pacific north coast integrated management area (pncima
TRANSCRIPT
Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNCIMA)
Issues, Challenges & Opportunities:A Discussion Paper
Acronyms
CCG CanadianCoastGuard
CMA CoastalManagementAreawithin aLargeOceanManagementArea
DFO FisheriesandOceansCanada(commonlyreferred toasDepartmentofFisheriesandOceans)
EBM Ecosystem-BasedManagement
EC EnvironmentCanada
FSC Food,SocialandCeremonial
GHG GreenHouseGases
GMA GeographicalManagementAreawithin aLargeOceanManagementArea
IMO InternationalMaritimeOrganization
LNG LiquefiedNaturalGas
LOMA LargeOceanManagementArea
MCTS MarineCommunicationsandTrafficServices oftheCanadianCoastGuard
NMCA NationalMarineConservationArea
PNCIMA PacificNorthCoastIntegratedManagementArea
RCA RockfishConservationArea
UNCLOS UnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea
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Acronym
s
Prepared for Fisheries and Oceans Canada (Pacific Region) on behalf of PNCIMA Secretariat
by J.G. Bones Consulting Brentwood Bay, BC 250-652-4002 [email protected]
June 2009
Contents
ACRONyMS....................................................................................................... ii
CONTENTS....................................................................................................... iii
1.0. INTRODUCTION.AND.CONTEXT............................................................11.1 Purpose .....................................................................................................................11.2 Ocean Planning Guidance .........................................................................................11.3 PNCIMA Overview ....................................................................................................2
2.0. MARINE.ACTIVITy.&.USE.ISSUES...........................................................32.1 Marine Transportation and Vessel Safety ................................................................32.2 Maritime Defence and Security ................................................................................52.3 Commercial Fisheries ...............................................................................................62.4 First Nations’ Marine Fisheries ................................................................................82.5 Recreational Fisheries ............................................................................................102.6 Marine Recreation and Tourism .............................................................................122.7 Marine Aquaculture ................................................................................................132.8 Renewable Ocean Energy ......................................................................................152.9 Non-Renewable Ocean Energy ..............................................................................172.10 Existing Land and Coastal Plans ............................................................................18
3.0. MARINE.ENVIRONMENT.&.CULTURE.ISSUES.....................................203.1 Marine Protection Tools ..........................................................................................203.2 Cultural Resources ..................................................................................................223.3 Accidental Marine Spills ..........................................................................................243.4 Marine Pollution ......................................................................................................263.5 Marine Climate Change Effects ..............................................................................283.6 Aquatic Invasive Species .........................................................................................293.7 Species at Risk & Species of Concern ....................................................................30
4.0. JURISDICTIONAL.AND.LEGAL.CONTEXT............................................324.1 PNCIMA Collaborative Governance .......................................................................324.2 First Nations’ Rights and Relationships ..................................................................32
5.0. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................33
ANNEX.1.–.BOUNDARy.OF.THE.PNCIMA.AREA...........................................34
ANNEX.2.–.REFERENCES.CITED....................................................................35
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Contents
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Introduction and
Context
1.0. INTRODUCTION.AND.CONTEXT
1.1. Purpose.
Thisdiscussionpaperprovidesinterestedpartieswithahigh-leveloverviewofissueswithinthePacificNorthCoastIntegratedManagementArea(PNCIMA).Thepaperidentifiestheissues,thechallengesassociatedwitheachissue,andtheopportunitiestoutilizeanintegratedmanagementapproachtoaddressthesechallenges.
1.2. Ocean.Planning.Guidance
KeylegislationandpolicyguidanceareinplacetoguideintegratedoceanmanagementplanninginCanada.TheOceans Act1affirmsFisheriesandOceansCanada(DFO)astheleadfederalauthorityforoceans,andempowersitsMinistertoleadthedevelopmentandimplementationofintegratedmanagementplansforallactivitiesinoraffectingestuaries,coastalwatersandmarineareas.TheActrequires“collaborationwithotherministers,boardsandagenciesoftheGovernmentofCanada,withprovincialandterritorialgovernmentsandwithaffectedaboriginalorganizations,coastalcommunitiesandotherpersonsandbodies,includingthosebodiesestablishedunderlandclaimsagreements”intheseefforts.
Canada’sOceansStrategy(2002)2providesmorespecificpolicydirectionandactivitiesforimplementingtheOceansAct.Inthisdocument,theprinciplesofsustainabledevelopment,integratedmanagementandtheprecautionaryapproacharefurtherdefined,buildingonthecommitmentmadeintheOceansActtofollowtheseprinciplesindevelopingintegratedoceanmanagementplans,startingwithpriorityareas.AnaccompanyingPolicyandOperationalFramework(2002)outlinesmorespecificpolicyandguidelinesforintegratedoceansmanagementplanningprocess,structureandobjectives,andconfirmsLargeOceanManagementAreas(LOMAs)asthegeographicalbasisforintegratedoceanmanagementplanning.3ThePolicyalsoprovidesformorelocalizedplanningwithinaLOMA.
The2005CanadaOceansActionPlanidentifiedthePNCIMAareaasoneoffivepriorityLOMAsfortheimplementationofintegratedoceanmanagementplanning.4
In2002,CanadaandtheCoastalFirstNations(thenTurningPointInitiative)signedanInterimMeasuresAgreementtoworktowardsagovernment-to-governmentrelationshipforinvolvementinmarineuseplanning.OnDecember11,2008theFirstNations,representedbyCoastalFirstNations(CFN)andtheNorthCoast-SkeenaFirstNationsStewardshipSociety(NCSFNSS),signedaPNCIMA Collaborative Oceans Governance Memorandum of Understanding(MOU)withDFO.5TheMOUoutlinesaDFO/FirstNationsgovernancestructureandcoordinatingbodies,andproposesmechanismsforstakeholderengagementinthegovernment-ledplanningprocess.
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Introduction and
Context
1.3. PNCIMA.Overview
ThePNCIMAisapproximately88,000km2insize.ItcoversthenearshoreandoffshoreareasofthePacificCoastfromAlaska(Canada’sjurisdictionallimit)downtothesouthendofJohnstoneStraitoneasternVancouverIsland,andtoBrooksPeninsulaonthewestcoastofVancouverIsland(seemapinAnnex 1).ThePNCIMAboundaryreflectsavarietyoffactors,withecologicalconsiderationsamajordeterminantofitssouthernboundary.
ThePNCIMAareaisuniqueduetoitsinclusionofdiverseoceanecosystems,whichprovidecriticalhabitatformanyspeciesandprovidemarineresourcesthatcontributetocoastaleconomiesandprovidecommunitieswithasenseofplace.IthassustainedcenturiesofFirstNationscultureandcontinuestosupportthirtydistinctFirstNations.Awidevarietyofyearroundandseasonalactivitiesoccurintheoffshoreandcoastalareas.6Inthenearshoreareas,amuchbroaderrangeofactivitiesoccur,suchasaquaculture,ecotourism,utilityandcommunicationslines,thePortofPrinceRupert,ferrylandings,andcommunityharbours.
Forplanningpurposes,thePNCIMAcanbedividedintodifferentplanninglevels.TheLargeOceanManagementArea(LOMA)levelcoverstheentireregionandad-dressesregion-wideissues.TheGeographicalManagementArea(GMA)representssub-regionssuchastheNorthCoastorHaidaGwaii,anddealswithissuesofconcernacrossthesub-region.TheCoastalManagementArea(CMA)levelofplanningmayoccurforsmallercoastalareaswithinGMAswheremanagementofvalues,usesandactivitiesrequiresmorespecificdirection.
2.0..MARINE.ACTIVITy.&.USE.ISSUES.There are ten marine-related activities or use issues within the PNCIMA. Each issue section contains a general description of the activity or use, including why it is important, where it occurs, and how it takes place or is administered. Each section includes an indication of challenges the activity or use is facing, or poses to other activities and values, and the geographical extent of the chal-lenges within the PNCIMA. The sections and subsections conclude with a brief indication of the planning level(s) that may be appropriate for dealing with the issue, and the opportunities that an integrated management approach provides to address the issue and its challenges.
.2.1.Marine.Transportation.and.Vessel.Safety
ThreepatternsofmarinetransportationareevidentinthePNCIMA:1)local,community-orientedtraffic;2)large-scalecommercialandindustrialtraffic;and;3)transienttraffic.Marinetransportationfacilitiessuchasports,docksandharboursareincludedinthisissue.
Thefirsttransportationpattern,localcommunity-orientedtraffic,occurswithininletsandalongthecoastalzone,amongandbetweenPNCIMAcommunitiesandharbours.Thisincludescommercialandrecreationalfishingvessels,ferries,andbargesandtugsthattransportbulkproducts,goods,people,carsandpassengersfromonelocationtoanother.
Thesecondpatternisindustrialandcommercialvesselmovement,betweenlocationsinsideandoutsideofthePNCIMA.ItincludestrafficenteringandexitingthePortofPrinceRupert,KitimatandStewart,aggregatecarriersenteringandexitingPortMcNeill,rawlogsandaggregatetowedoutoftheregion,andfishingvessels(recreationalandcommercial)fromoutsidethePNCIMA.
ThethirdpatternisthetransitingofvesselsthroughPNCIMAwaters,enroutefromoneoutsidedestinationtoanother,andusuallywithoutstopsinthePNCIMA.ThisincludescruiseshipstransitingtheInsidePassagebetweenAlaskaandsouthernports,withoccasionalstopsatcoastalcommunities.
TankertrafficmovingcrudeoilcomingfromtheTransAlaskaPipelineSystems(TAPS)fromAlaskatosouthernUSAdestinationsdoesnotenterPNCIMAwatersunlessthereisanemergency.TAPSvesselsavoidthePNCIMAduetothevoluntaryTankerExclusionZonethatwasestablishedalongtheBCCoast.7Thepurposeofthezoneistokeepladentankerswestofthezoneboundaryinanefforttoprotecttheenvironmentandshorelineintheeventofatankerbecomingdisabledwhileintransit.Thenorthernportionoftheroutesisapproximately160kilometreswestoftheQueenCharlotteIslands.Thesouthernportionoftheroutesisapproximately137kilometresfromCapeScott,56kilometresfromEstevanPointand40kilometresfromAmphitritePoint,VancouverIsland.
Primaryresourceactivitiessuchasfishing,logging,aggregateextractionandminingstilldrivetransportationactivitiesinthePNCIMA.However,passengertrafficandtransportationofgoodsandservicesalsoensureasteadyflowofvessels.HighfishingvesseltrafficoccursfromJohnstoneStrait,throughQueenCharlotteSound,Hecate
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StraitandintoDixonEntranceinassociationwithmajorcommercialfishingactiv-ity(groundfish,shellfishandsalmonfleets).TheInsidePassageisusedextensivelyyearround,butQueenCharlotteSoundalsohassignificantpassengervesseltrafficinthesummer,includingferriesandcruiseships.BCFerryCorporationoperatesthreemainroutesinPNCIMA:PortHardy-PrinceRupert,HaidaGwaii-PrinceRupert,andDiscoveryCoastPassage(PortHardytoMid-Coast).SmallerferryoperationsservetheislandcommunitiesadjacenttoPortMcNeill.Numerouswatertaxiopera-tionsservicesmallcommunitiesyear-round.LargecommodityvesselsboundforPrinceRupertorKitimatuseanestablishedroutethroughHecateStrait.
Themarinetransportindustryisamajorgeneratorofrevenueandemployment;asresource-basedindustriesdeclineithasbeenasourceofeconomicstabilityanddiversityinanumberofPNCIMAcommunities.Itisvitalforcontinuationofservic-ingcommunities,throughpassengerandfreightservices,andforcommercialactivitiessuchasmarinetourism,fishingandlow-costmovementoflogsandaggregates.ThedeepseaportatPrinceRupertisamajortrans-shipmentpointforBCcommoditiessuchasgrain,coal,oreandtimberandforimportedgoodsandcommodities.KitimatHarbourisalsoanactivetrans-shipmentpointforaluminumproductsandforimportofproductsusedinaluminumsmelting,aswellasmethanolandcondensateforpipelinetransfer.Marinetransportationactivitiesareprojectedtoincreasesubstantiallyinthenextfifteenyears,particularlywiththecurrentexpansionofthePortofPrinceRupert,therecentlyapprovedliquefiednaturalgas(LNG)facilityandEnbridge’sproposalofatwinnedoilandcondensatepipelineassociatedwithanewmarineterminalinKitimat.
Marinetransportationandvesselsafetyisprimarilyregulatedbyfederaldepartments.Programscoversafety,forecasting,andnavigationalaids.TheCanadianCoastGuard(CCG)MarineCommunicationsandTrafficServices(MCTS)controlsmovementoflargevesselssuchasfreighters,tankers,cruiseships,andfishingvesselsthroughcon-gestedwaterways.Internationallaws,includingthosemadeundertheUNConventionontheLawoftheSea(UNCLOS),alsoapplytoshippingandtransportation.Canadahasestablishedmanyregulationsandlawstocomplywithinternationalstandards.ImportantUNCLOSrequirementsinclude:allowingforeignvessels“innocentpassage”throughtheterritorialsea;allowingCanadatoregulatenavigationofshipsandaircraftthroughstraitsusedforinternationalpassage(e.g.theInsidePassage,HecateStrait);andrequiringCanadatopreventandcontrolmarinepollution.
