Philosophy:

Philo: Love

Sophia: Wisdom/Knowledge

Knowledge: “Is justified belief”

Knowing is not knowing but knowing with justification is knowledge

Wisdom: “Doing Right things by following the right procedures”

There is always exact right way but to dig out that and follow is Wisdom

A. Real:1.Mind(spiritual soul) Matter (Matter of world)2.Freedom:Free (Responsible) Not-free (No-responsibility)3.God(Do we have good reason to believe in God), (Do we need reasons to believe in God).4.World:Random accidental/ Teleology (purpose)

B. Value:Human gives value on basis of discipline(pic of mother), (political leader)

C: Truth:Reasons, Observation, Authority, Revelation, Intuition (sudden apprehension of reality).

LOGIC

Human is thinking machine. Human thinks and those thoughts are than interlinked through interconnectivity. The thoughts are than communicated in form of words through different languages. Language is tool of communication but not a very good tool of communication because words are used in language which itself have no meanings but we assign different meanings to different words. Thus words used in communication can be emotionally charged, vague, ambiguous which is hindrance in communication. The thoughts are than through words in different languages are discussed in form of arguments for interlinking the idea and it develops into reasoning.

Reasoning is a faculty which collect and connect set of information. The set of information interconnected gives inferences. Reasoning starts when thoughts get form of words and interpreted in different languages, which lead to exchange of arguments.

Having faculty is one thing but exercising faculty is the other quality, which is one of the quality of human and it lead to arguments, reasoning , ultimately to applied form of LOGIC.

Logic:

Logic is the study of the methods and principle used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning.

Logic differentiates what will persuade people to accept an argument from what should persuade people to accept an argument.

Logic is the method or techniques used to differentiate a good argument /correct reasoning from a bad argument/ wrong reasoning.

Argument:Thoughts when put into words of different languages it becomes

arguments. But words itself having no meaning rather we assign different meanings to words in such a way that same word is having different meaning in different context. Thus words/ arguments/ situation should be treated in frame of their contexts.e.g. Father saying good to child having definition of good in scientific improvement

Father saying good to child having definition of good in religious improvement. Which means Good use for good scientist and also good means Good religious person.e.g. Mountain Top is best for

A: MemoryB: GreeneryC: Church

Thus the word BEST for A,B,C is having different meanings.

Argument Having Two Main Things:

1.Form of Argument: Internal structure of argument

2.Context of Argument: What is inside of the argument

Argument:

Argument is set of proposition/statements in which one statement is claimed to be followed by other proposition.

The proposition which is claimed to be followed by other proposition is known as conclusion; that is the inference of argument.

The other proposition which provides grounds for conclusion is known as premises.

A=B premises

B =C premises

A=C Conclusion

Enthymeme

An argument in which the major premise is left unstated (often a conclusion supported by a single premise).

She must be a good student since she is on the Dean’s List.

Conclusion Minor PremiseShe must be a good student since she is on the Dean’s List.

Major Premise?All good students are on the Dean’s List.

Types of Logic:

1.Formal Deductive Logic:

In this form of logic we convert the propositions/statements into formal form of symbols and than test argument because ordinary language have pitfalls so better to translate the argument into formal form

2.Informal Logic:

In this form of logic we don’t translate the argument into formal form but check it in its original form i.e. the content of the argument is tested.

Types of Argument:1. Deductive:

Premises provides conclusive/ evidential grounds for conclusions.

Socrates is a man. PremiseAll men are mortal. PremiseSocrates is mortal. Conclusion

a. Premises provides complete grounds for conclusion. Premises provided are true the conclusion must be true.

b. Either valid (if premises provide complete grounds) or invalid (if premises not provides complete grounds).

c. From generalization move towards particularization.

2. Inductive: (Probable grounds for conclusion.)

Product 1 of company A profitable

Product 2 of company A profitable

Product 3 of company A profitable

All products of company A profitable

Premises provides probable grounds for conclusion

Can be less or more probable

From particularization to generalization.

