Pathwaystocriticalliteracy:amemoirofhistory,geographyandchance.HilaryJanksUniversityoftheWitwatersrand,JohannesburgIwasbornin1949,fouryearsaftertheendofWorldWarIIandoneyearaftertheNationalistPartycametopowerinSouthAfrica,bringingwithitapartheidpolicyandideology.IwasfortunateinthatmygrandparentshadleftLithuaniabeforetheoutbreakofthewar.Thosethatremained,theirparentsandsistersdidnotsurvivetheholocaust,exceptforonesisterandhertwodaughters,whoseconcentrationcamptattoosintriguedandhorrifiedmeasachild.Ithasneversurprisedmethatmanyofthe1940sAfrikanerNationalistswereNazisympathisers,andassuchsubscribedtotheoriesofracialpurityandsuperiority.Mymaternalgrandfatherwastheoldestinhisfamily.Hefoundworkinabakeryatfirstandsleptunderthetable.BitbybitheearnedenoughmoneytobringmygrandmothertoSouthAfrica.Theythenworkedwitheachsuccessivebrothertobringtheothersout,onebyone.MymotherwasborninSouthAfrica,andbythetimeIwasbornmygrandfatherwasabletoaffordanicehouse.Welivedwithhiminathree-generationextendedfamilyincludingmyuncleandcousinsatdifferenttimesuntilIwaseleven.MypaternalgrandfatherleftLithuaniaforSouthAfricaafterheturnedthirteen.Histhreebrotherseventuallyjoinedhim.Atfirstheearnedalivingtravellingaroundthecountryasatradertakinggoodstotheruralareas.HeeventuallysettledinanisolatedKarootownintheNorthernCapewithmySouthAfricanborngrandmotherandtwoofhisbrothers.Theretheystartedseveralsmallbusinesses–apetrolstation,ageneralstore,abutchery,aveldskoen(shoe)factory,whileworkingafewsmallfarmsinaddition.Althoughmygrandfathersbegantheirlivesaspoorimmigrantswhodidnotspeakthelocallanguages,theybothhadthebenefitofaneducationintheYeshivasofEasternEurope–theywereliterate,numerateandentrepreneurial.Iwasbornintoacomfortablemiddleclassexistenceinacountrywheremywhitenessopenedthewaytoprivilegeandstructuraladvantageandintoatimeandacommunitythatthoughtitwasimportantforgirlstobeeducated.Mygrandfathers’generationhadlittlesympathyforblackSouthAfricanswhohadbeenoppressedbytwocenturiesofcolonialrulefollowedby40yearsofapartheidexclusionfromgoodeducation,properhealthcare,freedomofmovement,fairlypaidjobsandpoliticalrights.Mymaternalgrandfatherusedtosaythatifhepulledhimselfupbyhisownbootstraps,socould‘they’.Comingfromahistoryofanti-Semiticpersecution,hisownprivilegewasinvisibletohim.Iwasluckytohavehadparentswhowerepoliticallyprogressive.Buttheyshieldedmefromreality.

