phonology

LI 2023 NATHALIE F. MARTIN

PHONOLOGY

What do you know about Phonology?

What is the difference between the words /rip/ and /lip/?

How would you divide this word into syllables?/fənɒlədʒi/

How do you pronounce the word “tsunami”?

Are these words acceptable in English?SbirdnarBirdnar

Introduction: Phonology

No human language exploits all phonetic possibilities

Every language makes its own particular selection from the range of all possible speech sounds

English Phonemes

Chris Black - Applied Linguistics – Tutoring English as a Second Language (ESL)

Korean Phonemes


IntroductionPhonological Representation

Phonology /fənɒlədʒi/ : The components of grammar that

determines the selection of speech sounds and that governs both the sound patterns and the systematic phonetic variation found in language.


The task of phonologists: To discover and describe the

systematic phonetic patterns found in individual languages

To discover the general principles that underlie the patterning of sounds across human languages.


Three major phonological units:FeaturesSegmentsSyllable


Wd

σ σ

s è g m F n t

- syllabic+ sonorant

…[ ]

Word level

Syllable level

Segment level

Feature level


Segment: Individual speech sounds

Feature: Features correspond to articulatory or acoustic

categories such as [voice] or [strident] Smallest building block of phonological structure

Syllable: A syllabic element – usually a vowel- and any

preceding or following segments that are associated with it

Segments in ContrastContrast

All speakers knows which segments contrast and which ones don’t …

Segments are said to contrast when:Their presence alone may distinguish

forms with different meaning from each other Ex: sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp] Ex: hit [hɪt], hat [hæt] & hot [hɒt]

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs

The first step in the analysis of the phonology of language is to establish which sounds in that language are in contrast with each other

In order to establish contrast, it is necessary to examine the distribution of sounds in words and to compare word meanings.

This can be accomplished through the minimal pair test

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs

Minimal pair: Consists of two forms with distinct meaning that differ by only one segment found in the same position in each form.

Example: sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp]Therefore the segments [s] and [z] contrast

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – English Consonant

Example:

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – Definitions

Environment:The phonetic context in which a

sound occurs.Near minimal pairs:

Pairs of words that have segments in nearly identical environments (ex: assure & azure)

Segments in ContrastMinimal Pairs – Definitions

Phoneme: Segments that contrast with each

other in a particular language are said to belong to separate phonemes of that language

• Contrastive phonological units

Not to be confused with Phones

Segments in ContrastVowel Contrast in English

Segments in ContrastLanguage-Specific Contrasts

Important: - Two sounds can be phonetically

distinct without necessarily being phonologically distinct or contrastive.

- Sounds that are contrastive in one language may not necessarily be contrastive in another.

Segments in ContrastLanguage-Specific Contrasts

oExample: In English [ɛ] & [æ] are contrastive (ex: Ben & ban)

In Turkish (ex: the word “I” can be said [bɛn] & [bæn])

Segments in ContrastPractice & Homework

Find minimal pairs to show contrast between all English consonants

(15 phonemes) Exceptions which are hard to find:

[ŋ] [h] [ʔ] [ʒ]

Complementary distribution

Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction

Phonetic variation is systematicOccurs most often in phonetically

similar segmentsConditioned by the phonetic context or environment in which the segments are found

REVIEWCommon Articulatory Processes

Assimilation - Voicing assimilationDevoicing:

Example of Please [pliz][p] (voiceless) + [l] (voiced) = devoiced

[l]

Voicing: Example of[af] (off or over) in Dutch

Afbellen (to cancel): [f] (voiceless) + [b] (voiced) = [vb] (both voiced)

Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction - Variation

Variation occurs because segments are affected and altered by phonetic characteristics of neighboring elements or by the larger phonological context in which they occur

Speakers and listeners of any language tend to factor out this type of variation in order to focus on contrast that affect meaning

Phonetically Conditioned VariationComplementary Distribution

In English, all Ls are not identicalDifferent sounds:

[l//] (voiceless l)& [l] (voiced l)

Yet they do not contrastThere are no minimal pairs in which the

phonetic difference [l//] & [l] functions to indicate difference.


