremities.

Exercising activates the sympathetic nervous system, the part of the nervous system that is

responsible for your body's "flight or fight" response. This is your body's physiologic response

to challenges such as running from a saber tooth tiger, defending your home against an intruder,

or summoning the nerve to ask someone for a date. Your eyes dilate, heart rate increases, blood

pressure rises (in fact, your blood can pump 400 - 600 percent more than when at rest), and your

arteries redirect your blood flow away from your abdomen and to your heart, brain, and

extremities (if they are active). When you exercise using your arms and legs, the arteries in your

extremities dilate to allow blood to flow to them. When you stop exercising, your sympathetic

nervous system turns off and your parasympathetic nervous system turns on.

The parasympathetic nervous system takes over when you are at rest, such as immediately after

a large meal. Your blood pressure drops, your blood vessels relax and dilate, blood flows to

your abdomen, and your heart rate slows. The blood that only moments ago was being

powerfully pumped by your sympathetically charged heart no longer has that strong push, and


has a tendency to pool in your extremities. The blood does not get to your head, creating the

potential for fainting. This can be avoided by cooling down after you exercise.

Static Stretching

Static stretching, the kind a fitness instructor leads at the end of a class, involves stretching a

body part to its farthest position and then holding it for 30 seconds or more. It does not involve

bouncing or rapid movements, just a mild, painless pulling sensation. You feel the stretch

through the entire length and center of the muscle and not in the joints.

Passive Stretching

Passive stretching is similar to static stretching, except that an apparatus or partner provides the

force to stretch the muscle. For example, you may stand with your back against a wall while

your exercise partner lifts your leg to stretch the hamstring. Passive stretching relieves muscle

spasms and helps reduce muscle fatigue and soreness after a workout.

Dynamic Stretching

Dynamic stretching involves controlled swinging of the arms and legs that gently takes them to

the limits of their range of motion. Here, parts of the body are moved with gradually increasing

speed, reach or both.

Ballistic Stretching

Ballistic stretching forces a body part to go beyond its normal range of motion by making it

bounce to a stretched position. It increases range of motion and triggers the muscle’s stretch

reflex. Performing ballistic stretching can make you more susceptible to injury. Only highly

conditioned and competent athletes preparing for strenuous activity should employ it.

Active Isolated Stretching

Active isolated stretching is most commonly used by professionals: athletes, trainers, massage

therapists and others. To complete at active isolated stretch, you reach a certain position and

hold it steady without any assistance other than the strength of your own muscles. Kick a leg up

high, for example, and hold it up in that extended posture. Active isolated stretching works with

natural physiological processes to increase muscle and fascia elasticity and improve circulation.

Isometric Stretching

In isometric stretching, as a muscle is stretched into position, you resist the stretch. For

example, have a partner hold your leg up high while you attempt to force back your leg in the

opposite direction. Isometric stretching is the safest and most effective method for increasing


the joints’ range of motion, and it strengthens tendons and ligaments while retaining their

flexibility.

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation combines isometric, static and passive stretching to

foster a high level of flexibility. Perform it by passively stretching a muscle; isometrically

contracting it against resistance in the stretched position; and passively stretching it through the

resulting increased range of motion. It is an advanced form of flexibility training that also helps

improve strength.

PNF Stretching. PNF stands for Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation. This type of

stretching is often referred to as partner stretching because two people are needed to perform

the movements. There are many forms of PNF, but most involve an isometric hold followed by

a static stretch of the same muscle group.

PNF stretching was originally developed as a form of rehabilitation, and to that effect it is very

effective. It is also excellent for targeting specific muscle groups, and as well as increasing

flexibility, it also improves muscular strength. ... Post Isometric Relaxation (PIR) is another

variation of the PNF technique.

PNF techniques are completed in three phases. With each of the three techniques, detailed

below, the first phase incorporates a passive pre-stretch of 10 seconds.

There are three types of technique for PNF stretches:

Hold-relax.

Contract-relax.