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Mygrandfathers’storiesof‘deheim’(home)wereromanticizedaccountsoflostfortunes,youthfuladventuresandheroicescapes.Isuspectthatwhatseriousdiscussionstherewere,wereinYiddish,alanguagethatIneverlearnttospeakapartfromafewwords.Mygenerationwasnottoldaboutthepogroms,thedeathsofourfamilyinEurope,orthehorrorsoftheholocaust.Igrewtounderstandourhistorygraduallyovertheyears,throughphotographs,books,documentaries,visitstoholocaustmuseumsandmorerecentlythroughthewrittendown,matter-of-fact,oraltestimonyofmypaternalgrandfather’stwonieceswhosurvivedthewar.Wewereequallyignorantofthemultiplewaysinwhichblackpeopleweresubjectedtodenigrationandstructuredracismenshrinedinlaw.IrememberthedayIunderstoodhowapartheidworked.Myunclewasahumanrightslawyerandmyauntofferedtohostthedaughterofoneofhiscolleagues,aDurbanlawyer.Elevenyearsold,IwasropedinasFazila’sdesignatedcompanion.IrememberthatitwashotandIbeggedmymothertotakeustothepublicswimmingpool.ImusthaveaskedahundredtimesbeforemymothertoldmethatFazilawasnotallowedtogotothewhitesonlypublicpool.Thusbeganalife-longfriendshipandmyeducation.Icametoknowwhichdepartmentstoreswouldnotallow‘black’peopletotryonclothes;IcametounderstandwhatitmeanttogotoinferiorschoolsandUniversitiesdesignatedforIndians,ortofacethedisapprovalofone’sMoslemparentsformarryingaHindu,eventhoughhewasadescendantofGhandi.InthosedaysfriendshipsthatcrossedraciallineswereunusualandIconsidermyselftohavebeenfortunate.TheyearImetFazilain1960,wastheyearthat69blackpeoplewereshotandkilledfollowingananti-passlawdemonstrationinSharpeville.TherequirementforallAfricanstocarryidentitydocumentsdelimitingwheretheycouldbe,wasjustoneoftheindignitiesimposedon‘non-whites’.Protests,demonstrationsandriotsfollowed.Asmyawarenessgrew,Ichosetoleavetheright-wingZionistorganizationthatallmyfriendsbelongedto.Ihadopportunitiestoattendrehearsalsofaradicalraciallymixedtheatregroup,daringforitstime.MyparentstookmetohearRobertKennedyspeakaboutcivilrightsatWitsin1966.Irememberfeelingshocked,butnotatallsorrywhenourPrimeMinister,Verwoerd,thearchitectofapartheid,wasassassinated.BythetimeIenteredUniversityIwasreadyforleftwingpolitics.TheExtensionofUniversityEducationAct,ActNo45of1959,madeitacriminaloffencefora‘non-white’studenttoregisteratanopenuniversitywithoutwrittenconsentfromtheMinisterofInternalAffairs.WhenIwenttoWitsUniversityin1967itwas,againstitswill,awhitesonlyinstitution.MyfriendsandIalljoinedtheNationalUnionofSouthAfricanStudents(NUSAS)that

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includedstudentsfromtheuniversitiesestablishedforthedifferentracialgroups.Ananti-apartheidstudentassociation,whichatthetimeincludedblackstudentleaderslikeSteveBiko,NUSASwasalreadyunderattack.ItsPresidenthadbeenbannedthepreviousyearforinvitingSenatorKennedytospeak.ThroughoutourtimeasstudentswetookpartinprotestactionsandwereinspiredbythewordsofPastorNiemöller,whospentsevenyearsinHitler’sconcentrationcamps.(SeeFigure1).Webecameaccustomedtopolicefiringteargasatusorbeatingfleeingprotestorswiththeirbatons.Thoseexperiencesonlymadeusmoredeterminedtosupporttheliberationstruggledespiteknowingthattherewereinformersamongus.IgraduatedwithapostgraduatedegreeinEnglishliteraturein1971.Figure1PastorNiemöller

Iwasteachingataschoolin1976,theyearoftheSowetostudentuprisingthatbeganasaprotesttolanguagepolicyineducation.Iwaspregnantwithmysecondson.Thetownshipswereburning,studentswereboycottingschools,proteststurnedintoriots,policeinfiercelookingarmouredvehicles,CasspirsandHippos,usedbrutalmethodsintheirattemptstoquellthe‘unrest’,aeuphemismwidelyusedinplaceof‘civilwar’.OneNationalStateofEmergencyfollowedanother.Thepresswasseverelycensored.MeanwhiletheSouthAfricanapartheidarmedforcesweredoingeverythingtheycouldtodefendagainstthestrugglesforliberationtakingplaceonourborderswithMozambique,RhodesiaandSouthWestAfrica.Whiteboyswerebeingconscriptedtofightinborderwarsthatmanyofthemopposed.IreturnedtotheUniversityasamemberofFacultyin1977.JonathonPaton,whosefatherAlanPaton(1948)wroteCrytheBelovedCountry,wasmyfriendandboss.ThereIbecamebetterinformedabouttheatrocitiesthatweretakingplacearoundus.Whenaclosecolleaguewas

