period 6 text
TRANSCRIPT
Forging an Industrial Society
America went from a rural society beginning of the Civil War to urbanizing, industrial one by the end of the century
Economic and technological change allowed a whole new civilization to emerge
The last part of the 1800’s saw the rise of industry and industrial giants American movement to urban areas brought into question the spirit of
individualism, but also expansion and closure onto the Western frontier Reformers ushered in an age of more active governmental affairs on the
social and business fronts Economic change brought political and social turmoil and allowed for the
expansion of labor unions Disputes over monetary policies divided industrialists and farmers and gave
rise to the Populist party The South remained untouched by this prosperity and African Americans
became victims of institutionalized racism As the century ended Americans were again gripped by expansionism and
people questioned American’s role on the world stage
I. The Bloody Shirt Elects Grant
Civil War brought government corruption and many Americans were disillusioned
Politics during the last 30 years of the century were corrupt at best
1868 US Grant elected president Grant’s victory could be attributed to former
slaves voting him into office, also the memories of his war exploits (waving the bloody shirt)
First many money issues came up during this election; eastern wealth focused on gold standard vs. Midwestern farmers who wanted to stay with system of greenbacks (money backed by faith and credit of US)
Farmers wanted to keep more money in circulation and keep interest rates low
II. The Era of Good Stealings
Postwar political atmosphere was full of political corruption
Jay Gould and Jim Fisk and their plot to corner the gold market was an example of the time
Tweed Ring in NYC- Boss Tweed leader gained favor of immigrants by making promises, providing services to them in return for support
Once in office he stole, bribed and fleeced the city for over $200 million (cartoons of Thomas Nast brought public attention and put him behind bars (1871)
III. A Carnival of Corruption
Misdeeds of federal governmentGrant’s cabinet was full of crooks1872 Credit Mobilier Scandal Union Pacific RR
formed Credit Mobilier Construction to build railroads and hired themselves at inflated prices
Gave stock to key Congressmen to cover up investigation, even paid off VP
1874-1875 Whiskey Ring robbed treasury of millions in excise tax revenue
1876 Sec. of War had to resign after pocketing bribes from suppliers to Indian reservations
IV. The Liberal Republican Revolt of 1872
Reformers tired of corruption formed Liberal Republican Party in 1872
Nominated editor of New York Tribune, Horace Greely
Democrats endorse Greely and his views on national unity
Election 1872 between Grant and Greely a choice of the lesser of two evils and Grant won
V. Depression, Deflation and Inflation
1873 Economic Panic Over production, expansion caused loans to go
unpaid Riots in NYC, black Americans and business
hardest hit (less stable footing) Call for “greenbacks”, not money based on gold
standard to pay back debt easier (greenbacks could be traded for gold)
Hard money people wanted to get rid of currency, removing it from circulation would make the value higher not lower (create scarcity)
Soft Money advocates wanted more money in circulation, it would cause higher prices, more profit and make debt easier to pay
Hard money won out, Grant refused to print more money
V. Depression, Deflation and Inflation
Debtors looked to silver as a substitute for greenbacks and gold Silver undervalued by US government (16:1), higher prices on open
market so miners did not sell to US government 1873 Congress formally drops making silver coins New discoveries in the same year, production up and mining
interests and debtors called end of production “Crime of ’73” Demand for more silver scheme to promote inflation Grant has government buy more gold and reduce greenbacks, policy
of contraction worsened panic 1874- Result of money policy led to Democrats regaining control of
Congress 1878 limited production of silver coinage (Bland-Alison Act)
VI. Pallid Politics in the Gilded Age
Political balance switched back and forth during this period, no president won popular vote during this period
Voter turnout was high and few significant economic issues separated the parties
Political affiliation came from ethnic and cultural differences
Lifeblood of both parties was political patronage, federal jobs (civil service) in exchange for votes, kickbacks in exchange for votes
1870’s Republicans split into two camps Stalwarts (led by Roscoe Conkling) and Half Breeds (led by James Blaine)
Stalwarts embraced system of exchanging votes for jobs, Half Breeds toyed with idea of civil service reform
Republicans vs. Democrats
Northern ProtestantAfrican AmericansSupported nativitist causesSupported prohibitionPro-business
Southern whitesImmigrantsCatholicsJewsFreethinkersFarmers
Role of Government During Gilded Age
From 1870-1900 Govt. did very little domestically. Main duties of the federal govt.:
Deliver the mail. Maintain a national military. Collect taxes & tariffs. Conduct a foreign policy. Administer the annual Civil War veterans’ pension.
Americans expected little support from federal government most was local and state support
Party bosses ruled. Congress most powerful branch of government during
this period Presidents should avoid offending any factions within
their own party. The President just doled out federal jobs.