Hold-relax with agonist contraction.

Passive Range of Motion (or PROM) - Therapist or equipment moves the joint through the

range of motion with no effort from the patient.

Active Range of Motion (or AROM) - Patient performs the exercise to move the joint without

any assistance to the muscles surrounding the joint.

Muscle Energy Techniques

Muscle Energy techniques (or MET’s) are another form of active-assisted stretches, similar to

PNF, and developed around the same time, in the world of Osteopathy. Like PNF, MET’s use

an isometric contraction of the agonist prior to stretching. The difference is in the force of the

isometric contraction, which in MET’s are a lot lower. A MET stretch is performed in the

following way, using the hamstrings as an example:


The therapist moves the hip into flexion, with the athlete on their back, until they encounter the

point of resistance – where the movement stiffens, due to tightness in the hamstrings. They hold

this position for 15-20 seconds. They then ease off slightly from the stretch and ask the athlete

to try to push the leg back down to the couch, which causes an isometric contraction of the

hamstrings. In MET’s, this contraction should be a maximum of 20% of the athlete’s total

strength. This contraction is held for around 10 seconds, before the therapist asks them to relax

and pushes the limb further, increasing the stretch, until resistance is felt once more. The

process is usually repeated 3-5 times for each muscle.

Neural Stretching

Neural stretching refers to stretching the structures of the nervous system. This is necessary for

injuries where there is excess neural tension, for example muscle related sciatic pain.

Examples also are commonly found in the neck, shoulder, or pelvis area.

Neural stretches are adaptations of neural tension tests, such as the slump test and the upper

limb tension test.

The limb is taken to the point of stretch and held for a maximum of 10 seconds, although

initially, this may be as little as 3-4 seconds to avoid causing damage to the nerves.

Types of stretching like this should only be performed under the supervision of a qualified

therapist.

TRAINING METHODS

CALISTHENICS (ఫకీయన్ క్ల యయన్) • Calisthenics (American English) or callisthenics (Commonwealth English) are exercises

consisting of a variety of gross motor movements—running, standing, grasping, pushing, etc.

— often performed rhythmically and with minimal equipment, so essentially, bodyweight

exercises. They are intended to increase body strength, body fitness, and flexibility, through

movements such as pulling or pushing oneself up, bending, jumping, or swinging, using only

one's body weight for resistance; usually conducted in concert with stretches.

• Calisthenics is associated with the rapidly growing international sport called street workout.

• The word calisthenics comes from the ancient Greek words kalos ,which means "perfect" or

"good" (to emphasize the aesthetic pleasure that derives from the perfection of the human

body), and sthenos , meaning "strength" (great mental strength, courage, strength and

determination). It is the art of using one's body weight and qualities of inertia as a means to

develop one's physique.


STRENGTH

Hippocrates explained the principle behind strength training when he wrote "that which is used

develops, and that which is not used wastes away", referring to

muscular hypertrophy and atrophy.

Muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of

its component cells

Two factors contribute to hypertrophy:

Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased Muscle glycogen storage;

and myofibril hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size.

Atrophy is the partial or complete wasting away of a part of the body. Causes of atrophy

include mutations (which can destroy the gene to build up the organ),

The common definition is "the ability to exert a force against a resistance". The strength needed

for a sprinter to explode from the blocks is different to the strength needed by a weight lifter to

lift a 200kg barbell. This therefore implies that there are different types of strength.

The classifications of strength are:

Maximum strength - the greatest force that is possible in a single maximum contraction

Elastic strength - the ability to overcome a resistance with a fast contraction

Strength endurance - the ability to express force many times over

Absolute and Relative strength

Absolute strength - The maximum force an athlete can exert with his or her whole body, or

part of the body, irrespective of body size or muscle size

Relative strength - The maximum force exerted in relation to body weight or muscle size.

HOW DO WE GET STRONG?