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bannedandplacedunderhousearrestfornogoodreason,myhusbandandIdecideditwastimetoleave.Wedidnotwantoursonstogrowupunderapartheid,ortoserveintheSouthAfricanarmy.WewereinLondonfortwoyearsandreturnedasjobless,failedémigrésattheendof1981.IreturnedtomypostinEnglishTeacherEducationattheUniversitystrengthenedbymyshorttimeatLondonUniversity,whereIwastaughtbyHaroldRosen,TonyBurgessandJaneMiller,byworkinginEnglishcomprehensiveschools,andbyattendingmeetingsoftheLondonAssociationofTeachersofEnglish.IbroughtbackTheLanguagesBook,(Raleigh,1981)whichprovidedclassroommaterialsforteachersofEnglishworkinginmultilingualclassroomsintheUK.ItssociolinguisticorientationtolanguageinfluencedmysubsequentworkandtheformatofthesematerialsbecametheprecursorfortheCriticalLanguageAwarenessSeriesclassroommaterialsthatIwroteandedited(Janks,1993).Itcostme£1.OnmyreturntoSouthAfrica,Imadetwoimportantdecisions,oneprofessionalandtheotherpolitical.Professionally,Ineededtomovefrombeingaliteratureteachereducator,tobeingalanguageeducatorsothatIhadabetterunderstandingofhowtoteachEnglishtoblackstudentsproficientinAfricanlanguages.Between1984and1995,IcompletedHonours,MastersandPhDdegreesinAppliedLinguistics,withresearchthatfocusedontherelationshipbetweenlanguage,powerandideology.Theseconddecisionwaspolitical.IfIwasgoingtoliveinSouthAfrica,Ineededtobemoreinvolvedintheliberationstruggle.Forme,knowledgeaboutwhatwashappeninginthecountrywaslessscarythanignorance.Ichosetofocusmyenergiesonthestruggletotransformeducation.IjoinedtheBlackSasheducationcommitteewhere,amongstotheractivities,wedesignedaprogrammeandmaterialsforschoolsevery16Junetocommemoratethefirstdayofthe1976Sowetouprisingwhenpoliceshotandkilledyoungblackstudentswhowereprotestingpeacefully.IalsojoinedtheNationalEducationUnionofSouthAfrica,whichmanyofususedasabasefromwhichtoworkwithstudentsandteachersinSoweto.MyteachereducationcoursesincreasinglyfocusedontheteachingofEnglishlanguageinamultilingualcontext.EveryyearmystudentsproducedmaterialslikethoseinTheLanguagesBook,butfortheSouthAfricancontext.Asmyteachingbegantoforegroundtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandpower,thesematerialsbecamemorecritical.The1980ssawthebeginningofthearmedstruggleagainsttheapartheidstate,ledbytheundergroundAfricanNationalCongress(ANC),whichhadbeenbannedin1960.Educationremainedinastateofcrisisthroughoutthe1980s.The1976slogans‘Liberationbeforeeducation’,‘Say,NOtoguttereducation’continuedtospurstudentstofightagainsttheapartheidstate.Blackyouth

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boycottedschoolandthreatenedteachersandprincipalswhodidnotsupporttheirboycotts.TheydestroyedschoolbuildingsandsetgovernmentvehiclesalightandlaterformedpartofthecampaigntomakeSouthAfricaungovernable.Youngpeoplewerebeingjailed,goingundergroundanddying.ConcernedparentsinSowetomettoformaCrisisCommitteetoconsidertheeffectsoftheliberationstruggleontheirchildrenandtheconsequencesoftheirrejectionofBantuEducation.ThisgenerationofyoungpeoplewholedtheliberationstruggleattheexpenseoftheirowneducationcametobeknownasSouthAfrica’s‘lostgeneration’.Theirparents’concernsledtotheestablishmentoftheNationalEducationCrisisCommittee(NECC)responsible,amongstotherthings,fordevelopingPeople’sEducation.People’sEducationwas“adeliberateattempttomoveawayfromreactiveprotestsaroundeducationtodevelopacounter-hegemoniceducationstrategy,tocontributetolayingabasisforafuture,post-apartheidSouthAfrica”(Kruss,1988,p.8).Seehttp://www.populareducation.co.za,aswellasButler(1993)andJanks(1992).ThePeople’sEducationCommissions–People’sMaths,People’sEnglishandPeople’sHistory–werechargedwithreimaginingcurriculuminthesethreekeyareas.IwasinvitedtojointhePeople’sEnglishCommission.ThecommissiondidnotgetmuchfurtherthanprovidingatransformativevisionfortheteachingofEnglish.ThiswasreleasedtothepressinNovember1987andtheNECCwasbannedbytheStateinFebruary1988.IwasadvisedbytheNECCtocontinuemyworkonwritingcriticalmaterialsthatcouldbedistributedunderground.TheyearsthatfollowedsawmyresearchonthedevelopmentoftheCriticalLanguageAwarenessSeries.(Janks,1993).AfterthereleaseofNelsonMandela,WitsUniversityPressandHodderandStoughtonwerewillingtoriskpublishingthem.WithastrokeofextraordinaryironythiscoincidedwiththeBritishgovernment’splacinganembargoontheLanguageintheCurriculum(LINC)materialsthattheyhadcommissioned.Thesebecamethematerialsthatcirculatedunderground.IsawtheLINCmaterialsasanextendedversionoftheTheLanguagesBookthatstartedmyownjourney.TheburdenofbeingwhiteinapartheidSouthAfricawassomethingIfeltkeenlyasanadult.Callitwhiteguilt.Callitasocialconscience.Callittherecognitionofstructuralprivilege.However,younameit,Ifoundthistobeanextremelyuncomfortableandinescapablesubjectposition.InSouthAfrica,racewastheoverarchingsocialcategoryanditdefinedusall.AnewspaperreportonracialreclassificationdeliveredtoParliamentin1985revealstheabsurdityofthePopulationRegistrationActof1950,whichrequiredallinhabitantsofSouthAfricatoberegisteredaccordingtotheirracialcharacteristics.Figure2isthereportpublishedinTheStar,21March1986.