Blue [blu]Gleam [glim]Slip [slɪp]Flog [flɒg]Leaf [lif]

Plow [pl/aʊ]Clap [kl/æp]Clear [kl/ɪər]Play [pl/eɪ]


Examine the distribution of the two Ls

All of the voiceless [l//] occurs after the class of voiceless stops

Voiced [l] never occurs after voiceless stopsPredictable property of phonology in English


Therefore: Since no voiced [l] ever occurs in the same phonetic

environment as a voiceless [l/] (and vice versa), we say that that the two variants of L are in complementary distribution

Table 3.6 Complementary distribution of [l] and [l� ] in English

[l] [l/]

After voiceless stops no yes

Elsewhere yes no

Phonemes and allophones

Phonetically Conditioned VariationPhonemes and allophones

Allophones:When segments are phonetically

distinct, but not phonologically the same they are considered allophones (predictable variants) of one phoneme (contrastive phonological unit).


Phonetic representation: Consists of predictable variants or allophones

Phonemic (or phonological) representation: Consists of the phonemes to which the allophones

belong.

Phonemic representation (phoneme)

/l/Phonetic representation (allophones)

[l//] [l]

Symbols for allophones are

enclosed in square bracket []

Symbols for phonemes are

placed between slashes //


Phonemes:Are mental representations: the way

in which sounds are stored in the mind.Are in your head

Allophones:Are not part of what you remember

when you store a word in your mindCome out of your mouth


An important part of phonological analysis thus deals with discovering inventories of the phonemes of language and accounting for allophonic variation.

English Phonemes


Korean Phonemes


Korean Allophones (in English)


Allophone example

English allophones for /p/[pʰ] - pair [pʰɛr][p] - spare [spɛr][pN] - tap [tæpN]

Korean phonemes /p/ and /pʰ/ 팔 [pʰal] and 발 [pal] are different

wordsEnglish speakers will speak ‘nonsense’ in Korean


Classes and generalization

Phonetically Conditioned VariationFree Variation

Free variation: Various forms that do not change the

meaning since they are phonetically similar.

They are therefore allophones of a phoneme Ex: [stɒp!], [stɒp̚] & [stɒpʔ] [p!], [p̚] & [pʔ] are different allophones of the

phoneme /p/

Notice that the narrow transcription of these words and the different allophones

are in square brackets and that the phoneme is in between

slashes.

Forceful articulation

(Feature rep. only used in the book)

Extended closure

Coarticulation with glottal

stop

Phonetically Conditioned VariationClasses & Systematic Variation

Everyday speech usually varies systematically according to phonetic classes


Brew [bru]Green [grin]Drip [drɪp]Frog [rɒg]Shrimp [ʃrɪmp]

Prow [pr/aʊ]Trip [r/ɪp]Creep [kr/ip]Pray [pr/eɪ]


In English, liquids have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere.


Beauty [bjuti]Dwayne [dweɪn]

Gwen [gwɛn]View [vju]Swim [swɪm]Thwack [θwæk]

Putrid[pj/utrɪd]

Twin [tw /ɪn]Quick [kw /ɪk]Cute [kj/ut]


In English, liquids and glides have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops, and voiced allophones elsewhere.


One of the major goals of phonological description is the discovery of such broad patters of variation, and the formulation of the most general statements possible to describe them.

CANADIAN RAISINGENGLISH MID VOWELS AND GLIDES

LANGUAGE-SPECIFIC PATTERNS

Phonetically Conditioned

Variation

Phonetically Conditioned VariationCanadian Rising

Eyes [aɪz]Lies [laɪz]Tried [tr/aɪd]Tribe [tr/aɪb]House [haʊz]Loud [laʊd]Cow [kaʊ]

Ice [ʌɪs]Lice [l ʌɪs]Trite [tr/ʌɪt]Tripe [tr/ʌɪp]House [hʌʊs]


Canadian rising is another example of allophonic variation in English

[aj] before the class of voiced consonants

or in word final position

[ʌ j] before the class of voiceless consonants


• [aj] before the class of voiced consonants or in word final position

• [ʌ j] before the class of voiceless consonants

Phonetically Conditioned VariationEnglish Mid Vowels and glides

In most dialects of English, the mid tense vowels [e] & [o] are always diphthongized

[ej] & [ow]

[o] and [w] are both back and unrounded

[e] and [j] are both back and unrounded

[e] and [o] are both mid tense vowels

Phonetically Conditioned VariationEnglish Mid Vowels and glides

The mid tense vowels of English are predictably followed by a glide that has the same backness and roundness as the vowels

Phonetically Conditioned VariationLanguage-specific patterns

Important:The phenomenon of allophonic

variation is universal.

