TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: PARTS OF SPEECH.............................................................................41.1 Noun..........................................................................................................................41.2 Verb...........................................................................................................................41.3 Adjective....................................................................................................................4

1.3.1 Kinds of Adjectives............................................................................................41.4 Adverb.......................................................................................................................5

1.4.1 Kinds of adverbs:................................................................................................51.5 Pronoun......................................................................................................................61.6 Conjunction................................................................................................................61.7 Preposition.................................................................................................................6

1.7.1 Some selected prepositions (use)........................................................................71.8 Interjection.................................................................................................................81.9 Article........................................................................................................................8

CHAPTER TWO: SENTENCE REVIEW..........................................................................82.1 Kinds of sentences (according to use).......................................................................82.2 Classification of sentences according to structure.....................................................9

CHAPTER THREE: TENSES..........................................................................................113.1 Simple Present Tense or Present Indefinite.............................................................113.2 Present Continuous or Present Progressive Tense...................................................123.3 Present perfect tense:...............................................................................................133.4 Present Perfect Continuous Tense:..........................................................................133.5 Simple Past Tense or Past Indefinite.......................................................................143.6 Past continuous or past progressive tense................................................................143.7 Past Perfect Tense:...................................................................................................153.8 Past perfect continuous tense:..................................................................................163.9 Simple Future Tense or Future Indefinite................................................................163.10 Future Continuous or Future Progressive Tense...................................................173.11 Future Perfect Tense:.............................................................................................173.12 Future Perfect Continuous Tense:.........................................................................18

CHAPTER FOUR: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.....................................................184.1 Simple Present Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)..................................194.2 Present Continuous Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)...........................194.3 Present Perfect Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)..................................194.4 Simple Past Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples).......................................204.5 Past Continuous Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)................................204.6 Past Perfect Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples).......................................204.7 Simple Future Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)...................................204.8 Future Perfect Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)...................................21

CHAPTER FIVE: QUESTION TAGS AND SHORT ANSWERS..................................215.1 Examples in positive statement:..............................................................................215.2 Examples in negative statement:.............................................................................21

5.3 Short Answers..........................................................................................................22CHAPTER SIX: PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION RULES.........................22

6.1 Period.......................................................................................................................226.2 Question Mark.........................................................................................................236.3 Comma.....................................................................................................................236.4 Quotation Marks......................................................................................................236.5 Capitalization Rules.................................................................................................23

CHAPTER SEVEN: ERRORS IN SENTENCES.............................................................247.1 Sentence fragment...................................................................................................247.2 Misplaced Period.....................................................................................................247.3 Incomplete Sentence................................................................................................257.4 Comma splice (Comma Fault or Run-on)...............................................................257.5 Fused sentences.......................................................................................................257.6 Overloaded sentence................................................................................................25

7.6.1 Overloaded Grammatical Structure..................................................................257.6.2 Too Many Ideas................................................................................................25

7.7 Mixed construction..................................................................................................267.7.1 General Mixed Constructions...........................................................................267.7.2 "This-is-when" Construction............................................................................267.7.3 "Reason-is-because" Construction....................................................................267.7.4 Doubled Preposition.........................................................................................267.7.5 Faulty parallelism.............................................................................................26

CHAPTER EIGHT: WRITING SKILLS..........................................................................278.1 Strategies to Succeed in Writing..............................................................................278.2 Paragraph Development...........................................................................................27

8.2.1 What is a paragraph?........................................................................................278.2.2 How to Write a Paragraph................................................................................27

8.2.2.1 Prewriting a Paragraph..............................................................................278.2.2.2 Writing a Paragraph...................................................................................288.2.2.3 Editing a Paragraph....................................................................................28

8.3 Transitional Signals.................................................................................................288.3.1 Words that Show Addition...............................................................................288.3.2 Words that Show Time.....................................................................................298.3.3 Words that Show Contrast................................................................................298.3.4 Word that Show Comparison............................................................................298.3.5 Words that Show Illustration............................................................................298.3.6 Words that Show Location...............................................................................298.3.7 Words that Show Cause and Effect..................................................................298.3.8 Words that Summarize or Conclude.................................................................29

CHAPTER NINE: REPORT WRITING...........................................................................309.1 What is a report?......................................................................................................309.2 Types of reports.......................................................................................................309.3 Characteristics of a good report...............................................................................309.4: Report writing stages..............................................................................................31

9.4.1 Defining Your Aim...........................................................................................319.4.2 Collecting & Selecting Your Ideas...................................................................31

9.4.4 Structuring the Document.................................................................................329.5 Format of a field/research report.............................................................................32

CHAPTER TEN: ENTREPRENEURSHIP CONCEPTS................................................3510.1 Historical background............................................................................................3510.2 Definition of Entrepreneur today...........................................................................3610.3 Intrapreneurship.....................................................................................................3610.4 Is an entrepreneur born or made?..........................................................................3710.5 General Entreprising Tendencies/Traits [GETs]...................................................3710.6 How can ‘GETs’ be developed?............................................................................3810.7 Types of skills required in Entrepreneruship.........................................................3910.8: Comparison of Traditional Managers And Entrepreneurs...................................39

CHAPTER ELEVEN: FAMILY BUSINESS AND SUCCESSION................................4011.1: What is a Family Business?..................................................................................4011.2 Advantages of Family Business.............................................................................4011.3 Dangers/Disadvantages of Family Business..........................................................4111.4: Copreneurs:...........................................................................................................4111.5 Requirements for a successful Copreneurship.......................................................4111.6 Succession Planning in Family Businesses...........................................................42

11.6.1 Choosing the successor:..................................................................................4211.6.2 Necessary qualities of a good successor.........................................................43

11.7 Why many businesses die with founders?.............................................................43APPENDIX A: Instructors Teaching Plan for Communication and Entrepreneurship skills Course-[CIT 04102].................................................................................................44

CHAPTER ONE: PARTS OF SPEECH

"Parts of speech" are the basic types of words that English has. Most grammar books say that there are eight parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions and interjections. We will add one more type: articles. It is important to be able to recognize and identify the different types of words in English, so that you can understand grammar explanations and use the right word form in the right place. Here is a brief explanation of what the parts of speech are:

1.1 NounA noun is a naming word. It names a person, place, thing, idea, living creature, quality, or action. Examples:cowboy, theatre, box, thought, tree, kindness, arrival

1.2 VerbA verb is a word which describes an action (doing something) or a state (being something). Examples:walk, talk, think, believe, live, like, want

1.3 AdjectiveAn adjective is a word that describes a noun. It tells you something about the noun. Examples:big, yellow, thin, amazing, beautiful, quick, important

1.3.1 Kinds of Adjectives1.3.1.1 Adjective of quality: describes what kind of a person or thing is. Example,

- White rose, - red cat, - a great scientist, - a big city.- The words white, red, great and big in the above sentences are adjectives of quality

1.3.1.2 Adjectives of quantity: words that tell us ‘how much’ a thing is. Examples;- I ate some chapati.- James drank little milk.- We have sufficient food- He has much money.- Word some, little, much, sufficient are adjective of quantity

1.3.1.3 Adjective of number: shows how many persons or things are meant; or in what order a person or thing stand. Examples;

- Many people in Tanzania like football- Monday is the second day of the week- Few goats are ready for slaughtering - The words many, second and few; are adjective of number.

1.3.1.4 Demonstrative adjectives: Words that point out which person or things are meant. EXAMPLE:

- This girl is very beautiful- These books are mine- I love such girls- That toy is mine.- Words; this, these, such, that are demonstrative adjective in the above sentences

1.3.1.5 Interrogative adjective: Used for asking questions. Examples; - Which pen is yours?- What plans do you make?- How many are you?

1.3.1.6 Possessive adjectives: show possession. examples; - This is his book- Those are their trees- There are your shoes

1.4 AdverbAn adverb is a word which usually describes a verb. It tells you how something is done. It may also tell you when or where something happened. Examples:slowly, intelligently, well, yesterday, tomorrow, here, everywhere

There are 8 kinds of adverbs.

1.4.1 Kinds of adverbs:

1.4.1.1 Adverb of quality or state: They show how an action is done. EXAMPLES; Wisely, foolishly, badly, quickly, fast, well, thus, nicely

1.4.1.2 Adverb of number: they show how often and in what order an action is done. EXAMPLES; Never, often, once, seldom, again, always, twice, rather, thirdly, frequently etc.