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Figure2TheChameleonDance

ThemoreIturnedmyattentiontolanguage,themoreIbecameawareoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandpowerandthewaysinwhichthelanguageoftheapartheidstatewasusedtodivideandrule;tolegitimate,justifyanddissimulateimmoralpolicies;torepresentthewhiteraceassuperior;andto

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constructSouthAfrica’scolonizedsubjectsasOtheranddangerous.Itwasthislanguagethatbecamethefocusofmyresearch.Ibegantocollectexamples.IhadboxesofnewspaperclippingsandtranscriptsofCurrentAffairs,adaily‘news’bulletinbroadcastonStatecontrolledradio.IthinkIwastheonlyleftwingsubscribertothesetranscriptsandIenjoyedtheironyoftheState’ssendingmemydataintheposteveryweek,freeofcharge.Myearlypostgraduateresearchlookedforpatternsoflinguisticuseinthedata,analysedemblematictextsandinterrogatedlanguagepolicyinSouthAfrica.Icametounderstandlanguageas‘meaningpotential’(Halliday,1985)thatprovideduserswithasetofoptions.Meaningisrealizedbythechoicesmadebytextproducers.Thesechoicesaffectthewaysinwhichtextsarepositionedandpositioning.Ifound,forexample,thatpracticesofrenamingtoconcealthepejorificationscarriedbytheoriginalwordssimplydidnotwork,ifthesocialconditionsthatproducedthenegativeevaluationsinthefirstplaceremainedunchanged.Specificexamplesincludethefollowingattemptsatre-lexicalisation.

Apartheidàseparatedevelopmentàselfdeterminationàco-operativeco-existenceàownaffairsàpowersharing.

NativesàBantuàpluralsànonwhitesànon-EuropeansàAfricansàBlacks

Relexicalisationwasresisted,withactivistschoosingtousethetermsthatcapturedthefulldiscriminatoryforceoftheoriginalnaming.Euphemismsthathidtheuglinessofapartheidpracticesabounded.Homelandsaeuphemismfor‘Bantustans’,(the20%ofthecountrydesignatedfor80%oftheblackpopulationaccordingtoethnicity),wasusedtojustifytheforcedremovalofAfricansfromwhiteareasasrepatriation.ManyofthepeoplesenttotheBantustanshadneverpreviouslysetfootinthem.Thiswascalledresettlement.TheExtensionofUniversitiesAct,discussedearlier,closedtheUniversitiestoallexceptwhitepeopleandunrestwastheeuphemismforcivilrebellion.Attributingthe‘unrest’to‘outsideagitators’suggestedthatpeopleinsidewerequitehappywiththestatusquo,butfortheworkofcommunistinstigators.AletterpublishedintheSundayTimes,2February1986,signedbytheStatePresident,P.W.Botha,isacaseinpoint.ThefirstparagraphofthisletterisreproducedinFigure3.