Roscoe ConklingUS Senator
aka Lord Conkling
VII. Hayes-Tilden Standoff and Compromise (1876-1877)
1876 Grant does not run, Republicans pick Rutherford Hayes as compromise (from electoral rich Ohio)
Democrats pick Samuel J. Tilden (NY), man who bagged Boss Tweed
Tilden wins popular vote, disputed electoral votes in SC, LA, FL- no official winner as inauguration approached
Compromise of 1877 settled dispute
Hayes would take office in exchange for federal troops leaving the south
Republicans promised political patronage to Dems. and to subsidize construction of southern RR
VII. Hayes-Tilden Standoff and Compromise (1876-1877)
Compromise brought end to Reconstruction, also sacrificed A-A’S in South
Civil Rights Act of 1875 last major legislation by radicals in Congress (guaranteed equal accommodations in public places)
Declared unconstitutional 1883, ruling stated only government, not individuals, were subject to 14th Amendment
When troops left Republican regimes across South fell apart
VIII. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South
White Redeemers using fraud, intimidation and playing on racial fears retook power
Blacks who tried to assert their rights faced discrimination at every turn
Many blacks and poor whites were forced into tenant farming (crop-lien system) and remained perpetually in debt
What began as informal separation of the races in 1870’s became systematic across the south within 20 years
Legal codes that became known as Jim Crow laws
VIII. The Birth of Jim Crow in the Post-Reconstruction South
Jim Crow laws: Literacy requirements and poll taxes ensure
disenfranchisement of South’s black population
1896 Supreme Court validates South’s social order with Plessey vs. Ferguson ruled “separate but equal” was constitutional under 14th Amendment
Created inferior schools, separated most public facilities, made blacks second class citizens
Blacks that tried to stand up for themselves were dealt with harshly, indicated by record number of lynching's
Would be nearly a century before these problems were addressed
IX. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes
1877 Ended age of regional warfare and opened age of racial and class warfare
Byproduct of economic depression following Panic in 1873 RR workers wages cut and workers struck back Work stoppages across nation and Hayes sent in troops to quell unrest
(hundreds killed) Failure of strike showed weakness and first stirrings of labor movement Racial and ethnic tension fractured unity
IX. Class Conflicts and Ethnic Clashes
Tension high in California between Chinese and Irish
Many Chinese came to work in goldfields and RR’s
Irish (Kearneyites) resented competition of cheap Chinese labor , terrorized Chinese
1882 Congress cuts off further immigration from China until 1943
1896 and 1898 victory for Chinese in Yik Wo vs. Hopkins, US vs. Wong Kim protected them in employment and citizenship (guaranteed by 14th Amendment)
Wong Kim case protected other immigrant groups as well
X. Garfield and Arthur
1880 presidential campaign Republicans nominate James Garfield and Stalwart running mate Chester A. Arthur, they win election
Garfield was assassinated by disgruntled office seeker Charles Guiteau
Outcome of death was that it led to call for reforming spoils system
Arthur was thought to be a man in favor of the spoils system but he shut out many of his Stalwart pals and advocated for reform
X. Garfield and Arthur
1883 Pendleton Act passed – established a Civil Service Commission that made appointment to federal jobs based on examination rather than influence and political favor
Banned practice of compulsory campaign donations from federal employees
Politicians had to find money elsewhere and they turned to the big corporations; they supported big business with legislation, they were rewarded with money
XI. Blaine- Cleveland Mudslingers of 1884
1884- Blaine (leader of Half- breeds) nominated , Democrats nominate Grover Cleveland
Cleveland had been reformer mayor of Buffalo, NY and Governor of NY
Reformers called Mugwumps Reform to them, create a disinterested,
impartial govt. run by an educated elite like themselves.
Social Darwinists Laissez faire government to them: Favoritism & the spoils system seen as
govt. intervention in society. Their target was political corruption,
not social or economic reform Campaign 1884 one of the dirtiest in American
history with accusations and partisan fervor (turned many off to voting)
XII. Old Grover Takes Over
The “Veto Governor” from New York. First Democratic elected since 1856. A public office is a public trust His laissez-faire presidency: Opposed bills to assist the poor as
well as the rich. Vetoed over 200 special pension bills
for Civil War veterans Biggest political issue was the tariff America had profited from protection and the Treasury had a huge
surplus ($145 million) 1887 Cleveland brings up tariff issue and this becomes a major
issue in the next presidential election 1888 Cleveland voted out of office and Republican Benjamin
Harrison takes over
XIII. The Billion Dollar Congress
Republicans couldn’t wait to take office, Democrats planned to thwart all House business
Republicans in Congress passed first billion dollar budget and depleted treasury
Gave out more pensions to Civil War veterans, increased government purchases of silver, passed higher tariff
Tariff caused farmers more problems selling goods on the unprotected world markets, protected goods were very profitable for American industry
Rural voters turned out in 1890 Congressional elections and Republicans fell out of power
XII. Cleveland, Depression and Backlash
Democrats and Cleveland retake presidency 1892
1893 financial panic and depression hit American economy
Over speculation, overbuilding, depressed agricultural prices, labor unrest all contributed
Free silver agitation hurt American credit abroad and European banks called in loans
Federal government laissez faire policies did not help American people
Cleveland had to deal with deficit left behind by Harrison
Gold reserve in the Treasury fell and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act was repealed
US was in danger of going off gold standard and having currency become unreliable
XII. Cleveland, Depression and Backlash
1895 Cleveland turns to financier J.P. Morgan and Wall Street to lend government $65 million worth of gold
Created a backlash that seemed like government was in bed with big business
Democrats tried to lower tariffs to make economy more competitive abroad and they passed a small income tax (later struck down by Supreme Court)
Disallowing income tax seemed like more proof that government was a tool of big business
XIV. The Drumbeat of Discontent
1892 Populist Party first appeared It was a coalition of frustrated farmers in the south and west that
denounced government injustice They met in Omaha to announce their support for the following1. System of “sub-treasuries.”2. Abolition of the National Bank.3. Direct election of Senators.4. Govt. ownership of RRs, telephone & telegraph companies.5. Government-operated postal savings banks.6. Restriction of undesirable immigration.7. 8-hour work day for government employees.8. Abolition of the Pinkerton detective agency.9. Australian secret ballot.10.Re-monitization of silver.11. A single term for President & Vice President
XIV. The Drumbeat of Discontent
