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Baroque.AtermusedgenerallytodesignateaperiodorstyleofEuropeanmusiccoveringroughlytheyearsbetween1600and1750.

1.Etymologyandearlyusage.

Althoughusedinartandmusiccriticismasfarbackasthemid18thcentury,thetermBaroquehasonlyrelativelyrecentlybeenadoptedforahistoricalperiod.ItisderivedfromtheFrenchbaroque,whichcomesfromthePortuguesebarroco,meaningapearlofirregularorbulbousshape.Itisoftenfoundintextshavingtodowiththemanufactureofjewelleryfromthe16thcenturyonwards,inSpanish(berrueco,barrueco),French(barroque,barrocque,baroque)andlaterItalian(baroco,barocco).

Ithasbeengenerallyassumedthatthewordwasfirstappliedtothefineartsinreferencetoarchitecture.CharlesdeBrossesinLettresfamilirescritesdItalieen1739et1740(Paris,c1755ed.R.Colomb,Paris,1855)criticizedthearchitectofaRomanpalacefortransferringtoalargescalethestyleofbaroqueornamentationthatbettersuitedsmallobjectslikegoldcasesordinnerware.Butithasbeenshownthattheseletterswerenotdrafteduntilabout1755,longafterdeBrossesreturntoParis.Theearliestapplicationtothefineartsappearstohavebeen,rather,inreferencetomusic.ThisoccursinasatiricalletterpromptedbythepremireofRameausHippolyteetAricieinParisinOctober1733,printedintheMercuredeFranceinMay1734(LettredeM***Mlle***surloriginedelamusique,pp.86870).Theanonymousauthorcovertlyimpliedthatwhatwasnewintheoperawasdubarocqueandcomplainedthatthemusiclackedcoherentmelody,wasunsparingindissonances,constantlychangedkeyandmetre,andspeedilyranthrougheverycompositionaldevice.RameauwasalsothetargetofapoembyJ.B.Rousseau(inalettertoLouisRacine,17November1739,inLettressurdifferentssujetsdelalittrature,Geneva,1750)thatcalledhimandhiskinddistillersofbaroquechords(distillateursdaccordsbaroques).

NoelAntoinePluchewasthemostilluminatingoftheearlyusersoftheterm.Henotonlyattachedittoacategoryorstyleofmusicbutheimpliedanetymology.InSpectacledelanature(vii,Paris,1746)hemaintainedthatthecomparisonofFrenchandItalianmusicnolongerdividedcriticsthattheissuenowwasbetweenthepartisansofmusiquechantante(songfulortunefulmusic)andmusiquebarroque(translatedasroughintheEnglishversion,Spectacledelanature:orNatureDisplayd,London,1748):

Onetakesitsmelodyfromthenaturalsoundsofourthroatandfromtheaccentsofthehumanvoice,whichspeakstoconcernotherswithwhattouchesus,alwayswithoutgrimace,alwayswithouteffort,almostwithoutart.Weshallcallthissongfulmusic[lamusiquechantante].Theotheraimstosurprisebythe

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boldnessofitssoundsandpassesforsongwhilepulsatingwithspeedandnoise[veutsurprendreparlahardiessedessons&passerpourchanterenmesurantdesvitesses&dubruit]wecallitBaroquemusic[lamusiqueBarroque].

PluchehadearliercontrastedtheconcertsdirectedbyJeanPierreGuignon(170274),whoamusedandsurprisedwiththeadmirablelightnessandagilityofhisplayingandoftheensembleshedirected,andJeanBaptisteAnet,whodidnotapproveofGuignonspretenceatovercomingalldifficulties,ofhistendencytowrestlaboriouslyfromthebottomoftheseasomebaroquepearls,whendiamondscanbefoundonthesurfaceoftheearth(p.103).ToAnet,achievingsurprisebybrilliantvivacitywasasmallaccomplishmentgreatnessinartwastopleasethemultitudebysweetandvariedemotions.Hepreferredaninstrumentalsoundthatwasconnected,sustained,velvety,passionate,andconformingtotheaccentsofthehumanvoice(p.104).PluchesfavouritecomposerwasMondonville,whoexcelledinboththesingingandtheBaroquegenres.Essentially,however,BaroquemusicwastoPluchepureinstrumentalmusicwhich,lackingatext,hadnosignificance,noteventhatwhichitmightacquirethroughimitatingthehumanvoice.ForPluche,asfordeBrosses,baroquehadapejorativeconnotation.