Challenges.and.OpportunitiesChallengesassociatedwithmarinetransportationandsafetyissuesgenerallyapplythroughoutthePNCIMAandmaybestbeaddressedattheLOMAorGMAlevelsofplanning.Theyinclude:
•IncreasesinlargetrafficandsafetyissuesresultingfromPortofPrinceRupertexpansion,particularlyinestablishedtransitlanesinHecateStrait;
•PotentialincreasesinlargevesseltrafficinDouglasChannel,andrelatedsafetyandenvironmentalrisksresultingfromproposeddevelopmentsinKitimat;
•Impactofmarinetransportationincreasesonfisheriesandmarineresourceharvestingactivitiesinbothcoastalandoffshorewaters;
•Vesseltrafficimpactsonmarinewaterqualityandmarineecosystemsthroughdischargeofwastewaterandgarbage,noise,airemissions,accidentalspills,bilgedumping,ballastwaterdischargeandexchange,andvesselwakeimpacts;
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•Vesseltrafficconflictswithotherhumanactivities;
•Seabirdandmarinemammalmortalitiesfromvesseldischargesandcollisions.
ThePNCIMAprocessprovidesanopportunitytoaddressexistingandpotentialconcernsthroughthedevelopmentofpolicyonvesselinteractionswithotheractivitiesandonsafetyissues.ThePNCIMAprocessalsoofferstheopportunitytoimprovevesseltrafficmanagementpracticesandlocationsbyapplyingknowledgeoftimeandlocationofpotentiallyconflictingactivitiesandoccurrences,suchasprimefisheryperiods,whalemigrationcorridorsandperiods,andlocationofsensitiveecosystemsandpotentialMPAs.
.2.2.Maritime.Defence.and.Security
MaritimedefenceandsecurityoperationsstemfromCanada’srequirementtomain-tainnationalsovereignty.TheseoperationsarenecessitatedinthePNCIMAduetoitsproximitytointernationalbordersanditslengthofunpopulated,accessibleshoreline.Maritimedefenceandsecurityoperationsincludedealingwithsituationssuchassecu-ritythreats,illegalimmigration,encroachmentofforeignfishingvessels,drugsmug-gling,aswellasnavalexercisestoimprovecombatreadinessofCanadianforces.
MaritimedefenceoperationsarecoordinatedbytheCanadianFleetPacific(CANFLT-PAC)oftheDepartmentofNationalDefence(DND),withtheCanadianCoastGuard(CCG),DepartmentofFisheriesandOceans(DFO),theRoyalCanadianMountedPolice(RCMP),ParksCanadaAgency(PC),EnvironmentCanada(EC),CanadianBorderAgency(CBA),andCanadianRevenueAgency(RCA)providingsupportonsovereigntypatrols.Thesedepartmentsandothersalsoassistinsurveillancepatrolsfocusedonthedetection,reportinganddeterrenceofillegalactivities.
ThePortofPrinceRupertalsohasasecuritymandate,whichincludescommunica-tionsandcoordinatedenforcementactivitieswithotherdepartments.ThePort’smainsecurityriskisfromcruiseshiptrafficmakingberthattheAtlinorNorthlandTerminals.
Challenges.and.OpportunitiesChallengesassociatedwithmaritimedefenceandsecurityissuesapplytotheentirePNCIMA,andmightbeappropriatelyaddressedattheLOMAlevel.Thechallengespresentedbythisissueinclude:
•IncreasedsecurityeffortandrequirementduetofutureoperationofaKitimatLNGterminalandEnbridgeoilterminal;
•Increaseddemandsoncustomsandsecurityoperationsduetoincreasesinmarinetourismfrombothlargepassengerandsmallerpocketcruises;
•IncreasedpotentialforlegalandillegalfishingactivitiesinPNCIMAduetopossiblespeciesdistributionchanges;
•Potentialinterferenceofnavalexerciseswithotheractivitiesanduses,anddamagetosensitivemarinehabitatandspecies.
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AnintegratedoceanplanningprocessprovidesarareopportunitytoimproveunderstandingofthisimportantissueinPNCIMA,andtodevelopmeansofintegratingmaritimedefenceandsecurityactivitieswiththoseofotherusergroups.Informationonlocationandtimingofimportantactivitiesandareas,suchaswhalemigra-tions,peakfishingactivity,andsensitiveareascanalsobemeansofintegratingactivities.
.2.3.Commercial.Fisheries
Commercialfishingactivityinthiscontextreferstotheregulatedharvestingofwildfinfishandinvertebratespeciesusingavarietyoftechniques,geartypesandvessels,forcommercialpurposes.CommercialfishingactivitieshavebeeninstrumentalinshapingtheeconomyandcultureofBCcoastalcommunities,areanimportantcomponentofcoastalFirstNations’cultureandeconomy,andmakeasubstantialcontributiontotheprovincialeconomy.Pacificsalmon,halibut,Pacificherring,variousrockfishandnumerousgroundfishandshellfishspecies,inparticular,arekeystonespecies.
Thefishingindustry,includingfishprocessing,remainsoneofthemostimportantemployersinthePNCIMA(bothdirectlyandindirectly),aswellasinservicesandeconomicvalue.However,itssizeandcontributiontoPNCIMAcommunityecono-mieshasdeclinedsignificantlysincetheearly1990sduetovariousgovernmentpoliciesandprograms,aswellasdeclinesinsalmon,herringandsomeshellfishstocksandotherfactors.
DFOistheleadregulatoryagencyforsustainablemarinefisheries,andhasdividedthePacificRegionintoPacificFisheryManagementAreas(PFMAs)andsub-areas.Openingandclosingofthesesub-areastoharvestingenablesmanagementofharvestratesandeffortsonagivenstockorspecies.DFOmanagescommercialfisheriesthroughsuchtechniquesasareaclosures(includingRockfishConservationAreasandMarineProtectedAreas),tripandmonthlycatchlimits,individualvesselquotas(IVQ)andstockquotas,sizeandweightlimitsoffish,gearrequirements,portandvideomonitoring,andexperimentalfisheries.DFOalsodevelopsintegratedfisher-iesmanagementplans.CommercialspeciesaregenerallymanagedsustainablywithinputfromgovernmentadvisorybodiesincludingrecreationalandcommercialfishingsectorsandFirstNations.Managementofsomespeciesisalsoinfluencedbyinter-nationalgovernance,suchasthePacificSalmonCommissionandtheInternationalPacificHalibutCommission.
AvarietyofcommercialfishingactivitytakesplacewithinPNCIMAwaters.Thedistributionandfishingeffortvariessignificantly,butPNCIMAoverallisasignificantcatchareaformostBCfisheries.Itgenerates85%ofBC’strawlcatch(excludinghake),90%ofitshook-and-linecatch,85-90%ofthesablefishcatch,85%ofthesalmoncatch,85%ofthespawnonkelpharvest,inmanyyearsthemajorityoftheroeherringharvest,60%ofthegeoduckcatch,43%ofDungenesscrabcatch,36%oftheprawncatch,andalmosttheentireredandgreenurchinandseacucumbercatchontheBCcoast.8
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Thefishingmethodsarealmostasdiverseasthespeciesbeingfished.Theground-fish trawl fishery catchesamultitudeofgroundfishspeciesnearoratthebottomofthewatercolumn,orbyamid-watertrawltargetingfishabovetheseafloor.Hook and line fisheries,usinglonglineandhandlinemethods,targethalibut,blackcod,dogfish,lingcod,inshorerockfishandsloperockfish.Thehalibut fisheryisentirelyconductedbylonglinegear.Thesablefish fisheryoccursbytrap,longlineandtrawl,butthemajorityofallowablecatchisallocatedtothetrapfishery.Thesalmon fisheryinvolvestroll,seinenetandgillnetgeartypes,withseinefishingtakingapproxi-mately50%.Theherring fisheryinvolvesroe,spawn-on-kelp,specialuse,andfoodandbait,andusesmethodsincludinggillnetandseinemethods,useofkelpfrondssuspendedinopenwatersorinenclosures.Thereisagrowingsardine fishery,pri-marilyoffVancouverIsland.Invertebrate fisheriesconsistofthegeoduckandhorseclamfishery,theintertidalclamfishery,squidfishery,shrimpfishery,shrimptrapandprawntrapfishery,crab,seaurchinandseacucumberfisheries.Theyareharvestedusingdifferentprescribedmethods,suchasdiving,hand-picking,seineandtrawlfishing,trapsandnets.Quotasandharvestperiodsarealsoapplied,alongwithper-manentclosures.
Challenges.and.Opportunities..ChallengesassociatedwithcommercialfishingactivityoccuracrosstheentirePNCIMA,andcouldbepotentiallyaddressedattheLOMAorGMAlevel.Theyinclude:
• Fisherystockabundancechangesduetoacombinationoffactors,includingbutnotlimitedtonaturalvarianceinrecruitmentevents,changestoharveststrategiesandlevels,andevolvingbiologicalandoceanographicconditions,includingclimatechangeeffects;
• Potentialchangesinspeciestype,abundanceanddistributionduetoclimatechangeandoceandynamics;
• Potentialchangesoffishingsectorsandsectorscalesasaresultofchangesinfisheriespolicy,marketvalues,andglobaldemandforseafoodproducts;
• PotentialconflictwithothernonfishingcommercialandrecreationalactivitiessuchaswindfarmsandFirstNationsrightstomarineresources;
• Competitionamongstdifferentallocationsandconservationprogramobjectives,includingMPAestablishment;
• Impacttobottomandsub-tidalhabitatassociatedwithbottomcontactingharvestingtechniques;
•Seabirdmortalityincurredduetobycatchinlonglinefisheries,andentangle-mentinsetnetfisherieswhichconflictswiththeMigratory Bird Convention Act;
•Conflictandcompetitionbetweencertaingeartypefisheriesandnearshoreusesandactivities;
•Incidentaltakeimpactcausedbysomegear-typefisherieson‘nondirectednon-commercial’speciessuchaseulachon;
• Economicimpactofstockdeclinesonfisheries,coastalcommunitiesandemploymentbase;
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• Impactofmarinetransportationincreasesandinteractionswithoncommercialfishersandactivities.
Anintegratedoceanmanagementplanningapproachprovidesasignificantopportunitytoevaluate,modifyandimprovefisherypracticesandmanage-menteffortsfromanecosystem-basedperspective.Itprovidesanopportunitytodeveloppolicyandidentifyareasthatwillaffordlong-termprotectionfromimpactsrelatedtofisheries,identify(andrestorewherepossible)areasinneedofshortandlongtermprotection,anddevelopfisherymanagementobjectivesthatwillassistinmeetingfutureobjectiveswithinthePNCIMAarea.Inparticular,coastalcommunitieshavetheopportunityforinvolvementinthedevelopmentofstrategiesforresilientandsustainablefisheriesthatwillhelpmaintaincoastallivelihoodsandculture.
.2.4.First.Nations’.Marine.Fisheries
CoastalFirstNationsgatherandharvestmarinefish,plantsandinvertebratesforfood,socialandceremonial(FSC)purposes.TheseFSCFisheriesmayincludetheharvestingofsalmon,eulachon,groundfishandotherfinfish,clams,mussels,cockles,barnacles,urchins,seacucumber,octopus,squid,geoduck,kelp,seaweed,herringroe-on-kelpandotherspecies.
CoastalFirstNationshavelongmadeuseofmarineresourcesforFSCpurposes,andtheyarestillanintegralpartofcoastalFirstNations’culture.ManycoastalFirstNationsalsoparticipatedinatradingnetworkwithseafoodproductsonthecoastandintheBCInteriorwithotherAboriginalpeoplesandEuropeansettlers,whichin-cludedthetradeofeulachongrease,driedseaweed,halibut,herringroe-on-kelp,aswellassalmonandmanyothermarinespecies.Thepracticesoftrading,sharingandgiftingcontinuetosupplymanyFirstNationswithtraditionalfoodsthatarenotlo-callyavailable.TheFirstNations’marineFSCfisheryremainsculturallyimportant,andisalsoasignificantfoodsourceforFirstNations’communitieswithinPNCIMA.
Inakey1990SupremeCourtdecision(R v. Sparrow,)FirstNationsfishingrightsforFSCpurposeswereconfirmedasapriority,afterconservation,overotherfisher-ies.InresponsetotheSparrowCourtdecision,DFOcreatedanAboriginalFishingStrategy(AFS)toenhancesustainableaboriginalparticipationinfisheries,andtoactasaninterimmeasureintheabsenceoftreaties.TheAFSenablesDFOtoenterintoagreementswithaboriginalgroupsonFSCfishing,andforcollaborationwithaborigi-nalgroupsinthedesignandimplementationofco-operativemanagementprograms.9TheAFSestablishesfundingagreementswithaboriginalgroupsforspecifically-approvedactivitiesthatmayincludemanagementofaboriginalfisheries,habitatrestoration,fishenhancement,community-basedresearch,economicdevelopmentorstakeholderconsultation.AFSagreementsmayalsocontainprovisionsdescribinghowFirstNationsmanagetheirmembers’FSCfisheries.
AnAllocationTransferProgram(ATP)providesaboriginalgroupswithsomeemploy-mentandincomethroughaccesstocommercialfisheries,andfacilitatesthevoluntaryretirementofcommerciallicencesandre-issuanceascommunalcommerciallicencestoeligibleaboriginalgroups.
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AgreementsinthePNCIMAincludeamulti-NationSkeenaRiverWatershedAgreementandagreementsundertheAboriginalAquaticResourceandOceansManagementProgram(AAROM)withindividualFirstNationsintheNorthCoast,CentralCoastandHaidaGwaii.FundingfromtheAAROMprogramisdesignedtoaccomplishavarietyofgoalsincludingassistancetoaboriginalgroupsinacquir-ingtheadministrativecapacityandscientific/technicalexpertisetofacilitatetheirparticipationinaquaticresourceandoceansmanagement.AAROMfundingcanalsobeusedtoencouragetheestablishmentofcollaborativemanagementstructuresthatcontributetointegratedecosystem/watershedmanagementandplanningprocessessuchasPNCIMA.InadditiontoprogramssuchasAAROM,thePacificIntegratedCommercialFisheriesInitiative(PICFI)isaninitiativedesignedtoenhancecatchmonitoringandreporting,thebeginningsofasystemtotracefishfromtheirharvesttotheconsumer,ashare-basedapproachtomanagingcommercialsalmonfisheriesintheregion,morecollaborativefisheriesmanagementandgreaterFirstNationsparticipationincommercialfisheries.