1892 Nationwide strikes, Homestead Steel strike Workers rights seen as trampled on Populists see possibility of farmers and workers joining together Populists run James Weaver for president and win over 1 million votes The populists did not get the support from the industrial workers in the north and the
farmers in the south In the south the political elite played on racial fears to keep Populist support down Caused Southern states to aggressively disenfranchise A-A voters (literacy tests and
using the “grandfather clause”), 50 years before blacks would vote in heavy numbers again
I. Iron Colt Becomes the Iron Horse
Many lured away from politics to business America lost civic leadership in late 19th
century US move to industrialization caused
transformation in everyday lives of Americans, growth of railroad leads the way
Prime example of government and business entanglements was the RR industry
RR building expensive and needed government money
Arguments used- to populate country, postal needs and military needs
Federal government gave land grants to RR, all land given to them was not open to public until they decided what they wanted to do with it
I. Iron Colt Becomes the Iron Horse
1887 Cleveland opens up unclaimed land to the public Government received benefits of using RR for military and mail Granting land was way to subsidize RR construction without taxes
or cash RR used land as collateral for loans, and to make money selling it
(land had little value until RR ) Many frontier outposts competed for RR, those that won bidding
flourished
II. Spanning the Continent with Rails
1862- Congress passes provisions to allow for transcontinental RR, to bind east and west
Construction begins after war1869- Union Pacific from the
east, Central Pacific from the West meet in Ogden, Utah
Allowed goods to travel across country for first time, opened trade with Asia, allowed for opening of growth of West
III. Binding the Country With Railroad Ties
Four other Transcontinental lines completed by 1900All except Great Northern received federal land grants
III. Railroad Consolidation and Mechanization
Many western lines were expansion of older eastern lines
Major player behind this was Cornelius Vanderbilt, offered superior railway service at lower rates
Technology and standardization effected RR industry
Steel, not iron railsAir brakesStandard gauge track widthPullman cars
IV. Revolution on the Railways
RR changed many parts of American life Country united in a physical sense Created domestic market for consumer goods and raw materials,
spurred industrialization Opened up new markets and sources for raw materials Allowed cities to grow Immigrants came to regions advertised in Europe Made millionaires of men (new RR aristocracy), became an
investment opportunity for those on Wall Street Time was “industrialized” with establishment of standardized time
zones to keep train running on schedule
Environmental Impact: Destruction of tall grass prairie, “industrialized” land into square grain plots, cattle displaced buffalo, forests cut and transported to growing cities
V. Wrongdoing in Railroading
Corruption allowed fortunes to grow Credit Mobilier, land speculation, boom and bust of RR
stock Stock watering favorite get rich quick scheme Inflated value of lines assets and profitability, sold
overvalued stocks to investors Forced RR to charge higher rates to provide return on
investments Railroaders bought and sold public officials to gain
favor Control of RR by few allowed monopoly to grow Competition between RR grew into cooperation, used
the “pool” method to divide business in given area and split the profits
Some granted special rates to some shippers for steady money and traffic
Charged more for short haul than long haul These actions were done with little regard to the
American consumer
VI. Government Bridles the Iron Horse
Farmers resented RR plutocracy because of high rates
Government slow to respond to economic injustice, counter to American ideal of free enterprise, competition and government interference in business
Depression of 1870’s hit farmers hard and felt RR rates were part of the problem
Agrarian groups like the Grange formed to lobby for farmers and use state legislative action to regulate the RR monopoly
VI. Government Bridles the Iron Horse
States had some successes in the Midwest (Grange Laws) but Supreme Court put an end to all of it
1886 Wabash vs. Illinois decided that states had no authority to regulate interstate commerce, only the federal government
1887 Congress passes the Interstate Commerce Act Prohibited rebates and pools RR had to publish rates openly Forbid discrimination against shippers, rates for short and long haul Set up Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to enforce, regulate
new legislation Act provided a way for business interests to resolve their differences in the
open, country could avoid rate wars and action by state legislatures ICC stabilized business in America First large scale attempt to regulate business in the interest of
society at large, demonstrated that government would protect public interest
VII. Miracles of Mechanization
After the war America steadily grew to be the world leader in Industrial production
Why?A. Natural resources- coal, timber, many navigable rivers, in 1859 oil was
discovered - new source of inexpensive energyB. Workforce growth- Immigrants pushed from their homeland pulled by
the opportunity that America offered. Mechanization of agriculture pushed many farmers to the new, growing cities to find work. Provided new industry a huge workforce
C. Capitalism- liquid capital became more available after the war, system of free enterprise allowed entrepreneurs to fuel industrial growth, established factories, created jobs, attracted foreign investment
D. Government Policies- encouraged growth of business. Provided railroads millions of acres of land to link the country. Passed protective tariffs, encouraged laissez- faire policies Strong legal system and private property rights encouraged investment and growth
E. Technological Innovation- capitalism encouraged innovation and efficiency, brought women into the workplace, established a communication network, changed the daily lives of Americans
VIII. The Trust Titan Emerges
New ways of doing business emerged that concentrated capital and allowed for more efficient control of industry
Corporation people share ownership through stock ownership, created huge pool of capital to invest in the business, run different factories
Corporations worked to maximize profits, tried to pay workers as little as possible, pay low prices for raw materials.
Monopolies were formed to gain complete control of a product or service charge low fares to put others out of business,
Others tried to eliminate competition by forming cartels to keep prices artificially high
More efficient ways of doing business and organizing their companies Two new methods: Horizontal Integration- consolidating many firms into one business
(Standard Oil and refineries) Vertical Integration- gaining control of the many different businesses
that make up all parts of a products development (Carnegie Steel)
Capitan’s of Industry
Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, J.P. Morgan, Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck were men skilled in organizing and promoting big business.