AlthoughGuignonwasacomposerinhisownright,PlucheprobablythoughtofhimratherasthemostfamousinterpreterofItalianconcertos,suchasthoseofVivaldiandAlbinoni,attheConcertSpirituelinthe1720s.MarpurgalsocontrastedhisplayingwithAnets:GuignonandBattisteweretwofinevioliniststhefirstplayedintheItaliantaste,thesecondintheFrenchtaste(HistorischkritischeBeytrgezurAufnahmederMusik,i,Berlin,1754,p.238).ThebrilliantandboldvirtuositythatPlucheassociatedwithGuignonprobablyreflectedthemusicofVivaldishighBaroqueperiodandsimilarworksunknowninParisbeforethefirstyearsoftheConcertSpirituel(whichbeganin1725).Pluchesuseofthetermbarroque,whilenotentirelyinconsistentwithitspresentusage,thushadmuchnarrowerscope.

Other18thcenturywriterstendedtocalluponthewordbaroquetoevokeimpressionsofstrangenessanddistortion.DeBrosses,whoappliedthetermtothepseudoGothicornamentationofthePalazzoDoriaPamphiliinRome,wasamazedthatItalianrecitativecouldbeatonetimesobaroqueandsomonotonous(Lettres,ed.R.Colomb,4/1885,ii,330).J.J.RousseauventuredadefinitioninhisDictionnairedemusique(Paris,1768):Abaroquemusicisthatinwhichtheharmonyisconfused,chargedwithmodulationsanddissonances,themelodyisharshandlittlenatural,theintonationdifficult,andthemovementconstrainedhethoughtthetermcamefromthebarocooflogicians.Rousseausdefinitionwasparaphrasedby,amongothers,CastilBlaze(Dictionnairedemusiquemoderne,Paris,1821),HeinrichKoch(MusikalischesLexikon,Frankfurt,1802),GustavSchilling(EncyclopdiedergesammtenmusikalischenWissenschaften,i,Stuttgart,1835)andHermannMendel(MusikalischesConversationsLexikon,Berlin,1870).

Rousseausetymology,nowlargelydiscredited,wasvigorouslysupportedbyBenedettoCroce(1929)andlaterRenWellek(1946).BarocowasindeedawordcoinedbymedievallogiciansalongwithCelarent,Baralipton,Darapti,Felaptoetc.asmnemonicaidstorecallthevarioustypesofsyllogismthefourthmodeofthesecondfigurewascalledbaroco.Thevowelaindicatedtheuniversalaffirmativecharacterofthemajorpremise,andthetwovowelsoindicatedthattheminorpremisesandconclusionwerenegative,asinEveryAisBsomeCarenotBhencesomeCarenotA.Baroco,however,wasnotusedinItalyasanartcriticaltermwhenItalianseventuallywroteaboutBaroquequalitiesinart,theFrenchwordwasborrowed,anditbecamebarocco.

Baroqueinthesenseofbizarre,irregularandextravagantcontinuedtooccursporadicallyincriticismofartandmusicintherestofthe18thcenturyandmostofthe19thwithoutacquiringamoregeneralizedstylisticsignificance.ItwasJacobBurckhardtwhogavethepostMichelangelostylethisnameinhisDerCicerone(Leipzig,2/1839),wherehededicatedasubstantialchaptertotheBarockstyl.WhereasforBurckhardtitmarkedthedecadentphaseofthehighRenaissance,HeinrichWlfflin(RenaissanceundBarock,1888)treatedthestyleanditsdevelopmentinapositivewayandsuggestedthetermmightalsobeappliedtoliterature(Tasso)andmusic(Palestrina).CorneliusGurlittsGeschichtedesBarokstilesinItalien(Stuttgart,1887)also

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acceptedthestyleasalegitimateexpressionofitstime.WlfflinlaterexpandedtheconceptofBaroquetoincludeanumberofprinciplesthatcouldbeappliedtoanyperiod,thoughhisexamplesweremainly17thcentury(seebelowKunstgeschichtlicheGrundbegriffe,Munich,1915).