• A muscle will only strengthen when it is worked beyond its normal operation - it is

overloaded. Overload can be progressed by increasing the:

• Number of repetitions of an exercise

• Number of sets of the exercise

• Intensity by reduced recover time

THE EFFECTS OF STRENGTH TRAINING

• Strength training programs cause biomechanical changes that occur within muscle and serve

to increase the oxidative capacity of the muscle. The affects of strength training are:

• an increase in ATP, CP and glycogen concentration

• An increase in mitochondrial density

• These changes vary slightly according to the training intensity.

• Changes that occur within the muscle because of strength training are classified as:


• Myogenic - changes within the muscle structure

• Neuogenic - changes to the connection between muscle and nerve

MYOGENIC CHANGES (changes within the muscle structure)

• Strength training results in muscle hypertrophy, an increase in the cross-sectional size of

existing fibers. This is achieved by increasing:

• number of myofibrils, sarcoplasmic volume

• Protein (increased contractile protein (Actin & Myosin)

• supporting connective tissue (ligaments and tendons)

• Strength training programs increase the intramuscular stores such as adenosine triphosphate

(ATP), creatine phosphate (CP) and glycogen.

• In women, the potential for hypertrophy is not as great as men due mainly to the lower levels

of testosterone in women.

NEUROGENIC CHANGES (changes to the connection between muscle and nerve)

• By repeatedly stimulating muscle, you increase the rate of response of the central nervous

system. The recruitment patterns become more refined and as a result and gross movement

patterns become more efficient and effective.

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

All muscle training falls into three categories:

ISOTONIC TRAINING (Dynamic or Auxo Tonic) was Introduced by De loone (1954)

ISOMETRIC TRAINING (STATIC) was introduced by Hettinger and Muller (1953)

ISOKINETIC TRAINING was introduced by Perrien (1968)

ISOTONIC (Dynamic or Auxo-Tonic) De Loone 1954

• In isotonic contractions, the muscle contracts Lengthens or shortens, giving movement.

Nearly all the training you do is isotonic.

• Advantages

• Strengthens a muscle throughout the range of movement

• You can choose isotonic exercises to match the actions in your sport

• Disadvantages

• Can make muscles sore, because of stress while they shorten

• The muscle gains most strength at the weakest point of the action, rather than evenly

throughout

• Note : Jumping's, Running, Doing Skills, Lifting weight, doing any action with

movement


CONCENTRIC & ECCENTRIC CONTRACTION

• Concentric contraction occurs when a muscle shortens in length and develops tension e.g.

the upward movement of a dumbbell in a biceps curl or as you spring back from a jump

landing, extending your knees and jumping back up in the air, the quadriceps are shortening as

they create force to push you off.

• Eccentric contraction involves the development of tension whilst the muscle is being

lengthened e.g. the downward movement of a dumbbell in a biceps curl or when you land on

two feet from a jump and bend your knees the quadriceps are lengthening.

Combination of Dynamic & Static Contractions

• The most common combination is Eccentric – Concentric Contraction Ex: All Explosive

movements (Jumps & Throws)

• Concentric and Eccentric Contractions are very rare in sports. It occurs when a resistance is

moved to certain point and is then slowly it is brought back as is the case in some movements in

Gymnastics

• Combination of Dynamic and Static Contraction:

It is not very common in Sports but some sports like Gymnastics L Shape Position on Roman

Rings or Parallel Bars.

ISOMETRIC (Static) Hettinger and Muller 1953

• In this type of Muscle Contraction there is no significant change in the length of the

contracting Muscle.

• The Plank/Wall Pushing is a good example of an isometric contraction.

• Advantages

• Isometric exercises develop static strength - the strength you need to push or pull a heavy

object or hold it up

• They are quick to do and don't hurt

• They do not need expensive equipment

• You can do them anywhere

• Disadvantages

• The muscle gains strength only at the angle you use in the exercise

• During an exercise, the blood flow to the muscle stops, blood pressure rises, and less blood

flows back to the heart. It could be dangerous if you have heart problems

• Isometric training is not sufficient on its own. You need to combine it with isotonic training.


