PastoralismPastoralism

East African Cattle ComplexEast African Cattle Complex

Tibetan HerdersTibetan Herders

““Cattle Complex”Cattle Complex”

E. African Cattle AreaE. African Cattle Area– Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi,

Tanzania, MozambiqueTanzania, Mozambique– Non-utilitarian use of cattle, i.e. more Non-utilitarian use of cattle, i.e. more

food from grain than milk, meat, blood.food from grain than milk, meat, blood. Cultural value of cattle rather than Cultural value of cattle rather than

subsistence.subsistence.

TraitsTraits Cattle are used for social purposesCattle are used for social purposes

– Esteemed for prestige and social statusEsteemed for prestige and social status– Not equivalent to money, only thing to Not equivalent to money, only thing to

acquire with cattle is wives. acquire with cattle is wives. – ““Bridewealth”-cattle in exchange for wifeBridewealth”-cattle in exchange for wife

Limited as a food resource, Limited as a food resource, subsistence based on farmingsubsistence based on farming– Cattle for milk and beasts of burden.Cattle for milk and beasts of burden.

Strong personal attachment to cattle, Strong personal attachment to cattle, associated with rituals such as birth, associated with rituals such as birth, death, marriage and initiationdeath, marriage and initiation

Grinding SorghumGrinding Sorghum

Herding HabitatHerding Habitat

Great Rift Valley, water major Great Rift Valley, water major limitationlimitation

Areas wet enough to support plants Areas wet enough to support plants also harbor tsetse fly, which infects also harbor tsetse fly, which infects cattle.cattle.

Agriculture least productive in arid Agriculture least productive in arid regions, where cattle predominate.regions, where cattle predominate.

Recurrent adaptation in steppes, Recurrent adaptation in steppes, deserts, and dry savannahs.deserts, and dry savannahs.

WaterholesWaterholes

TranshumanceTranshumance

Pattern of herding where part of family Pattern of herding where part of family (usually men) graze cattle over large area(usually men) graze cattle over large area– Women and children, elders stay at permanent Women and children, elders stay at permanent

home site.home site. KarimojongKarimojong

– 250 people in one sq. mile for house sites.250 people in one sq. mile for house sites.– Cattle graze over 500 sq. miles.Cattle graze over 500 sq. miles.– Cattle mean wealth, legacy for sons, formal Cattle mean wealth, legacy for sons, formal

contract for friendship, validation of marriage.contract for friendship, validation of marriage.– Boys given male calf to care for at their Boys given male calf to care for at their

initiation.initiation.

Permanent VillagesPermanent Villages

MilkingMilking

Pastoralist “Personality”Pastoralist “Personality”

Statistical study of Africans who herd Statistical study of Africans who herd vs. farmersvs. farmers– Farmers value hard work, Pastoralists do Farmers value hard work, Pastoralists do

not.not.– Farmers consult each other, cooperate; Farmers consult each other, cooperate;

Pastoralists work independently.Pastoralists work independently.– Farmers more suspicious of strangers, Farmers more suspicious of strangers,

hostile to neighbors.hostile to neighbors.– Farmers indirect, anxious; Pastoralists Farmers indirect, anxious; Pastoralists

direct, open.direct, open.– Pastoralists value independence, Pastoralists value independence,

especially in males.especially in males.

Social OrganizationSocial Organization

Patrilineal DescentPatrilineal Descent– Males control cattle and family.Males control cattle and family.

Sometimes practice matrilocality, Sometimes practice matrilocality, however.however.

Male “Elder” make decisions for Male “Elder” make decisions for family/village.family/village.

Boy HerdingBoy Herding

Pakot, W. Central KenyaPakot, W. Central Kenya 10-20 cattle, 10.5 goats, 3.4 sheep per 10-20 cattle, 10.5 goats, 3.4 sheep per

male.male. Steers (not cows) killed in ceremony, Steers (not cows) killed in ceremony,

distribution of meat.distribution of meat.– Eating of meat and milk on same day Eating of meat and milk on same day

prohibited.prohibited.– Steers not killed for family use only, large Steers not killed for family use only, large

quantities of meat in hot climate with no quantities of meat in hot climate with no storage-always share meat.storage-always share meat.