(You cannot think unless you think)

Task 1: Prsentation of 5 slides to eleborate the topic

Human is differentiated from other species on basis of thinking (Collecting and Connecting)

Deductive And InductiveDeductive And Inductive(Validity and Soundness(Validity and Soundness) ) (Strength and Cogency)(Strength and Cogency)

Validity:Validity:Assume its premises are true (whether they are or not), and see if theAssume its premises are true (whether they are or not), and see if theconclusion follows forth from it falsely. If it does, then the argument is invalid. Ifconclusion follows forth from it falsely. If it does, then the argument is invalid. Ifnot, then it passes the test and is valid.not, then it passes the test and is valid.

““All automakers are computer manufacturers. (False, but assumed true)All automakers are computer manufacturers. (False, but assumed true) United Airlines is an automaker. United Airlines is an automaker. (False, but assumed true) (False, but assumed true)

Therefore, United Airlines is a computer manufacturer”Therefore, United Airlines is a computer manufacturer” (True, if the premises are true)(True, if the premises are true)

Sound Argument:Sound Argument:A sound argument is a deductive argument that is valid A sound argument is a deductive argument that is valid and and has all true has all truepremises.premises.Soundness: (Valid) + (True premises)Soundness: (Valid) + (True premises)(Not only assume but in reality are true)(Not only assume but in reality are true)

Validity depends on whether an argument’s premises support its conclusion.Validity depends on whether an argument’s premises support its conclusion.In valid arguments, the premises do support the conclusion.In valid arguments, the premises do support the conclusion.In invalid arguments, the premises don’t.In invalid arguments, the premises don’t.

Inductive Argument’s Strength:Inductive Argument’s Strength:Assume the premises are true, and see if the conclusion is Assume the premises are true, and see if the conclusion is probablyprobably true. true.

““All dinosaur bones discovered to this day have been at least 50 million years. All dinosaur bones discovered to this day have been at least 50 million years. Therefore, probably the next dinosaur bone to be found will be at least 50 million years old”Therefore, probably the next dinosaur bone to be found will be at least 50 million years old”The premise is true and lead to a conclusion that is probably true, so it’s a strong argument.The premise is true and lead to a conclusion that is probably true, so it’s a strong argument.

““When a lighted match stick is slowly dipped into water, the flame is snuffed out. When a lighted match stick is slowly dipped into water, the flame is snuffed out. But petrol is a liquid, just like water. But petrol is a liquid, just like water. Therefore, when a lighted match is slowly dunked into petrol, the flame will be snuffed out”Therefore, when a lighted match is slowly dunked into petrol, the flame will be snuffed out”

In this argument, the premises are true, but the conclusion is false. Thus, it is not difficult to assume the premises to be true. We merely check to see if they support the conclusion. We find they do not, so the argument is weak.

Cogency:Cogency:An inductive argument is said to be cogent when it is both strong and has all true premises.An inductive argument is said to be cogent when it is both strong and has all true premises.Cogency: (Strong) + (True premises)Cogency: (Strong) + (True premises)

A cogent argument is considered to be the ideal “good” inductive argument.A cogent argument is considered to be the ideal “good” inductive argument.

(Not only assume but in reality are true)(Not only assume but in reality are true)

Truth or falsity when testing an argument (validity or strength) are relevant, but only to an extent. First you must assume the premises are true, and check to see if the conclusion is well supported. If it is well supported, then the argument is valid (deductive) or strong (inductive).

Statement/Proposition:Statement/Proposition are the sentences which have truth values and conclusion can be true or false.

Statement is judgment expressed in words

Sentences having no truth values are not statements

Every statement can be sentence but every sentence cannot be statement

What Make Statement True or False:Statements /propositions must have truth values and can be either true or false. From start we do judgments about things and these judgments have two types.

1.A-Posteriori:Knowledge/ reasoning based on experience, usually sense experience.Verification will make them true or false.e.g. 1. Raining outside (verifiable) 2. Taxi driver support of Pakistani is not a-posteriori 2.A-Priori:Knowledge or reasoning based on rational insight rather than sense

experience.Reasons or understanding the meaning can make it true without

verification .On basis of understanding the meaning or reasoning of inference is

considered true.By virtue of the form of words.