A.Rockefeller, Carnegie were known for their innovations in organization
B.J.P. Morgan developed investment banking
C.Sears and Roebuck were the pioneers of mail order retailing
IX. The Supremacy of Steel and Andrew Carnegie
Steel was a scarce expensive commodity before the Civil War, after the war with the perfection of the Bessemer Process steel became inexpensive and fueled industrial and economic expansion in the US
By 1900 the US produced 1/3 of the worlds steel
America was one of the few places in the world where the raw materials needed for steel production were found close together (coal, iron ore, abundant labor supply)
IX. The Supremacy of Steel and Andrew Carnegie
Master of steel industry was Andrew Carnegie Born in Scotland to a poor family experienced a rise from rags
to riches During the Civil War developed a military telegraph system After the war- built railroad bridges, steelmaking and
investments 1873 Carnegie began to concentrate on steel Not a technical expert but a salesman, promoter and
organizer Hired men of ability to run business and used the most up to
date machinery Bought out struggling companies and had a philosophy of
continual innovation Stood out as a thinker and publicized a philosophy for big
business, “ The Gospel of Wealth” (1889) When he retired at 65 devoted himself to giving away his
fortune for the public good. Gave money to universities, libraries, parks, churches, public buildings
John D. Rockefeller
Obsessed with order, precision, tidiness he decided to bring order to the oil industry
Recognized the potential for profits in the oil industry
1870-Standard Oil of Ohio, began to buy out other refiners, in less than six weeks he controlled 90% of all oil refining in the United States
Began to purchase all aspects of production barrels, pipelines, tank cars, oil storage facilities and he made deals with railroads to ship his products cheaply
Established a trust to make business more efficient, centralize control of the business, established the idea of a holding company (controlling the majority of stock of many different companies)
End of his life Rockefeller gave most of his fortune away, gave away more than $500 m.
J.P. Morgan
Born to a wealthy family Used his connections to bring capital from
Europe to the United States to invest in businesses
Purchased stock and bonds wholesale and sold them for a profit- beginning of investment banking
Morgan began to consolidate these companies into trusts
By the 1890’s he was in charge of one sixth of the nations railroads
Morgan believed that control brought stability to the economy
1901 Morgan purchased Carnegie’s steel and iron holdings
Created the first billion dollar corporation in the United States (US Steel)
Sears and Roebuck
Many new products in the later 1800’s needed markets.
How did retailers reach the millions of people that lived in small towns and isolated farms?
1890’s two Chicago entrepreneurs Richard Sears and Alvah Roebuck began offering goods by mail.
They purchased goods in high volume from wholesalers and sold it at prices lower than the local rural stores
Development of free rural mail delivery in 1898 meant that rural Americans could purchase goods, before were expensive or only available to city dwellers
The new business helped create a truly national market
X. The Gospel of Wealth and Social Darwinism
Industrialists credited heavenly help for success Carnegie said wealthy entrusted with riches of
society, they must be morally responsible according to Gospel of Wealth
Wealthy trustees of poor Many business leaders followed idea of Social
Darwinism, survival of the fittest theories (business and race)
Questioned what do social classes owe each other?
Involved contempt for the poor Industrial plutocracy took its stand based on the
Constitution Lawyers stood behind 14th Amendment,
corporation was a legal entity and had same protections as individuals when it came to protection of rights
Many business incorporated in easy states like where restrictions were mild or nonexistent
XI. Government Tackles the Trust Evil
Masses begin to mobilize against the monopoliesState legislation did not work1890- Congress passes the Sherman Anti-Trust
ActForbid monopolies that restrained trade (bigness
was the sin)Law was ineffective and hard to enforce, actually
used against labor unions to curb their activitiesEarly step to government control of the business
sector
Robber Barons or Captains of Industry?
Captains of IndustryCaptains of Industry Business leaders served nation
positively Provided jobs Technology, innovation helped
American economy, allowed America to become an international leader
Many were important philanthropists
Robber BaronsRobber Barons Americans felt that cartels,
trusts, monopolies gave businessmen unfair advantage
Consumers and workers were harmed by these business practices
XII. The South in the Age of Industry
Industrial expansion did not touch south, after Reconstruction South struggled to develop industry, remained agricultural and poor
Absentee land ownership (land worked by sharecroppers)
South produced fraction of manufactured goods as the north
1880’s Southern agriculture received a boost with invention of machine rolled cigarettes, tobacco consumption went up
Tobacco became a consolidated monopoly , controlled by James Duke
Southern leaders pushed for “New South”- modernized economy, agriculture and industry
XII. The South in the Age of Industry
Railroads expanded, linked rural areas across south and to port cities
Few railroads connected to northern cities South used federal money and prison labor to finance
and build rail lines Plenty of natural resources, not enough skilled labor or
capital Limited education, few technical colleges Low wages Banks had limited assets, wealth concentrated among
small group of people Railroad rates- charged more for goods going north;
except raw materials Manufacturing cotton textiles had modest success in
south Labor nonunionized and cheap, Southern leaders also
gave manufacturers tax incentives Cheap labor major southern attraction Provided work to women and children instead of farm
work (working conditions no better than in north)
XIII. The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on America
Increased wealth, higher standard of living Urban centers grew Cities and jobs attracted rural people and immigrants Jeffersonian ideal of Americans as small farmers was
dying Federal authority was expanding to protect
consumers from large corporations Lives were chained to factory whistle Women felt biggest changes, invention of typewriter
and telephone provided employment opportunities Marriage was delayed and the size of families dropped Women still earned lower wages Image of women as having more power “Gibson Girl” Extravagance of age led to criticism, mostly from
European immigrants (socialists) Nation of farmers became a nation of wage earners,
more venerable to swings in economic cycle Reformers wanted more economic security for
workers
XIV. In Unions there is Strength
Wage workers did not share in benefits employers had Worker was lever puller, originality and creativity stifled Personal relationship with employers was lost, factory was depersonalized Mechanization caused unemployment, a glutted labor market, brought down wages Individual workers were powerless so they united Corporation had federal courts in their corner They could request troops to break strikes, impose lockouts or make employees sign oath of
allegiance Many lived in company towns and were in perpetual debt to the company Middle class did not listen to outcry, agreed with ideas of the day like Social Darwinism Strike also seemed like foreign idea and was seen as unpatriotic
XV. Labor Limps Along
Civil War put a premium on labor, boost to unions By early 1870’s thousands of workers unions 1866 National Labor Union, skilled and labor,
mostly white males Colored National Labor Union represented A-A’s NLU worked for 8 hour day, arbitration of
industrial disputes Labor hurt during economic troubles of 1870’s 1869 Knights of Labor pick up where NLU left
off, included skilled and unskilled labor, did not enter politics , instead campaigned for economic and social reform, also campaigned for 8 hour work day
Against foreign labor, wanted worker owned shops, equal pay
Leader Terence Powderly
XVI. Unhorsing the Knights of Labor
Knights downfall came in 1886 Called for May Day strikes across nation mostly
failed Chicago where most violent action occurred Anarchists mixed with strikers at Haymarket
Square during workers protest Tensions escalated and somebody threw a
bomb in the crowd, killing and injuring civilians and police
Anarchists charged with bombing known as “Haymarket Riot”
Five sentenced to death, others received long prison terms, later pardoned by governor of IL.