1.4.1.3 Adverb of degree: show to what extent a thing is done. EXAMPLES; Very, quite, nearly, partly, completely, such, almost, hardly, entirely, fully etc

1.4.1.4 Adverb of time: They answer the question, ‘ when’. EXAMPLES; Daily, yesterday, early, today, tomorrow, immediately, soon, etc

1.4.1.5 Adverb of place: They answer the question, ‘where,. EXAMPLES; Here, there, backward, up, anywhere, elsewhere, far, near, etc

1.4.1.6 Relative adverb: they act as connectives in sentences. EXAMPLES;

- I know where she lives- I don’t know why you failed- He will see me when I come

1.4.1.7 Interrogative adverbs: Are used to ask questions like: How, where, why, when

1.4.1.8 Adverb of affirmation and negation: EXAMPLES; - Affirmation words: yes, surely, certainly, truly- Negation words: no, not, never

1.5 PronounA pronoun is used instead of a noun, to avoid repeating the noun. Examples:I, you, he, she, it, we, they

1.6 ConjunctionA conjunction joins two words, phrases or sentences together. Examples:but, so, and, because, or

1.7 PrepositionA preposition usually comes before a noun, pronoun or noun phrase. It joins the noun to some other part of the sentence. Examples of simple prepositions: on, in, by, with, under, through, at. Examples of Complex prepositions: according to, apart from, because of, in spite of, instead of, in accordance with, in order to, on top of, in comparison with, due to, along with, with regards to, etc

Preposition Example preposition Example

Good at Juma is good at swimming Deprived of He was deprived of his share

Travel by We will travel by rail Desire for He has no desire for fame

Write in I write letter in ink Deal in Musa deals in plastic goods

Suffer from He was suffering from malaria Eligible for She is not eligible for the post

Different from A hen is different from a pigeon Eager to You look eager to go home early

Compare with Compare a moon with a sun Escape from How could you escape from the locked room

Hope for Let us hope for the best Expert in Anna is expert in drawing

Look at Why do you look at me Free from I am free from this work

Suitable for This film is suitable for children Fond of My little son is fond of chocolates

Die of He died of malaria Gaze at I stand at the sea shore and gaze at the sea

According to According to the evidence, he stole

the car.

Guilty of Are you guilty of the theft or not?

Interested in I am not interested in your work Ignorant of He is ignorant of the facts

Adhere to You should adhere to school rules. Impressed of I was very impressed by his personality.

Abide by You must abide by the decisions of

the instructor

Jealous of I am indeed jealous of your popularity.

Accused of The servant was accused of stealing

a golden ring

Knocked at The beggar knocked at the door.

Addicted to He is addicted to dinking Join with I will join with him in killing lion.

Afraid of Little children are afraid of dogs Listen to Please listen to me.

Angry with My brother will be angry with me if

I loss his pen.

Married to Sita was married to Mary

Apologize for He apologized for arriving late. Prefer to She prefers milk to tea.

Astonished at I was astonished at Juma’s failure Prevent from I tried to prevent the boys from quarreling

Beware of Beware of pick-pockets Tired of I am tired of this job

Bless with God blessed the king with a prince Used to Jack is used to cycling

Beg for The hungry man begged for food Wish for She wished for a long life

Busy with Students are busy with exams Yield of We have an excellent yield of maize this year

Care for There was no one to care for the

child after her parents died.

Sympathy with Do you have sympathy with students who

waste time?

Collide with The daladala bus collided with a

cocacola truck

Repent for They repented for their mistakes

Convinced of The judge was convinced of the guilt

of the accused.

Similar to My pen is similar to yours

Congratulate on I sent a telegram of congratulations

on his wedding.

Obedient to Be obedient to your parents.

1.7.1 Some selected prepositions (use)

1.8 InterjectionAn interjection is an unusual kind of word, because it often stands alone. Interjections are words which express emotion or surprise, and they are usually followed by exclamation marks. Examples:Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha!

1.9 ArticleAn article is used to introduce a noun. Examples:the, a, an

CHAPTER TWO: SENTENCE REVIEW

A sentence is a group of words arranged to express a complete sense. Example:- The girl is dancing in the room- Do you want to read this book?

2.1 Kinds of sentences (according to use)

-There are five KINDS of sentences based on use:

Assertive sentences Interrogative sentences Imperative sentences Exclamatory sentences Optative sentences

2.1.1 Assertive sentence: Is a sentence that makes a statement or assertion. Example:

- I am learning grammar.- Students are always busy.- They are not doing well- If you are angry, then I am sorry. -

2.1.2 Interrogative sentence: Is a sentence that asks a question. Examples;- Who teaches you maths?- Are you coming from home?- Was he listening to the preacher

2.1.3 Imperative sentence: Is a sentence which contains some commands or request. Eg.- Get out (order) - Open the door (order)- Please come here (order).- Can you listen to me please? ( request)

2.1.4 Exclamatory sentence: Is a sentence which expresses some sudden feeling such as surprise, anger, joy, etc. EG.

- Oh! We have lost the match.- How intelligent the boy is!- Bravo! Keep it up.

2.1.5 Optative sentence: Is a sentence which expresses a wish or a prayer. EG,- May you live long!- May God bless you!- I wish you luck in your exams.

2.2 Classification of sentences according to structure

Basing on structure, sentences can be grouped into four main types of sentences:

Simple sentence Compound sentence Complex sentence Compound complex

2.2.1 Simple sentence: A simple sentence is the one which has only one independent clause with a subject and predicate. Eg,

- I read a book- Anne is a good girl- That dog is sick- Man is a social animal

He understood. S + Pred.

He and I understood. S + S+ Pred. (compound subject)

He understood my meaning and departed from the house. S + Pred. + Pred. (compound predicate)

2.2.2 Compound sentence: Compound sentence is a sentence which is made up of two or more independent clauses [i] joined by coordinating conjunction. Eg,

i. God made Man [i] and he made computers [i]ii. Visit me today [i]or next Monday [i]iii. The night is dark [i] and I am far from home [i]iv. She is a teacher [i] and writer too [i].v. I not only wrote the song [i] but also sang it [i]vi. I have planned to visit either Asha [i] or Idd [i].

NOTE that a sentence containing words like and, or, but, either …or, neither ….nor, not only…but also.., are compound sentences; [i] means independent clause.

2.2.3 Complex sentence: A complex sentence consists of one independent clause [i], and one or more dependent clauses [d]. The clauses are connected through either a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun. The dependent clause may be the first or second clause in the sentence. If the first clause in the sentence is dependent, a comma usually separates the two clauses. Examples:

i. When I went there [d], I found that [d] Jane was cooking [i].ii. She got job [i] after completing her studies [d].iii. Marwa told me [i] that he would marry me [d].iv. When I received my salary [d], I went to Arusha [i] where my lover was

situated [d]v. I had stayed in Tanga for six months [i] when I received the news [d] that

Juma had desired to see me [d]vi. I believe [i] that she had married the person [d] whom she had loved [d]vii. We had to go inside[i] when it started raining [d].

NOTE that a section of a sentence containing words like when, that, who, whoever, if, unless, whenever, which, etc is a dependent clause, and the sentence is a complex sentence; [d] means dependent clause.

2.2.4 Compound-complex sentence?

A compound-complex sentence is made up of at least one dependent clause [d], and two or more independent clauses [i]. Examples:

i. I admire Tim [i], but he doesn't admire me [i], although I try hard to impress him.

ii. Even if you fail [d], at least you tried [i], and you're a better person for it [i].

iii. If you come late [d], you will miss the exams [i] and the teacher will punish you [i]

iv. Students will not be admitted [i] and their parents be happy [i] unless they are intelligent enough [d]

CHAPTER THREE: TENSES

Tense is the term used in grammar to indicate the time of the action or event. In any language, tense is divided into three main classes; names:

Present tensePast tenseFuture tense

Present Tense: Present Tense is divided into four sub categories:

i) Simple Present Tenseii) Present Continuous Tenseiii) Present Perfect Tenseiv) Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Past TensePast Tense is divided into four sub categories:

Simple Past TensePast Continuous TensePast Perfect TensePast Perfect Continuous Tense

Future TenseFuture Tense is divided into four sub categories:

Simple Future TenseFuture Continuous TenseFuture Perfect TenseFuture Perfect Continuous Tense

Note: Verb1=plain form; eg. Want, take, etcVerb2 = ed form eg. Wanted, waited, etcVerb3 = en form eg taken, eaten, etc

3.1 Simple Present Tense or Present Indefinite

Simple present tense is used to express repeated, customary or habitual action. 3.1.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + Verb1 + ObjectShe reads books always.He goes to school everydayThey want somethingThe cat drinks milk.

3.1.2 Negative sentence:

Sub + do/does + not Verb1 +ObjectShe does not read books.They do not want something.

3.1.3 Interrogative sentence:do/does + Sub + Verb1 +Object + ?Does she read books?Do they want something?

3.1.4 Interrogative negative sentence:do/does +Sub +not +Verb1 +Object + ?Does she not read books?Do they not want something ?

3.2 Present Continuous or Present Progressive Tense

Present continuous tense is used to show that an action is in progress and is incomplete at the moment of speaking or writing.

3.2.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + is/am/are + Verb1 + ing +ObjectShe is reading a book.They are eating some food.

3.2.2 Negative sentence: Sub + is/am/are + not + Verb1 + ing +Object.She is not reading books.They are not eating something.