– Ritual consumption effective way to utilize Ritual consumption effective way to utilize meat of large animals, promote community meat of large animals, promote community cooperation.cooperation.

Ceremony of the White BullCeremony of the White Bull

Large HerdsLarge Herds

Government efforts to limit stock for Government efforts to limit stock for environmental reasons.environmental reasons.

Dodoth, UgandaDodoth, Uganda– 75,000 cattle to 18 waterholes.75,000 cattle to 18 waterholes.– Losses of 10-15% in some years.Losses of 10-15% in some years.

““A man who loses 1/3 of his stock is A man who loses 1/3 of his stock is much better off if he begins with 60 much better off if he begins with 60 cows than with 6.”cows than with 6.”

HerdsHerds

MaasaiMaasai North central Tanzania, southern KenyaNorth central Tanzania, southern Kenya Population: Population: 350,000350,000 Language: Language: Ol Maa (Nilotic)Ol Maa (Nilotic) Neighboring Peoples: Neighboring Peoples: Samburu, Kikuyu, Kamba, Samburu, Kikuyu, Kamba,

Chaga, Meru, Pare, Kaguru, Gogo, SukumaChaga, Meru, Pare, Kaguru, Gogo, Sukuma Types of Art: Types of Art: Maasai are best known for their Maasai are best known for their

beautiful beadwork which plays an essential beautiful beadwork which plays an essential element in the ornamentation of the body. element in the ornamentation of the body. Beading patterns are determined by each age-set Beading patterns are determined by each age-set and identify grades. Young men, who often cover and identify grades. Young men, who often cover their bodies in ocher to enhance their appearance, their bodies in ocher to enhance their appearance, may spend hours and days working on ornate may spend hours and days working on ornate hairstyles, which are ritually shaved as they pass hairstyles, which are ritually shaved as they pass into the next age-grade. into the next age-grade.

Maasai WarriorsMaasai Warriors

http://www.maasai.com/maasai.htm

HistoryHistory Maasai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers and Maasai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers and

are linguistically most directly related to the are linguistically most directly related to the Turkana and Kalenjin who live near Lake Turkana in Turkana and Kalenjin who live near Lake Turkana in west central Kenya. west central Kenya.

According to Maasai oral history and the According to Maasai oral history and the archaeological record, they also originated near archaeological record, they also originated near Lake Turkana. Lake Turkana.

Maasai are pastoralist and have resisted the urging Maasai are pastoralist and have resisted the urging of the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments to adopt of the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. a more sedentary lifestyle.

They have demanded grazing rights to many of the They have demanded grazing rights to many of the national parks in both countries and routinely national parks in both countries and routinely ignore international boundaries as they move their ignore international boundaries as they move their great cattle herds across the open savanna with the great cattle herds across the open savanna with the changing of the seasons. changing of the seasons.

This resistance has led to a romanticizing of the This resistance has led to a romanticizing of the Maasai way of life that paints them as living at Maasai way of life that paints them as living at peace with nature. peace with nature.

EconomyEconomy Cattle are central to Maasai economy. Cattle are central to Maasai economy. They are rarely killed, but instead are accumulated as They are rarely killed, but instead are accumulated as

a sign of wealth and traded or sold to settle debts. a sign of wealth and traded or sold to settle debts. Their traditional grazing lands span from central Their traditional grazing lands span from central

Kenya into central Tanzania. Kenya into central Tanzania. Young men are responsible for tending to the herds Young men are responsible for tending to the herds

and often live in small camps, moving frequently in and often live in small camps, moving frequently in the constant search for water and good grazing lands. the constant search for water and good grazing lands. Maasai are ruthless capitalists and due to past Maasai are ruthless capitalists and due to past behavior have become notorious as cattle rustlers. behavior have become notorious as cattle rustlers.

At one time young Maasai warriors set off in groups At one time young Maasai warriors set off in groups with the express purpose of acquiring illegal cattle. with the express purpose of acquiring illegal cattle.

Maasai often travel into towns and cities to purchase Maasai often travel into towns and cities to purchase goods and supplies and to sell their cattle at regional goods and supplies and to sell their cattle at regional markets. Maasai also sell their beautiful beadwork to markets. Maasai also sell their beautiful beadwork to the tourists with whom they share their grazing land. the tourists with whom they share their grazing land.