TreatynegotiationsbetweencoastalFirstNations,CanadaandBCarecurrentlybeingconductedtoestablishtreatieswhichmay,amongstotherthings,establishandconfirmFirstNationsaccesstofisheries.Inaddition,TreatiesmayincludeprovisionsforFirstNationstobeinvolvedinaquaticresourcemanagementandplanning.SeveralPNCIMAFirstNationsareinvariousstagesofthesix-steptreatyprocesswithCanadaandBC.SomeFirstNationsonVancouverIslandarealsosubjecttoexisting(Douglas)treaties,whichrecognizetheseFirstNations’righttocarryontheir‘fisheriesasformerly.’
Challenges.and.OpportunitiesChallengesassociatedwithFirstNations’marinefisheriesoccurthroughoutthePNCIMAandmightbeaddressedatthemoredetailedCMAandGMAplanninglevels.Theyare:
• EffectofchangingabundanceoffishstocksonFirstNations’fisheries;
•EffectofchangingabundanceoffishonFirstNations’foodsourcesaswellasonlivelihoods;
•Impactofsomegear-typefisheriesonabundanceandlocationofspeciesimportanttoFirstNations’culturaluse,suchaseulachon;
•PotentialeffectofmarineusesandactivitiesonhealthandqualityofmarineresourcesconsumedbyFirstNationsforFSCpurposes;
• Potentialeffectfromtheallocationofmarinespacetootherusersthatmayim-pactaccessorstockabundanceadjacenttoimportanttraditionalfishingareas;
• PotentialfrictionbetweenFirstNationsandnon-aboriginalfishersresultingfromfuturetreatiesandCourtdecisions;
• PotentialfrictionbetweenFirstNationsandnon-aboriginalfishersoverpotentialallowanceofFirstNationsfishinginMarineProtectedAreasclosedtonon-aboriginalfishers;
• CapacitybuildingforFirstNationsinordertoeffectivelyparticipateincommercialfisheries;
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• ImpactsoffutureMPAestablishment;
• ImpactsofmarinetransportationincreasesonFirstNations’fisheriesactivities.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocessisnotintendedtoreplaceorsubstituteforgovernment’sfiduciaryobligationstoconsultwithFirstNationsonfisheriesmanagementissues.Howeveritprovidesauniqueopportunityfordialogueamongfisheryresourcemanagersandthevariousindustrysectorsdependentoncommonfisheryresources.ThisdialoguemayleadtoagreementonmanagementpracticestoavoidconflictsandcompetitioninareasutilizedforFSCharvesting,andtoreducepollutionandotherriskstofisheryresources.
.2.5.Recreational.Fisheries
Recreationalfishing(orsportfishing)istherangeofactivitiesandexperiencesthatinvolvefishingforpersonalleisure,personalconsumptionorsportpurposes.Itincludestidalwaterangling,andthegatheringofshellfish.Bylaw,fishcaughtinrecreationalfishingcannotbebought,soldorbartered.
DFOregulatesandmanagesBC’stidalwaterrecreationalfishingandmarinespeciesonasustainablebasis,usingitsauthoritytoidentifyclosedtimesandareaswherefishingisprohibited,baglimitsandsizelimitsforallsportfisheries.Themulti-stakeholderSportFishingAdvisoryBoard(SFAB)advisesDFOonrecreationalfishingplans,fisheryregu-lationsandareasofconcerntotherecreationalfishingcommunity.
Therecreationalfisheryisasignificantcontributortotheprovincialeconomy.Anglersspendmoneyontransportation,food,accommodation,guidingservices,equipmentandsupplies.Theindustryalsogeneratesmanyjobs,withlodgesandchartersrepresentingabout35%ofjobsintheindustry.Thehigheconomicvalueofthisfisherycomparedtothenumberoffishcaughthasinfluencedsomefisheriesmanagementpolicydecisions,whichgiveprioritytotherecreationalfisheryoverthecommercialfisheryforsomespe-cies(chinookandcohosalmon).
InthePNCIMA,about80%oftherecreationalcatchiscomprisedofchinookandcohosalmon.Halibutfishingisalsoveryimportantinsomeareas.Rockfishandlingcodfisheriesareimportant.Steelhead,tunaandsablefisharealsocaughtintherecreationalfishery.Fishingforprawns,crab,squidandshellfishisincreasing.Asmallseacucum-berrecreationalfisheryalsooccurs.
ThemajorrecreationalfishingareasofthePNCIMAareadjacenttomajorinletsalongtheNorthandCentralCoast,northGrahamIsland,thecoastlineofnorthernQueenCharlotteStrait,andtheentrancetoQuatsinoSound.Steelheadistypicallycaughtinnon-tidalwatersandBC’srivers,suchastheSkeena,NassandLowerDeanRiver.Recreationalfishinghasbeenundergoingashiftinwhichanglingisonepartofabroad-eroutdooradventure.ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanmayprovideanidealopportunityformanagersandresourceuserstorespondtothisnewdemand.
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Thefishinglodgeindustryhasbecomeincreasinglyimportantinincreasingrecrea-tionalfishing.In2006,therewere43fishinglodgesinthePNCIMA.AnincreaseinfishinginPrinceRupert,HaidaGwaii,BellaBella,Shearwater,OceanFallsandBellaCoolahasalsobeenattributedtocruiseshipstop-oversandBCFerrypassengertraffic.Increasedyachttrafficcruisingtheinsidepassageisalsocontributingtofishingactivity.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
RecreationalfisherieschallengesarelikelyinhighuseareasofthePNCIMA,asidentifiedabove.TheycouldbeaddressedatbothLOMAandGMAplanninglevels,andinclude:
•Economicimpactontheindustryandcoastalcommunitiesofreducedcatch,causedbyreducedpopulations,newconservationmeasures,MPAs&RCAs,andincreasedallocationtoFirstNations;
•Increasingconflictbetweenrecreationalfishingandotherusergroups;
•Abilitytomonitor,andunderstandsportfishingcatch;
•Regulationofsportfishinglodgesandcharteroperators;
•Potentialimpactofland-basedactivitiesonspeciessuchassteelheadthatutilizefreshwaterforpartoftheirlifecycles;
•PotentialfrictionbetweenrecreationalfisheriesandFirstNationsfishersresultingfromfuturetreatiesandCourtdecisions;
•ImpactsoffutureMPAestablishment;
•Impactofmarinetransportationincreasesonrecreationalfisheriesactivities.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplancouldprovideameansofassessingthesechallengesandprovidingrecommendationsonacceptablefisherypractices,resolvingconflictswithcommercialandFirstNationsinterests,andidentifyingmutually-agreeableareasforsustainableuse,orforconservationandprotectionpurposes.AnintegratedapproachamongvariousstakeholdersandgovernmentsisanimportantmeansofensuringrecreationalfishingisasustainableindustryinthePNCIMA.
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2.6.Marine.Recreation.and.Tourism
Marinerecreationandtourismincludespublicandcommercialactivitiesbasedontheuseoftheoceanenvironmentandresources.Itinvolvessuchactivitiesasoceankayaking,recreationalboating,diving,marine-basedcampingandvisits,privatere-sourceharvesting,wildlifeviewing,sportfishingandmarinecruisingbylargeships,pocketcruisersandsmallervessels.(Recreationalfishingisdiscussedinsection2.5).ThePNCIMAisnowworld-renownedformanyoftheseeco-basedactivities.
InthePNCIMApublicrecreationtakesmanyformsandiscarriedoutbylocalresi-dentsaswellasmanyseasonalvisitorswhovisitorpassthroughthearea,primarilybymarineandairtransportation.Tourismactivitiesarelargelynature-based,althoughvisitsforaboriginalcultureandcommunity-basedexperiencesalsotakeplace.Cruiseship,pocketcruiseandBCFerry-basedtourismrepresentsignificantcontributorstotourism.Tourismactivityalsocoincideswithimportantecological-basedpatterns,suchaswhalemigration.
OceanrecreationinBC(whichincludesrecreationalfishing)isthegreatestcontribu-torofalloceanbusinesssectorsintermsofproductoutput,incomegenerationandemployment.ThecruiseindustryaloneinBCisestimatedtobeworthapproximately$500milliontotheeconomy.Cruiseshipstypicallybenefitandstimulatelocaleconomieswhentheymakestopsforpassengershoreexcursions,suchasshoppingandsight-seeing.Recreationandtourismindustriesprovideimportantmeansofdiversifyingcoastalcommunityeconomiesandgeneratingnewbusinessopportunities.
RecreationalandtourismactivitiesoccurthroughoutthePNCIMA,buttherearesignificantareasofseasonalimportancefordifferentactivities.Forexample,seakayakingactivitiesareconcentratedinthesummermonthsintheBroughtonIslandsandJohnstoneStrait.Cruiseship-relatedexcursionsoccurprimarilyintheareaadjacenttoPrinceRupert,whilesmallerscalecruisevisits,knownaspocket-cruiseshaveincreasedtourisminPrinceRupert,PortHardy,Sointula,AlertBay,TelegraphCoveandonHaidaGwaii.PocketcruisestoPrincessRoyalIslandandGwaiiHaanashavebecomeincreasinglypopularwiththeestablishmentofnewconservancies.Recreationandtourismopportunitiesarecloselylinkedtoshorelineandnearshorefacilitieswhichmayincludeboatramps,docksandmarinas,repairandfuellingbusinesses,campgrounds,marineparks,shelteredanchoragesandboathavens.
Mosttourismisseasonal,whilerecreationalactivityoccursoveramoreextendedperiod,dependingonthenatureoftheactivity.Tourismisgenerallyalignedwithcruiseship,pocketcruiseandDiscoveryPassageferryschedules.Largevesselcruiseshipsgenerallytravelthroughtheregioninthesummermonths,andstoponlyinPrinceRupert.ThesmallerpocketcruiseandBCFerriesvesselsoperateoveralongerseason.
Anumberoffederal,provincial,localgovernmentagenciesandregionalorganizationshaveprogramsandresponsibilitiesassociatedwithencouragementanddevelopmentofmarinerecreationandtourism.Thesedifferentorganizationsresultinconsiderableregionalmarketing,tourisminvestment,andinfrastructuredevelopmenttoexpandrecreationopportunitiesandtourismattractions.
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Challenges.and.Opportunities
Challengesassociatedwithrecreationandtourismarelikelytooccurinareaswhereactivitiesarecurrentlyconcentrated.ThesemightbeaddressedatbothGMAandCMAlevelsandinclude:
•Potentialreductionincruiseandferrytrafficvisitorsduetoeconomicdownturn,highercostsandotherfactors;
•Potentialadverseimpactofeco-tourismoperationsonmarinemammalsandwildlifethroughnoiseanddisturbance;
•Environmentalimpactsofmarinefacilityimprovementstoservicetourism,suchasdredging;
•Increasedcompetitionwithlocalresidentsforrecreationopportunitiesandavailableservices;
•Conflictswithlarge-scalecommercialtourismandotherindustrialandcommercialactivities,aswellasmarinetrafficincreases;
•Increaseddemandsoncustomsandsecurityoperations;
•Developingayear-roundrecreationandtourismeconomicbase.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocessprovidesanopportunitytodevelopintegratedstrategiesforthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofasustainabletourismindustrythatminimizesconflictswithotherusesandbenefitslocalresidents.Itmayprovideausefulforumforcoordinatingtourismmarketinganddevelopmentstrategies,andforencouragingthecoordinationofrecreationalopportunitydevelopment.
.2.7. Marine.Aquaculture
MarineaquacultureinthePNCIMAconsistsoffinfish(primarilysalmon)andshellfish.Allofthemarineaquaculturesiteswithintheareaarefoundinforeshoreandnearshorecoastalzonesandrequirefederalandprovincialapprovals.
ThePNCIMAishometoabout55%ofthefinfishaquaculturesitesinBC.ThemajorityareintheCentralCoast,concentratedintheBroughtonArchipelago.PartsoftheCentralCoast,QueenCharlotteStrait,andJohnstoneStrait-ButeInletalsohaveanetworkoffarms.FinfishproductionisprimarilyAtlanticsalmon.Otherspeciesbeingdevelopedfordiversificationincludeblackcodandrockfish.
ShellfishfarmsinthePNCIMArepresentabout2.5%oftheprovincialtotal(currently11sites).AnumberofsiteshaverecentlybeenidentifiedandreservedforFirstNations’farminginterests.NewtenuresintheNorthCoastandHaidaGwaiiareanticipatedinthenearfuture.Operationsincludeon-beachcultureaswellassub-tidalandoff-bottomraftingoperations.InthePNCIMAexistingsitesproduceManilaclams,mussels,JapanesescallopsandPacificoysters.Otherspeciesarebeingexploredfordiversificationofthissector.
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Aquacultureisamajorcontributorofrevenue,employmentandasourceofeconomicstability,primarilyinthesouthernpartofthePNCIMA.Indirecteconomicbenefitsincludefishprocessing,transportationanddistributionaswellasfabrication.
Opennet-cagefinfishaquaculturehashadacontroversialhistoryinBC.Thereisacomprehensiveregulatoryandmanagementstructureinplaceforaquaculture,basedonsoundscientificadviceandmitigationofenvironmentaleffects.However,acceptancebymanyresourceusersremainsunresolved.FirstNationsandstakeholdershaveraisedissuesduetoconcernsthatenvironmentaleffectsofaquaculturemayresultinnegativeimpactstomarineresourcestherebylimitingaccessfortheiruseoftheresource.
