KARY MULLIS conceives of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for rapid amplification of DNA

THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT consortium begins with the goal of determining the entire sequence of

DNA composing human chromosomes

STANLEY COHEN, ANNIE CHANG, HERBERT BOYER, and ROBERT HELLING create the

first recombinant DNA organism

JOSHUA LEDERBERG, EDWARD TATUM, and GEORGE BEADLE share a Nobel Prize for demonstrating bacterial conjugation

MARTIN GELLERT, I.R. LEHMAN, CHARLES RICHARDSON, and JERARD HURWITZ discover DNA ligases

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CHARLES DARWIN publishes On The Origin of Species, setting the

foundation of evolutionary biology

FRIEDRICH MIESCHER is the first to isolate and identify DNA from white blood cells

HUGO DE VRIES introduces the term “mutation”

WALTER SUTTON and THEODOR BOVERI propose the chromosome theory of inheritance, which

states that genes are carried on chromosomes

THOMAS HUNT MORGAN’s work strongly supports the chromosome

theory of inheritance

BARBARA MCCLINTOCK and HARRIET CREIGHTON demonstrate the role of recombination during the

inheritance of chromosomes

EDWARD TATUM and GEORGE BEADLE propose a link between genes and enzymes with the

“one gene, one enzyme” hypothesis

JAMES WATSON and FRANCIS CRICK publish the DNA structure as a double helix

MATTHEW MESELSON and FRANKLIN STAHL demonstrate the semi-conservative replication of DNA

STUART LINN and WERNER ARBER discover restriction endonucleases

HAMILTON SMITH and colleagues isolate the first restriction endonuclease, Hind II

MICHAEL SMITH receives a Nobel Prize for his work developing site-directed mutagenesis

YEN CHOO and colleagues demonstrate the first application of zinc finger nucleases (ZFN), an engineered

nuclease constructed to block gene expression

J.K. MOORE and J.E. HABER coin the term “non-homologous end joining”

DAVID BAULCOMBE and ANDREW HAMILTON identify short RNA molecules (siRNAs) as effectors of gene silencing

LAURENT TESSON and colleagues report the first successful creation of a gene knockout rat using customized TAL effectors

The CRISPR-Cas9 “craze” begins

ROBERT BROWN discovers the cell nucleus

GREGOR MENDEL, “father of modern genetics,” elucidates “laws of genetics” through his experiments with plant hybridization

EDUARD STRASBURGER observes the fusion of nuclei in fertilization in plants, and also describes stages of mitosis

HUGO DE VRIES introduces the term "(pan)gene" to describe postulated hereditary carriers; 20 years later the term is shortened to “gene”

WILLIAM BATESON coins the term “genetics”

FREDERICK GRIFFITH demonstrates bacterial transformation

HANS SPEMANN awarded a Nobel Prize for his research on embryonic development, and theorizes about a nuclear-transfer cloning procedure

BARBARA MCCLINTOCK discovers transposable genetic elements

ROBERT HOLLEY, HAR GOBIND KHORANA, and MARSHALL NIRENBERG share a Nobel Prize “for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis”

WALTER GILBERT and FREDERICK SANGER separately develop different methods for DNA sequencing

MARIO R. CAPECCHI, MARTIN EVANS, and OLIVER SMITHIES are the first to create a knockout mouse

VICTOR AMBROS, ROSALIND LEE, and RHONDA FEINBAUM discover microRNA

SRINIVASAN CHANDRASEGARAN and colleagues demonstrate the use of engineered ZFP fused to the nonspecific cleavage domain of the FokI type II restriction enzyme

CRAIG C. MELLO and ANDREW FIRE discover a gene silencing effect of double-stranded RNA

The first draft of the human genome is published

JENS BOCH, SEBASTIAN SCHORNACK, THOMAS LAHAYE, ULLA BONAS; MATTHEW MOSCOU and ADAM BOGDANOVE both teams independently discover the basis for TAL effector mediated genome editing

HERBERT BOYER and STANLEY COHEN demonstrate DNA cloning, the propagation of a recombinant DNA molecule in foreign cells

PG1401-PJ5975-CO09619-IG-2-Genome-Engineering-Evolution-ReviewONLY-Americas-FHRcrops.pdf 1 10/23/14 12:22 PM