MeanwhiletheconceptofBaroquewasnotimmediatelyadoptedbywritersonmusichistory.Ambros(1882)mentionedtherampantbarroccoofpaintingandarchitectureinthe17thcentury(GeschichtederMusik,iv,rev.3/1909,p.286)butnotasamusicalcategory.Riemannavoidedtheterm,callingtheperiodGeneralbassZeitalter(HandbuchderMusikgeschichte,ii,1912),andGuidoAdlerreferredtoitsimplyastheThirdStylePeriod(HandbuchderMusikgeschichte,1924).

CurtSachswasthefirsttoapplyWlfflinstheoryoftheBaroquesystematicallytomusic.HetookthefivecharacteristicsthatWlfflinhadisolatedinthevisualartsandexplainedhoweachfittedmusicaldevelopmentsinthisperiod:(i)thesuppressionoflineinfavourofthepainterly(malerisch)wasparalleledbytheoverwhelmingofmelodybyornamentationandvariation(ii)thepenchantofBaroquepaintersforplacingfiguresinbothforegroundandrecessedpositionsasopposedtothesingleplaneoftheRenaissancewascomparedbySachstothedepthachievedbyplacingasopranoagainstabassanditsharmonyand(iii)thedriftfromtheclosedformoftheRenaissancetotheopenformofBaroqueartwasanalogoustothereplacementoftherhythmicsdominatedbyarsisandthesisbythenaturaldeclamationofspeech.Similarly,thetendenciesofBaroqueart(iv)toreplacemultiplicitybyunityand(v)toobscureratherthanmakeclearwereshowntooperatealsoinmusic.

SachssbeliefinthesynchronismoftheartsandhisratherstrainedtransplantationofWlfflinscategorieswerealmostimmediatelychallenged.AndreaDellaCorte(1933),afollowerofCroce,arguedthatthetermBaroquecouldnottranscenditsmeaningofextravagant,andthusonlycertainaspectsof17thcenturymusiccouldbecharacterizedbyitthemarvellousmonumentalpolychoralstyleofBenevoli,whichBarochizedRenaissancepolyphony,thetortuousturnsofthelatemadrigal,ortheoverschematizationofoperaafter1650.Moreover,DellaCortepointedout,WlfflinspolesfortheRenaissanceandBaroquecouldbeturnedroundcompletelyandtheconceptoflinearappliedwithnostraintomonodyandthatofclosedformtothedacapoaria.

RobertHaas(1928)sawmeritsinWlfflinsprinciplesbutdoubtedwhetherallfivepointscouldbeappliedtomusichewasalsolessconcernedwithparallelingthechronologyofthevisualarts.WhereasarthistorianspushedthebeginningsoftheBaroquebacktothemiddleoreventhebeginningofthe16thcentury,Haascouldnotjustifyadateearlierthan1594,theyearPalestrinaandLassusdied.Hedidrecognize,however,acertainspiritualunityintheperiod,anddefendeditonsociological,intellectualandculturalaswellasmusicalgrounds.

ItwasLang(1941)andBukofzer(1940,1947)whogavethetermBaroquecurrencyinEnglish.Langdidnotdiscusstheconceptorthewordinthemselvesbutelaboratedwithawealthofdetailtheforcesatworkculturally,intellectuallyandsociallythatledtothefadingoftheRenaissanceandriseoftheBaroquestyleinartandmusic.BukofzerusedthetermsRenaissanceandBaroqueasconvenientlabelsforperiodswhichapplyequallywelltomusichistoryandotherfieldsofcivilization(1947,p.2).Herecognizedthedangersoftransposingtheterminologyofarthistorytomusic:TheconceptsofWlfflin,thelinear,closedform,etc.,areabstractionsdistilledfromthelivedevelopmentofart,indeedveryusefulabstractions,butsogeneralinnaturethattheycanbeappliedtoallperiodsindiscriminately,althoughtheywereoriginallyfoundinthecomparisonofrenaissanceandbaroque.ForBukofzerthevalueofthetermlayintheobservationthatitessentiallydenotestheinnerstylisticunityoftheperiod.Bytechnicalanalysisratherthancomparativeabstractionsitispossibletoshowthatthedevelopmentofbaroquemusicrunsparallelwiththatofbaroqueart,butthereareundercurrentsthatdonotconformtothespiritofthetime.