FutureaquacultureopportunityexistsassuitablesitesexistincertainareasofthePNCIMAforaquacultureexpansion.However,inMarch2008,theprovincialgov-ernmentplacedamoratoriumonfinfishapplicationsinNorthCoastwaters150kilo-metresfromthemouthoftheSkeenaRiver.Existingandfuturedemandforseafoodproductsisexpectedandcanleadtostrengthenedanddiversifiedlocaleconomies.Ifinnovativetechnology,financialfeasibilityandanynewenvironmentalperformancemeasurescanbeachieved,closedcontainmenttechnologiesandintegratedmulti-trophicaquaculturemethodologyofferfurtheroptionsfordiversificationofthissector.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
ChallengesassociatedwithmarineaquaculturegenerallyapplytospecificcoastalareasandmightbebestaddressedinCMAlevelplanning.Manyareaddressedthroughgovernment’sreviewandreferralprocessesforapplications.Theymayinclude:
• Competitionforsitesforusebyotherresourceusers;
• Potentiallossofaccesstositesforpublicuse,anchorage,safehavens,recreation,andfishery;
• Potentialsocialeffectsduetoodour,noise,andmodifiedviewsonadjacentlandowners,boaters,marinetourismoperators,andthepublic;
• Potentialenvironmentaleffectsonthepublicresourceincludingwaterquality,fishhabitat,fishhealth(includinggeneticeffects)andfishpopulationsaswellascumulativeandecosystemeffects;
• Waterqualitymonitoringrequiredtoopenareasforculturedshellfishproductandmonitoringforharmfulalgalblooms;
• Aquaticinvasivespecies,likecolonialtunicates,andtheirimpactonculturedshellfishstock;
• Climatechangeeffectsontheaquacultureindustry,includingoceanacidificationandwatertemperatureincreases;
• Establishmentofescapedspeciesbeingcultured(i.e.,Atlanticsalmon).
Theintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocesshasthepotentialtocomplement,informandimproveexistinggovernmentpolicyonaquaculture,improvecommunicationsandunderstandingofaquaculture,andtoprovideforstrategiesforconsiderationbyoceanresourcemanagersforadaptationtopossibleclimatechangeeffectsonaquacultureinthePNCIMA.
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2.8. Renewable.Ocean.Energy
Renewableoceanenergyaddressescommercialactivitiesaswellasresearchandde-velopmentactivitiesrelatedtowind,waveandtidalenergyresources.Offshorewindenergyisusedbywindturbinesinstalledtotheoceanfloortogenerateelectricity.Tidalandoceanenergycanbeutilizedtogenerateelectricitybyusingtidalcurrentstodriveturbinesorothertechniques.Wavepowerharnessestheenergyinwaves,usingeitheronshore-fixedoroffshore-floatingtechnology.WhilecommercialoffshorewindfarmsexistoffthecoastofWesternEurope,waveandin-streamcurrenttech-nologiesareatanearlystageofdevelopmentandmostofthesetechnologiesarestillatthetestingordemonstrationphase.
Projectsrequireavarietyofprovincialandfederalapprovals,dependingontheirtype,size,andlocation.Thefederalgovernmentwillhavegreaterregulatoryresponsibili-tieswithrespecttooffshorerenewableenergyinprovincialwatersthanitmightforatypicalrenewableenergyprojectonshore.Thisisduetothefederalgovernment’sresponsibilitiesforanumberofmarine-relatedissues,including(butnotlimitedto)oceansmanagement,fisheries,navigablewaters,andmigratorybirds.
Althoughthemanagementofelectricitygenerationandtransmissionisnormallyaprovincialresponsibility,offshorerenewableenergyisuniqueinthatfacilitiescanbeplacedinareasoutsidethejurisdictionofanyprovince.Inthiscase,thefederalgov-ernmentwouldhaveexclusivejurisdictionovertheproject.Ultimately,however,thepowergeneratedintheseareaswillbedeliveredtoelectricitysystemsmanagedandregulatedbyprovincialgovernments,whomaintainanumberofimportantregulatoryresponsibilitieswithrespecttotheseprojects.NaturalResourcesCanadaiscurrentlyleadingthedevelopmentofacomprehensivelegalframeworktomanageoffshorerenewableenergyonfederalCrownlandsinpartnershipwiththeprovincesandotherfederaldepartments.
Intermsofprovincialgovernmentpolicy,interestinrenewableoceanenergyisreinforcedinthe2007BCEnergyPlan10andthepoliciesofBCHydro.TheEnergyPlancommitstoadvancingBC’selectricityself-sufficiencyby2016,usingadiversityoftechnologies,includingwind,largeoceanwaveandtidalenergysources.BCHydro’spoliciesandproposalcallsencouragetheproductionofenergyfrom‘green’orrenew-ableenergyprojects.
TheCanadianWindAtlas11identifieswindpotentialwithinthePNCIMA.Ingen-eralterms,theareasofhighestmeanwindenergyandmeanwindspeedarelocatedaroundthenortherntipofVancouverIsland,andinQueenCharlotteSoundandHe-cateStrait.Meanwindenergyintheseareasrangesfrom400-900watts/squaremetre,andmeanwindspeedrangesfrom6.5to10metrespersecond.ArecentassessmentofenergypotentialandestimatedcostsofwindpowergenerationpreparedforBCHydroindicatedatotalratedenergycapacityof0.6gigawatts(GW)forVancouverIslandsitesandacapacityof0.5GWforonshoreand1.4GWforoffshoresitesintheNorthCoast.12TheNaiKunWindFarmproposedforHecateStraitistheonlyoff-shorewindprojectproposedwithinthePNCIMAboundaries.IftheNaiKunprojectproceedsasplanned,itwouldbethefirstoffshorewindpowerfarminNorthAmerica.Thisprojectiscurrentlyundergoingajointfederal-provincialenvironmentalassessment.
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InthePNCIMA,bothNorthandCentralVancouverIslandhavebeenidentifiedforgoodtidalenergypotential.AfeasibilitystudyhasalsobeencompletedforHaidaGwaii.TherearecurrentlyanumberoftidalandwavetechnologydemonstrationprojectsinvariouslocationsoffthecoastofVancouverIsland.OneofthemostpromisingsitesinthePNCIMAregionisatDiscoveryPassage,betweentheStraitofGeorgiaandJohnstoneStrait.
TheBCmainlandandVancouverIslandcoastshavepotentialtosupplyamajorportionoftheoceanenergyresource.However,thedevelopmentofwaveenergysystemshasbeenhamperedbyhighcostsandBCHydrofundingpolicy.
Manycoastalcommunities,includingthoseonHaidaGwaiiandmanyFirstNations’communitiesarehighlydependentondieselfuelforelectricitygeneration.Renew-ableoceanenergyprojectshavethepotentialtoreducethisdependency,aswellaslowerenergycoststoresidents,generateemploymentinconstruction,manufac-turingandmaintenance,andreducecarbondioxideemissions.Theproductionofreliableandlower-costenergycouldalsoincreaseeconomicinvestmentinsmallercoastalcommunities.Intheshortterm,thesebenefitsaremorelikelytoberealizedfromthedevelopmentofwindenergy.Inthelongerterm,Canadaiswellplacedtobecomeaglobalwaveandtidaltechnologyleaderduetoitsgeography,rawresourcebaseandexistingexpertiseinoceanengineeringandoffshoreoperations.Oceanrenewableenergyandoffshorewindenergyarelargelyregardedasarelativelylowimpactactivitythatinmanycaseswillbecompatiblewithotheroceanuses,includ-ingconservationandenvironmentalprotectionmeasureslikeMPAs.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
Challengesassociatedwiththedevelopmentofrenewableoceanenergywillgenerallybeconfinedtotherelativelyfewareaswithknownhighpotentialfordevelopment,andmightbestbeaddressedattheGMAorCMAplanninglevel.Challengesare:
•Competitionforhighpotentialsitesfromothermarineandcoastalusergroups,aswellasfrompotentialMPAs,particularlywithtidalenergyprojects,whicharelessflexibleinlocationthanwindandwavetechnologies;
•Restrictionondevelopmentinexistingparksandconservancies;
•Potentialinterferencewithtransportationroutesandnavigationandairtraffic;
•Visual,aestheticimpactsandnoiseimpacts;
•PotentialconflictwithothercommercialandrecreationalactivitiesandFirstNationsrightstomarineresources;
•Potentialimpactsasaresultoflaidandburiedtransmissioncablesonfishdistributionandmigrationandconflictswithfishingactivity;
•Lossoffisheryhabitatandareaavailableforrecreationalandcommercialfishing;
•Potentialimpactonmigratorybirds.
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ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementprocessprovidesanopportunitytoevaluateexistinghighpotentialareas,determinetheextentofcommunitysupport,andestablishmappingandpolicyguidanceforavoidingconflictsandcompetitionwithdifferentusesandinterests.PNCIMArecommendationsmayalsobehelpfulinputinfuturegovernmentreviewandassessmentofproposals.ThePNCIMAplanmayalsoassistkeyagenciessuchasBCHydroinevaluatingitslongertermpoliciesonalternativeenergy,andtoimplementprovincialgoals,manyofwhichrelyoncollaborationwithfederaldepartmentsandFirstNations.
2.9.Non-Renewable.Ocean.Energy
Non-renewableoceanenergyreferstoliquids,gasesandsolidsburiedbeneaththeoceanfloorthatareusedforgeneratingenergyandarenon-replenishing.Non-renewableoceanenergysourcesinthePNCIMAareprimarilypotentialpetroleumandnaturalgasdeposits.
WithinthePNCIMA,theQueenCharlotteBasin(QCB)isthemostimportantgeo-logicalareawithpotentialpetroleumandnaturalgasdeposits.TheQCBunderliesDixonEntrance,HecateStrait,QueenCharlotteSoundandpartsofHaidaGwaiitothenortherntipofVancouverIsland.A1998GeologicalSurveyofCanadareportindicatedapetroleumresourcepotentialfortheQCBof9.8billionbarrelsofoiland25.9trillioncubicfeetofgas.Howeverthesehydrocarbonassessmentsremainhighlyspeculativeduetotherelativelylowlevelofavailableinformation.
PetroleumreservesintheoffshoreareasofthePNCIMArepresentapotentiallyvaluableenergyresourceandeconomicopportunityforcoastalcommunitiesandBCresidents.Howeverthereisalonghistoryofdebateoveroffshoreoilandgasdevelopment,duetothepossibilityofadverseenvironmental,socialandculturaleffectsandthehighriskinBCoftectonicactivityandmajorweathereventsinthePNCIMA.
In1972,thefederalgovernmenthaltedoffshoreexplorationthroughafederalmoratorium.Anumberofreviewpanelshaveaddressedtheissue,including:a1984independentfederal-provincialEnvironmentalReviewPanel;a2001BC-appointedindependentscientificpanelandMLAcommunitymeetings;anda2003feder-ally-appointedreviewofCanada’smoratoriumthroughascientificreview,apublicreviewprocess,andaFirstNationsengagementprocess.CoastalFirstNationshaveexpressedstrongviewsonthisissue,andundertakenvariousreviewsofthetopic,duetopotentialeffectsonenvironment,communityandculture.Thesestudieshavegenerallyopposedliftingofthemoratoria,andsomeFirstNations(includingtheHaida)havedeclaredtheirownmoratoriumsonoffshoreexplorationanddevelop-mentintheirtraditionalterritories.
Tothisday,theGovernmentofCanadamaintainsitsfederalpolicydecisionnottoconvertexistingoffshoreBritishColumbiapermitstoexploratorylicenses.Theprovincialgovernmenthasrecentlycommitted,throughthe2007BCEnergyPlan13,tocontinuetoworktoliftthefederalmoratoriumonoffshoreexplorationanddevelopmentandsimultaneouslylifttheprovincialmoratorium.
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Challenges.and.Opportunities
Somechallengesfacedbythepotentialdevelopmentofnon-renewableoceanenergyaregenerallyapplicabletotheoffshoreareasofthePNCIMA,andmightbebestaddressedattheLOMAandGMAplanninglevels.Thesechallengesinclude:
•Potentialenvironmentalandspeciesimpactsfromnewseismicsurveys(e.g.,noiseimpacts,fishkills,sediment);
•Safetyandsecurityofoceanoil&gasinstallationsduetomajorstormandearthquakeevents;
•Economicandsocialeffectsofacceleratedoilandgasactivitiesoncoastalcommunities;
•Increasedmarinetankerandvesseltraffictocommunitiesreceivingpetroleumproducts;
•ImpactofMPAestablishmentonfuturenon-renewableresourceexplorationanddevelopmentopportunities;
•Potentialincreaseinaccidentaloilspillsfromoperationsandpipelinesandeffectsonmarineenvironment.
ThePNCIMAapproachtointegratedoceanmanagementplanningmaybeofassistanceinintegratinganyfuturedevelopmentintoexistingandfutureuses.
.2.10.Existing.Land.and.Coastal.Plans
SeveralpartsofthePNCIMAhavebeenthesubjectofsignificantplanningeffortinbothterrestrialareasandthecoastalzone,primarilyatthe‘strategic’level.