TYPES OF STATMENTSAnalytic statement: A statement which can be denied only at the expense of self contradiction; or a statement is analytic when its truth or falsity can be completely determined on basis of the meanings of its terms.

Synthetic statement: A statement is synthetic when its truth or falsity cannot be completely determined on basis of meanings of its terms.

Contradictory: Two statements are said to be contradictory if they both can neither be true together, nor be false together.(Want to develop Pak. Corruption is out of our hand)

Contrary: Two statements are contrary if they both cannot be true together but both can be false together. (Life is short. Live with long term planning).

Sub-Contrary: Two statements are sub-contrary if they cannot both be false together although they both may be true together. (Whenever sale increases profit increases).

Language :Language is covalent between who speaks it.

Language is form of life i.e. language is part of every form of life.

Language is for communication

Language is always used when its context is on .

Context:

1.Objects called words

2.Moves done on objects

3.Rules basis for moves

Language communicate meaning only when it is in context.

e.g. Raining can be meeting spot for friend or Warning to wife to be conscious of home

Function of Language:

1. Information:

Purpose is to communicate information or dis-information

2. Persuasive:

Function is to persuade.

3. Self Revealing Function:

Reveals esteem, personality, confidence even from accent.

4. Relationship:

Prevalence of bond of relationship

5. Attitude Revealing

6. All function together.

Language problem:1.Informative statement must be use in informative sense or else will commit fallacy.

2.Directive argument can commit fallacy

3.Ambigous: Words having many meanings

4.Vague: Words not clear

5.Emotive Charge: Not only literal but emotively charge.

6.Frame: Words defined relative to frame e.g. operation theater in frame of Hospital

or the Media Propagandas use frames.

7.Concepts: Few concepts understand and than those concepts applied on all concepts. E.g. More is Up, not always the word more or up means the same. One concept is picked on basis of other concepts.

• The employees of a small loan company are Mr. Black, Mr. White, Mrs. Coffee, Miss Ambrose, Mr. Kelly, and Miss Earnshaw. The positions they occupy are manager, assistant manager, cashier, stenographer, teller, and clerk, though not necessarily in that order. The assistant manager is the manager's grandson, the cashier is the stenographer's son-in-law, Mr. Black is a bachelor, Mr. White is twenty-two years old, Miss Ambrose is the teller's step-sister, and Mr. Kelly is the manager's neighbor. Who holds each position?

Cause:

Human live by instinct as animals but human does not live

only by instinct because of thinking and rational capacity

which leads human to causal relationship.

Cause and effect relationship lead to;

1. Explain situation

2. Control situation

3. Prediction

Senses of Cause:1. Necessary condition/cause: Necessary condition for the occurrence of a specific event is a

circumstances in whose absence the event cannot occur.e.g. X is necessary for Y. The Y cannot happened if the X not

happened.

2. Sufficient Condition/ cause:Condition for occurrence of an event in whose presence the

event probably must occur. Sufficient condition is the indicators.

e.g. Yellow color of Hepatitis

3. Salient Cause:Relevant cause. E.g. Student pass of hard-work

4. Triggering cause: Cause that sets into motion the chain of events that lead to an effect.

5. Standing/ Structural cause:Some static conditions that contributes to effect only in conjunction with

a triggering cause.Structural are already there thus triggering complete the cause of an

effect. To solve remove the triggering conditions the structural condition cannot make the cause happened alone.

6.Proximate; One who make the cause done to make the effect done.e.g. Owner said to peon to create fire in industry for economic gains.

7.Remote: The one who was the controller of proximate. i.e. Owner.