Isokinetic Perrine 1968

• In isokinetic contractions, the muscle contracts and shortens at constant speed. An isotonic

contraction is different to an isokinetic contraction because it is usually slowest at the start.

• For isokinetic training, you need special equipment that detects when a muscle is speeding up,

and increases the load to slow it down again.

• Advantages

• The muscle gains strength evenly all through the range of movement

• It is the fastest way to increase muscle strength

• Disadvantage:

• The equipment is very expensive so most gyms cannot afford it

• Ex: Performing Cycling, Swimming, Weight Training over machine with spring

SPEED

• “The ability on the basis of mobility of the nervous system and muscular apparatus to perform

movements is paramount”.

• Speed development is closely inter-related and inter-dependent with other aspects of human

performance, especially those of strength and to a lesser extent endurance. It is closely related

to the nervous systems where the number and frequency of the impulses within the muscle

fibres create the more visual interpretation of what we see as speed or reaction. The most

example of speed is seen in the sprinters, where speed of movement is paramount.

TYPES OF SPEED

• REACTION SPEED : Is an ability to react efficiently and quickly to a signal.

• MOVEMENT SPEED : Is an ability to do a simple movement in maximum possible time.

• ACCELERATION SPEED : Is an ability to achieve speed of locomotion from stationary

position or from slow moving position.

• LOCOMOTOR SPEED : Is an ability to maintain maximum speed of locomotion for

maximum possible duration or distance.

• SPEED ENDURANCE : Is an ability to perform movement with high speed under conditions

fatigue.

FACTORS INFLUENCING ON SPEED

• Mobility of the Nervous system

• Muscle elasticity

• Explosive Strength

• Flexibility in the range of Movement of the Joint.

• Muscle Composition i.e. F.T fibers

• Bio-chemical reserves and Metabolic power – ATP releases.


• Co-ordinative abilities

• Will power – Strong drive, concentration & Confidence.

ENDURANCE

• Endurance is the maximum work muscles can perform in repeated contractions.

• It relates to do work for a long time or period

• It relates to working under fatigue conditions

• It involves a large number of muscles.

• It involves work efficiency.

• Endurance depending on the energy system used can be roughly divided in to two types

• 1)GENERAL ENDURANCE

• 2) SPECIFIC ENDURANCE

• General Endurance : (Aerobic) determined by the ability to resist fatigue under conditions

where the oxygen take and consumption are kept at a steady state.

• Specific Endurance ( Anaerobic) : determined by the ability to resist fatigue under

conditions where lactic acid is accumulated in the muscle.

ENDURANCE CHARACTERSTICS

• 1) SHORT TERM ENDURANCE : is required for the efforts of 2 to 8 minutes duration.

Obviously, a high percentage of anaerobic involvement exists in such efforts.

• 2) MEDIUM TERM ENDURANCE : Is required for efforts of 8 to 30 minutes duration.

Again, anaerobic process are involved, but an apparent ‘steady state’ has been already achieved.

• LONG TERM ENDURANCE : Is required for efforts in excess of 30 minutes duration and

during which time there is no essential decrease in speed. The performance depends almost

exclusively on aerobic efficiency. As the time increases, so the aerobic role becomes more

exclusive . This type of endurance should be considered as aerobic endurance or heart

endurance

SPEED ENDURANCE: is necessary to resist fatigue resulting form loading at sub- maximum

and maximum intensity and the predominantly anaerobic production of energy. it is essential in

sports demanding this type of endurance that speed is not reduced to fatigue.

• STRENGTH ENDURANCE: Is required to continuously express relatively high strength

efficiency when anaerobic by-products are accumulating

• ANAEROBIC ENDURANCE: This is the type of endurance required for those events where

the anaerobic energy pathway is involved . It is possible to sub-divided anaerobic endurance as

follows:


• Short anaerobic - 25 Sec Event - 100/200 mts

• Medium anaerobic - 25 to 60 sec 400 mts.