TheVancouverIslandSummaryLandUsePlan,approvedin2000,14identifiedlandzoning,objectivesandstrategies,andcoastalareasforfutureplanning.A2001CentralCoastCoastalZoneStrategicPlan15wasapprovedinprinciplebytheBCgovernment,andincludedobjectivesandstrategiesformarineprotection,marinebiodiversity,andcoastaluses.CoastalplansforQuatsinoSound,theNorthIslandStraitsandJohnstone-Buteareas(2002-2005)16werecompletedbetween2002and2005,toassisttheprovincialgovernmentindecisionsonapplicationsforforeshoreandnearshoretenures.A2006CoastLandUseDecision17wasbasedonthe2005CentralandNorthCoastLandandResourceManagementPlans(LRMPs).TheLRMPsandCoastDecisionestablishedlandusedesignations,newconservanciesandecosystem-basedmanagement(EBM)areas.Objectivesandstrategieswerealsoincluded.Manyofthenewconservancieshaveamarinecomponent,withadditionalmarineforeshoreareasstilltobeadded.A2007HaidaGwaiiStrategicLandUseAgreement18establishedobjectivesforecosystem-basedforestmanagementandincreasedprotectedareasonHaidaGwaiitonearly50%oftheland.Itcommittedtoamarineplanninganalysis(nowunderway)todeterminehowfarintothecoastalzonethenewconservanciesshouldextend.
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ManyFirstNationsinthePNCIMAhavealsoembracedformalplanningintheirtraditionalterritories.Thisincludesthe2000Kitasoo/XaixaisLandandResourceProtectionandManagementPlan.19OtherFirstNationshaveterrestrialplansunderwaytoaddressforestresourceandculturalvaluemanagement,inaccordancewithlanduseagreementsandprotocolswiththeBCgovernmentontheCentralandNorthCoastLRMPs.20ManycoastalFirstNationshavenowinitiatedmarineandcoastalplans,includingtheHaida,Haisla,Heiltsuk,Wuikinuxv,Gitga’at,Metlakatla,Gitxaala,Kitsumkalum,andKitselas.
Localgovernmentshavealsodevelopedofficialcommunityplans,zoningby-laws,andmappedimportantareaswithintheirboundaries.TheseincludetheStrathconaRegionalDistrict,MountWaddingtonRegionalDistrict,CentralCoastRegionalDistrict,andtheSkeena-QueenCharlotteRegionalDistrict.Somehaveestablishedguidancefordevelopmentsinthecoastalzone.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
Thepresenceofexisting,neworongoingplanscreateschallengesintheareacoveredbytheplans.ConsequentlytheCMAlevelofplanningiswherethesemightlikelybeaddressed.Theyinclude:
•Reliabilityofolderplansinformationandrecommendationsinlightofnewerinformation,governmentpolicychangesandshiftsincommunitypreferences;
•Emergenceofnewoceanusesandactivitiesthatmayconflictwith,orareabsentfromexistingcoastalplanningrecommendations(e.g.,wind,wave,tidalpower);
•Reconcilingissuesofscalebetweentheplansandplanningareas;
•ThecomplexitiesoftryingtointegratePNCIMArecommendationswiththoseofexistingandproposedterrestrialandcoastal/marineplans.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningapproachprovidesanexcellentopportunitytoupdateandintegratetheseplansandbuildupontheiroutcomes.Itoffersthechancetofullyintegrateterrestrialandmarineplansandtointegrateobjectivesfromplansbydifferentgovernments,andhasthepotentialtoincreasecollaborationinfutureCMA-levelplansorplanupdates.Itwillprovideincentiveforcollaborativedecision-makingamonggovernmentsonusesandactivitiesthatrequiremulti-jurisdictionapprovals.
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Marine Environm
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3.0. MARINE.ENVIRONMENT..&.CULTURE.ISSUES.Chapter 3.0 outlines seven issues associated with the marine environment and culture within the PNCIMA. Each section generally describes the issue, stating what it is, why it is important, current status, and how it is administered. Each section includes an indication of challenges, and the geographical extent of the challenges within the PNCIMA. The sections conclude with a brief indication of the planning level(s) that may be appropriate for dealing with the issue, and the opportunities that an integrated management approach provides to address the issue and its challenges.
.3.1. Marine.Protection.Tools.
Avarietyofmarineprotectiontoolshavebeenusedtoestablishandprotectseasurface,watercolumn,seabed,and/orassociatedplantandanimallife,recreational,scientific,culturalandhistoricalfeaturesbylimitingorrestrictingactivitiesinthearea.InPNCIMA,differentprotectiontoolshavebeenestablishedorproposedforsuchareasas:uniquecoastalinlets,baysorchannels;representativemarineareas;boathavenswithimportantanchorages;marine-orientedwildernessareas;culturalheritagefeatures;criticalspawninglocationsandestuaries;species-specificharvestingrefuges;seabirdcolonies;ecologicallyandbiologicallysignificantareas;andecologicallysignificantspecies.Areasformarineprotectioncanbedesignatedunderavarietyoffederalandprovinciallegislativeauthorities,andthetermMPAisusedgenericallyinthisdocument,asopposedtoreferringtoOceans ActMPAdesignations.
FederaleffortstoestablishMPAsaredirectedbya1995federalMarineProtectedAreasStrategy21thatisbasedontheprogramsofDFO,ParksCanadaAgency(PCA)andEnvironmentCanada(EC).TherearecurrentlynoOceans ActMPAsinPNCIMA(theBowieSeamountMPAisinadjacentwaters),butDFOhasestablished59RockfishConservationAreas22(RCAs),someofwhichcouldeventuallybeincorporatedintoaformalMPAnetwork.DFOisalsoconsideringlargeglassspongereefcom-plexesinQueenCharlotteSoundandHecateStraitasapotentialAreasofInter-est(AOI)forMPAdesignation.TherearenoECNationalWildlifeAreas(NWAs),MarineWildlifeAreas(MWAs)orMigratoryBirdSanctuaries(MBSs)inPNCIMAatthistime,althoughayet-undeterminedareaaroundtheScottIslandshasbeenproposedforMWAdesignation.Previousfederal-provincialandPCA-HaidaNationagreementshaveledtothedevelopmentoftheGwaiiHaanasNationalMarineConservationArea(NMCA)proposaladjacenttotheGwaiiHaanasNationalParkReserve.ThisNMCAisadvancedinitsdevelopmentandisexpectedtobeaffirmedunderlegislationinthenearfuture.
TheBCgovernmenthasyettoestablishaformalMPApolicy,buthasmanyprovincialparks,ecologicalreservesandconservanciesinthemarineenvironment.AsignificantincreaseintheseareashasoccurredduetorecentlanduseagreementsintheCentralandNorthCoastandinHaidaGwaii.Someareascouldbenefitfromcomplementaryfederalprotectionandmanagementmeasures.
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ulture Issues
ThefederalandprovincialgovernmentshavemadeanumberofsignificanteffortstodevelopajointorcollaborativeMPAstrategy,goingbackto1995.A2004Canada-BC Memorandum of Understanding Respecting Implementation of Canada’s Oceans Strategy on the Pacific Coast of Canada23ledtoadraftsub-agreementonMPAs.AlthoughthisMPAsub-agreementremainsunsigned,federalandprovincialagencieshavecontinuedtoworktogether,andhaveproducedadraftimplementationplanforevaluationofexist-ingMPA,aswellasananalysisofgapsinexistingMPArepresentationandmanage-menttools.FirstNationsandstakeholdershaveyettobeengagedinthisinitiative.
ThefederaltimetableforcreationofadditionalMPAsisbasedoninternationalcommitments,whichincludeatargettoestablishanetworkofmarineprotectedareasby2012.24In2008,thefederalgovernmentalsocommittedtoestablishninenewMPAs,includingsixOceans ActMPAs,acrossCanadaby2012.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
ChallengesfacingMPAidentificationandestablishmentinPNCIMAmightbebestaddressedattheLOMAandGMAlevels,andinclude:
•Fullyaccountingforandincorporatingcostsandbenefits,includingsocioeconomicvalues,intoMPAselectionanddecision-making;
•Achangeinfactorsinfluencingpreviousidentificationofcandidates,warrantingneworlargerareas(e.g.,fisherypopulationdecline,climatechangeeffects,etc.);
•Incorporatingthefluidanddynamicnatureofecologicalsystemsandhumanuseimpacts;
•RelationshipandvalueofPNCIMAprocess-generatedMPAproposalstothebroaderBCcoastandnationalMPAnetwork;
•Abilitytoidentifyandimplementnecessary‘interimprotectionmeasures’whilethePNCIMAplanundergoesdevelopment,approval,andimplementation;
•Concernsaboutfuturezoningandmanagementrestrictionsoncurrentusesandactivities;
•InvolvementoffisheriesandotherstakeholdersandFirstNationsintheMPAselectionprocess.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocessprovidesanopportunitytoimplementthefederalMPAStrategy,whichcommitstousingintegratedmanagementplanningastheprimevehicleforMPAsiteidentification,andtodevelopmechanismsorproceduresforcollaborationwithotherjurisdictions.Anopportunityalsoexiststodiscussandgainsupportforexistingcandidatesandareasofinterest(suchasScottIslands,andHecateStrait/QueenCharlotteSoundglassspongereefs),andtoidentifynewareasforfurtherconsideration.ThePNCIMAprocesswillalsocontributetotheestablishmentofanMPAnetworkfornortherncoastalwaters.Itcanassistinpublic,communityandFirstNations’consultationforsuchareasbeforetheirlegalestablishment.
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3.2.Cultural.Resources
CulturalresourcesinPNCIMAareheritagefeaturesthatreflectthecultureofpastandexistingaboriginalandnon-aboriginalsociety.Theycanbegroupedintothreecategories:archaeologicalsites,FirstNationstraditionalusesites,andhistoricsites.Insomesituationstheycanbefoundtogether.
Archaeologicalsitesarethosewhichshowphysicalevidenceofpasthumanactivity,suchasoldburial/grave/internmentareas,oldvillagesites,shellmiddens,housedepressions,culturallymodifiedtrees(CMTs),pictographsandpetroglyphs.AllsitesareconsideredFirstNationsinorigin.FirstNationstraditionalusesitesincludegeographicallydefinedsites(onlandorwater)usedtraditionallybyaboriginalpeople.Thesesitesmaylackthephysicalevidenceofhuman-madeartefactsorstructures,yetmaintainculturalsignificancetoexistingcommunities.Examplesincludefishingsites,huntingcamps,traditionaltrails,berrypickingareas,andlegend/sacredsites.Historicsitesidentifysignificantpost-contactheritageeventsandmaybenon-abo-riginaloraboriginalinnature.Theseincludehistoriccannerysites,abandonedcommunities,shipwrecksandformermilitaryinstallations.
CulturalresourcesareanimportantissueforPNCIMAbecauseoftheireconomic,socialandcultural,aswellaslegalsignificance.Economically,historicalsitesandsomearchaeologicalsitesprovidetourismopportunitiesandrelatedemployment,suchasHaidavillagesites,abandonedcommunitiesandshipwrecks.Fromasocialviewpoint,culturalresourcesprovideasenseofheritageandtraditionforallresi-dents,andafoundationforcontinuingculturalpracticesofFirstNations,whichincludefood,socialandceremonialpractices,tradewithotherFirstNations,andcontinuationoforalhistory,legendsandfamily/clanrightsandprivileges.Fromalegalperspective,culturalresourcesareimportanttomanyFirstNationsaspartoftheireffortstoconfirmspecificaboriginalrightsinresponsetolandandresourcede-velopmentproposalsbygovernmentandindustry.Assuchtheymaybeacriticalfactorinongoingandfuturelegalclaimstotitleovertraditionalterritoriesandresources.
Informationonculturalresourcesincludeswrittenandoralsourcesontraditionaluse,mappedoverviewassessmentsandmorespecificassessmentsassociatedwithdevelopmentplans.Manyresources,suchasCMTsandmiddensitesarenotfullyprotectedwhenidentified,butareinventoriedandrecordedforFirstNations’evidenceofrightsortitle.ManyFirstNationsinPNCIMAhaveinitiatedorcompletedtraditionalusestudies.Severalarchaeologicaloverviewassessmentshavebeenprepared.However,FirstNationskeepconfidentialthelocationofmanyarchaeologicalsitesduetoconcernsaboutdesecrationoralterationbythegeneralpublic.
MostaboriginalculturalsitesinthePNCIMAarelocatedalongthecoastline,inestuaries,protectedinlets,orheadlandswithprominentviews.Theselocationsreflecttheconnectionofaboriginalpeoplestotheoceanfortransportation,foodsourcesandprotectionfromweatherandinvaders.Sitesreflectdifferentseasonaluses.TherearenumeroushistoricsitesinthePNCIMArepresentingpastindustriesandsettlements,suchasOceanFalls,PortEssington,HospitalIslandandWalesIsland.ManyshipwreckshavebeendocumentedinthePNCIMA,particularlyoffVancouverIsland,andsurroundingHaidaGwaii.Manyhistorical,culturalandarchaeologicalfeaturesandusesarenowrepresentedinprovincialmarineparks,newconservancies,andinGwaiiHaanas.