Decline of Knights of Labor- Public began to associate Knights with anarchists, Knights inclusion of skilled and unskilled labor undermined position to bargain
XVII. The AFL to the Fore
1886- American Federation of Labor founded, early leader was Samuel Gompers; Jewish immigrant that worked his way up the ladder, led AFL 1886-1924
AFL consisted of self governing national unions
AFL just unified overall strategy Only open to skilled labor Did not enter politics, presented economic
strategies and goals Wanted better wages and working hours Major goal was closed shop (all union
work force) Chief weapon was walkout or boycott, kept
national strike fund to ride out prolonged strikes
XVII. The AFL to the Fore
Labor disorders were not solved by labor unions, continued through the end of the century
Won about half of their strikes but management still held upper hand
By 1900 public attitude toward labor changed, they thought workers had right to organize
Management wanted to avoid economic warfare and began to bargain with labor, although equality was a long way off
I. The Urban Frontier
Decades following Civil War, population doubled, population of American cities tripled
By 1900 40% of Americans were urban dwellers European peasants pushed off land to cities by
lure of industrial jobs, revolution in American agriculture fed growing American and European cities
1860 no city in US had 1 million people, by 1890 three cities had over 1 million population (NYC, Chicago, Philadelphia)
Skyscrapers became a symbol of the growth of the American city
Americans became commuters, mass transit lines spread out from central city to suburbs
City became immense, impersonal, megalopolis Different distinct enclaves emerged for business,
industry and residential living (often separated by race, ethnic and social class)
I. The Urban Frontier
Farmers (rural to urban migrants) – agriculture became more mechanized, making a living farming became harder, city life seen as more exciting
Move to city was hard, worked on schedule, confined factories
African- Americans left the south for Midwestern cities
Economic opportunity (factory jobs, service industry)
More opportunity and promise for women and children (jobs, schools)
Variety, glamour- theaters, social clubs, museums Opportunity for people to raise their standard of
living Department stores (Macy’s, Marshall Fields)
provided urban workers jobs (many women), ushered in age of consumerism
Products available at lower prices, advertising, money back guarantee, trademarks, distinctive brands emerged, contributed to mass culture of Americans
I. The Urban Frontier
Growth caused cities to respond to new problems (water, sewers, schools, safety)
New technology developed to meet challenges Skyscrapers- more efficient use of space, gave cities recognizable
skylines Technology- steel frames, elevator, central heat, telephone, electricity Architecture- emerged as a specialized career, new buildings used
artistic design to magnify height City Planning designed to make cities more beautiful, functional,
control growth Zoning laws- certain areas for certain functions Public libraries, public buildings, parks and recreational spaces Fredrick Law Olmsted designed Central Park nations first urban public
park (1860’s)
I. The Urban Frontier
Overcrowding, poverty caused problems Poor lived near their work Lived in densely populated neighborhoods,
tenement buildings (low-cost housing designed to house many families)
Cities were filthy Unpaved streets, trash, dead horses,
animal waste all left in the streets Many tenements had no indoor plumbing
Late 1880’s government, city planners regulate housing, sanitation, public health, water quality Developed police force and firefighters,
improved safety with streetlights Tension between ethnic groups, race,
class, neighborhood loyalties defined life for many generations
II. The New Immigration
Many Europeans migrated to American cities at the end of the 19th century
Until 1880’s most came from British Isles and Western Europe
Had high rates of literacy and were familiar with representative forms of government
After 1880 character of immigrant changed New Immigrants came from Eastern
Europe, many Jewish or worshiped in Orthodox churches, poor, illiterate
Came to urban areas to seek jobs, some went back many stayed
Settled in ethnic neighborhoods and did not assimilate easily into American life
III. Southern Europe Uprooted
60 million left in the late 19th and early 20th century, more than half came to US
US seen as land of opportunity American industry needed their low wage labor,
wanted buyers for western land, Advertisements in Europe enticed many to come
over, persecution pushed many from their homes Jews had best experience with city life and they
assimilated and experienced success in cities Many immigrants that stayed struggled to
preserve their traditional culture, established schools, newspapers and ethnic restaurants to preserve culture of home
Children of immigrants typically adopted American language and culture
IV. Reaction to New Immigrants
Government did little to weed out new immigrants or help them adjust to American life
City government was the most proactive force for their assimilation and they did very little
Political machines and party bosses took care of many immigrants; they provided jobs, housing, food and public services in return for votes
Immigrants awakened social consciences of American reformers, many used ideas of Christian charity to help immigrants (Christian Socialists), paved the way for Progressive movement of early 20th century
IV. Reaction to New Immigrants
Jane Adams, reformer form middle class family
1889 opened Hull House in Chicago Settlement House movement began Located in poor neighborhoods; provided
instruction in English, daycare, counseling on how to cope with new life, cultural activities
Other settlement houses were opened in big cities
Became centers of women's activism and social reform
Lobbied for women’s protection in factories, battled for welfare for consumers, blacks
IV. Reaction to New Immigrants
Work of women began new career of social work
Urban frontier opened up more opportunities for women
Strict social codes prescribed work for women
Usually single and type of job depended on race and ethnic class
Jobs brought working women economic freedom and social independence
V. Narrowing the Welcome Mat
1880’s nativisim returned New immigrants seen as un-American in
their ways Competition was fierce for American jobs Worry about dangerous doctrines of
socialism, communism, anarchism Anti-foreign organizations grew Hard to unionize new immigrants and they
were usually used as “scabs” during strikes American workers wanted to be protected