• Long anaerobic - 60 to 2 min 800 mts.

FLEXIBILITY

• Flexibility, mobility and suppleness all mean the range of limb movement around joints. In

any movement there are two groups of muscles at work:

• protagonist muscles which cause the movement to take place and opposing the movement and

determining the amount of flexibility are the antagonistic muscles

❖ The objective of flexibility training is to improve the range of movement of the

antagonistic muscles.

TYPES OF FLEXIBILITY

• Static stretching

• Static stretching (isometric contractions) involves gradually easing into the stretch position

and holding the position. The amount of time a static stretch is held depends on your objectives.

If it is part of your cool down then stretches should be held for 10 seconds, if it is to improve

your range of mobility then hold the stretch for 30 seconds. Often in static stretching, you are

advised to move further into the stretch position as the stretch sensation subsides.

• Ballistic stretching : uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt to force it

beyond its normal range of motion.

• Dynamic stretching : (isotonic or isokinetic contractions) consists of controlled leg and arm

swings that take you gently to the limits of your range of motion.

• Where the event requires a dynamic movement then it is appropriate and perhaps necessary to

conduct dynamic stretching exercises. Start with the movement at half speed for a couple of

repetitions and then gradually work up to full speed.

• Active stretching: An active stretch is one where you assume a position and then hold it there

with no assistance other than using the strength of your agonist muscles. Active stretching is

also referred to as static-active stretching.

• Passive stretching: Passive stretching is also referred to as relaxed stretching, and as static-

passive stretching. A passive stretch is one where you assume a position and hold it with some

other part of your body, or with the assistance of a partner or some other apparatus.

• Isometric stretching : Isometric stretching is a type of static stretching which involves the

resistance of muscle groups through isometric contractions (tensing) of the stretched muscles.

•


WEIGHT TRAINING

• This product is primarily the outcome of efficient technique, the progression of speed and the

maturing competitive attitude on a sound basis of general endurance, all round strength and

general mobility. The development of all round strength is best achieved via circuit training and

then progressing this through weight training.

• A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity

(overload). Overload can be progressed by increasing the:

• resistance e.g. adding 10kg to the barbell

• number of repetitions with a particular weight

• number of sets of the exercise

• Muscle Fiber Hypertrophy : Resistance training will increase the muscle size (hypertrophy).

Muscle growth depends on the muscle fiber type activated and the pattern of recruitment.

Muscle growth is due to one or more of the following adaptations:

• Increased contractile proteins (actin & myosin)

• Increased number of and size of myofibrils per muscle fiber

• Increased amounts of connective, tendinous & ligamentous tissues

• Increased enzymes and stored nutrients

CIRCUIT TRAINING (1957) invented by Morgan & Adamson

• Circuit training is an excellent way to improve mobility, strength and Endurance. The circuit

training comprises of 6 to 10 strength exercises that are completed one exercise after another.

Each exercise is performed for a specified number of repetitions or for a set time before moving

on to the next exercise. The exercises within each circuit are separated by a short rest period,

and each circuit is separated by a longer rest period. The total number of circuits performed

during a training session may vary from two to six depending on your training level (beginner,

intermediate, or advanced), your period of training (preparation or competition) and your

training objective.

• The exercise circuit should be set up so that you work each body part as follows: Total-body,

Upper-body, Lower-body, Core & Trunk, Total-body etc.

• The following are examples of exercises that can be used in a circuit training session:

• Upper-body :Press ups, Bench dips, Pull ups, Medicine ball chest pass, Bench lift, Inclined

press up.

• Core & trunk :Sit ups (lower abdominals), Stomach crunch (upper abdominals), Back

extension chest raise

• Lower-body :Squat jumps, Compass jumps, Astride jumps, Step ups, Shuttle runs, Hopping

shuttles, Bench squat

• Total-body: Burpees, Treadmills, Squat thrusts, Skipping


• Circuit Training – Continuous Method :

• Exercises are more than normal.

• No recovery till one round is completed.