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ArchaeologicalsitesandhistoricsitesaregenerallyadministeredbytheBCgovern-mentunderkeylegislationandpolicy,notablytheHeritageConservationAct,whichprovidesautomaticprotectionforsomeculturalheritageresources.Manygovernmentdepartmentsfollowconsultationandaccommodationguidelinesforidentifyingandproperlymanagingculturalresources.Formaltreatiesandinterimtreatyagreementsmayalsoincludespecificobligationsforfederalandprovincialgovernmentsforculturalresources(e.g.,Nisga’a).Culturalresourcesinprovincialandfederalparksandconservanciesareadministeredbytheresponsibleagency,oftenincollaborationwithFirstNationsandinaccordancewithapprovedmanagementplans.ManyFirstNationsinthePNCIMAhavelanduseplansandagreementswiththeprovincethatprovidedirectionforthemanagementandprotectionofsitesknowntoeachFirstNation.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
Culturalresourcesarepronetoanumberofchallenges,usuallyassociatedwithspecificareasandmightbeaddressedinCMAorGMAplanning.Theyare:
•Potentiallossofarchaeologicalsitesduetoincreasingstormeventsandsealevelriseassociatedwithclimatechange,particularlyintheNorthCoastandHaidaGwaii;
•Lackofformalprotectionofmanyhistoricandarchaeologicalsites,suchasunderwatershipwrecks;
•Lackofinventoriesforsomeareasparticularlyintertidalandunderwatersitessuchasclamgardens;
•Potentialdestructionandlossofarchaeologicalsitesduetoincreasedhumandisturbanceandactivities,andlackofadequatesurveillanceandmanage-ment;
•Encouragingmoreeconomicopportunitiesassociatedwithculturalresourc-es,includingaboriginaltourism,ecotourismanddiving;
•MaintainingandreinforcingAboriginaltraditionaluseandculturalvalues.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocessprovidesauniqueopportunityforacollaborativeapproachthatbalanceseconomic,social,andculturalvalueswithcompetingactivities.Itmayyieldstrategiesandactionsforbenefitingfromexistingculturalresources,prioritizingactionsforprotectingandinventoryingknownsites,andrecommendingnewcollaborativemanagementapproaches.
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3.3.Accidental.Marine.Spills
Marinespillsarelargeandsmallpetroleumandchemicalproductspillsintotheoceanfrommarinevesselsormarine-basedinfrastructure,andfromshore-basedfacilities.MarinespillsrepresentanimportantissueinPNCIMAduetotheiradverseenvi-ronmental,community,healthandsocialeffects,whichvaryinaccordancewithtypeofproductspilled,volumeofspill,andlocationofspill.Majorspillshavepotentiallyhighcleanupcosts,maycontaminatelocalseafoodsources,andcreatehumanhealthhazardsalongwithmarinespeciesmortalityandecosystemdamage.Non-petroleumbasedoilspillsfrombulkfreightersloadingandtransitingthePNCIMA(e.g.,Canolaandpalmkerneloils)alsoposeahazard,astheycansmotherlargeareasandaffectfish,invertebrates,marinemammalsandbirds.Thesevegetableoilsarealsoknownfortheirpersistenceinthemarineecosystem.
ThepotentialforamarineoilspillispresentinPNCIMA,andrelatedtothevolumeandnatureofvesseltraffic,locationandproximitytorescuefacilities(i.e.tugs),andthelikelihoodofcollision,groundingorsinking.Thehighestpotentialforpetroleumspillscomesfrombargesthattransportrefinedpetroleumproductstocoastalcommu-nitiesonaregularbasis,orfromsinkingofotherrecreationalorcommercialvessels.ThepossibilityofspillsfromoiltankerstransitingthePNCIMAareaisgenerallylow,astheygenerallyrespecttheVoluntaryTankerExclusionZone(TEZ),main-tainingtheirdistanceapproximately160kilometresormoreoffshore.Shore-basedmarinespillpotentialinPNCIMAisduetoregularpetroleumandchemicalproducttransferbetweenshipsandshore-basedstoragefacilitiesatthelargerfacilitiesinPrinceRupert,KitimatandStewartandtoalesserextentatsmallcraftharbourfacilities.
MarinespillpotentialwillincreaseiftheapprovedLNGprojectandtheproposedEnbridgeoilpipelinesintoKitimatbeginoperations.CondensatesarealreadyshippedintoKitimatbytanker,wheretheyareoffloadedandtransportedbypipelinetotheAlbertaoilsands.Althoughmorevolatilethanmostpetroleumproducts,theyareconsideredhighlytoxic.PotentialmayalsoincreaseiffutureArcticpetroleumdevelopmentoccursandutilizestankersusingWestCoastroutes.ThepotentialimpactofspillsofchemicalproductssuchasLNGismuchlowerandmorelocalizedthanforcrudeandheavyoilproducts.Thelikelihoodofspillsfromoffshoreoilandgasexplorationanddevelopmentfacilitieswillbedeterminedbythefutureofcur-rentprovincialandfederalmoratoriaontheseactivities.
Marinespillissuesareaddressedinthreeways:prevention,preparednessandresponse.Preventionfocusesonactivitiesthatreducetheriskofspillsandmini-mizepotentialimpacts,suchasreducedoildependency,vesseltrafficmanagement,improvedtechnologyandsafetymeasures.Spillpreparednessinvolvesdevelopmentofcontingencyandcleanupplans,riskassessment,mappingofsensitivebeachesandecosystems,andidentificationofappropriatecleanupmeasures.Spillresponseinvolvestheactionstocontainandreduceimpactsofspillswhenandwheretheyoccur.
Thepolluter,orResponsibleParty,isresponsibleforrespondingtoaspillfromaship.Thefirstresponderiswhomeverisclosesttothespillandhastheresources.Onthewestcoast,TransportCanadahascertifiedBurrardCleanOperations(BCO)astheResponseOrganizationwithwhompollutersmaycontracttoaddressmarineoilspills.InPNCIMA,BCOmaycontractthisroleouttolocalcompanies,inaccord-ancewithresponseplansinplaceforeachofNorthVancouverIsland,PrinceRupertandHaidaGwaii.
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Bothfederalandprovincialgovernmentshavemarineoilspillprograms.TheBCgovernmentprogramincludesshorelineinventory,sensitivityassessmentandshorelinecleanupplans,andaMarineOilSpillResponsePlan.25ThefederaloilspillresponseregimedirectsTransportCanadatoleadinplanningandpreventionefforts,whiletheCanadianCoastGuardleadsspillresponseforspillsfromshipsandmysteryspillsinthemarineenvironment.EnvironmentCanadahasanationalcontingencyplanandcoordinatesafederalRegionalEnvironmentalEmergencyTeam(REET)insupportofresponseeffortsbyeithertheResponseOrganizationortheCanadianCoastGuard.CanadaispartytotheCanada-UnitedStatesJointContingencyPlanformarinepollutionincidentsinCanada-UnitedStatescontiguouswaters.BChasamajorcooperationagreementwithnearbyUSstatesthroughthePacificUSStates/BritishColumbiaOilSpillTaskForce.26
Therearemanysmallerspillsthataregenerallyundetected,ordetectedbutnotrespondedtobecauseoftheirsizeand/orlocationorlackofrecoverableproduct.Thesesmallerspillshaveacumulativeimpactthat,coupledwithaccidentalspills,canbemoresignificantintermsofenvironmentaleffectthanthelargermorecatastrophicspills,overthelongerterm.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
MarinespillspresentconsiderablechallengesthroughoutthePNCIMAandmightbebestaddressedattheLOMAorGMAplanninglevel.Theseinclude:
•MaintainingahighlevelofpreparednessforresponsetopotentialoilandchemicalspillsinthePNCIMA;
•Levelofcooperationandpreparednessamongindustry,federalandprovincialgovernments,FirstNationsandlocalcommunities;
•Impactofspillsonmarineecosystems,habitats,speciesmortality,humanhealthandsafety.
•Effectsofnewspillsintothemarineenvironmentassociatedwithincreasedvesseltrafficimpacts,particularlyfromPrinceRupertportexpansionandnewproducttrans-shipmentsatKitimat;
•Outdatedriskassessmentsandresponseplansandequipment;
•Maintainingadequatelevelsofenforcementandsurveillanceasadeterrent;
•Educationofindustryandpublic.
Othermarineplanningprocesseshaveprovidedimportantpolicydirectiontogovernmentsonmarinespills,althoughusuallyasstrategiesoractionsunderbroaderecosystemhealthobjectives.ThePNCIMAprocessofferssimilaropportunitiesforpolicyrecommendationsaimedatimprovedpre-vention,preparednessandresponse.Integratedplanningmayalsoserveasacatalystforspillresponsecooperationagreementsamongindustryandgovernmentsthatpromoteeffectivedeploymentofresourcesandpersonnel.
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3.4.Marine.Pollution
Marinepollutionreferstothecontaminationofmarineecosystemsandspecieshealthfromawidevarietyofbiological,chemical,hydrocarbonandorganicdischargesonseaorland(pointsource)andfromnon-specificlandlocations(non-pointsource).KeycontaminantsaffectingthePNCIMAareurbanandruralsewage,persistentorganicpollutants(POPs),heavymetals,shore-basedandship-sourcedischargeofoilsandhydrocarbons,nutrients,contaminatedsediments,andlitter.Thesecon-taminantsenterthemarineenvironmentthroughatmosphericdischarge,streamdischargeandrunofffromland,andfromdirectdumpingfromoceanandland-basedactivities.Shore-basedandshipmarinespillsaredescribedinmoredetailintheprevioussectionofthisreport.
Point-sourcepollutioncomesfromsuchactivitiesinthePNCIMAaslogdumpsandsortinggrounds,pulpandpapermilldischarges,pastandpresentminingoperations,oceandumpingofdredgedandcontaminatedmaterial,ship-sourcedischargeofwasteoils,urbanandvesselwastewaterandsewage,wastedisposalatsea,fishfarmsandfishprocessingplants,airandwasteemissionsassociatedwithmarinevesselsandportoperations,andrecreationalactivitiesonbeachesandforeshore(e.g.,kayakerstop-overs).Non-pointsourcepollutionoccursasaresultofland-basedactivitieswithinandoutsidethePNCIMA,andincludeswastewater,run-offandsewagefromurban,industrialandagriculturalactivities.
Sewageandrun-offsystemsfromlargercommunitiesinthePNCIMAcanincludeatoxicmixofnutrients,oilandgrease,viralandbacterialpathogens,suspendedsolidsanddissolvedmetals.Non-pointsourcesinruralareascanincludeanimalwastesfromagriculturallandsandleakagefromsepticsystems.Non-pointsourcesofsewagegenerallycarrynutrientsandviralandbacterialpathogens.POPsarechemicalsthatre-mainintactintheenvironmentforlongperiods,generallyassociatedwithpesticidesandpreservatives.Mosthavebeenbannedorrestricted(e.g.,DDT,PCB,dioxins)butpersistinthePNCIMAandcontinuetobetransportedgloballyintheatmos-phere.Heavymetalsincludethosetoxicinexcessamounts(e.g.,copper,zinc,iron)ortoxicatlowlevels,andenterthemarineenvironmentbystreams,atmosphereanddirectrunoff.OilandhydrocarbonsenterthePNCIMAthroughchronicsmallspillsanddischargesfrommarineandland-basedsources,includingroadrunoff,discardedusedoil,vehicleandequipmentleaksandotherland-basednon-pointsources.Nutri-entsourcesinthePNCIMAincludeatmosphericdepositionandsurfacerunoff.Sedimentsbuildingupontheoceanfloorandcanoftenabsorbandstorecontaminants,whicharetransportedorconsumedbyorganisms,enteringthefoodchainanddispersingtootherareas.Marinelitterfrommarinevesselsandland-basedsourcesincludescans,bottles,plastics,tiresandfishinglineandcanpersistinthemarineenvironment.
Thesecontaminantscanbetoxictomarineorganisms,fishandmammals,hazardoustohumanhealth,andcanaffectrecreation,tourismandaestheticvalues.POPssuchasPCBsareknowntoaccumulateinthefattytissueoflivingorganismsandcanbetoxictomarinemammalsandhumans.Heavymetalsandcompoundsenteringthemarineenvironmentmayposearisktohumanhealththroughtheconsumptionofseafoodfromcontaminatedareas.Oilscanfoulmarinelife,taintseafood,con-taminatewatersuppliesandsmotheraquaticcommunitiesandhabitat.Nutrientslikenitrogenandphosphorusstimulateplantgrowthandreproduction,butwhen
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dischargedincoastalareascanover-stimulatemarineplantandalgaeproduction,leadingtoeutrophication.Excessnutrientsfromnon-pointsourcescancausedete-riorationofwaterqualityinpoorlyflushedareasandclosureofshellfishharvestinginmorepopulatedareas.Contaminantsinsedimentsmaybepassedupthefoodchainandbeaconcerntolargeraquaticorganisms,marinemammals,birdsandhumans.
Responsibilitiesforpointandnon-pointdischargeandimpactcontrolrestwithnumerousfederal,provincialandlocalgovernmentauthoritiesinvolvedinhumanhealth,safetyandenvironmentalprotection.KeyfederallegislationistheCanadian Environmental Protection Act(CEPA1999),theFisheries Act,theMigratory Bird Con-vention ActandtheCanada Shipping Act(CSA).Aspartofaninternationalinitiative,CanadahasdevelopedaNationalProgrammeofActionfortheProtectionoftheMarineEnvironmentfromLand-basedActivities(NPA).Implementationtodatehasfocusedonregionally-based,multi-partner,action-orientedprojects(i.e.,activitieswithintheGeorgiaBasinActionPlan)withnationalgoalsinmind.TheNPAhasachievedincreasedcollaborationandpartnershipsbetweenalllevelsofgovernment,industry,organizationsandthepublic,inordertoaddressland-basedsourcesofmarinepollution.Workisunderwaytoreviewthecurrentapproachinlightofrapidlyevolvingcoastalandmarinegovernanceapproaches.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
MarinepollutionposesmanychallengesthroughoutthePNCIMAbutparticularlyinthecoastalzonewheretheeffectsofland-basedpollutionaremoststronglyfelt.TheymightbebestaddressedinLOMAorGMAplanningandaresummarizedas:
•Impactofmarinepollutiononmarinespeciespopulationsandhealth,andhumanhealth;
•Potentialincreaseinwater,airandnoisepollutionfromincreasedrecreationalboating,shippingandvesseltraffic,increasedindustrialandcommunitydevelopment;
•Impactsofmarinepollutiononmarinefaunaincluding,migratorybirds,seamammals,shellfishandfinfishaquaculture;
•Impactsofmarinefacilityimprovements,suchasdredging;
•InabilitytodirectlycontrolatmosphericpollutionsourcesfromoutsidePNCIMA;
•Managingthecumulativeeffectofmarinepollutionfromallsources;
•Compoundingeffectonecosystemsandspeciesofmarinepollutionstressorscombinedwiththestressofclimatechangeeffects.