3.2.3 Interrogative sentence:is/am/are + Sub + Verb1+ ing +Object + ? Is she reading books? Are they eating some food?

What/When/how + is/am/are + Sub + Verb1 + ing +? What is she doing? How are they doing?

3.2.4 Interrogative negative sentence:is/am/are + Sub + not + Verb1 + ing +Object + ? Is she not reading books?Are they not eating some food?

What/When/how + is/am/are + Sub + not Verb1 + ing +? What is she not doing?

How are they not doing?

3.3 Present perfect tense:Present Perfect tense is used to indicate completed activities in the immediate past.

3.3.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + has/have + Verb3 +ObjectShe has read the books.They have eaten some food.

3.3.2 Negative sentence: Sub + has/have + not + Verb3 +Object.She has not read the books.They have not eaten some food.

3.3.3 Interrogative sentence:has/have + sub + Verb3+Object+....+?Has she read the books?Have they eaten some food?

3.3.4 Interrogative negative sentence:have/has + Sub + not +Verb3 + Object +?Has she not read the books?Have they not eaten some food?

What/When/how + have/has + Sub + +not +Verb3 + Object +…+ ?Why has Salma not read the books?Why have I not gone to the market?

3.4 Present Perfect Continuous Tense:Present perfect continuous tense is used to express an action which began in the past but still continuing.

3.4.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + has/have + been + Verb1 +ing +Object+ since/for + time phase.She has been reading the books for two hours.They have been eating some food for ten minutes.

3.4.2 Negative sentence: Sub + has/have + not + been + Verb1 +ing+Object+ since/for + time phase.She has not been reading the books for two hours.They have not been eating some food for ten minutes.3.4.3 Interrogative sentence:has/have + sub + been + Verb1 +ing + Object+ since/for + time phase +....+?Has she been reading the books for ten minutes?Have they been eating some food since morning?

3.4.4 Interrogative negative sentence:has/have + sub + not + been +Verb1 + ing+Object+ since/for + time phase+....+?Has she not been reading the books for ten minutes?Have they not been eating some food since morning?

3.5 Simple Past Tense or Past IndefiniteSimple past tense is used to express repeated, customary or habitual action in the past.

3.5.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + Verb2 +ObjectShe wrote a letter You went to the market.

3.5.2 Negative sentence: Sub + did + not Verb1 +ObjectShe did not write a letter You did not go the market.

3.5.3 Interrogative sentence:Did + Sub + Verb1 +Object +….+ ?Did she write a letter?Did you go to the market?

3.5.4 Interrogative negative sentence:Did + Sub + not +Verb1 +Object +…+ ?Did she not write a letter?Did you not go to the market?

3.6 Past continuous or past progressive tensePast continuous tense is used to denote an action going on at sometime in the past. The time of the action may or may not be indicated.

3.6.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + was/were + Verb1 + ing +ObjectShe was reading books.They were eating some food.

3.6.2 Negative sentence: Sub + was/were+not + Verb1 + ing +Object.She was not reading books.They were not eating something.

3.6.3 Interrogative sentence:was/were+ Sub + Verb1 + ing +Object + ?Was she reading books?

Were they eating some food?

What/When/how + was/were + Sub + Verb1 + ing +?What was she doing? How were they doing?

3.6.4 Interrogative negative sentence:was/were + Sub + not + Verb1 + ing +Object + ? Was she not reading books? Were they not eating some food?

What/When/how + was/were + Sub + Verb1 + ing +? What was she doing? How were they doing?

3.7 Past Perfect Tense:Past Perfect tense is used to show an action that had been completed before a given time in the past.

3.7.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + had + Verb3 +ObjectShe had read the books.They had eaten some food.

3.7.2 Negative sentence: Sub + had + not + Verb3 +Object.She had not read the books.They had not eaten some food.

3.7.3 Interrogative sentence:had + Sub +Verb3 +Object + …+?Had she read the books?Had they eaten some food?

3.7.4 Interrogative negative sentence:had + Sub + +not +Verb3 + Object +…+ ?Had she not read the books?Had they not eaten some food?What/When/how + had + Sub + +not +Verb3 + Object +…+ ?Why had Sam not read the books? Why had I not gone to the market?

3.8 Past perfect continuous tense:Past perfect continuous tense is used to express/ denote an action which had been going on before another action in the part;

3.8.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + had + been +Verb1 +ing+Object +since/for + time + object.She had been reading the books for two hours when he arrived.They had been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived.

3.8.2 Negative sentence: Sub + had + not + been +Verb1+ing +Object+ since/for + time +object.She had not been reading the books for two hours when he arrived.They had not been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived.

3.8.3 Interrogative sentence:had + sub + been +Verb1+ing+Object+ since/for + time +Object +....+?had she been reading the books for two hours when he arrived? had they been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived?

3.8.4 Interrogative negative sentence:had + sub + not been +Verb1+ing+Object+ since/for + time +Object +....+?had she not been reading the books for two hours when he arrived? had they not been eating some food for ten minutes when their mother arrived?

3.9 Simple Future Tense or Future IndefiniteSimple present tense is used for an action that has still to take place.

3.9.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + will/shall + Verb1 +ObjectHe will go to MombasaI shall see the President during the coming holidays.

3.9.2 Negative sentence: Sub + will/shall + not Verb1 + Object.He will not go to MombasaI shall not see the President during the coming holidays.

3.9.3 Interrogative sentence:will/shall+Sub+Verb1+Object+ ?Will he go to Mombasa?Shall I see the President during the coming holidays?

3.9.4 Interrogative negative sentence:shall/will + Sub+not +Verb1 +Object + ?Will he not go to Mombasa?Shall I not see the President during the coming holidays?

3.10 Future Continuous or Future Progressive TenseFuture continuous tense is used to show that an action as going on at sometime in the future.

3.10.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + will/shall+be+Verb1+ ing +ObjectShe will be going to MombasaI shall be meeting the President during the coming holidays.

3.10.2 Negative sentence: Sub+will/shall+not be+Verb1+ing +ObjectShe will not be going to MombasaI shall not be meeting the President during the coming holidays.

3.10.3 Interrogative sentence:will/shall+Sub+not be+Verb1 + ing +Object + ?will she be going to Mombasa?Shall I be meeting the President during the coming holidays?

3.10.4 Interrogative negative sentence:will/shall + Sub+ not be +Verb1 + ing +Object + ?Will she not be going to Mombasa?Shall I not be meeting the President during the coming holidays?

3.11 Future Perfect Tense:Present Perfect tense is used to show an action that will have been completed at a future time.

3.11.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub + will/shall have + Verb3 +ObjectI shall have eaten the food.The train will have left before he reaches the station.

3.11.2 Negative sentence: Sub + will/shall not have + Verb3 +ObjectI shall not have eaten the food.The train will not have left before he reaches the station.

3.11.3 Interrogative sentence:will/shall+Sub+Verb3+ Object + ?Shall I have eaten the food? Will the train have left before he reaches the station?

3.11.4 Interrogative negative sentence:will/shall+Sub+not have+Verb3+Object + ?Shall I not have eaten the food? Will the train not have left before he reaches the station?

3.12 Future Perfect Continuous Tense:Present perfect continuous tense is used to show an action that will be going on over a period of time and will end in the future.

3.12.1 Affirmative sentence: Sub+will/shall have been+Verb+ing+ Object.She will have been reading the books.They will have been eating some food.

3.12.2 Negative sentence: Sub+will/shall not have been +Verb1+ing+ Object.She will have not been reading the books.They will have not been eating some food.

3.12.3 Interrogative sentence:will/shall + Sub+ not have been +Verb1+ing+Object+?will she have been reading the books?will they have been eating some food for ten minutes

3.12.4 Interrogative negative sentence:will/shall + Sub+ not have been +Verb1+ing+Object.She will have not been reading the books.They will have not been eating some food.

CHAPTER FOUR: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Sentences can either be active or passive.

Active form

The thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence. The thing receiving the action is the object.The thing doing the action + (VERB) + (the thing receiving action. eg.

- The professor teaches the student- John washes the dishes- Students were sweeping the floor

Passive form

The thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence; the thing doing the action is the object of the sentence

The thing receiving action + (BEING) + past participle of verb) + by + (the doer of action). eg

- Students are taught by the Professor- Dishes are washed by John- Passive: The floor was being swept by students.-

** REMEMBER: The sentence MUST BE kept in the same TENSE.

4.1 Simple Present Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: Juma writes a storyPassive: A story is written by Juma

Active: He drives a carPassive: A car is driven by him

Active: Do children love flowers?Passive: Are flowers loved by children?

4.2 Present Continuous Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: They are picking some flowers.Passive: Flowers are being picked by them

Active: The peon is ringing the bell.Passive: The bell is being rung by the peon.