BUT …• The actual patterning of phonemes and

allophones is language-specific. Thus, whatever we discover for one

language may not hold true for another.


Nasals in Scots Gaelic:

Vowels are nasal in Scot Gaelic when preceded or followed by a nasal consonant


Nasals in Malay:

In Malay, all vowels and glides following a nasal and not separated from it by a non-nasal consonant are nasalized (until an obstruent, liquid, or glottal is reached)


English and Khmer (Cambodian) stops:


Save [sev]Abe [eb]Made [med]Maze [mez]Age [edʒ]Haig [eg]

Safe [sĕf]Ape [ĕp]Mate [mĕt]Mace [mĕs]H [ĕtʃ]Ache [ĕk]


Know [oʊ]Annoy[ənɔɪ]Onion[ʌnyən]

Nun [nʌn]

Tenth [tɛnYθ]Month[mʌnYθ]Panther [pænYθər]

Chrysanthemum

[krɪsænYθəməm]

Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription

Phonetic and Phonemic TranscriptionInventory of Vowels

Phonetic and Phonemic TranscriptionInventory of Consonants

Phonetic and Phonemic TranscriptionLet’s Practice!

Transcribe the following wordsPhonetically & Phonemically

Plow Paper CrimeGate Phone RhymeRice Flies Stop

Don’t forget the predictable properties mentioned on the previous slides!


PlowPaperCrimeGatePhone

/ plaʊ //pepər // kraɪm // get // foʊn /

[pl��aʊ][peɪpər ]

[kr� aɪm ][geɪt ][foʊn ]


RhymeRiceFliesStop

/ raɪm // raɪs // flaɪz // stɒp /

[raɪm ][rʌɪs ][flaɪz ][stɒp ]

ReviewContrast, phonemes and allophones

Each language has a set of contrastive phonemes

Phonemes themselves can have predictable variants or allophones

There are two distinct levels of representation: phonemic level and phonetic level

REVIEW OF IN CLASS EXERCISES AND HOMEWORK

A Bit of Marking


Know [oʊ]Annoy[ənɔɪ]Onion[ʌnyən]

Nun [nʌn]

Tenth [tɛnYθ]Month[mʌnYθ]Panther [pænYθər]

Chrysanthemum

[krɪsænYθəməm]

/n/ - Dental or Alveolar

In English, /n/ becomes dental when it precedes /θ/.


Save [sev]Abe [eb]Made [med]Maze [mez]Age [edʒ]

Before v, b, d, z, dʒ

Safe [sĕf]Ape [ĕp]Mate [mĕt]Mace [mĕs]Ache [ĕk]

Before f, p, t, s, k

/e/ - Short or Regular Length?

In English, /e/ is short when followed by a voiceless consonant.


PaperGate

/pepər // get /

[pĕpər ][gĕt ]

Exercise 1 (Rowe & Levine)

Skill [skɪl]Ask [æsk]Ski [ski]School [skul]Skull [skʌl]Ink [ɪŋk]

Kill [khɪl]Cass [khæs]King [khɪŋ]Cool [khul]Key [khi]Cull [khəl]

/k/


Skill [skɪl]Ask [æsk]Ski [ski]School [skul]

After s, ŋ

Kill [khɪl]Cass [khæs]King [khɪŋ]Cool [khul] Beginning of word

Two Allophones of the Phoneme /k/

/k/

[k] [kh]

Aspiration Velar Stops = /k/

The oral velar stop (/k/) is aspirated when it is word initial, and unaspirated elsewhere *


Lit [lɪt]Lame[leɪm]Let [lɛt]Lick [lɪk]Lay [leɪ]Leak [lik]

Low [ɫoʊ]Law [ɫɔ]Loot [ɫut]Lull [ɫʌɫ]All [ɔɫ]Feel [fiɫ]


Lit [lɪt]Lame [leɪm]Let [lɛt]Lick [lɪk]Word-initial before a front vowel

Low [ɫoʊ]Loot [ɫut]Lull [ɫʌɫ]Word-initial before a central or back vowel

Or word final

Two Allophones of the Phoneme /l/

/l/

[l] [ɫ]

Dark L

In English, [l] occurs in the initial position before a front vowel.