AnintegratedoceanmanagementplanningapproachprovidesanopportunityinthePNCIMAtodevelopacollaborativeandcomplementaryapproachamongvariousauthoritiesandjurisdictionsforreducingmarinepollution.Itmayleadtoidentificationofremediationprioritiesandprogramsforpollutedareas,improvedmonitoringprograms,andrecommendationsaimedatreducingpollutionlevelsfromvarioussourcesinthePNCIMA.
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3.5.Marine.Climate.Change.Effects
TheobservedandpredictedeffectsofglobalclimatechangeonthePacificOceanincludesealevelrise,oceanwarming,oceanacidification,reductioninmixingandoxygenationofwaters,creationofdeadzones,andshiftsinmarinespeciesdistributions.Theseeffectsarecompoundedbyclimatechangeonlandaswellasintheoceans.
ClimatechangeeffectsinthePNCIMAwilllikelyposesignificantchallengesandpresentsomeopportunitiestomarineecosystems,species,economicactivities,socialandculturalfabric,andcommunityinfrastructure.Forexample,currentfishspecies(e.g.,salmon)maymovenorthwardtocoolerwaters,butnewcommercialspeciesmaymigrateintoPNCIMA.Commercialshellfishspeciesmayexpandtheirrangeofproductivitynorthward,butincreasedacidityoftheoceancouldreducegrowthratesandleadtothedisappearanceofmanykeyspeciesofinvertebrates,whichplayanumberofrolesinmarineecosystems.InsomepartsofthePNCIMA,sealevelriseincombinationwithstormeventsmayincreaseerosionofcoastalinfrastructure,requiringexpensivereconstruction.Coastalarchaeologicalsitesmaybelost,andproductive,low-lyinghabitatmaybesubmergedoraltered.
UncertaintyexistsaboutpotentialclimatechangeeffectsinthePNCIMAduetoitsdynamicoceanographicconditionsandlackofbasicinformationaboutmanyocean,ecosystemandspeciescharacteristics.The‘thresholds’totriggerchangesarenotwellknownforthePNCIMA.Publicunderstandingofclimatechangeislimitedandoftendisplacedbymorepressingconcerns.InadditionsomeeffectsaremorelikelyinsomepartsofthePNCIMAthanothersandmaybemaskedbynaturalclimatecycles.
Mostgovernmentactionandcommitmenthasfocusedon‘mitigation’actionsaimedatreducingGHGemissions.However,evenwithdramaticactiontoreduceemissions,theglobalclimatewillcontinuetochangeinthenexttwodecadesinresponsetopastemissions.Manyscientistsandoceanmanagersarepressingfor‘adaptation’actionsthatwillallowecosystems,species,economicsectorsandcommunitiestoadjustandrespondtothechangesthatwilltakeplaceintheoceans.Adaptationmeasurescanincluderiskassessmentsbyarea,creationofMPAstomaintainecosystemfunctionanddiversity,reductioninnon-climatestressorsonecosystems,suchasover-harvestingandhabitatlossfromdevelopment,andreductionofland-basedpollution.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
ChallengesfromclimatechangeeffectsexistthroughoutPNCIMAandmightbestbeaddressedinLOMAandGMAplanning.Theseinclude:
•Lackofpublicunderstandingofclimatechangeeffects;
•Lackofsustainedpoliticalwillandfundingforclimatechangeactions;
•Changestocommercialspeciesdistributionandviabilityofrelatedindustries;
•Increasedthreatstocommunityinfrastructure,andincreasedcostsofmaintenance;
•LossofimportantFirstNationsarchaeologicalandculturalsites;
•Lossordestructionofkeyhabitatforfish,birdsandotherspecies;
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•Potentialeffectsontheaquacultureindustry,suchasincreasedoceanacidification,hypoxia,algaeblooms&watertemperature;
•Managementofhumanstressorstooffsetstressesgeneratedbyclimatechange,includingvesseltrafficandland-basedpollution,andaccidentalspills.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocessprovidesanopportunitytodevelopclimatechangemitigationandadaptationactionsincollaborationwithgovernmentsandparticipants,forawidevarietyofusesandactivities,includingfisheriesandaquaculture.Italsoprovidesanoppor-tunitytofostercollaborativeeffortstosetasidekeyecosystemsandhabitatsasMPAsforspeciesadaptationawayfromhumanstressors.
.3.6.Aquatic.Invasive.Species
Aquaticinvasivespeciesarenon-nativespecies,whoseunintendedoruncontrolledintroductionaffectsmarineecosystemsandnativespecies,theeconomyand/orhumanwell-being.Aquaticinvasivespeciesthriveintheabsenceoftheirnativepredators.HarmfulinvasivespecieshavebeenresponsibleforsignificantdevastationofsomenativefishspeciesandfisheriesacrossCanada.Annually,theproblemcostsbillionsofdollarsinlostrevenueandcontrolmeasures.
Todate,anumberofharmfulinvasivespecieshavebeenidentifiedincoastalwatersalongBC,includingtheNorthAmericangreencrab(Carcinus maenus),varnishclam(Nuttallia obscurata),acolonialtunicate(Didemnum vexillum),&Japaneseoysterdrills.ThegreencrabisanefficientpredatorandcolonizerthatthreatensPacificcoastshellfish.Japaneseoysterdrillsboreholesintoyoungoystersandfeedonthem,causingsignificantdamagetotheoysterindustry.
AquaticinvasivespeciesposeathreatinthePNCIMAduetothepresenceofpathwaysthatallowtheirentry.SignificantpathwaysinthePNCIMAareshipping,recreationalandcommercialboating,theuseoflivebait,livefoodfish,andunau-thorizedintroductionsandtransfersofspecies.Theshippingpathwayisconsideredthelargestsinglesourceofnewaquaticinvasivespecies.BallastwatertakenoninforeignportsforshipstabilityandsafetyatseaisdischargedinCanadianwaters,alongwithundesirableforeignspeciesrangingfrombacteriatolargerorganisms.Insufficientawarenessoftheissuealsocompoundstherisk.
Numerousjurisdictions,fromthelocaltotheinternationallevel,playaroleinpreven-tion,monitoringandmanagementactivities.Withinthefederalgovernment,primaryre-sponsibilityrestswithDFOandEC,butmanagementactionscanalsoinvolveTransportCanadaandotherdepartments.Provincialandterritorialgovernmentssharetherespon-sibilitywithindustry,non-governmentalorganizations,FirstNationsandstakeholders.TheCanadianActionPlantoAddresstheThreatofAquaticInvasiveSpeciesoutlinesanationalapproachformanaginginvasivespecies.
TheIMOadoptedaConventionfortheControlandManagementofShips’BallastWaterandSedimentsin2004.TheConventionsetsstandardsforacceptablenumbersoforganismstobepresentinballastwaterandestablishesatimetableforcompliance.TransportCanadahasproposedrevisionsoftheCanada Shipping Act Ballast Water Regulationstoreducepotentialforintroductionofinvasivespecies.ANationalCodeonIntroductionsandTransfersofAquaticOrganismsgovernsauthorizedintroductions,whichcanbemadeforsuchpurposesasaquaculture,increasingfishstocks,andbiologicalcontrol.
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Preventionofharmfulnewinvasionsisthefirstpriority.Oncespeciesareestablished,thetoolsusedtomanageinvasivespeciesmustbecarefullyanalyzedforeffective-ness,costs,andpotentialimpactontherestoftheecosystem.Forexample,effortstostemthespreadofaspeciesmayrequiretheuseoftoxicchemicals,hampertradeincertaincommodities,orincreaseshippingcosts.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
HarmfulaquaticinvasivespeciesrepresentachallengeacrossthePNCIMAandmightbeaddressedattheLOMAplanninglevel.Potentialchallengesare:
•Increasedintroductionduetoexpansionofshippingactivities,andthroughoceanclimatechangesthatinducemigrationofnon-nativespeciesintothePNCIMA;
•Potentialeconomicimpactonexistinganddevelopingshellfishaquaculture;
•Potentialimpactonmarineecosystemsandbiodiversity.
Anintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocessmayallowdifferentmarineusersandactivitygroupstocollaborateonevaluatingrisk,identifyingpreventativemeasures,anddeterminingrolesthatcanbeplayedtopreventorreducetheriskofinvasivespeciesintroductioninthePNCIMA.
3.7.Species.at.Risk.and.Species.of.Concern.
Speciesatriskandspeciesofconcernareocean-dependentbirds,fishandmammalsofficiallyrecognizedasrare,endangered,threatenedorvulnerableatfederal,provin-cialorinternationallevels.Theyaretypicallymanagedinaspecialwayand/orafford-edprotectionbygovernment,usingsuchlegislationasthefederalSpecies at Risk Act (SARA),Migratory Birds Convention Act,Fisheries Act,andtheprovincialWildlife Act.
Speciesatriskorofconcernareimportantforanumberofreasons.Theyareimpor-tantforbiodiversityofmarineecosystemsandmaintenanceofecosystemhealthandbalance.Theyareoftenthebasisofcommercialrecreation,tourismandsightseeingopportunities,and,insomecases,importantsymbolsofthePacificCoast.
Thirty-threemarinebirdspeciesorsubspeciesoccurringinPNCIMAhavebeenlistedasspeciesofconservationconcernbytheBCConservationDataCentre,bytheCommitteeontheStatusofEndangeredWildlifeinCanada(COSEWIC),bySARAand/ortheInternationalUnionforConservationWorldConservation(IUCN).ThePNCIMAcontainsmostofthemajorseabirdcoloniesthatoccurinBC,suchasintheScottIslands,HaidaGwaii,QueenCharlotteSound,QuatsinoSound,andnearBrooksPeninsula.Asaresult,95%ofallofBC’sbreedingseabirdsoccurinthePNCIMA.27Includedare:alloftheknownnestingareaswithinCanadaofAncientMurrelets(mostofwhichoccuronHaidaGwaii);allofBC’spopulationofCommonMurres(TriangleIslandandKerouardIslands);morethan99%oftheBC’snestingCassin’sAuklets,RhinocerosAuklets,Fork-tailedStorm-petrels,andHornedandTuftedPuffins;97%oftheprovince’sLeach’sStorm-petrelsand85%ofitsnestingpopulationofPigeonGuillemots.SmallnumbersofGreatBlueHeronhavebeennotedintheBroughtonArchipelagoandSkidegateInlet,andobservedinassociationwithreefsandkelpbedsalongtheCentralandNorthCoast.
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Ofmorethantwenty-fivespeciesofmarinemammalsandreptilesfoundwithinthePNCIMA,thirteenarelistedunderSARA.OftheSARA-listedspecies,blue,fin,andseiwhalesarefoundalongthewesternboundaryofthePNCIMA.DixonEntranceisanimportantareaforblue,humpback,andresidentkillerwhales.TheeastcoastofHaidaGwaiiisimportantforgraywhalesandleatherbackturtles,aswellasharbourporpoises.Themainlandcoastisimportantforresidentkillerwhales,andportionsofthisareaareimportantforhumpback,gray,andfinwhales,andseaotters.SeaotterswerereintroducedtothePacificCoastonthenorthwestcoastofVancouverIsland,andareexpandingtheirhabitat.ThePNCIMAcontainsthethreemainStellersealionbreedingrookeriesonthecoast,andforaginghabitat.Fishspeciesofconservationconcernareprimarilyinshorerockfish,forwhichDFOhasestablishedanumberofRockfishConservationAreastoencouragepopulationrecovery.
EC’sCanadianWildlifeService(CWS)isresponsiblefortheprotectionandmanage-mentofmigratorybirds,nationallyimportantwildlifehabitat,andendangeredspecies.UnderSARA,DFOisresponsiblefortheprotectionandrecoveryofaquaticspeciesatriskandParksCanadaAgencyisresponsibleforthemanagementandrecoveryofspeciesfoundinnationalparksandlandsadministeredbytheAgency.DFOmanagesmarinemammalsundertheFisheries Act.Federalandprovincialgovernmentagencies,industryandnon-governmentalorganizationsaregenerallyinvolvedinhabitatprotec-tion,recoverystrategiesandplans.Strategiesforseveralspeciesareinplaceorbeingdeveloped,includingthosefornorthernandsouthernresidentkillerwhales,blue,fin,seiandrightwhales,seaottersandleatherbackturtles,andMarbledMurrelet.
Challenges.and.Opportunities
SpeciesatriskandspeciesorconcernfaceanumberofmanagementchallengesthroughoutthePNCIMA,butespeciallyintheidentifiedareasofcriticalorimportanthabitat.TheymightbeaddressedatLOMA,GMAandCMAlevelsandinclude:
• Mortality,sub-lethaleffects,andhabitatdegradationresultingfromhumanactivities,includingoilandchemicalspills,pollutantsandcontaminants,fisheriesby-catch,competitionforpreywithfisheries,illegalharvesting,shipstrikes,seismicactivities,andentanglementingearandplastics;
• Potentialadverseimpactofeco-tourismoperationsthroughnoise&disturbance;
• Potentialimpactsfromnon-renewableenergyexplorationanddevelopmentactivities;
•Criticalhabitatlossduetorookerypredators(e.g.,rats,raccoons),landdevelopment,andspreadofnon-nativevegetation;
• Climatechangeeffectsonbreedingcycles,habitats,foragingsuccess,preysources,predators,foodabundanceanddistribution;
• Impactsonspeciesthatslowpopulationrecoveryandhealth,suchashuman-generatedmarinenoiseanddisturbance,vesseltrafficincreasesandaccidentalspillsthataffectmarinewaterqualityandmarineecosystems.
ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningapproachprovidesaforumtodeveloppoliciesandstrategiestoaddresstheseissuesandsupportrecoveryefforts.Acollaborativeapproachmaysetprioritiesforrecoveryac-tions,identifyprotectionmeasuresforcriticalhabitatandusemigrationandbehaviourpatternsofspeciestominimizeconflictswithhumanactivities.
Marine Environm
ent & C
ulture Issues
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Jurisdictional and
Legal C
ontext
4.0. JURISDICTIONAL.&.LEGAL.CONTEXT
4.1.PNCIMA.Collaborative.Governance
Theconsiderableoverlapofjurisdictionandmanagementauthorityontheseasur-face,watercolumnandseabednecessitatesaconcertedeffortbyfederal,provincialandFirstNations’governmentstoachievemutuallydesired&priorityobjectivesforthePNCIMA.
Whilethefederalgovernmenthasjurisdictionovertheseasurface,watercolumn,andseabedfromthehightidemarktoCanada’s200nauticalmilelimit,courtdecisionshavefoundBCtohavejurisdictionovercoastalwaters,includingintertidalareasandinlandwaters.Theseintertidalandinlandwatershavebeenfurtherde-finedbythecourtstoincludethestraitsandwaterbodiesbetweenmainlandcoastandtheVancouverIsland,andareasbetweenheadlands.Thisjurisdictionincludesanywatersurfaceoccupiedbyusesthatareaffixedtoprovincially-ownedseabed.ProvincialjurisdictionoverthewatersofDixonEntrance,HecateStraitandQueenCharlotteSoundhasnotbeenconfirmed.
Asaresult,bothprovincialandfederalagencieshavemanyoverlappingrolesandresponsibilities,whichrequire‘harmonization’ofeffort.Thishasbeenevidencedinanumberofpriorandproposedagreementsonoceanmanagementandplanningaswellasresourcedevelopment,particularlythe2004Memorandum of Understanding regarding Implementation of Canada’s Oceans Strategy on the Pacific Coast.28
Inaddition,mostcoastalFirstNationsinthePNCIMAhaveneversignedtreatiesorcededtheiraboriginaltitleorrightsoverlandandresourcesintheirtraditionalterritories,whichinsomecasesextendintotheoceanareas.AnumberofFirstNa-tionsareinlitigationonlandandresourcejurisdiction,andothersareengagedinthetreatyprocesswithCanadaandBC.ThesecasesandtreatydiscussionsreinforcetheneedforgovernmentstocollaboratewithFirstNationsinthePNCIMA,ashasbeenevidentinthedevelopmentoftheapproachtothePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocess.
4.2.First.Nations’.Rights.and.Relationships.
InCanada,section35ofthe1982Constitution Actrecognizesandaffirmsaspectrumofaboriginalandtreatyrightsandprovidesconstitutionalprotectiontotheserightsandtitle.Initslandmark2004decisioninHaida v. BC,theSupremeCourtofCanadaemphasizedthatthehonouroftheCrownisalwaysatstakeinitsdealingswithaboriginalpeoples,andthatthehonouroftheCrownmayrequiretheCrowntoconsultwithandreasonablyaccommodateaboriginalinterestspendingresolutionofclaimedaboriginalrightsandtitle.
Accordingly,therelationshipbetweengovernmentsandFirstNationsinthePNCIMAisdifferentthanthatbetweengovernmentsandstakeholders.ThisspecialrelationshiphasbeenreinforcedbytheOceans Actandrelatedpolicy,whichaffirmsadesiretoen-gageandcollaboratewithFirstNationsinoceandecisionsandintegratedmanagementplanningprocesses.
CanadaandFirstNationseachbringauthoritiesandmandatestothePNCIMAinitia-tivethattheothermayrespectandbenefitfrom.ThePNCIMAprocessrepresentsanopportunitytoleadCanadainimplementingamodelforintegratingbroaderaboriginalrightswithinocean-relatedgovernancemechanisms.
33
Conclusion
5.0. CONCLUSIONThisdiscussionpaperhasidentifiedseventeenmarine-relatedissuesforinclusioninintegratedoceansmanagementplanningwithinthePNCIMA.Somemayberelevanttopicsforregionallargeoceanmanagement(LOMA)planning,whileothersmaybemoreappropriatelyaddressedinsub-regionalgeographicmanagementarea(GMA)plansorlo-calcoastalmanagementarea(CMA)plans.Someissuesmaybedealtwithatallplanninglevels,withtheleveloftreatmentreflectingthescaleandnatureoftheplanse.g.,broadpolicyattheLOMAlevel,andmorespecificguidelinesandareadesignationsattheCMAscale.
TenissuesarecategorizedasMarineActivityandUseIssues.Challengesassociatedwiththeseissuesincludecompetitionandconflictamongdifferentusesandactivities,theirpotentialimpactonthemarineenvironmentandspecies,theirsustainabilityasabasisforeconomicactivity,andchangesinecosystemsandspecies.SevenissuesareidentifiedasMarineEnvironmentandCultureIssues.Challengesassociatedwiththeseissuesincludeadequateprotectionandmanagementofecosystemsandspecies,riskassociatedwithincreasedmarineactivitiesanduses,andadequacyofpolicies,plansandprogramsformitigationandadaptationtopotentialeffects.
Theintegratedmanagementprocessprovidesanexcellentopportunityforfederal,provincial,FirstNationsandlocalgovernmentsandstakeholderstoaddresstheseissues.Environmental,social,culturalandeconomicoutcomesmayinclude:
•Reductioninconflictsandcompetitionbetweenusergroupsandactivities;
•Ensuringthatactivitiesaresustainableandsupportcoastaleconomies;
•Identificationof‘bestmanagementpractices’formarineactivities;
•Anintegratedreviewofproposedmarinetransportationincreases;
•Spaceandtime-relatedallocationsofmarineareasforuses,activitiesand/orprotection;
•Integrationofexistingterrestrialplanswithadjacentmarineplansandupdatingofexistingcoastalplans;
•DevelopmentofsiterecommendationsforanMPAnetwork;
•Identificationofsensitiveecologicalareas;
•Improvementofspillprevention,preparednessandresponse;
•Pollutionpreventionandreductionmeasures;
•Developmentofclimatechangeadaptationactions;
•Identificationofmeasurestoreduceinvasivespeciesintroductions;and
•Developmentandsupportforspeciesatriskrecoveryefforts.
Akeycommitmentinintegratedmanagementplanningprocessesistopromoteintegrationofexistingmanagementstructuresandprocesses,aswellastodevelopmechanismsforgreatercollaborationandparticipationinregulatorydecisionsbyallparticipants.Thecon-siderableoverlapofjurisdictionandmanagementauthorityinthePNCIMAnecessitatesaconcertedeffortbyallgovernmentstoachievemutuallydesiredandpriorityobjectivesincollaborationwithstakeholders.ThePNCIMAintegratedoceanmanagementplanningprocessalsorepresentsanopportunitytodevelopaneffectivemodelforintegratingbroaderFirstNationsrightswithinocean-relatedgovernancemechanisms.
34
ANNEX.1.BOUNDARy.OF.THE.PNCIMA.AREA
Annex 1
35
1GovernmentofCanada,1997.Oceans Act (1996, c.31),enactedJanuary31,1997.Ottawa,Ontario,Canada.Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans-habi-tat/oceans/ri-rs/cos-soc/pdf/cos-soc_e.pdf
2FisheriesandOceansCanada,2002.Canada’s Oceans Strategy.Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans-habitat/oceans/ri-rs/cos-soc/pdf/cos-soc_e.pdf
3FisheriesandOceansCanada,2002.Policy and Operational Framework for Integrated Management of Estuarine, Coastal and Marine Environments in Canada.Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans-habitat/oceans/ri-rs/cosframework-cadresoc/pdf/im-gi_e.pdf
4FisheriesandOceansCanada,2005.Oceans Action Plan.Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans-habitat/oceans/oap-pao/pdf/oap_e.pdf
5FisheriesandOceansCanadaandFirstNationsofthePacificNorthCoast,December11,2008.Memo-randum of Understanding on Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area Collaborative Oceans Governance (website).Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/media/npress-communique/2008/pr29-eng.htm
6FisheriesandOceansCanada,OceanHabitatandEnhancementBranch,2007.Marine Use Analysis of the Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area.CanadianTechnicalReportofFisheriesandAquaticSciences2677.Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Li-brary/332374.pdf
7CanadianCoastGuard,Tanker Exclusion Zone (website),2001.http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/e0003909
8FisheriesandOceansCanada,2006.Commercial Fisheries Summaries (website).Seehttp://www-sci.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/sa/Commercial/Summaries/Annu-alReports/Annual06_user.htm
9FisheriesandOceansCanada,May7,2007.TheMarshallResponseInitiative(website).Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/communic/marshall/Marshall/in-dex_e.htm
10GovernmentofBritishColumbia,February27,2007.The BC Energy Plan – A Vision for Clean En-ergy Leadership (website).Seehttp://energyplan.gov.bc.ca/
11EnvironmentCanada,2003.Canadian Wind En-ergy Atlas (website).Seehttp://www.windatlas.ca/en/nav.php?field=EU&height=50&season=ANU&no=55
12GarradHassan,February22,2008.Assessment of the Energy Potential and Estimated Costs of Wind Energy in British Columbia.PreparedforBCHydroandPowerAuthority.Seehttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/info/pdf/rou_wind_garrad_hassan_report.Par.0001.File.rou_wind_gar-rad_hassan_report.pdf
13GovernmentofBritishColumbia,February27,2007.The BC Energy Plan – A Vision for Clean En-ergy Leadership (website).Seehttp://energyplan.gov.bc.ca/
14GovernmentofBritishColumbia,IntegratedLandManagementBureau,undated.Vancouver Island Summary Land Use Plan, February 2000 (website).Seehttp://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/nanaimo/van-couver_island/plan/summary_lup/toc.htm
15GovernmentofBritishColumbia,LandUseCoor-dinationOffice,2001.Central Coast LCRMP Coastal Zone Strategic Plan.105pages.Seehttp://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/nanaimo/cencoast/docs/AIP_coast-al_zone_plan.pdf
ANNEX.2.REFERENCES.CITED
Annex 2
36
16GovernmentofBritishColumbia,IntegratedLandManagementBureau,undated.Strategic Land and Resource Plans in BC (website).Seehttp://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/index.html#marinemap
17GovernmentofBritishColumbia,February7,2006.News Release - Province Announces a New Vi-sion for Coastal BC (website).Seehttp://www2.news.gov.bc.ca/news_releases_2005-2009/2006AL0002-000066.htm
18GovernmentofBritishColumbia,undated.Haida Gwaii Strategic Land Use Agreement Implementation (website).Seehttp://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/na-naimo/qci/index.html
19Kitasoo/XaixaisFirstNation,June26,2000.Kitasoo / Xaixais Land and Resource Protection and Management Plan (website).Seehttp://www.kitasoo.org/forestry/landplan/index-LandUsePlan.html
20GovernmentofBritishColumbia,undated.Coast Land Use Decision Implementation – Agreements Between First Nations and the Province (website).Seehttp://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/lrmp/nanaimo/central_north_coast/news/agreements.html
21GovernmentofCanada,2005.Canada’s Federal Marine Protected Areas Strategy.18pp.Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans-habitat/oceans/mpa-zpm/fedmpa-zpmfed/pdf/mpa_e.pdf
22FisheriesandOceansCanada,2006.Rockfish Conservation Areas (website).Seehttp://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm-gp/maps-cartes/rca-acs/booklet-livret/RCA_booklet_2007.pdf
23GovernmentofBritishColumbiaandGovernmentofCanada,2004.Memorandum of Understanding Respecting the Implementation of Canada’s Oceans Strategy on the Pacific Coast of Canada (website).Seehttp://www.env.gov.bc.ca/omfd/reports/MOU-Oceans-Strategy.pdf
24SeeCanada’s Oceans Action Planathttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/oceans-habitat/oceans/oap-pao/page06_e.asp
25GovernmentofBritishColumbia,MinistryofEn-vironment,January2007.British Columbia Marine Oil Spill Response Plan.103pages.Seehttp://www.env.gov.bc.ca/eemp/resources/response/pdf/marine_oil_response_plan.pdf
26ThePacificStates–BritishColumbiaOilSpillTaskForce,2003.Official Website.Seehttp://www.oilspilltaskforce.org/
27FisheriesandOceansCanada,2007.Ecosys-tem Overview – Pacific North Coast Integrated Management Area (PNCIMA).Can.Tech.ReportFish.Aquat.Sci.2667.AppendixK:MarineBirds.Seehttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/libraries-bibli-otheques/328842_e.htm
28GovernmentofBritishColumbiaandGovernmentofCanada,2004.Memorandum of Understanding respecting the Implementation of Canada’s Oceans Strategy on the Pacific Coast of Canada. 6 pages.Seehttp://www.env.gov.bc.ca/omfd/reports/MOU-Oceans-Strategy.pdf
Annex 2
IMAGE CREDITS
Outside front & back covers Margaret Butschler Coral Cargill Ken Cripps Steve Diggon Dorthe Jacobsen Mike Jakubowski Jacob Joslin Doug Neasloss Maya Paul Holly Pulvermacher Lynne Yamanaka
Inside map Julie Beaumont
Inside layout p.3, 22 Holly Pulvermacher p.5 Miguel Borges p.6, 18 Jacob Joslin p.8 Mike Jakubowski p.10, 12 Coral Cargill p.17 Henry Wolcott p.20, 24, 28 Environment Canada p.26 Patricia DeMille p.29 Luis Miguel Bugallo Sánchez p.30 Pauline Ridings
helvetica black cond