IndependentlyofBukofzer,Clercx(1948)arrivedatanautonomouslymusicalanalysisoftheBaroqueinmusic.Shetoodoubtedthattheoriesbasedontheplasticartsandliteraturecouldnecessarilybeadaptedtomusic,whichhasitsownlawsanditsindependentdevelopment.A

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studyoftheBaroqueinmusic,bringingwithitnewfacts,couldbeofsuchanatureastomodifytheconceptionthathasgenerallybeenheldofthephenomenon(p.39).Throughacarefulanalysisofthecharacteristicsofmelody,harmony,rhythmandgenresoftherepertoryoftheperiodfromthemiddleofthe16thcentury,shedevelopedtheaestheticprinciplesonwhichthevarietyofworksoftheperiodcouldbesaidtohavebeenfounded.ByesthtiqueClercxmeantnotthebodyofaestheticphilosophygeneratedbytheperioditselfbuttheprinciplesthatcouldbeinducedfromananalysisofitsproductsandthenbereferredbacktothatperiod.

ScholarsinFranceandBritainwerelongreluctanttoacceptthetermBaroqueorconceptsassociatedwithit.Dufourcq(1961)pointedoutthattheconceptofBaroqueascommoninGermanmusicologydidnotfitthedevelopmentofmusicandcultureinFrance,whereClassicismoccupiedthefirsthalfofthe17thcentury.Chailley(1958)rejectedthetermasfailingtocorrespondtoanyreality.InBritain,Capell(Grove5)foundnojustificationbeyondmereconvenienceforcallingsuchavarietyofstylesasthoseofPeriandBachbythesameterm.TheHistoiredelamusiqueoftheEncyclopdiedelaPliade(Paris,1960)calledtheperiodLredustyleconcertant.

TheideaofaBaroquestylegainedsomeacceptanceinFrance,however,asshownbythestudiousattentiongiventoitbyV.L.Tapi(1957)andRmyStricker(1968).InBritainthetermappearedinabooktitle,TheBaroqueConcerto(London,1961)byArthurHutchings,althoughtheconcepthardlyfiguresinthetext,whichmerelyacceptsthenotionofaBaroquestyleandperiod.

2.Chronologicallimits.

Therehasbeenappreciabledisagreementconcerningthestartingdateoftheperiod,lessabouttheterminaldate.Wlfflinrecognizedinarthistoryanearlyphasefrom1570,ahighphasefrom1680,andalatephaseextendingfromabout1700untiltheriseoftheSturmundDrang.Haasdividedhisbookintothreeparts,eachcoveringabouthalfacentury,andframingtheachievementofthemaincomponentsoftheBaroquestyle:theconquestoverthemusicalRenaissance(themonodicandconcertatostyle)themelodicstructuringofthemusicalBaroque(thecantataandbelcantostyle)andthemusicalhighBaroque(theformationoftheproudcontrapuntalstyle,kontrapunktischerPrunkstil).

Bukofzerdistinguishedthreemajorperiods,thoughheacknowledgedthattheydidnotcoincideindifferentcountries:15801630,earlyBaroque163080,middleBaroque16801730,lateBaroque.Clercxpushedthebeginningoftheperiodbacktothemiddleofthe16thcentury,whereshelocatedaphaseofprimitiveBaroque.Thesecondperiod,fullBaroque(pleinbaroque),occupiedtheentire17thcentury.FinallyafterthestylewasachievedtherewasatardyBaroque(baroquetardif),whichextendedfrom1700toabout1740or1765.

3.Critiqueoftheconcept.