Herding CattleHerding Cattle

http://www.maasai.com/maasai.htm

Socio-political systemSocio-political system Maasai community politics are embedded in age-Maasai community politics are embedded in age-

grade systems which separate young men and grade systems which separate young men and prepubescent girls from the elder men and their prepubescent girls from the elder men and their wives and children.wives and children.

When a young woman reaches puberty she is usually When a young woman reaches puberty she is usually married immediately to an older man. married immediately to an older man.

Until this time, however, she may live and have sex Until this time, however, she may live and have sex with the youthful warriors. with the youthful warriors.

Often women maintain close ties, both social and Often women maintain close ties, both social and sexual, with their former boyfriends, even after they sexual, with their former boyfriends, even after they are married. are married.

In order for men to marry they must first acquire In order for men to marry they must first acquire wealth, a process that takes time. wealth, a process that takes time.

Women, on the other hand, are married at the onset Women, on the other hand, are married at the onset of puberty to prevent children being born out of of puberty to prevent children being born out of wedlock. All children, whether legitimate are not, are wedlock. All children, whether legitimate are not, are recognized as the property of the woman's husband recognized as the property of the woman's husband and his family. and his family.

ReligionReligion The cow is slaughtered as an offering during important The cow is slaughtered as an offering during important

ceremonies marking completed passage through one age-ceremonies marking completed passage through one age-grade and movement to the next. grade and movement to the next.

When warriors (moran) complete this cycle of life, they When warriors (moran) complete this cycle of life, they exhibit outward signs of sadness, crying over the loss of their exhibit outward signs of sadness, crying over the loss of their youth and adventurous lifestyles. youth and adventurous lifestyles.

Maasai diviners (laibon) are consulted whenever misfortune Maasai diviners (laibon) are consulted whenever misfortune arises.arises.

They also serve as healers, dispensing their herbal remedies They also serve as healers, dispensing their herbal remedies to treat physical ailment and ritual treatments to absolve to treat physical ailment and ritual treatments to absolve social and moral transgressions. social and moral transgressions.

In recent years Maasai laibon have earned a reputation as In recent years Maasai laibon have earned a reputation as the best healers in Tanzania. Even as western biomedicine the best healers in Tanzania. Even as western biomedicine gains ground, people also continually search out more gains ground, people also continually search out more traditional remedies. traditional remedies.

Maasai are often portrayed as people who have not forgotten Maasai are often portrayed as people who have not forgotten the importance of the past, and as such their knowledge of the importance of the past, and as such their knowledge of traditional healing ways has earned them respect.traditional healing ways has earned them respect.

Laibons are easily found peddling their knowledge and herbs Laibons are easily found peddling their knowledge and herbs in the urban centers of Tanzania and Kenya. in the urban centers of Tanzania and Kenya.

Maasai RitualsMaasai Rituals There are many ceremonies in Maasai society. There are many ceremonies in Maasai society. EnkipaataEnkipaata

(senior boy ceremony), (senior boy ceremony), EmurattaEmuratta (circumcision), (circumcision), EnkiamaEnkiama (marriage), (marriage), EunotoEunoto (warrior graduation), (warrior graduation), Eokoto e-kuleEokoto e-kule (milk ceremony), (milk ceremony), Enkang oo-nkiriEnkang oo-nkiri( meat ceremony), ( meat ceremony), OrngesherrOrngesherr (junior elder ceremony), etc. (junior elder ceremony), etc.

Also, there are minor boys and girls rituals such as Also, there are minor boys and girls rituals such as Eudoto/Enkigerunoto oo-inkiyiaaEudoto/Enkigerunoto oo-inkiyiaa (earlobe), and (earlobe), and IrkipiratIrkipirat (leg fire marks) that boys and girls must undergo (leg fire marks) that boys and girls must undergo before circumcision.before circumcision.

However, many of these initiations concern men while However, many of these initiations concern men while women's initiations focus on circumcision and marriage.  women's initiations focus on circumcision and marriage. 

Men will form age-sets moving them closer to adulthood.  Men will form age-sets moving them closer to adulthood.  Women do not have their own age sets but are recognized Women do not have their own age sets but are recognized

by that of their husbands.  by that of their husbands.  Ceremonies are an expression of our culture and self-Ceremonies are an expression of our culture and self-

determination. Every ceremony is a new life. They are rites determination. Every ceremony is a new life. They are rites of passage, and every Maasai child is to go through these of passage, and every Maasai child is to go through these stages of life.stages of life.

http://maasai-infoline.org/ Website by Kakuta ole Maimai, a native Maasai.