Manager Asst.Mgr Cashier Stenographer Teller Clerk

Mr.B

Mr.W

Mrs.Coffee

Mrs.Earnshaw

Mr.K

Miss.A

Solution of Activity one

Mr.B, Mr.W, Mrs, Coffee, Miss E, Mr.Kelly, Miss AThe employees of a small loan company are Mr. Black, Mr. White, Mrs. Coffee, Miss Ambrose, Mr. Kelly, and Miss Earnshaw. The positions they occupy are manager, assistant manager, cashier, stenographer, teller, and clerk, though not necessarily in that order. The assistant manager is the manager's grandson, the cashier is the stenographer's son-in-law, Mr. Black is a bachelor, Mr. White is twenty-two years old, Miss Ambrose is the teller's step-sister, and Mr. Kelly is the manager's neighbor. Who holds each position?1.Asst mgr is grand son thus male hence(A,E,C crossed)2. Mgr having grandson so married.(BEA crossed Kelly is neighbour so Kelly crossed)3. Mr.White crossed for mgr because 20 year old and cannot have grandson thus Mrs.coffe is mgr.4.Cashier is son-in-law thus married B,A,E crossed.5.Stenographer is married thus B,A,E crossed.6.Miss Ambrose is teller step-sister so cant be teller(Miss.A crossed for teller).7.Steno is having son-in-law so cant be 20 yaer old thus Mr.White crossed hence left empty Mr.kelly who is steno.8.Thus empty for cashier is Mr.White.9.Thus empty for Asst mgr is Mr.black.10.Thus empty for teller is Miss. Earnshah

Mrs. James C. Coffee, Mgr.Mr. R. G. Black, Asst. Mgr. Mr. G. R. White, CashierMr. G. R. White, CashierMr. Abraham Kelly, Steno.Miss Willa Earnshaw, TellerMiss Amelia Ambrose, Clerk

Activity: Causal diagram, Fishbone diagramIshikawa Diagram

Informal Fallacies:Fallacy: Wrong argument is fallacy

Irrelevant reasoning or arguments for conclusion

FALLACIES

A. Fallacy of false Generalization.1. Accident: arguer move quickly carelessly from general to particular circumstances.

2. Converse Accident (hasty generalization): Arguer move quickly carelessly from particular circumstances to generalizations.

B. Argument Against Man1. Ad-Hominem: Pearson personal character is considered while evaluating the argument.

2. Circumstantial: Circumstances (having nothing with argument) are considered of a person while evaluating his argument.

3. You-too: One rejects argument by turning argument back against opponent and then it puts opponent on defense.

4. Bias type of attack: Arguer is having some personal bias (financial, social, psychological etc) in argument or criticism.

5. Poisoning the well: Disqualifying arguer credibility before he/she say something about arguer argument. Disqualification of person who will give argument about arguer argument.

C. Slippery slope (camel nose): If P accepted it will follow Q and it will follow R and R is very undesirable or wrong thus on basis of R the P is rejected.

D. Complex Question: Pre-assumption or pre-conceived idea exist in the argument, which is when asked from the arguer her/him reply directly approves the pre-assumption which negates the arguer or harm the arguer. Questions from arguer asked in manner that arguer reply to questions trap arguer in argument and preconceived idea is supported. Complex questions are loaded questions which in both form in rejection or acceptance supports the preconceived idea.

E. False dilemma: Arguer given fixed alternatives excluding all possible alternatives and than asked to select one amongst from given fixed alternatives ignoring all other possible alternatives.

F. Appeal to wrong authority: Argument is accepted or rejected on basis of wrong authority.

G. Appeal to popularity: Majority responds and use is showing popularity. Means approved by majority. Or Approved by individual may be celebrity or special ones or because of Fame/excitement generation to get popular.

H. Fallacy of ignorance: Due to unproved truth value of the argument the argument is considered true or false due to lack of proof.

1. Shifting burden of proof: Burden of proof shifts from arguer to one about whom argument is made.

2. Negative evidence: Ignorance committed when negative evidence is given due to ignorance e.g. P (disease) ----Q (germs), thus having No P (disease) means having no Q (germs).

I. Fallacies of Emotions1. Appeal to force: Arguer argument if not accepted negative consequences will be followed which

are in control of arguer.

2. Appeal to fear: Arguer argument if not accepted negative consequences will be followed which are not in control of arguer. (E.g. religious, advertisers)

3. Appeal to pity: Appeal for sympathy by arguer (can be words or way of words)

4. Appeal to flattery: Arguer put desirable elements in argument which if argument is neglected means those desirable elements are also neglected

5. Appeal to novelty: Arguer put newness in argument which is termed as need of time.

6. Appeal to traditions: Arguer use traditions as shield of defense.

7. Appeal to nature: Its natural in universe so has to be approved because nature approves it.

J. Irrelevant Conclusion1. Missing the point: Arguer give premises which provide in beginning some ground for conclusion

but irrelevant conclusion vaguely connected by the end premises.