from foreign labor like American industry was protected from foreign competition
1882 Congress passes first restrictive laws to check flow of immigrants, many more passed over the next few decades
VI. Churches Confront the Urban Challenges
Protestant churches suffered under changing urban conditions Traditional doctrines seemed irrelevant, and were slow to raise voice
against changing social and economic values Concern with mounting emphasis on materialism New Gospel of Wealth said God allowed righteous to prosper 1875-1925 new liberal ideas and rise of liberal Protestants Adaptation to modern culture called for social reforms “Social Gospel” movement
Message of forgiveness, community fellowship, focus on earthly salvation and personal growth
Roman Catholics strong in labor movement Salvation Army established, appealed to down and out Christian Scientist movement founded by Mary Baker Eddy found converts
in urban areas YMCA’s provided spiritual, physical education
VII. Darwin Disrupts Churches
Religion received blows from modern science
Darwin and natural selection, rejected dogma of “special creations”
Darwin and other new ideas loosened America’s religious roots; religion and personal faith became private matters
VIII. The Lust for Learning
More acceptance for tax supported public schools
Helped check abuses of child labor, schools Americanized immigrants and made them better citizens
1880’ and 1890’s high school education began to spread, idea of free education became a birthright of Americans
Teacher training and teaching as a science (John Dewey)
New Immigration allowed for expansion of Catholic parochial schools
For adults there were free public lectures, the Chautauqua Movement provided lectures and home study
Cities provided better educational facilities than rural areas but across the country literacy rates climbed throughout the century
IX. Booker T. Washington and Education for Black People
South lagged behind in public education (44% illiterate in 1900)
Champion of black education was Booker T. Washington
1881 began career at Tuskegee Institute in AL Taught trades as way to gain economic security Washington advocated economic progress
as path to social equality W.E.B. Du Bois condemned Washington’s
approach Du Bois was Harvard educated , founder of
NAACP (1910) Demanded A-A’s be given full and
immediate equality Ideas of each reflected life experience of southern
and northern blacks
X. Hallowed Halls of Ivy
Colleges and universities grew during period College education became noteworthy for success in the modern
world Women’s colleges, black institutes of education were founded Growth of higher education can be traced to Morrill Act of 1862
that granted public land to states to support education Hatch Act 1887 extended Morrill Act and provided funds to
establish agricultural experiment stations for “land grant” colleges New industrial millionaires gave money to colleges (Vanderbilt,
Stanford, Duke, University of Chicago) Increase in technical, professional and graduate schools Increase in elective system of education was due to increasing
specialization of workforce Medical schools were established that promoted public health
XI. The Appeal of the Press
Books, magazines, newspapers all grew during the Gilded Age
More literate population was a factor Mechanization allowed presses to feed word
hungry public Public libraries opened in big cities, Carnegie
contributed millions toward the construction of libraries
Newspapers became less opinionated and began to publish sensational, scandalous articles
New journalistic tycoons William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer built powerful newspapers
“Yellow journalism” was name given to scandalous papers
Creation of press services like the Associated Press led to the standardization of news
XII. Postwar Writing
Dime novels about “wild west” first appeared Horatio Alger “rags to riches” stories, reward of
success because of hard work Novel writing reflected materialism of industrial
society (not rugged individualism of earlier in century), realism about problems of changing society
Mark Twain, satire about greed an corruption gave time period its name (Gilded Age 1873)
Twain humorist, satirist, foe of social injustice, captured frontier realism with American dialect
Stephen Crane wrote about life on streets of urban America, most famous novel The Red Badge of Courage, about Civil War life
Jack London wrote about contemporary life and social problems; Call of the Wild, about struggle between modern and older society
Black writers, Paul Lawrence Dunbar and Charles Chestnut, different type of realism with black dialect and folklore that captured richness of southern black culture
Postwar Art
Modern realistic art replaced impressionism
Depicted scenes of urban life, slums and streets
At turn of the century New York group of artists known as the Ashcan School
XIII. The New Morality, Families and Women in the City
Battle between sexual attitudes and place of women continued
New opportunities for women became tools for liberation
Soaring divorce rates, use of birth control, discussion of sexual topics
Cities were isolating places for families, family only place for emotional, psychological satisfaction (no longer extended family)
Family work habits changed, more children meant more mouths to feed in uncertain urban environment, because of this marriage was delayed, family size dropped
1898- Charlotte Perkins Gilman called on women to abandon dependent status, became part of economy
Many feminists began to demand the right to women's suffrage
XIV. Families and Women in the City
New generation of feminist leaders emerged like Carrie Chapman Catt, demanded equality for women
Social responsibilities of women as head of family needed voice in community to vote for public positions
Women were increasingly giving right to vote in local elections and control their own property after marriage by the turn of the century
Excluded black women, Ida B. Wells took the lead for these women by launching an anti-lynching crusade
1896- formed National Association of Colored Women
XV. Prohibition of Alcohol and Social Progress
Temperance reform found a new life with influx of immigrants
Assault amounted to a type of class warfare (middle class reformers vs. working classes)
1869 National Prohibition Party formed
Carrie Nation was a leading reformer breaking into saloons and smashing them with a hatchet
Culminated in 1919 with passage of 18th Amendment
XV. The Business of Amusement
Music through the phonograph for the masses and the patronage of the newly rich became popular forms of entertainment