NomadismNomadism Everyone in group moves along with herd.Everyone in group moves along with herd. No permanent settlements, but permanent No permanent settlements, but permanent

water holes for cattle.water holes for cattle. Large herds common, even though conditions Large herds common, even though conditions

of land don’t always support large numbers.of land don’t always support large numbers.– Among Dodoth-only 20% of herd giving milk at one Among Dodoth-only 20% of herd giving milk at one

time.time.– 300-400 lbs. milk/cow/year (U.S. 8000-12000 lbs.)300-400 lbs. milk/cow/year (U.S. 8000-12000 lbs.)– Blood taken once a month in wet season, 1-2 pintsBlood taken once a month in wet season, 1-2 pints– Meat eaten once a week or less.Meat eaten once a week or less.

Keeping of large herds protection against Keeping of large herds protection against drought and epidemics.drought and epidemics.

Nomadic Pastoralism in Nomadic Pastoralism in TibetTibet

The yak, to the people of the Himalayas, The yak, to the people of the Himalayas, was what the reindeer was to Laps. was what the reindeer was to Laps.

Anywhere a man could walk, a yak could be Anywhere a man could walk, a yak could be ridden. ridden. – Yaks are high-altitude creatures, adapted to the Yaks are high-altitude creatures, adapted to the

highland plateaus of the Himalayas when no highland plateaus of the Himalayas when no other large beast of burden will thrive; where other large beast of burden will thrive; where horses and cattle and camels died, yaks horses and cattle and camels died, yaks flourished. flourished.

– Even Tibetan ponies, which can live above 1400 Even Tibetan ponies, which can live above 1400 feet in altitude, are small and do not bear as feet in altitude, are small and do not bear as much cargo as a yak will. much cargo as a yak will.

The LayaThe Laya Dedicated to yak breeding, because a Dedicated to yak breeding, because a

large portion of the highland area can at large portion of the highland area can at best be used as pasture. best be used as pasture.

They live as semi-nomads and only spend They live as semi-nomads and only spend a small part of the year in houses. a small part of the year in houses.

In the summer, most of the Laya travel In the summer, most of the Laya travel with their herds to higher mountain with their herds to higher mountain regions and return to their home regions regions and return to their home regions not before the beginning of winter. not before the beginning of winter.

During the warm periods of the year, tents During the warm periods of the year, tents made out of woven yak hair serve as made out of woven yak hair serve as shelters. shelters.

PasturePasture

Role of YaksRole of Yaks

In the north of Bhutan, the yaks provide In the north of Bhutan, the yaks provide the source of life for these highland the source of life for these highland inhabitants. inhabitants.

Their hair serves not only as material for Their hair serves not only as material for their tents, but is also woven into clothing, their tents, but is also woven into clothing, their meat is eaten, their milk is made into their meat is eaten, their milk is made into butter and hard cheese, and their dung is butter and hard cheese, and their dung is used as burning material. used as burning material.

In addition, the yaks are used as beasts of In addition, the yaks are used as beasts of burden and are hitched in front of the plow burden and are hitched in front of the plow to till the few existing fields. to till the few existing fields.

Butter in Pig SkinButter in Pig Skin

WeavingWeaving

Yak Hair JewelryYak Hair Jewelry

Traditional ClothingTraditional Clothing

TradeTrade

In the early fall, even before the first snow In the early fall, even before the first snow makes the mountain passes impassable, the makes the mountain passes impassable, the Laya herders wander back to the valleys of Laya herders wander back to the valleys of Central Bhutan where they sell the milk Central Bhutan where they sell the milk products they produced in the summer, as products they produced in the summer, as well as yak meat on the markets or trade well as yak meat on the markets or trade them for rice, other food, salt, or tools. them for rice, other food, salt, or tools.

In recent times, however, the money-based In recent times, however, the money-based economy has increasingly replaced the economy has increasingly replaced the traditional barter with material goods. traditional barter with material goods.

Yak CaravansYak Caravans

Upland CampsUpland Camps