Active: He is driving a carPassive: A car is being driven by him

4.3 Present Perfect Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: She has cleaned the cups.Passive: The cups have been cleaned by her.

Active: Have you decorated the room?Passive: Has the room been decorated by you?

Active: He has driven a carPassive: A car has been driven by him

4.4 Simple Past Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: The mad dog bit the beggar.Passive: The beggar was bitten by a mad dog.

Active: Dick wrote this poem.Passive: This poet was written by Dick

Active: He drove a carPassive: A car was driven by him

4.5 Past Continuous Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: He was repairing the carPassive: The car was being repaired by him

Active: Was he catching birds? Passive: Were the birds being caught by him?

Active: He was driving a carPassive: A car was being driven by him

4.6 Past Perfect Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: They had won the match.Passive: The match had been won by them.

A: We had defended the country.P: The country had been defended by us.

Active: He had driven a carPassive: A car had been driven by him

4.7 Simple Future Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: Keti will cook the foodPassive: The food will be cooked by Keti

Active: Will he deliver the letter?Passive: Will the letter be delivered by him?

Active: He will drive a carPassive: A car will be driven by him

4.8 Future Perfect Tense, Active and Passive voice (examples)

Active: The girls will have won the racePassive: The race will have been won by the girls. Active: He will have driven a car

Passive: A car will have been driven by him

NOTE: Present perfect continuous tense,Past perfect continuous tense,Future continuous tense and Future perfect continuous tense DO NOT HAVE PASSIVE VOICES.

CHAPTER FIVE: QUESTION TAGS AND SHORT ANSWERS

In English, people often make a statement and then add a line question to the end of it.

We frequently hear saying things like:

- It is very hot today, isn’t it?

- Musa torn the pages, didn’t he?

This type of sentence- a statement followed by a little question is called a ‘question tag’.

There are two patterns of question tags:

i. Type I- auxiliary (helping verb) + n’t + subject, if the statement is positive

ii. Type II- auxiliary (helping verb) + subject, if the statement is negative.

5.1 Examples in positive statement: - You are coming tomorrow, aren’t you?

- We shall serve our country, shall n’t we?

- She went there, didn’t she?

- You know her well, don’t you?

- You have met her brother, haven’t you?

- He goes to school every day, doesn’t he?

5.2 Examples in negative statement: - I am not making noise, Am I?

- This is not my book, is it?

- They haven’t come yet, have they?

- You did not break the glass, did you?

5.3 Short Answers

5.3.1 Affirmative form:

Yes + subject + questions auxiliary verb.

Examples

- Do you help her? Yes, I do.

- Can you speak French? Yes, I can.

- Did he pass her exam? Yes, he did.

- Does he speak the truth? Yes, he does.

- Is your daughter married? Yes, she is.

5.3.2 Negative form:

No + subject + questions auxiliary verb + n’t.

Examples

- Did you help him? No, I didn’t.

- Do they like it? No, they don’t.

- Can you swim? No, I can’t.

- Does she sing well? No, she doesn’t.

CHAPTER SIX: PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION RULES

One of the most important aspects to take into consideration when you write is punctuation. It will tell your reader when to stop or when to change the interpretation of your paper. Speakers use intonation and writers use punctuation. Some of the most common marks in English are the following:

6.1 Period

- Use a period after a statement or command. Turn on the television. We are studying English. - Use a period after most abbreviations. Mr. Ms. Dr. Exceptions:

UN NATO IBM AIDS

6.2 Question Mark

Use a question mark in an interrogative statement. In a direct quotation, the question mark goes before the quotation mark. He said, "Are you coming home?"

6.3 Comma

- Use a comma before a conjunction (and, or, so, but) that separates two independent clauses. She wanted to learn to cook, so she decided to buy herself a book. - Don't use a comma before a conjunction that separates two incomplete sentences. She worded in the library and studied at night. - Use a comma to separate interrupting expressions from the rest of the sentence. Do you know, by the way, what time it is? - Use a comma after yes and no in answers. Yes, my father is a doctor. - Use a comma to separate an apposite form the rest of the sentence. Mr. Smith, the new teacher, really knows how to teach. Would you like to try a taco, a traditional Mexican dish?

6.4 Quotation Marks

- Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of exact quotations. He said, "I'm going to get married." - Use quotation marks before and after titles of stories, articles, songs, and TV shows. Do you want to watch "Friends" on TV? My favorite song is "Disappear" by INXS.

6.5 Capitalization Rules

We use a capital letter in the following cases:

i. First letter of sentences

- Capitalize the fist letter of every sentence. - Capitalize the first letter of a quotation.

ii. Personal Names

- Capitalize the names of people including initials and titles of address. - Capitalize family words if they appear alone of followed by a name. Let's go, Dad. Where's Grandma? - Do not capitalize family words with a possessive pronoun or article. My uncle An aunt - Capitalize names of God. Allah Jesus Christ Place Names

iii. Capitalize the names of countries, states, provinces, cities, lakes, rivers, islands, mountains Mexico Mt. Everest the Amazon Lake Ontario - Do not capitalize the names of seasons summer spring fall winter

CHAPTER SEVEN: ERRORS IN SENTENCES

7.1 Sentence fragment

Make sure that each sentence contains an independent clause--a group of words that includes a subject and a verb and that can stand alone. 7.2 Misplaced Period

Avoid creating a sentence fragment by inserting a period into what would otherwise be a complete sentence (e.g., "Inflation is a difficult problem. Although it is not impossible to solve." "Capital punishment should be abolished. The reason being that it is ineffective.") To correct such fragments, link the ideas, using appropriate punctuation, e.g., a comma, a colon (:), or a dash.  7.3 Incomplete Sentence.

Some incomplete sentences cannot be combined with adjoining sentences. Such sentences must be completely rethought and rewritten, as is the case with in the following

example: "An underdeveloped country, in which many are uneducated. We must help such countries as much as we can." 7.4 Comma splice (Comma Fault or Run-on).

Do not use a comma to join two ideas that could each stand alone as a sentence (e.g., "We could make better use of our land, parks and recreation areas could be set aside.") To correct comma splices, change the comma to a period or semicolon (;) (or, in some cases, a colon). Another option is to add a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or for) after the comma. If a conjunctive adverb such as however, therefore, or likewise is used to join the ideas, a comma is still insufficient punctuation; a semicolon or period is required.  7.5 Fused sentences.

Do not run two sentences together with no punctuation (e.g., "He had forgotten how empty the prairies are after two years in Toronto he had grown used to skyscrapers.") Correct fused sentences by adding a period, colon, semicolon, or a comma with a coordinating conjunction.

7.6 Overloaded sentence. 7.6.1 Overloaded Grammatical Structure.

If well-constructed, a sentence may be long without being overloaded. However, a long, clumsily-constructed sentence can be almost unreadable: e.g., "Meanwhile the poor student, who couldn't keep up the grades (possibly because of the way courses are taught) drops out because of this and the money, or lack of, for tuition, and gets a job in a trade he learns through the knowledge passed to him on the job, or goes on welfare." 7.6.2 Too Many Ideas.

A fairly short sentence may be overloaded if it contains more ideas than can be clearly expressed in the space of a few words. Often, the ideas need expanding. A sentence such as the following example should probably be made into two or three sentences: "Students should realize that they are unique, each starting from a different point, and that they may end up with a career that wasn't pre-planned."

 7.7 Mixed construction. 

7.7.1 General Mixed Constructions

Avoid shifting from one sentence pattern to another in mid-sentence; for example, the sentence "By exercising makes you fit" needs to be rewritten as "By exercising, you can become fit" or "Exercising makes you fit." 7.7.2 "This-is-when" Construction.

When used as a linking verb, "is" must join two nouns (e.g., "A good day is one on which ..."), not a noun and a "when" clause (e.g., "A good day is when...) 

7.7.3 "Reason-is-because" Construction.

Though common in speech, the "reason is because" is both ungrammatical and redundant. Correct the problem by deleting "the reason is" or by changing the word "because" to "that". For example, the sentence "The reason I am living at home is because I want to save money" should be rewritten as "I am living at home because I want to save money," or as "The reason I am living at home is that I want to save money." 7.7.4 Doubled Preposition.

Don't use a construction such as in which or to whom and then repeat the preposition at the end of the sentence, as in the following examples: "To whom do I talk to?" "In which country was he born in?"

7.7.5 Faulty parallelism.

Use the same grammatical form for words, phrases or clauses that form a pair or a series and are alike in function. For example, rewrite "She likes swimming, cooking, and to play squash" as 'She likes swimming, cooking and playing squash" or as "She likes to swim, to cook, and to play squash." Often, clarity is added by repeating words like "because" or "that" to signal parallel structure, as in the following example: "Britain is in economic trouble because it is no longer a major power and the changed values of its youth." Correction: ". . . because it is no longer a major power and because the values of its youth have changed." 