Vaudeville and its variety of acts was popular The first circus appeared (P.T. Barnum) Wild West shows traveled the country Baseball was emerging as a national pastime Basketball was invented by a YMCA instructor in
Mass. Spectator sports like football, boxing, horseracing
became popular Ethnic Americans supported athletes that shared
their background These forms of entertainment, the rise of cities and
their cultural attractions caused Americans to adopt a popular mass culture
I. THE CLASH OF CULTURES ON THE PLAINS
After Civil War frontier in America steadily marched westward
On Great Plains relatively few white settlers right after Civil War, habitat of Indian, buffalo
1860 most Native Americans confined to this region
Migration and conflict not foreign to tribes, many had been pushed westward by white settlement and clashed with other tribes
White soldiers and settlers in the decades before the Civil War accelerated a fateful cycle of disease, environmental destruction and settlement that undermined foundations of Native American culture
Inevitable clash between acquisitive, industrial civilization and Native American culture
By 1890 entire region populated by American settlers
I. CLASH OF CULTURES ON THE PLAINS American policy since the 1830’s had been
resettlement and confinement of Native Americans
1850’s beginning of reservation system, established boundaries for Indian and white settlement
Whites misunderstood basic structure of Indian culture in these agreements
1860’s intensification of policy of confinement, herded Indians into smaller reservations
Indians received promises from federal government for food, clothing and supplies, run by Indian agents that were often corrupt
Decade after Civil War saw increase of warfare on Plains
Army troops met formidable resistance by Native Americans
20% of U.S. soldiers were African American (buffalo soldiers)
II. RECEDING NATIVE POPULATION
1864- Sand Creek, CO U.S troops attack Indian camp, kill 400
1866- Sioux ambush US Calvary in MT, killing all; one of the few Indian victories (whites abandon region temporarily)
1868- Ft. Laramie Agreement guarantees new reservation to Sioux
1874- gold discovered in Black Hills of North Dakota, white settlers swarm to region that was part of Sioux land and Indians took to the warpath
1876- Gen. George Custer attacks Indian force on Little Bighorn River (MT), superior Indian force wipes out all of Custer’s troops
II. RECEDING NATIVE POPULATION 1877- US authorities try to heard Nez
Perce of Idaho onto reservations, pursue then for 3 months and send to reservation in KS
1880’s Apache of Arizona one of the last tribes to be subdued by US troops
Indian policy shattered spirit, ghettoized Indians on reservations, placed them on marginal lands
Became wards of the government, easier to feed than fight
RR’s instrumental in defeat; brought people (soldiers, farmers, settlers), white disease and alcohol contributed
Destruction of buffalo that had provided sustenance to Plains culture was also a factor
III. THE END OF THE TRAIL 1880’s national conscience turned to plight
of NA’s Helen Hunt Jackson A Century of Dishonor
(1881) recorded ruthless government dealing with Indians
Some Americans sympathized with Indians, some wanted policy of forced containment, neither side showed much respect for Indian culture and wanted Indians to assimilate into American culture (boarding schools, Carlisle Indian School)
Ghost Dance cult of 1890 (centered on Sioux reservation in the Dakota Territory)
Religious revival to banish white settlers and bring back the buffalo (Ghost Dance)
Grew in popularity, U.S. government became concerned
Wounded Knee Indian Reservation, soldiers fired into a group protesting death of Sitting Bull, 100 men, women, children killed
End of Native American resistance
III. END OF THE TRAIL
1887 Dawes Severalty Act dissolved tribes as legal entities, wiped out tribal ownership of land, provided families 160 acres of land, citizenship in 25 years
Reservation land not allotted was sold to settlers, proceeds used for education of tribes
Tried to make farmers out of Indians, ignored tradition of tribally held lands
Forced assimilation was Indian policy for 50 years
IV. MINING BOOM :FROM DISHPAN TO ORE BREAKER After Civil War millions of acres of land permanently
altered by humans Ming first great boom (three phases)
A. DiscoveryB. People pour into areaC. Communities grew, others saw opportunity supply miners
Gold and silver discoveries across West (CA, CO, ID, MT, NV) brought miners, settlers
Boomtowns sprang up where lynch law and vigilante justice reigned
Once surface gold was mined, big industry moved in Big business entered mining 1870’s Capital used to buy equipment, hire crews of
immigrant labor Mining companies caused extensive environmental
damage Federal government supported large mining
operations- provided inexpensive land, approved patents, provided RR land to move out ore
Mining boom helped fuel nations industrial growth, injected silver issue into American politics, caused conflict with Native Americans
V. BEEF BONANZAS AND THE LONG DRIVE
Texas plains great for raising of beef, no way to profitably get them to market
Issue solved by building of RR’s, cattle could be shipped to stockyards of KC and Chicago
“Beef barons”, Swift, Armor; and a highly industrialized meatpacking industry developed
Products could be processed and shipped on refrigerated car to eastern urban centers
1866-1888 ‘Long Drive”, “cow towns” sprang up
Age of the cowboy End of “open range” ranching mid 1880’s
A. Invention of barbed wireB. Supply of beef exceeded demandC. Extreme winters, droughts (1886-1887) D. Ranchers used hay to feed cattleE. Farmers began to settle on open range,
brought by railroads
VI. THE FARMERS’ FRONTIER Homestead Act 1862 allowed settlers to acquire
160 ac. of land by living on it for 5 years, paying nominal fee
Land divided along section, township lines set out in Northwest Ordinance
Public land given away to fill it up, not for revenue, provide stimulus to family farm
Many purchased land from RR, states and land companies
Land speculators took advantage of system to grab up best land
RR’s induced immigrants with cheap land Higher wheat prices, iron plows made marginal
land more attractive 160 acres inadequate on arid Great Plains Innovations in farming, new types of grain made
region profitable for agriculture Drought persistent problem, farming techniques led
to “Dust Bowl” of the 1930’s Federal government financed huge irrigation
projects to allow for agriculture in region; had more to do with shaping of west than settlers, miners, cowboys
VII. FAR WEST COMES OF AGE AND THE FADING FRONTIER
Far West growth in population from 1870-1890 Republican Congress gathered more Republican votes during