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Figure3:FirstparagraphofPWBotha’slettertoSouthAfricans

Noticehowthestruggleisinfantalisedasastamping,screamingtempertantrum,Theuseofthein‘thecommunists’reifiestheirexistenceandconstructsknowledgeoftheirroleinfomentingunrestassharedinformation.Noticealsothecollocationofrevolutionaries,communistsandenemiesthatconstructsanti-apartheidforcesasdifferentanddangerous.Theuseofthein‘thereality’worksdifferently.Itdenotesasingularreality–onlyonetruereality,thatofBothaandhisparty.Thesearejustsomeofthepatternsofusethatinterestedme,alongwithlinguisticresistance.Amongstotherstrategies,thoseopposedtoapartheiddevelopedanalternativevocabulary–freedomfighterforterrorist;comrade/brotherasopposedtoagitatorsandtraitors;theregimeforthegovernment;murderfordeathsindetentionandsoon.TheypreferredtousethepejorifiedtermsuchasBantustansandBantueducation,despitethegovernment’seffortstomoveawayfromthem.Todistancethemselvesfromapartheidlanguage,particularlycategoriesofrace,writersusedscarequotesandspeakersusedhandgesturesdenotingquotationmarks.So-called,asinso-calledhomelands,so-calleddemocracy,so-calledcoloureds,wasalsowidelyused.Thisearlyworkestablishedtheplatformformysubsequentwork.IwasextremelyfortunatetobeabletodomydoctoralworkatLancasterUniversityunderthesupervisionofNormanFairclough.IsenthimmyMaster’sdissertationandhesentmethepenultimatedraftofhisbookLanguageandPower(Fairclough,1989)annotatedwithcommentsbyGuntherKress.Whatapreciousgift.WorkingwithFairclough,IdiscoveredFoucault,whichhelpedmetomovebeyondonlyaMarxistanalysisofpower.Healsohelpedmetomovefromafocusonlinguisticfeaturestoafocusondiscourse.Iattendedhiscoursesandlearnthowtodocriticaldiscourseanalysis(CDA)andtaughtmyselfHalliday’s(1985)

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SystemicFunctionalGrammar.IalsobecameamemberofFairclough’sLanguageIdeologyandPowerresearchcircle,whichcontinuedtomeetthroughoutthesixyearsthatittookmetocompletemydoctoratepart-time.Itwasthisgroupofpeople,RozIvaničandRomyClarkinparticular,whoprovidedmewithanongoingintellectualhomeeverytimeIvisitedLancaster.WhileFaircloughinductedmeintothetheorythatIneededformythesisontheresearchanddevelopmentofcriticallanguageawarenessmaterialsfortheSouthAfricancontext(Janks,1985),IvaničandClarkeprovidedthetouchstoneforpedagogy.RichardAllbright,mysecondsupervisor,developedmyunderstandingofwhatwasneededinmaterialsiftheyweretobeaccessibleforstudentswhospokeAfricanlanguages.IregisteredatLancasterinSeptember1989,andon9NovembertheBerlinWallfell.Thisprovedtobethebeginningoftheendofapartheid.On11February1990,theSouthAfricangovernmentreleasedNelsonMandelafromprison.Heemergedwithoutbitternessfrom27yearsofincarcerationtoleadthetransitiontodemocracy.Negotiationstooktimeamidstongoingviolence.In1994,thefirstfreeandfairdemocraticelectionstookplaceandtheANCcametopower.Tobegintheprocessofhealing,Mandela’sgovernmentestablishedTheTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC)toeffectrestorativejustice.Formalhearingsbegan15April,1996.Peoplewhofelttheyhadbeenvictimsofviolencecouldgivetestimonyandaskforreparations,ascouldperpetratorswhocouldrequestamnesty.TheTRCreportwaspublishedin1998.Withrespecttolanguageitfoundthat

Language,discourseandrhetoricdoesthings:itconstructssocialcategories,itgivesorders,itpersuadesus,itjustifies,explains,givesreasons,excuses.Itconstructsreality.Itmovespeopleagainstotherpeople.(TRC,1998:7,124,294).