CHAPTER EIGHT: WRITING SKILLS

8.1 Strategies to Succeed in Writing

Writing is the key to communicating knowledge and expressing ideas. It is a primary medium for creation and the storage of thought.Being able to effectively organize and write down your thoughts is important in succeeding in school, your job and even your personal life. Also, if you are very good at writing or really enjoy written communications, you may even choose writing as a profession.

8.2 Paragraph Development

8.2.1 What is a paragraph?

One of the central components of a paper is the paragraph. When most students think of a paragraph, they hold onto the old myths about length: a paragraph is at least 5 sentences, a paragraph is half a page, etc. A paragraph, however, is "a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit”. Length or appearance is not a factor in determining whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. In fact, it is not the number of sentences that construct a paragraph, but it is the unity and coherence of ideas among those sentences that makes a paragraph a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be one sentence. As long as that sentence expresses the paper's central idea, that sentence can serve the function of a paragraph. Ultimately, strong paragraphs contain a sentence or sentences unified around one central, controlling idea. When the paragraph reaches completion it should serve to bring the reader into your paper and guide his/her understanding of what has been read. Whether that completion happens with one sentence or with twenty, the end result is still a paragraph.

8.2.2 How to Write a Paragraph

8.2.2.1 Prewriting a Paragraph

The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your paragraph before you begin writing. There are six steps involved in this process. They are the following: Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: "What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I make this paragraph interesting? What facts can be stated to support this CHAPTER? Write your answers to the above questions and do not need to spend a lot of time doing this. Just write enough to help you remember why and how you are writing. Collect facts related to your CHAPTER. Write down facts that will help you answer your questions. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What other things can I include about this CHAPTER? Why should people be interested in this CHAPTER? Why is this CHAPTER important?

Find the main idea of your paragraph: Chose the most important point. If you cannot decide which is the most important one, just chose one and stick to it throughout your paragraph. Organize your facts and ideas to develop your CHAPTER, find the best way to tell the reader about it. Decide which facts will support the main idea.

8.2.2.2 Writing a Paragraph

The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences and you communicate them. Some important steps are the following: Write a CHAPTER sentence, some supporting sentences, and one closing sentence Make sure that the sentences are clear, simple, and they express what you really mean Focus on the main idea of your paragraph Re-read what you wrote and see if the idea is clear and you can read it with ease

8.2.2.3 Editing a Paragraph

The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them. Do not forget to do the following: Check your grammar and spelling Read your text again and make sure each sentence makes sense See if your paragraph is interesting to read

8.3 Transitional Signals

Transition signals can be compared to traffic signs. They are words that tell you to go forward, to turn, to slow down and to stop. Better said, they help the reader when to you are giving a similar idea, an opposite idea, an example, a result, or a conclusion. As a writer it is important to use these types of words to help you follow your ideas coherently. There are 8 types of Transitional Signals:

Transition words can be classified taking into account they type of help they might offer a writer. They can be classified in the following types:

8.3.1 Words that Show Addition

They aid the writer when he or she wants to present two or more ideas that continue along the same line of thought. Some common adition words are: and, also, another, in addition, moreover, first of all, second, third, furthermore, finally.

8.3.2 Words that Show Time

They indicate a time relationship. They tell us when an specific event took place in relation to another. Some of these words are: First, then, often, since, next, before, after, soon, as, now, until, previously, while, during, immediately, frequently.

8.3.3 Words that Show Contrast

They signal a change in the direction of the writer's thought. They tell us a new idea will be different in a significant way from the previous one. Some contrast words are: but, however, yet, although, in contrast, instead, still, in spite of, despite, on the other hand, on the contrary.

8.3.4 Word that Show Comparison

These words are used when a writer wants to point out a similarity between two subjects. They tell us that the previous idea is similar to the next one in some way. Some words that show comparison are: like, as, just like, just as, in like manner, equally, similarly, in a similar fashion, in the same way.

8.3.5 Words that Show Illustration

These words are used if you as a writer want to provide one of more examples to develop and clarify a given idea. They tell us that the second idea is an example of the first. Some illustration words are: for example, for instance, as an illustration, to illustrate, such as, to be specific, including. 8.3.6 Words that Show Location

Location transitions show a relationship in space. They tell us where something is in relation to something else. Some of these words can be: next to, in front of, in back of, below, between, inside, outside, opposite, on top of, across, beneath, in the middle of, on the other side, at the end of, ahead of, over, under, behing, near, far.

8.3.7 Words that Show Cause and Effect

These types of words are useful if an author wants to describe a result of something. They tell us what happened or will happen because something else happened. These type of words are: because, if... then, as a result, consequently, accordingly, therefore, since, so.

8.3.8 Words that Summarize or Conclude

These types of words are used when the idea that follows will sum up the entire writing or a final statement will be written as a conclusion. These words are: in summary, in conclusion, in short, all in all, in brief, in other words, on the whole, to conclude, to sum up.

CHAPTER NINE: REPORT WRITING

9.1 What is a report?

A report is a very formal document that is written for a variety of purposes, generally in the sciences, social sciences, engineering and business disciplines. Generally, findings pertaining to a given or specific task are written up into a report. It should be noted that reports are considered to be legal documents in the workplace and, thus, they need to be precise, accurate and difficult to misinterpret.

9.2 Types of reportsThere are numerous types of reports depending on goals and purposes of a particular report. These are:

i) Laboratory reportsii) Health and safety reportsiii) Research reports iv) Case study reports v) Field study reportsvi) Cost-benefit analysis reportsvii) Proposals viii) Comparative advantage reportsix) Progress reportsx) Feasibility studies xi) Technical reportsxii) Instruction manualsxiii) Financial reports, etc 

9.3 Characteristics of a good report

Reports must be clear, concise, complete and correct. Good reports follow the four C’s rule.

9.3.1 ClearInformation has to be understood at the first reading. The report has to be easy to read with legible writing and a clear message.

9.3.2 ConciseYour report is only to be as long as you need to include the necessary information. Use short, simple sentences. Do not use jargon or words that aren’t required.

9.3 3 CompleteEnsure all required information is in the report.

9.3.4 CorrectEvery piece of information must be accurate and verifiable.

It is important that you know the objective of the report before you write it. Be clear on what information you need to communicate and who will be reading it. For example, the object of the shift report in accommodation services is to let the other team members know what occurred on the shift. Report writing is a means of passing on information to each other.

9.4: Report writing stages

Before you start to write, you need to be clear about what you want to achieve and what you want to say. This will involve some planning. If you plan a report well, it will save time - and will save much drafting and redrafting. To plan well, you will need to follow several steps:

i) Define your aim ii) Collect your ideas iii) Select the material and decide how to show the significance of your facts iv) Structure your ideas

9.4.1 Defining Your Aim

Start by asking yourself some questions:Why am I writing this?What do I want to achieve?Who will read this?What does my reader want to know?How will this be used?When is this needed?

Once you have answered these questions, you should be clear about the kind of document needed.

9.4.2 Collecting & Selecting Your Ideas

9.4.2.1 Collecting Your Ideas

Start by jotting down ideas in note form. Do not write sentences at this stage. Remember your aim and concentrate on the questions in the readers' minds. This will help you to include only those ideas which are relevant, rather than writing everything you know about the subject.Not all of your ideas will come at once, so plan to meet your deadline. Be prepared to spend some time on noting initial ideas and then set the document aside. When you come back to it later, you will find that your ideas have gelled and that you can see the way ahead more clearly.

9.4.2.2 Selecting Your Ideas

Review the content of the document. Are all the ideas relevant? Is there anything which you need to cut out? Think about using appendices or attachments to cover detail which the reader may need at a later stage, but does not need in order to understand the main message. Decide how to show the significance of your facts. Would some graphs or diagrams help the readers understand your message? What visual material will you use? How will you produce it?

9.4.3 Select the material and decide how to show the significance of your facts

9.4.4 Structuring the Document

You will need to structure the content in a logical and clear way if you are going to help the readers take in your message.Make sure you have a sequence of headings and sub-headings which will act as signposts to help the readers find the information they need.Also, if you structure a piece of writing well, you will find it easier to choose the words to express your ideas.

A report should be divided into sections and sub-sections, each of which should have a clear heading. If you structure a report well, it will not only help your readers find the information they need but it will also help you when you start writing.

9.5 Format of a field/research report

A report should be written in the third person - this means not using "I" or "we". Often more formal, lengthy reports are written in sections which have sub-headings and are numbered. Reports are broken into the following elements, but it should be noted that not all these elements are needed in all reports. For example, an index is only needed for long reports where readers need to locate items; a glossary of terms may help if the readers are unfamiliar with terms used, but not otherwise.

As previously mentioned, the way in which you present your report will vary according to what you are writing and for whom. This section gives general guidance but you should follow advice given by tutors and others.