In English, [ɫ] occurs in the initial position before a central of back vowel or in the word final position


Tape [thap] /tap/Pam[phæm] /pæm/Cod [kho:d] /kod/

DEFINING THE SYLLABLEONSET CONSTRAINTS AND PHONOTACTICS

ACCIDENTAL AND SYSTEMATIC GAPS

Syllable

SyllablesIntroduction

Definition:A syllable consists of a sonorous element and its associated non-syllabic (less sonorous) segments.

What speech sounds are more sonorous?


Vowels are the most sonorous soundTherefore, syllables usually have a

vowel nucleus as their coreLess sonorous sounds may appear on either sides of the nuclei


Native speakers of a language demonstrate their awareness of the sonority values of segments and of the syllable

Examples: TelegraphAccidentSprint

Onset Constraints and Phonotactics

SyllablesOnset

Syllable: σOnset (O): Within a syllable, the longest

segment of consonant to the left of each nucleus

SyllablesRhyme: Nucleus & Coda

Rhyme (R): The nucleus and the coda of a syllable (e.g., [ɪnt] in Sprint)

SyllablesNucleus & Coda

Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the core of a syllable (e.g., [ɪ])

Coda (Co): The elements that follow the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [nt])

SyllablesConstraints

Syllables comply with certain constraints that prohibit them from beginning with a sequence like [kstr]

Thus results in the actual syllabification / ək.strim / (“extreme”)

SyllablesEnglish Syllables

ApplaudDeclineImprovise

SyllablesUniversal Tendencies

All languages have syllablesThe shapes or syllables are governed by various kinds of constraints

But certain universal tendencies are observable

SyllablesUniversal Tendencies

1. Syllable nuclei usually consists of one vowel;

2. Syllables usually begin with onsets;3. Syllables often end with codas;4. Onsets and codas usually consist of

one consonant.

Syllables usually take the shape CV or CVC

SyllablesOnset Constraints & Phonotactics

Isn’t it interesting!Words from other languages sound

unusual to speakers of another languageResult: they often adjust the segment

sequences to conform with their language phonology.

Example: Russian word “vprog” /fprɔk/ (value, or good)[fəprɔk] – adding /ə/[prɔk] – deleting /f/

Sable Island

French: /sabl/English: / seɪ.bəl/

How did we get from one to the other?


Phonotactics: The set of constraints on how

sequences of segments pattern. Forms part of a speakers knowledge

of the phonology of his or her language.

Phonotactics – Let’s Analyse

Would these words be acceptable in English? How would we divide them? Tsunami /tsʊnɑmi/ Birdnar / bɜrdnɑr / Sbirdnar / sbɜrdnɑr / Spirdnar / sbɜrdnɑr /

Accidental and Systematic gaps

SyllablesAccidental and Systematic Gaps

Gaps in the language’s vocabulary that correspond to non-occurring but possible forms called accidental gaps

Sometimes filled by borrowed words that fill the phonotactic constraints Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroika


Systematic gaps:Gaps in the syllable structure of a

language that result not by accident but from exclusion of certain sequences.

Examples in English: /bz/, /pt/ & /fp/

Unacceptable in one language but not necessarily another


Accidental gaps: Sometimes filled by borrowed words that

fill the phonotactic constraints

Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroikaSystematic gaps:

English speakers often change the pronunciation of borrowed words that do not fit the phonotactic constraints

Ex: Psychology & pterodactyl

Christmas in Hawaii !!!

Labial Coronal DorsalLaryngea

l

Stop p k ʔFricativ

e hNasal m nGlide wLiquid l

Vowels

i

e

a

[mɛri k rɪsməs ] [melekalikimaka] ?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ecnehcLIVeI

Christmas in Hawaii !!!