Theideologiesofracism,patriarchy,religions,capitalism,apartheidandmilitarismallintertwinedtomanufacturepeoplecapableofviolence.(TRC,1998:7,131,296).Aspiralofdiscoursesincreasinglydehumanisedtheother,creatingtheconditionsforviolence.(TRC,1998:7,125,295).

Iwasnotaloneinrecognizingthedestructiveforceoflanguage.Theperiodofresearchthatendedwiththecompletionofmydoctoralthesis,in1995,hadfocusedondeconstructinglinguisticchoicesintextsandexamining

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thediscoursesthatproducedthem.Thisnolongerseemedappropriateinatimeofpositivechange.Usingthelanguage,takenfromtheANC’sReconstructionandDevelopmentprogramme,Ibegantoexplorethepossibilitiesofcriticalliteracyforreconstruction.Itwasnolongersufficienttoprovidecritique,textshadtoberedesigned,remade,reimaginedformorehopefultimes.TheworkofIvanič andClarkeprovidedtheleadwithregardtocriticaltextproductionwiththeirfocusonwriting(ClarkeandIvanič,1997;Ivanič,1998).Kress(2010)providedtheturntomultimodality,enablingthedevelopmentofmultimodalpedagogiesandtextproduction.BythenIhadestablishedanongoingcollaborationwithColleaguesattheUniversityofSouthAustralia.Notonlydidtheynetworkmewithallthekeycriticalliteracyacademicsinthecountrybuttheyalsointroducedmetotheextraordinarycriticalliteracyworkbeingdonebyclassroomteachers.AtthetimeAustraliawastheundoubtedleaderincriticalliteracypracticeinschoolsandIlearntagreatdealthere.PhilCormackhelpedmetodesignanonlinecourseincriticalliteracyandBarbaraComberandPatThomson(2001)invitedmetojointheirresearchprojectonChildren’sRepresentationsofPlace.Throughthisprojectweestablishedaconnectionbetweentheprinciples,teachersandstudentsinatwopoorprimaryschoolsontwodifferentcontinents.Thechildrenproducedalphabetbooksandotheridentityartefactstoexchange.(JanksandComber,2006;Janks,2007).Theprincipalsandstudentsvisitedoneanother’sschools.TheAustralianswereimpressedbytheprincipal’sabilitytomakeaplandespitelimitedresourcesandinparticularwithhergardenproject(Janks,2003).Theytookthisideatonewheightsinvolvingchildreninthedesignofagardenfortheirownschool(Comber,Nixon,Loo,AshmoreandCook,2006)).TheSouthAfricanteacherssetouttoimplementtheclassroompracticesthatimpressedtheminAustralia.Makingandtransformationwereattheheartofthisproject.InpartnershipwithotherAustraliancolleaguesIworkedwithAnaFerreiraonaninternationalprojectonReconciliationPedagogies(FerreiraandJanks,2007;2009).Theaimofthisprojectwastoeffectunderstandingacrossthedividesinpost-conflictsocieties.Wechosetoworkinthreemulti-racialSouthAfricanschools.Thistoowasdesignedasatransformationproject.The‘bornfree’generationofhighschoolstudentshadbecomeincreasinglyhostiletotalkingabouttheapartheidpastinclass.Stillinraciallystructuredfriendshipgroups,theysawsuchconversationsas‘dangerous’.ThemostinterestingpartofthisprojectwasourinvitationtothestudentstoresearchtheTRCbyinterviewingdifferentmembersoftheircommunities.Beinginchargeofuncoveringthepastinrelationtotheirowncommunitiesprovedtobeaprofoundexperienceformanyofthemasthepastbecamepersonal.Manyofthemdiscoveredthingsabouttheirownfamiliesthattheyhadnotknown.BecauseblackcommunitieshadtakenmoreinterestintheTRChearings,blackstudentshadgreateraccess