1 Title PageThis will include the title of the report, who has written it and the date it was written/submitted.

2 Acknowledgements Thanks to the people or organizations who have helped.

3 Content Page   As in a book, this lists the headings in the report, together with the page numbers showing where the particular section, illustration etc. can be located.   4 Executive Summary

This is a most important part of many reports and may well be the only section that some readers read in detail. It should be carefully written and should contain a complete overview of the message in the report, with a clear summary of your recommendations.

5 Terms of Reference /scopeThis section sets the scene for your report. It should define the scope and limitations of the investigation and the purpose of the report. It should say who the report is for, any constraints (for example your deadline, permitted length) - in other words, your aims and objectives - the overall purpose of your report and more specifically what you want to achieve.

6. Introduction /Background This will help to tune your readers in to the background of your report. It is not another name for a summary and should not be confused with this. They can be two separate sections or combined: background detail could include details of the CHAPTER you are writing about. You could take the opportunity to expand on your Terms of Reference within the introduction, give more detail as to the background of the report - but remember to keep it relevant, factual and brief.

7 Methodology/Procedures

This section outlines how you investigated the area. How you gathered information, where from and how much (e.g. if you used a survey, how the survey was carried out, how did you decide on the target group, how many were surveyed, how were they surveyed - by interviews or questionnaire?)

8. Findings /Analysis

This is the main body of the report, where you develop your ideas. Make sure that it is well structured, with clear headings, and that your readers can find information easily. Use paragraphs within each section to cover one aspect of the subject at a time. Include any graphs or other visual material in this section if this will help your readers. The nature of this section will depend on the brief and scope of the report. The sections should deal with the main CHAPTERs being discussed - there should be a logical sequence, moving from the descriptive to the analytical. It should contain sufficient

information to justify the conclusions and recommendations which follow. Selection of appropriate information is crucial here: if information is important to help understanding, then it should be included; irrelevant information should be omitted. 9 Conclusions

These are drawn from the analysis in the previous section and should be clear and concise. They should also link back to the Terms of Reference. At this stage in the report, no new information can be included. The conclusions should cover what you have deduced about the situation - bullet points will be satisfactory.

10 Recommendations

Make sure that you highlight any actions that need to follow on from your work. Your readers will want to know what they should do as a result of reading your report and will not want to dig for the information. Make them specific - recommendations such as "It is recommended that some changes should be made" are not helpful, merely irritating. As with the Conclusion, recommendations should be clearly derived from the main body of the report and again, no new information should be included.

11 References / Bibliography

References are items referred to in the report. The Bibliography contains additional material not specifically referred to, but which readers may want to follow up.

12 Appendices

Use these to provide any more detailed information which your readers may need for reference - but do not include key data which your readers really need in the main body of the report. Appendices must be relevant and should be numbered so they can be referred to in the main body. 13 Glossary of terms and abbreviations

Provide a glossary if you think it will help your readers but do not use one as an excuse to include jargon in the report that your readers may not understand.

CHAPTER TEN: ENTREPRENEURSHIP CONCEPTS

10.1 Historical background

During the past few decades, a considerable amount of research has been carried out on

entrepreneurship. One reason for a heightened interest in the subject has been the

appreciation of the role of entrepreneurship in fostering economic growth. Much of the

research has attempted to establish patterns for predicting incidence of entrepreneurship

and/or identifying success factors. Evidence from studies on entrepreneurship shows that

entrepreneurs are not randomly drawn from the population; they tend to share certain

backgrounds and orientations.

The term 'entrepreneur' was used for the first time in economic theory by Richard

Cantillon, a Frenchman, in the late 18th century. He saw the entrepreneur as somebody

who innovates, invests and takes risks.

However, it is John Baptiste Say who, in the early 19th century, first made a clear

distinction between the capitalist and the entrepreneur. The usage of the term became

increasingly regular in the second half of the 19th century. This was because while many

capitalists had liquidity surpluses which they tried to invest, entrepreneurs provided

interesting opportunities.

In the early 20th century, Joseph Schumpeter presented what has been credited as the

most significant meaning of the term 'entrepreneur'. He saw the essence of

entrepreneurship as innovative behavior. According to Schumpeter, the essence of

entrepreneurship lies in the perception and exploitation of new opportunities...it always

has to do with bringing about a different use of national resources in that they withdraw

from their traditional employ and subject them to new combinations (Schumpeter, 1934).

10.2 Definition of Entrepreneur today

An Entrepreneur is defined broadly as a person who thinks, reasons, and acts in a

way that result in the creation, enhancement, realization, and renewal of value for

an individual, group, organization and the society at large.

An entrepreneur is different from a business man who buys and sells good and

services for profit. Not all business men are necessarily entrepreneurs.

Entrepreneurs are found in all professions-education, medicine, research, law,

architecture, engineering, social work, distribution and the government.

Entrepreneurship is defined broadly as a way of thinking, reasoning, and acting

that results in the creation, enhancement, realization, and renewal of value for an

individual, group, organization, society.

Entrepreneurship is a dynamic process of creating incremental wealth. The

wealth is created by individuals who assume the major risks in terms of equity,

time and career commitment or provide value for some product or service.

10.3 Intrapreneurship

Entrapreneurship is practicing entrepreneurship within an existing/established

organization. E.g. Religious institution, Corporate Organization, Government agencies,

NGO, Home/family/relationship etc.

Intrapreneurs are highly valued in today’s world, because it calls for constant

improvement, aggressiveness, vision, ability to assess risks and quickly take action, etc

Existing businesses have the financial resources, business skills and the marketing and

distribution system to commercialize innovation successfully.

10.4 Is an entrepreneur born or made?

Entrepreneurship researchers point to two major contentions. There are those who argue

that entrepreneurship is a function of individual personality traits. That there exist a

number of recognizable behaviors, and attributes that are commonly associated with the

“enterprising” person, and which may further distinguish between entrepreneurs and non-

entrepreneurs or between successful entrepreneurs and unsuccessful enterpreneurs.

These are innovativeness, creativeness, proactive ness, need for achievement, risk taking

independence. Etc.

On the other hand, those in the second strand, argue that entrepreneurship is an

environmentally determined phenomenon. That the display of enterprising behaviors and

attitudes will be stimulated or otherwise, by different environments.

There is now an overwhelming literature, (including proponents of the trait approach)

that point to the common conclusion, and to which we also subscribe to, that

entrepreneurship is not a biological trait. More specifically, entrepreneurs can be

developed and that even the much advocated entrepreneurial traits and behaviors such as

need for achievement and risk-taking can be learnt. That the mix and degree of

enterprising attributes will vary between persons, but more importantly the enterprising

behavior can be developed by exposure to stimuli and therefore can be learned.

10.5 General Entreprising Tendencies/Traits [GETs]

Generally, an entrepreneur possess the following Traits/behaviors

i. Creativity

ii. Initiative taking

iii. Innovation

iv. Strong sense of independence and autonomy

v. Belief in self/ believe can make things happen

vi. Strong sense of ownership

vii. Aggressive

viii. Determined/Persevering

ix. Hard working

x. Pro-active

xi. Belief that rewards come with own effort and hard work brings its rewards

xii. Strong action orientation

xiii. Networking

xiv. Readiness to take reasonable risks

xv. Achievement orientation/urge to succeed/conquer

10.6 How can ‘GETs’ be developed?

(i) Always ask the question – is there a better way?

(ii) Challenge custom, routine and tradition

(iii) Realize that there may be more than one answer

(iv) See mistakes and failures as mere pit stops on the way to success

(v) Identify yourself with successful people

(vi) Expose yourself to difficult and challenging situations

(vii) Share information with others

(viii) Add value to everything you do

(ix) Be an achiever – finish what you start

(x) Set long-term goals

(xi) Try to make things happen for yourself

(xii) Solve your own problems before seeking help

(xiii) Be proud/feel good about yourself and your work

(xiv) Build up stamina

(xv) Observe others and copy – but don’t be a copycat

(xvi) Experiment

10.7 Types of skills required in Entrepreneruship

The skills required by entrepreneurs can be classified into three main areas:

i. Technical skills

ii. Business management skills

iii. Personal entrepreneurial skills

Technical skills Business mangnt skills Personal entrepreneurial skills

i. Writing

ii. Oral communication

iii. Monitoring environment

iv. Technical business mgmnt

v. Technology

vi. Interpersonal

vii. Listening

viii. Ability to organize

ix. Network building

x. Management style

xi. Coaching

xii. Being a team player

i. Planning and goal setting

ii. Decision making

iii. Human relations

iv. Marketing

v. Finance

vi. Accounting

vii. Management

viii. Control

ix. Negotiation

x. Venture launch

xi. Management growth

i. Inner control

ii. Risk taker

iii. Innovative

iv. Change oriented

v. Persistent

vi. Visionary leader

vii. Ability to manage

change

10.8: Comparison of Traditional Managers And Entrepreneurs

BASIS TRADITIONAL MANAGERS ENTREPRENEURS

1. Primary motives Promotion of traditional rewards e.g.

Office, staff and power

Independence, opportunity

to create and money.