• 3 to 5 minute rest after completion of the set round.

• Intensity below 60% of the Maximum.

• Repetition 50 to 60 % of the Maximum.

• It develops strength endurance.

• Circuit Training – Interval Method :

• Number of exercises are less comparatively with continuous method.

• Intensity 60 to 90% of the maximum.

• Repetition more than Medium.

• Rest 30 to 45 sec. in each station followed by some duration of exercise.

• It can be adapt according to intensive or extensive internal method.

• It develops speed endurance with combination of strength and endurance.

• Circuit Training – Repetition Method :

• Less number of exercises comparatively with continuous and Interval Method.

• Intensity above 90% of the Maximum

• Repetition less than 6

• Rest 3 to 5 minutes after a set is completed.

• It develops maximum strength plus explosive strength.

Interval Training

Interval Training-1930 invented by Woldmar & Greshler and modified by Reindell

• This method considered as the best method for development of Endurance

• In this Method, the principle of “effort and incomplete recovery is followed.

• Principles of I.T.

• Volume or Total Distance

• Distance in Intervals or Duration of workout

• Number of repetitions or frequency

• Duration of rest between each interval

• Heart rate or Pulse factor

Mode of recovery

• Interval running enables the athlete to improve the workload by interspersing heavy bouts of

fast running with recovery periods of slower jogging. The athlete runs hard over any distance up

to 1k and then has a period of easy jogging. During the run, lactic acid is produced and a state


of oxygen debt is reached. During the interval (recovery), the heart and lungs are still stimulated

as they try to pay back the debt by supplying oxygen to help break down the lactates.

The stresses put upon the body cause an adaptation including strengthening of the heart

muscles, improved oxygen uptake and improved buffers to lactates. All this leads to improved

endurance and speed endurance performances.

Slow or Extensive Interval Training

• It is very effective for developing Aerobic Endurance. Generally Players of Major games like

football, hockey, basketball, long distance runners, long distance swimmers practice this. This

method is performed when there are sufficient days for competition.

• In this method :

• Total distance is 5 to 10km or volume is 30 minutes to 1 hr.

• Distance is 300 to 800mts. Or 2 to 5 minutes work out at Medium pace

• Speed work out is 60 to 80% or medium pace run

• Frequency or number of repetitions is 15 to 20 times

• Duration of rest is 1 to 3 minutes (after each repetition)

• Heart rate kept around 140 to 170 beats per minute

Mode of recovery is walk or slow jogging or rest

Fast Interval Training

• This training method is very good for developing Anaerobic endurance. In this method ,the

Player is made to run short distance or workout at high speed. The rest is incomplete before

next repetition. This will be performed weekly twice or thrice. Almost all games and players

will practice this method. This method usually performed when competition is closer or

preparation time is less.

• Total distance is 2 to 5 km or volume of workout is 15 to 30 min.

• Distance is 80 to 300 mts or 30 sec to 2 minutes work out at fast pace

• Intensity or speed is 80 to 100% and duration of rest 1 to 3 minutes

• Heart rate is kept around 170 to 200 beats per minute

FARTLEK TRAINING

• Fartlek, developed by O. Astrand and Gosta Helner in the year1937's, comes from the

Swedish for 'Speed Play' and combines continuous and interval training. Fartlek allows the

athlete to run at varying intensity levels over distances of their choice. This type of training

stresses both the aerobic and anaerobic energy pathways.

• Watson Fartlek

• Suitable for 10k, 5k, 3k and cross country.


• Saltin Fartlek : Suitable for 1500m, 5k and 3k.

• Astrand Fartlek : Suitable for 800m.

• Gerschler Fartlek : Suitable for getting fit quickly when combined with steady running.