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topreferredclassroomknowledgeandmoretocontribute.Suddenlytheyhadmoreculturalcapitalthantheirwhitepeers.Powershifted.Wethoughtithealthythatsomewhitestudentscametoexperiencemarginalityinrelationtothecurriculumforthefirsttime.Thedatafromtheseprojectsprovidedimportantpractice-basedmaterialformybookLiteracyandPower(Janks,2010).TheimpetusforthisbookwasaliteraturereviewofcriticalliteracyresearchinwhichBonnyNorton(1997)foundthatmaleresearchersinthefieldproducedtheoryandwomenresearchersweretheoneswhoappliedtheorytopractice.ThiswascertainlythecaseofmyownpostgraduateresearchinwhichIattemptedtoturnman-madetheoryintomaterialsforcriticalliteracypedagogy.IwasincensedthatIhadbeeninterpellatedbyandunconsciouslysubjectedtothediscoursesofgenderthatIinhabited.Itwasasifmyownlifeprovedthepowerofdiscoursesbeyondmyconsciousawareness.Ibecamedeterminedtomakeandnotjustconsumetheory.Ibegantonoticethattheoristsworkedononeorotheraspectthatcontributedtothefield,andthatpractitioners,likeme,tendedtofocusonsocialinjusticesthataretiedtoourownsubjectivitiesandourowncontexts.IfoundremnantsoftheliteracywarsincontinuinghostilitytothegenretheoristsinAustralia,whereasinSouthAfrica,genretheorywasseenascontributingtoaccess,particularlyinrelationtoacademicliteraciesinHigherEducation.FreebodyandLuke(1990)hadproducedasynthesingmodelforliteracy;Istartedtoworkonasynthesingframeworkforcriticalliteracy.Icametounderstandthatpowerneededtotakeseriouslydifferentialaccesstocultural,material,andsymbolicresources.Iunderstoodthatdifferenceproducedsocialhierarchiesandthatinjusticesoftencentredondiversity,thatis,onissuespertainingtoidentityanddifference.Becausethereisnopointinconsciousnessraisingwithoutanimaginationforsocialactionthatcancontributetochange,criticalliteracyhastoincludetransformativedesignandredesign.Iwasabletoshowthatcriticalliteracyneededtointegratethedimensionsofpower,diversity,access,designandredesignandthatanyonewithouttheotherproducesaproblematicimbalance.Thistheoreticalframeworkisdevelopedandexplainedinmy2010bookLiteracyandPower.Isubsequentlyderivedparticularpleasureinworkingwithcolleaguestoapplymywoman-madetheorytopracticeinDoingCriticalLiteracy(2014).Iwishtherewereahappyendingtothisstory.IwishIcouldclaimthattheworkIhavedonehasaffectedclassroompractice.Forabriefmoment,justafter1994,thefirstpost-apartheidcurriculumincludedcriticallanguageawarenessasoneofsevenspecificoutcomesfortheLanguagesLiteracyandCommunicationLearningArea.Thiscurriculumprovedtootaxingforteacherstrainedunder

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BantuEducationtoimplementanditwassystematicallyeroded.InCAPS,thecurrentskillsbasedcurriculum,criticalliteracyremainsasoneoftheaimsoflearningalanguageinGrades10to12only.

Learnersshouldbeabletouselanguageasameansforcriticalandcreativethinking;forexpressingtheiropinionsonethicalissuesandvalues;forinteractingcriticallywithawiderangeoftexts;forchallengingtheperspectives,valuesandpowerrelationsembeddedintexts;andforreadingtextsforvariouspurposes,suchasenjoyment,research,andcritique.(DepartmentofBasicEducation,2011)