2. Activity Delegates and supervises more than

direct involvement

Direct involvement

3. Risk Careful Moderate risk taker

4. Status Concerned about status symbols Not concerned about status

symbols

5. Decision Usually agrees with those in upper

management positions

Follow dreams with

decisions

6. Failure and

mistakes

Tries to avoid mistakes and surprises Deals with mistakes and

failures

CHAPTER ELEVEN: FAMILY BUSINESS AND SUCCESSION

11.1: What is a Family Business? Two or more members of the family with financial control/interest in the business

11.2 Advantages of Family BusinessIf you start or join a family business you're likely to benefit from a range of advantages

which you often don't find in other enterprises.

i. Common values - you and your family are likely to share the same ethos and

beliefs on how things should be done. This will give you an extra

sense of purpose and pride - and your business a competitive edge.

ii. Strong commitment - building a lasting family enterprise means you're more

likely to put in the extra hours and effort needed to make it a success.

Your family is more likely to understand that you need to take a more

flexible approach to your working hours.

iii. Loyalty - strong personal bonds mean you and family members are likely to stick

together in hard times and show the determination needed for business

success.

iv. iv. Stability - knowing that you're building for future generations encourages the

long-term thinking needed for growth and success - though it can also

produce a potentially damaging inability to react to change.

v. Decreased costs - family members may be more willing to make financial

sacrifices for the sake of the business. For example, accepting lower

pay than they would get elsewhere to help the business in the longer

term, or deferring wages during a cashflow crisis. You may also find

you don't need employers' liability insurance if you only employ close

family members.

11.3 Dangers/Disadvantages of Family Businessi. A business can be a breeding ground for family problems: jealousy, anger,

resentment. There is less reservation about letting feelings out among

family members and family problems can easily spill over into the

workplace.

ii. The manager of a family business may be hard put turning down relatives as

employees regardless of lack of qualifications. Relatives who are

allowed into the company may abuse family ties and feel that they can

under-perform simply because they are relation.

iii. Some family members, especially the elderly, may find it difficult to retire and let

the younger members take over.

iv. Other disadvantages include possible managerial incompetence, lack of exposure

to other business, nepotism, and inability to separate family and work.

11.4: Copreneurs: Are Entrepreneurial couples who work together as co-owners. Division of labour based

on expertise rather than gender

11.5 Requirements for a successful Copreneurship 

i. Assessment of whether personalities will mesh/conflict in a business setting

ii. Mutual respect for each other

iii. Compatible business and life goals

iv. Ability to keep lines of communication open, talking and listening to each

other about personal as well as business issues

v. A clear division of roles and authority

vi. Ability to encourage each other and to lift up a disillusioned partner

vii. Separate work space to allow them to escape when the need arises

viii. Boundaries between business and personal life so that one does not consume

the other

ix. A sense of humour 

11.6 Succession Planning in Family Businesses

The entrepreneur is an integral part of the business and his/her loss represents the

loss of a key resource

Replacement decision is critical to continued success

Bringing a new leader might be good (opportunity for change) or bad

(discontinuity of important things)

Families must be pragmatic when considering succession

Developing and adopting a Management Succession plan

Developing and adopting an Ownership Succession plan

Looking outside the family unit for the right people to take them forward (if

necessary)

11.6.1 Choosing the successor:When choosing a successor, bear in mind the following issues:

Get someone who is right for the business, not your copy

i) Get someone who is right for the business, not your copy

ii) Choose successor in advance and train/mentor him/her

iii) Gradually transfer power

iv) Avoid the temptation of picking a non-performing/unproven relative – you have

responsibility to all stakeholders

v) Get advise from other managers and stakeholders in the sector

vi) Choosing a successor should be done when the entrepreneur is in charge,

whenever possible

vii) Replacement decision should take into account the interests of different

stakeholders of the business – the owner, his family, employees, customers,

suppliers, government, community

viii) Involve the family in succession planning

11.6.2 Necessary qualities of a good successor

i) Has the necessary technical knowledge of the business sector

ii) Has the right business skills

iii) Is able to manage and develop relationships already established

iv) Is able to lead the business.

v) Good leadership style.

vi) Able to take over the vision.

vii) Able to offer a new perspective.

viii) Acceptable to all stakeholders.

11.7 Why many businesses die with founders?

a. Lack of proper succession: owners do not choose successors in advance, wait until

death

b. There are no qualified/capable/skilled/experienced successors

c. Lack of policies/procedures on succession

d. Cultural obstacles: family conflicts over property – business dismantled

e. In case of personal services – family has no skilled person to take over

f. Reputation of the business is attached to the specific person

g. Dubious activities

h. Limited exposure of family members of the business: spouses/children not involved

i. One man show – governance structures

j. Business activities/records not documented

k. Offspring of many successful people are spoilt

APPENDIX A: Instructors Teaching Plan for Communication and Entrepreneurship skills Course-[CIT 04102]

COURSE OBJECTIVESi. To impart to students basic communication and writing skillsii. To impart to students basic entrepreneurship concepts and background knowledge

COURSE OUTCOMESi. At the end of the course students will be able to write and speak simple English

correctly ii. At the end of the course students will have acquired basic entrepreneurship skills

and knowledge.

WEEK CHAPTER CHAPTER DETAILS Instructional materials1 and 2 ONE: PARTS OF

SPEECH- Noun: types of nouns- Adjective: kinds of adjectives- Verb- Adverb: kinds of adverbs- Pronoun: kinds of pronouns - Preposition: kinds of prepositions,

Selected prepositions- Conjunction- Interjection- Article- Homework/Assignment 1

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

3 TWO: SENTENCE REVIEW

- Definition a sentence- Kinds of sentences (according to use)- Types of sentences (based on structure)

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

4&5 THREE: TENSES - PRESENT TENSE- Simple Present Tense- Present Continuous Tense- Present Perfect Tense- Present Perfect Continuous

Tense - PAST TENSE

- Simple Past Tense- Past Continuous Tense- Past Perfect Tense- Past Perfect Continuous

Tense

- FUTURE TENSE- Simple Future Tense- Future Continuous Tense- Future Perfect Tense- Future Perfect Continuous

Tense - Each Student to prepare a tense

table of at least 50 verbs (v1, v2, v3)

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

- Sufficient examples will be provided on how to change sentences from one tense to the other

- Assignment 26 FOUR: ACTIVE AND

PASSIVE VOICE- Changing active to passive voice- Changing passive to active voice- Sufficient examples and exercises

will be provided

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout

Homework /Assignment7 FIVE: QUESTION

TAGS AND SHORT ANSWERS

SIX: PUNCTUATION RULES

- Examples in positive form- Examples in negative form- Short answers

- Punctuation marks- Capitalization rules

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

8 Test 19 SEVEN: ERRORS IN

SENTENCES

EIGHT: WRITING SKILLS

- Sentence fragment-  Misplaced Period- Incomplete Sentence. etc -- Paragraph development - Stages in writing a paragraph- Transitional signals

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

10 CHAPTER NINE: REPORT WRITING

- Definition of a report- Types of reports- Characteristics of a good report- Report writing stages- Format of a field/ research report

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

11-12 TEN:ENTREPRENEURSHIP–HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

- Historical background- Definition of entrepreneur today- Intrapreneurship- Is an entrepreneur made or born?- General Enterprising Tendencies/Traits

[GETS]- How can GETS Be Developed?- Types of skills required in

entrepreneurship- Comparison of traditional managers and

entrepreneurs

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

13 TEST TWO14 TEN: FAMILY

BUSINESS AND SUCCESSION

- Definition of a family business- Advantages and limitations of family

business- Definition of copreneurs - Requirements of a successive

copreneurship- Successful planning in family business- Why do many businesses die with

founders?