HIGH ALTITUDE TRAINING

• The study of altitude training was heavily delved into during and after the 1968 Olympics,

which took place in Mexico City, Mexico: elevation 2,240 meters (7,349 ft). It was during these

Olympic Games that endurance events saw significant below-record finishes and anaerobic,

sprint events broke all types of records. Altitude training works because of the difference in

atmospheric pressure between sea level and high altitude. At sea level, air is denser and there

are more molecules of gas per liter of air. Because atmospheric pressure is lower at high

altitudes, air is less dense and there are fewer molecules of gas per liter of air; this causes a

decrease in partial pressures of gases in the body, which elicits a variety of physiological

changes in the body that occur at high altitude.

• At high altitudes, there is a decrease in oxygen hemoglobin saturation. In order to compensate

for this, erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone secreted by the kidneys, stimulates red blood cell

production from bone marrow in order to increase hemoglobin saturation and oxygen delivery.

SUPER COMPENSATION

• The fitness level of a human body in training can be broken down into four periods: initial

fitness, training, recovery, and super compensation. During the initial fitness period, the target

of the training has a base level of fitness (shown by the first time sector in the graph). Upon

entering the training period, the target's level of fitness decreases (training is a catabolic

process, shown by the second time sector in the graph). After training, the body enters the

recovery period during which level of fitness increases up to the initial fitness level (shown by

the third time sector in the graph). Because the human body is an adjustable organism, it will

feel the need to adjust itself to a higher level of fitness in anticipation of the next training

session.


• Accordingly, the increase in fitness following a training session does not stop at the initial

fitness level. Instead the body enters a period of super compensation during which fitness

surpasses the initial fitness level (shown by the fourth time sector in the graph). If there are no

further workouts, the body's fitness level will slowly decline back towards the initial fitness

level (shown by the last time sector in the graph). First put forth by Hungarian scientist Nikolai

Jakowlew in 1976,[2] this theory is a basic principle of athletic training.

• If the next workout takes place during the recovery period, Overtraining may occur. If the next

workout takes place during the super compensation period, the body will advance to a higher

level of fitness. If the next workout takes place after the super compensation period, the body

will remain at the base level.

• TRAINING LOAD AND PERIODIZATION

• The principles and laws of development and achievement of top from provide the base for

periodization. It is obligatory to understand top form. The concept of sports form or top form

was first propounded by famous Russian scientist L.P. MATWEYEW in 1956. he was the first

person to give theoretical base to periodization His basic concepts about sport form and

periodization in sports training are still valid today.

OBJECTIVES OF EACH PHASE

• The objectives of each phase are as follows:

• Phase 1 - General development of strength, mobility, endurance and basic technique

• Phase 2 - Development of specific fitness and advanced technical skills

• Phase 3 - Competition experience - achievement of indoor objectives

• Phase 4 - Adjustment of technical model, preparation for the main competition

initial fitness, training, recovery, and supercompensation


• Phase 5 - Competition experience and achievement of outdoor objectives

• Phase 6 - Active recovery - planning preparation for next season

Example: if an athlete runner goes through out training II zone intensity ,he/she runs out of

energy resources during training because of applied load. This phenomenon is manifested on

the outside as fatigue.

Training is followed by rest during which recovery and repletion of energy resources before

further training takes place. Energy resources repletion, however, does not stop at the previous

level but there is an increase in energy resources. Subsequent load (further training) should

ideally start right at the moment of super compensation.

• Telling the moment of super compensation is very difficult and it is influenced by a number of

factors. At present, the optimum time for further load can be told by using a method of the

variability of heart rate.

• If further load starts at the moment of super compensation, cumulative training effect can be

expected to appear. If further load starts too early when the athlete’s organism has not been

fully recovered yet, exhaustion is likely to appear. In a long-term perspective, this can lead to

negative consequences of sports training, i.e. overtraining.

Approximate time for recovery after various types of load

• After demanding training of maximal strength......... 48-72 h

• After demanding and long aerobic training …............. 48 h

• After easy aerobic training ………........................24 h

• After demanding anaerobic-endurance training ……… 48 h

• After easy anaerobic-endurance training .……........24 h

• After demanding speed training ........…......24 h

• After easy speed training ………..................12 h

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