[mɛ.ri ][me.le ]

[k rɪ s. mə s ][ka.li.ki.ma.ka]

SyllablesLanguage-specific phonotactics

Language-specific constraints, on the other hand, hold true for individual languages such as English, but they may not be found in other languages

SETTING UP THE SYLLABLESSYLLABIC PHONOLOGY

PRACTICE

Review

ReviewSyllable & Onset

Syllable: σ

Onset (O): Within a syllable, the longest segment of consonant to the left of each nucleus that does not violate the phonotactic constraints of the language in question (e.g., [st] forms the onset of the second syllable in hamster)

ReviewRhyme: Nucleus & Coda

Rhyme (R): The nucleus and the coda of a syllable (e.g., [ust] in the word boost)

Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the core of a syllable (e.g., the vowel [A] is the nucleus of the first syllable in Patrick)

Coda (Co): The elements that follow the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [rf] in surfboard)

ReviewPractice

Sprint [sprɪnt]:σ

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)

Nucleus (N) Coda (Co)

spr ɪ nt

ReviewPractice

First [fɜrst]σ

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)


f ɜ rst

ReviewPractice

Words [wɜrdz]σ

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)


w ɜ rdz

SyllablesSetting Up Syllables

Each language defines its own syllable structure through the interaction of universal and language-specific constraints


Step a: Nucleus-formation


Step b: Onset-formation


Step c: Coda-formation


Step d: Word-level construction


Set up the syllable for these words:

Frisk [frɪsk] Extra [ɛkstrə]

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology

One reason that syllables are treated as units of phonological structure is that they are relevant to stating generalizations about the distribution of allophonic features

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Aspiration

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Aspiration

English voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-initially


PlowPaperCrime

/ plaʊ //pepər // kraɪm /

[phl//aʊ][pheɪ.phər ]

[khr/aɪm ]

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Vowel Length

SyllablesSyllabic Phonology: Vowel Length

English vowels are long when followed by a voiced obstruent in the coda position of the same syllable

Note: Obstruent = fricative, affricates and oral stops


DadSleeveLimbo

/ dæd // sliv // lɪmbo /

[dæ:d ][sli:v][lɪm.boʊ]

Features

FeaturesDefinition

Segments themselves are composed of even smaller, subsegmental, phonological units known as featuresSmallest unit of phonology Basic building blocks of human

speech sounds

FeaturesIndependent and Coordinate

FeaturesFeatures & Natural Classes

FeaturesFeatures & Natural Classes

By systematically examining the phonemic contrasts of a language, we can extract the distinctive features and use these irreducible linguistic elements to describe the phonemic inventory

Features Representation

Only a limited number of features – currently around twenty-four – have been proposed

Fewer are needed to characterize the sounds of English

Features RepresentationMajor class features

[±consonantal][±syllabic][±sonorant]

[±continuant][±delayed release] ([±DR])

[±nasal][±lateral]

Features RepresentationManner features

Feature: [±continuant]

Includes vowels= With free or nearly free airflow

Feature: [±delayed release] or [±DR]

= tongue is slower leaving the stop portion [t] & [d]

Feature: [±nasal]

= tongue is slower leaving the stop portion [t] & [d]

Feature: [±lateral]

= only ‘l’s

[±voice][±spread glottis] ([±SG])

[±constricted glottis] ([±CG])

Features RepresentationLaryngeal Feature

Feature: voice

= voiced Includes vowels

Feature: [±spread glottis] or [±SG]

= aspirated consonantsOnly ph, th & kh

Feature: [±constricted glottis] or [±CG]

Only ʔ= With closed glottis

[LABIAL][±round]

[CORONAL][±anterior][±strident]

[DORSAL][±high][±low][±back][±tense][±reduced]

Features RepresentationPlace of Articulation

Feature: LABIAL

= Using one or both lips (articulator)

Feature: CORONAL

= Using the tongue tip or blade (articulator)

Feature: DORSAL

= Using the tongue body (articulator)

Features Representation

Have a nice day!

See you soon!

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