- PowerPoint presentation- Projector- Handout- Homework /Assignment

15&16 - Winding up, discuss questions and prepare for final exam

Appendix B: SAMPLE/REVISION QUESTIONS

1. With two examples in each case, outline nine parts of speech.2. With two examples in each case, outline five types of nouns.3. With two examples in each case, outline eight types of adverbs.4. Classify each word in the following sentences into appropriate parts of speech:

a. ‘Her beauty was for nothing, because she behaved and acted completely as a professional prostitute’

b. ‘Bravo! A beautiful girl is for smart man’

5. Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions:i. His dress is made………… cotton. [at. for, to, of ]ii. The dog is suffering……….. rabies. [for, with, from, to]iii. The teacher is pleased …………me [for, with, from, to]iv. You have to knock ……….. the door. [at. for, in, to]v. Students write exams……….ink [by, with, in, to]vi. The King died………….cancer [at. for, to, of ]vii. This school is suitable ………… my children [for, with, from, to]viii. This room is full……………mosquitoes. [for, with, from, of]ix. Ashok is waiting……………you. [for, with, from, of]x. Masanja is not interested…………..singing. [at. for, in, to]xi. The cheapest way to travel in town is ………….bus. [for, with, from, by] xii. He is a man …………principles. [at. for, to, of ]xiii. Don’t gossip………others [by, with, in, to]xiv. I believe …………. fair play [at. for, in, to]xv. Is your child good ……… diving. [at. for, to, of ]xvi. Students must abide …………... examination rules [by, with, in, to]xvii. We are afraid ………… bad weather [with, for, at, of]xviii. Juma was eager ………. learn advanced mathematics [at. for, in, to]xix. Little children prefer chocolate………..chapati [for, with, in, to]xx. They were tired ……….waiting for something to happen [at. for, to, of ]xxi. They have great desire……… success [for, with, of, in]xxii. Does the president have sympathy …… citizens who commit crime? [at, for, with, of ]xxiii. Anna is fond………….. dancing [at, for, with, of ]

6. What is a sentence?

7. Classify each of the following sentences as, assertive, interrogative, Exclamatory, imperative or optative sentence.

i. We wish you the best in your exams.ii. How did you manage to escape?iii. ‘Please, do not let me down’.iv. He was asked if he would come the following day.

v. Bravo! We have done it.vi. Jackson is a famous doctor.vii. Go out.viii. Is the red car yours?ix. ‘What a wonderful boy!’ the Preacher exclaimed.x. ‘May the almighty God rest his soul in eternal peace.’

8. Classify each of the following sentences as, simple, compound or complex sentence.

a. The man whom I loved was my uncle.b. I appreciate your effort.c. The cat running but the rat is standing still.d. Neither Anne nor Upendo is my friende. It is a sunny day.f. Whenever you see him tell him that the teacher wants to meet himg. She is a Member of Parliament and a preacher.h. Musa told me that he planned to marry her.i. My sister sent me a present.j. The sun rises in the east.

9. Change the following tenses as directed.

i. You ride a bicycle (into future perfect continuous)

ii. Boys are playing cricket (into future perfect)iii. They have driven a car (into future

continuous )iv. We had gone to school (into simple future)v. Rita ate a mango (into past perfect

continuous)vi. Neema was making tea (into past perfect)vii. Sam had played football (into past continuous)viii. We had been going to Tanga. (into simple past)ix. I will dream a sad dream (into present perfect

continuous)x. Mr Kato will be teaching maths (into present perfect)xi. The cat will have been sleeping for 2 minutes (into present

continuous)xii. They will have been digging the trench for 4 hours (into simple

present tense.xiii. You ride a bicycle (into past perfect

continuous)xiv. Boys are playing cricket (into past perfect)xv. They have driven a car (into past continuous )xvi. We had gone to school (into simple past)xvii. Rita ate a mango (into future perfect

continuous)

xviii. Neema was making tea (into future perfect)xix. Sam had played football (into future continuous)xx. We had been going to Tanga. (into simple

future)xxi. I will dream a sad dream (into simple present)xxii. Mr Kato will be teaching maths (into present continuous)xxiii. The cat will have been sleeping for 2 minutes (into present

perfect)xxiv. They will have been digging the trench for 4 hours (into

present continuous).xxv. Do you do it? (into future perfect

continuous)xxvi. Had they arrived? (into present perfect)xxvii. Did students challenge the teacher? (into simple future)xxviii. What will you say? (into simple past

tense)xxix. Are you listening? (into present perfect

tense)xxx. Will you have done it? (into present

continuous tense)

10. Choose the correct verb form from those in brackets.

i. She ……………to Dodoma yesterday. [has gone, went, had gone]ii. Hussein ……….. his arm in an accident. [hurt, has hurt, hurted]iii. I…………… basketball for ten years. [teach, am teaching, have been

teaching]iv. When I went to the theatre the play……. [ already started, will start, had

already started]v. He ……….a new car tomorrow. [ buy, will buy, bought]vi. Always………to answer the questions briefly. [tries, had been trying, try]vii. The match…….. before they reached the stadium. [ begun, had begun, has

begun]viii. His mother waited patiently till he……his meat. [eats, was eat, had eaten].ix. She ……… her games regularly during his school days. [ plays, has played,

played]x. He ……….. his lessons now. [learns, is learning, had learned]

11. Change the following sentences into PASSIVE VOICEi. Asha has written a storyii. Did children love flowers?iii. We celebrated Independence Day on 9th of December.iv. My father helped mev. The doctor prepares medicinevi. They are picking flowersvii. She has cleaned the cup

viii. I am reading this bookix. I have lost my bookx. She has cleaned the cupsxi. My sister is painting a picturexii. Mosses has posted a letterxiii. Nyerere preached peace.xiv. They had finished the exams.xv. We will kill the lions.

12. Change the following sentences into ACTIVE VOICE

i. Food was not taken yesterday by meii. Were all questions answered by you?iii. The box was being painted by the girls.iv. The match had been won by themv. Food will be cooked by Annavi. The work will have been finished by mevii. He is a man to be admiredviii. The race will have been won by the girlsix. A story was told to me by my motherx. A reply must be sent by Husseinxi. The plane was hijacked by terrorists.xii. The window was broken by wind.xiii. Students had been challenged by the teacher.xiv. Flowers have been picked by the girlsxv. The floor will be swept by the boys.

13. Mention and show eight punctuation marks used in English language.14. Mention four situations where capital letter must be used.15. Punctuate the following sentences correctly:

i. juma is a serious studentii. Kigali Kampala Nairobi and Dar es Salaam are capital cities of East Africa

countries.iii. Fatumas farther taught me swimming.iv. The preacher said I will always worship my messiah.v. What a wonderful girl. the President exclaimed.vi. The team will be composed of the following members doctors nurses

counselors and extension officers

16. What is a paragraph?17. Mention three major stages in writing a paragraph.18. What is meant by ‘paragraph unity’?19. What do you understand by the guideline ‘make the paragraph move forward’?20. Define the term, ‘transitional signals’ as used in writing.21. Mention any seven types of transitional signals. Give an example in each case22. With examples, outline eight types of transitional signals.

23. Outline four steps in the pre-writing stage during the writing process.24. Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.

i) A paragraph should have two or more sentences [ ]ii) A standard paragraph should focus on more than one idea [ ]iii) A standard paragraph should have a topic sentence, some supporting sentences

and closing sentences [ ]iv) Length is a factor in determining whether a section in a paper is a paragraph [ ]v) Clear writing encourages the use of jargons [ ]vi) Shorter sentences are better than long ambiguous sentences [ ]

25. Mention any five types of sentence errors.26. Re-write the following sentences correctly:

i. The students does not study hard.ii. The cat did not catch the rat tomorrow.iii. You was not playing well.iv. She likes cooking, jogging and to play basketballv. Since she was late. She must be punished.

27. Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.

i) When a sentence is missing a subject, verb, or main clause, this error is called ‘ a sentence fragment’

ii) When a comma is used to join two ideas that could each stand alone as a sentence, this error is called ‘misplaced period’

iii) When two sentences are run together with no punctuations, this error is called ‘faulty parallelism’

28. Define the term, ‘entrepreneur’29. Differentiate the term, entrapreneuship’ from ‘entrepreneuship’30. What do you understand by the term, ‘copreneurs’?31. Mention any seven requirements for a copreneur to be successful.32. Differentiate a business man from an entrepreneur.33. Mention any eight General Entrepreneurship Tendencies (GETs) of an entrepreneur.34. Outline any seven ways of developing/acquiring General Entrepreneurship Tendencies35. Mention the three classes of skills required in entrepreneurship36. Mention Requirements for a successful copreneurship37. Compare a traditional manager and an entrepreneur. 38. What will you see to know that a student is enterprising?39. Write T if the statement is TRUE or F if the statement is FALSE

i. An entrepreneur is a person who takes very serious business risks to maximize profit [ ]

ii. Entrepreneurship is a biological trait [ ]iii. An entrepreneur is a small business trader [ ]

iv. Expose yourself to difficult situations can develop your General Enterprising Tendencies[]

v. An entrepreneur is always more concerned about status symbols as compared to a traditional manager [ ]

vi. Poor entrepreneurs see mistakes and failures as mere pit stops on the way to success [ ]

40. What is a report?41. Mention any six types of reports you know42. List four characteristics of a good report.43. Outline the format of a field /research report.44. What is family business?45. Mention any seven issues to bear in mind when choosing a family business successor. 46. Mention any seven necessary qualities of a good business successor47. Outline any five reasons as to why many businesses die with founders. 48. Write T if the statement is TRUE or F if the statement is FALSE

i. Power must be transferred gradually from the outgoing family business manager to the new manager [ ]

ii. ‘knowledge of the entrepreneur’ is an important motivator for a family member or a friend to invest into the entrepreneur’s new business venture [ ]

iii. Enterprising behaviors can be developed by exposure to stimuli and therefore can be learned [ ]