period with admission of states 1889 Oklahoma open to white settlers, no longer “permanent”
Indian reservation 1890 superintendant of the census declared frontier “closed” 1893 Fredrick Jackson Turner’s “The Significance of the
Frontier on American History” published Americans disturbed to find free land gone 1872-1890- Government began to set aside land for national
parks (Sequoia, Yellowstone, Yosemite)
VIII. THE FADING FRONTIER Frontier seen as symbol of opportunity, could always
start over Land was many settlers most profitable crop Frontier acted as a safety valve for displaced; you
could always move west Did not really happen, too expensive to get into
farming, possibility of moving west kept industrial wages higher (maybe)
Settling Trans-Mississippi West distinct chapter in American history
Collision of Anglo, Indian, Mexican cultures where Anglo’s established dominance
Scale and severity of environment had unique challenges that were met by massive government action (RR’s, irrigation, Homestead Act) that played a role in economic and social development
IX. THE FARM BECOMES A FACTORY
Situation of American farmers changing High prices for specialized cash crops provided profits to
buy manufactured goods Large scale farmers became business people, part of the
new industrial order Tied into RR’s, banks, manufacturing Costly equipment, lack of business sense by many farmers
led to banks, RR’s and global marketplace becoming scapegoats
Mechanization and expense took many farmers off lands American agriculture became butcher, breadbasket of
the world
X. DEFLATION DOOMS THE DEBTOR
One crop economy good as long as prices high Prices were determined on world market (which
also experienced mechanization) Low prices, deflated currency, static money
supply (not enough dollars to go around) chief concerns of farmers
Many operated year after year at a loss Vicious cycle: machines increased output, supply
lowered price, had more debt High rates of interest from banks ruined many
farmers By 1880 ¼ of all farms operated by tenants,
industrial feudalism
XI. UNHAPPY FARMERS Nature conspired against farmers-
grasshoppers, floods, drought In the South the boll weevil wreaked
havoc on the cotton crop in the 1890’s Government over assessed their land for
taxes Protective tariffs keep prices high on the
international market, also had to buy high priced (tariff protected) goods at home
Corporations that supplied farm equipment, seed, fertilizer controlled prices
Grain storage operators and RR’s charged high fees
1890- ½ of population farmers but they had nobody to organize them (by nature individualistic and independent)
XII. THE FARMERS TAKE THEIR STAND
1867- The National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry (Grange) founded
Enhance isolated lives of farmers, provide social, fraternal, educational activities
1875- 800,000 members mostly in Midwest and South
Began to concern themselves with collective plight of farmers
Established cooperatively owned stores, grain elevators and warehouses
Entered politics to control grain, freight prices, had biggest success in Upper Midwest
Many “Granger” laws were struck down by the Supreme Court (Wabash vs. Illinois) and their influence faded
XIII. PRELUDE TO POPULISM Late 1870’s Farmers’ Alliances established in Texas Grassroots movement By 1890 over 1 million members Organized to break control of RR’s through cooperative buying and
selling Ignored plight of tenant farmers, excluded blacks Racial division kept farmers from working together Blacks formed Colored Farmers’ National Alliance By 1890’s Farmers Alliances prelude to Populist Party Farmers organized to attack money trust of Wall Street Wanted nationalization of banks, RR’s, telephone, telegraph and
called for graduated income tax Biggest issue was coinage of silver, to create money flow and make
debt easier to pay Party wanted to relive farmers problems, unite farmers and urban
workers 1892 election won several congressional seats Racial division kept them apart in the South, more popular in the
West
XIV. COXEY’S ARMY AND THE PULLMAN STRIKE Panic 1893 strengthened Populist position’ Armies of unemployed began marching to protest plight 1894- most famous Jacob Coxey and followers, marched on Washington to
demand federal works program to ease unemployment Violent strikes, labor protest Pullman Strike in Chicago Eugene V. Debs, labor leader, organized strike to protest wage cuts and no
living cuts in company town Paralyzed rail traffic across nation Cleveland sends out federal troops (justification to keep mail moving),
crushed strike and sent Debs to prison Debs sent to prison because he ignored court injunction to stop strike, first
time this tactic used Seen by labor as proof of government, business, court alliance
XV. GOLDEN MCKINLEY AND SILVER BRYAN
1896 farmers and labor wanted relief, conservatives feared upheaval
Monetary policy major issue of election of 1896
William McKinley backed by Mark Hanna was nominee of Republican Party
Republican platform favored big business, hard money policies, protective tariff and the gold standard
Democrats were divided at convention until Nebraskan William Jennings Bryan gave his “Cross of Gold” speech that brought him the nomination
Platform demanded unlimited coinage of silver at 32:1 creating
XVI. CLASS CONFLICT: PLOW HOLDERS VS. BONDHOLDERS Populists endorsed Bryan, Democratic party took over agrarian
politics Bryan traveled around country preaching free silver Caused panic for Republican “gold bugs”, Hanna used slush
fund to push McKinley Republican business people used fear of unemployment and
economic hard times to win support Huge voter turnout, McKinley won election
New era in American politics, ascendancy of urban, middle class voter, Republican grip on White House until FDR, diminishing voter turnout, rise of new political issues- industrial regulation and welfare of labor
Why Did Populism Decline?
1. The economy experienced rapid change.
2. The era of small producers and
farmers was fading away.3. Race divided the Populist
Party, especially in the South.4. The Populists were not able to
break existing party loyalties.5. Most of their agenda was co-
opted by the Democratic Party.
XVII. Republican Stand-pattisim Enthroned
McKinley as president – business given free reign, trusts allowed to develop, tariffs high (46.5%)
Prosperity returned, farm prices rose, all credit given to Republicans
Money issue faded away- new gold deposits found around the world, new technology allowed for extraction of gold
Caused more gold on market, increased supply and inflated value of currency redeemed in gold
Gold Standard Act of 1900 allowed paper currency to be redeemed freely in gold, victory for conservatives