2. Straw man: Instead of main argument opponent creates straw man argument by distortion in main argument and than demolish the straw man argument rather than demolishing main argument.

3. Red-herring: When arguer diverts the attention of subject to some different issue, something intended to divert attention from real problem. Instead of reasoning of argument the attention direction of argument is miss-leaded to other problem rather than main argument.

K. Ambiguity1. Equivocation (Type token ambiguity-Process product ambiguity, semantic fallacy):

Words used in argument deliberately or accidentally in different meaning. Same word used in argument change sense of meaning e.g. End is perfection

Death is end

Therefore Death is perfection

2. Amphiboly: Ambiguity in argument because of syntax. The wrong use of grammar.

3. Composition: Unjustified transfer of property of individual of group to the whole group. e.g. H2O, or 5 and 3 odd so 5+3=8 thus 8 also odd.

4. Division: Unjustified transfer of property of whole into its parts. e.g. H2O, or so 5+3=8(even) thus 5 and 3 even.

5. Definitional retreat: Changing the meaning of the terms used in argument.

World and Words:

Words must have social approval or else will not serve it’s purpose ; if

words are not socially approved it will create problem of ingenuineness

(logically not communicated) disputes.

Social Approval Can be Taken:

Reference: Reference giving can explain the meaning (but is only for tangible).

Dialectical process: Abstract phenomena , concept word through dialectical process.

Connectives: The connectives are the agents which connects the

propositions and results relationship among the propositions.

Relationship is made on different types of connectives as

1. Conjunction "and", A conjunction is formed when propositions are joined by the word "and". The conjunction of two propositions p and q is denoted by qp or the

symbol of dot (.) showed by and, moreover, never less, but Truth values of conjunction

p q qp T T T T F F F T F F F F

The truth value of a conjunction is only true when the truth value all of the individual conjunction is true. Otherwise the truth value is false. Conjuction true if both of the conjuncts are true or else fasle.

2. Disjunction, "OR", A disjunction is formed when propositions are joined by the word "or". The disjunction of two propositions p and q is denoted by qp .

Truth values of Disjunction p q qp T T T T F T F T T F F F

The truth value of a disjunction is true when at least one of the propositions is true. Only proposition will be false if both of disjuncts are fasle.

3. Conditional Statements or implication Definition: If p and q are statements, the compound statement " if p then q", denoted qp , is called a conditional statement, or implication.

The proposition p is called antecedent or hypothesis, and the proposition q is called the consequent or conclusion.

Examples Find qp in each of these cases: i) P: John is not at work q: John is sick Solution i) qp : If John is not at work then he is sick

Truth values for Implication p q qp T T T T F F F T T F F T

The truth value of a implication is false only if p is true and q is false.

4. Equivalence "if and only if", IFF, Definition: If qp is true and its converse qp is true then qp . Equivalence or biconditional is formed when the propositions are joined by the phrase " if and only if" which has the abbreviation "iff" , and it is denoted by qp for two propositions p and q. Also qp stated as p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q.

Examples For p and q defined below, describe qp P: Madrid is in Spain q: Spain is in Europe qp : Madrid is in Spain iff Spain is in Europe Truth values for Equivalence

p q qp T T T T F F F T F F F T

The truth value of equivalence is true only when all of the propositions have the same truth value. i.e. qp is true only when both p and q are true or when both p and q are false.

Types of propositions 1- Simple proposition: Single statement. For example: Paris is the capital of France 2- Compound proposition

Formed by connecting two or more propositions by logical connectives or by negating a single proposition.

Propositions are usually represented by the letters p, q, r,… The truthfulness or falsity of a proposition is called its truth value.

Negation, Not, ~ P Def: The negation of a proposition P is not P and is denoted by ~P Truth values of Negation

P ~P

T F If the original proposition is true then the negation of the proposition would be false.

F T If the original proposition is false then the negation of the proposition would be true.

Truth values A proposition is a statement that can be either true or false. The truth value of a proposition is T (true) or F (false).