UnfortunatelyverylittlecriticalliteracyappearsintheteachingplansprescribedbyCAPS.IhaverunacourseforDepartmentofficialsresponsibleforallofSouthAfrica’slanguages,andworkshopsforteachers.Manyin-serviceandpre-serviceteachereducationprogrammesincludecriticalliteracy,buttherehasbeenlittletakeupinstateschools.In1992,IhelpedestablishaDepartmentofAppliedEnglishLanguageStudiesatWits,whichwasabletoattractacademicsfromacrossthecountryaspostgraduatestudents.Asaresultourworkinmultiliteracies,multimodalliteracies,earlyliteracyandcriticalliteracyhashadanimpactonteachereducationnationally,butalsowithlittleeffectinschools.IalsowishthattherewerenolongeranyneedforcriticalliteracyinSouthAfricaandelsewhere.Said’s(1995)workOrientalismshowsthatdiscoursesaretenacious.Theycontinueacrosstimeandspace,ready-formed,toflourishatmomentssuchas9/11.Inmyowncountry,theANChasnotremainedtruetoitsideals.‘Tenderpreneurs’havebenefitedfromstatepatronage,andthepoliticalelitehavebeenaccusedofturningthecountryintoa‘predatorstatewhereapowerful,corruptanddemagogiceliteofpoliticalhyenasareincreasinglyusingthestatetogetrich’(Vavi,SecretaryGeneraloftheCongressofSouthAfricanTradeUnions,2010).Thepresidentremainsensconcedinhispositiondespitenumerousscandalsrelatingtohisimmoralsexualconduct,theexpensesincurredbytheStateforhispersonalhomestead,Nkandla,hisresponsibilityforallowingprivateintereststocapturethestate,andhisdisregardoftheConstitution.PresidentZumaattributescriticismtotheproblemof‘cleverblacks’(Zuma,News24,1November2012).Thisisnotaleaderwhowantsacriticallyliteratepopulation.AsIwrite,aremembranceceremonyisbeingheldatMarikanaforthe34minerscriminallyshotbypolicein2012whileprotesting.ThiswasachillingreminderofapartheidshootingssuchasSharpevilleandinSowetoon16June1976,exceptnowsanctionedbytheANCgovernment.Theintentionoftheceremonyisalsotohighlighthowlittlehasbeendonetochangeminers’workingandlivingconditionsinthetwoyearssince.The#Feesmustfallmovementisalsointhenewsasitpreparesforasecondyearofpoliticalaction.Universitystudentsare

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asconcernedwiththelackoftransformationinUniversitiesandthecountry,andtheservicecontractsofworkers,astheyareaboutunaffordablefeesandtherighttoHigherEducation.Blackgirlsareprotestingagainstracistschoolrulespertainingtohairandtheirteachers’tellingthemtostraightentheirhair,asnaturalAfricanhairisuntidy.Whitenormscontinuetobeimposedonblackbodiesinpost-apartheidSouthAfrica.ThisyearBritainvotedtoexitfromtheEuropeanUnionandDonaldTrumpwaselectedastheRepublicannomineeforPresidentoftheUnitedStates.MillionsofrefugeescontinuetofleefromconflictsintheMiddleEastandAfrica.Xenophobiaisontherise.Globalwarmingcontinues.Thereisstillmuchworktobedone. Intracingmypathsintocriticalliteracy,Ihavetofactorinchance,whichiswhyIbeganwiththesignificanceoftheplaceandtimeofmybirth.IwasfortunatethatIwaswhite,thatmyfamilywasprogressive,andthatIreceivedagoodeducation.ManySouthAfricansdidnot,especiallygirls.IhappenedtobeatUniversityinthe60s,atimeofsocialchangeandpoliticalstruggle.Ifoundapartnerwhotookprideinandsupportedmywork.Aschancewouldhaveit,thedaughterofanEnglishprofessorwasinmyclasswhenIwasaschoolteacher.AsaresultheaskedmetoapplyforajobatWitsinEnglishteachereducation.Ihadtheopportunitytoworkwithbrilliant,sociallycommittedcolleagues.Ireturnedtomystudiesjustadecadebeforethedemiseofapartheidandintheeraoftheliteracywars,whencriticalliteracywasjustbeginning.Myacademicandpoliticaltimingwerefortunate.Imettherightpeople,firstinEngland,theninAustraliaandsubsequentlyinCanadaandtheUSattherighttime.BillGreentolduswhatweneededtoread.BarbaraCombergenerouslysharedherinternationalnetworkofscholarswithme.AlanLukeintroducedmetoNaomiSilverman,avisionarypublisherwhohasproducedthemostinfluentialbooklistinthefieldofliteracyandsocialjustice.Bythetimemybookswerereadyforpublication,shewaswithRoutledge,aprestigiousacademicpublisher.ThefirstinSouthAfricatogetmydoctorateincriticalliteracy,Iwasinapositiontoworkwithandadviseexceptionaldoctoralresearchers,manyofthemcolleaguesatUniversitiesinSouthAfrica.Ifanyoneofthesecircumstanceshadbeendifferent,Iwouldhavebeendifferent.Ihavelearntnevertounderestimatetheconjunctionofhistory,geographyandchance.ReferencesButler,I.(1993)‘People’sEnglish’inSouthAfrica.https://core.ac.uk/download/

files/427/11984994.pdfClark,R.,&Ivanic,R.(1997).ThePoliticsofWriting.London:Routledge.

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