ItisevidentthattheearliestusagesofBaroqueinthearts,thoughsuggestive,cannotbeaguidetoitsmeaningasahistoricalcategory.Norshouldthefactthatitoriginallyhadnegativeconnotationsdeterusfromassigningtoitapositivemeaning.For,ifitspejorativetaintstandsagainstit,thecriticalvocabularywouldhavetobeimpoverishedbybanningalsotermssuchasGothic,impressionism,mannerismandgalant.ButunlesstheperioddesignatedBaroquecanbeshowntohavesomestylisticorspiritualunity,thetermisineligibleevenasaconvenientlabel.Thequestion,therefore,iswhetherwithinasizableperiodbetweentheRenaissanceandthemiddleofthe18thcenturyaqualityorqualitiescanbeidentifiedthatstronglydominatedmusicalstyle.

Varioustraitshavebeensuggested:dynamism,openform,degreeofornamentation,sharpcontrast,coexistenceofdiversestyles,individualism,affectiverepresentationandnumerous

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others.Mostofthesequalities,whiletheymaycontrastwiththeRenaissance,donotholdforanyextendedperiod.AlthoughthestyleofGesualdoisdynamicandopenformed,thatofAlessandroScarlattiisnot.WhileCaccinismusicisornamented,Corellisfundamentallyisnot(althoughitsometimesinvitedornamentation)besides,thestyleofthe1740sor1770swasalsoornamented.ThesharpcontrastsobservedinthelatesacredconcertosofGabrieliarelessstrikingoratleastappearnormalinanoperaofCesti.Diversestyleshavecoexistedinmanyperiods,ifperhapslessintheRenaissance.Individualismbecameevenmorepronouncedinthelater18thcenturythanitwasinthe17th.ThesequalitieshaveservedmainlytodistinguishfromtheRenaissancethestylethatimmediatelysucceededit.TheyarelessusefultodelimittheBaroqueortodistinguishitfromsubsequentstyles.

Onlyoneofthegeneralcharacteristicsmentionedsurvivesananalysisof17thand18thcenturymusicandmusicalthought:theattitudetowardsaffectiveexpression.Fromthe1540stoatleastthe1720scomposersinapreponderantshareoftheirmusicstrovefortheexpressionofaffectivestates,whetherornotinspiredbyatext.ItisthisstrivingthatledtotheextravagancesthatwerefirstdeploredasBaroque.Irregularity,amplification,strangenessandgrotesqueness,qualitiesinherentintheword,wereoftentheveryproductsofthesearchforexpression.Anyonewhodidnotunderstandthemotivationbehindthesemanners(likeaFrenchmanlisteningtoItalianrecitativeorVivaldisviolinconcertos)couldwellhavefoundaworkembodyingthembizarre.

Themovementtoexpresstheaffectionswasbasedontherecognitionoftheexistenceofdistinguishablestatesofmindorfeeling,suchassorrow,admiration,gladness,fear,anger,hope,joyorcalm.Thesewerethoughttobeaccompaniedbyphysicalconditionsthatreachedacertainstabilityinthepersonseizedbythepassion.Thispreoccupationwiththepassionswasstimulatedbyseveralfactors:therevivalinthe16thcenturyoftherhetoricaltreatisesofAristotle,QuintilianandCicero,whichnotonlydescribedthepassionsbuturgedtheoratorsobligationtostirthembytherenewedreadingofthePoeticsofAristotle,whichemphasizedthearousalofpityandfearandtheimitationofhumanactionsandpassionsandbythegeneralatmosphereoftoleranceofthepassions,whichearlierhadbeenseenasweaknessesoftheflesh,andappreciationfortheinnatevalueofdeepfeeling.

Althoughtheurgeforexpressionoftheaffectionspersistedthroughouttheperiodunderconsideration,themeansbywhichitwasachievedwerecontinuallychanging.Poetsfirstsettheexamplebypayingmoreattentiontoemotionalexpression,andmusiciansadoptedthemovingofthepassionsastheirprincipalobjective.ThisisalreadyevidentintheschoolofWillaerthisownMusicanova,compiledintheearly1540sthoughpublishedin1559,maybeconsideredthewatershedthatpartstheRenaissancefromthebeginningofanewstylisticera,theBaroque,ifonesowishestocallit.SidebysidewithworksthatareexemplaryofRenaissanceclassicismareafewpieces,likeAsprocore,thatpointinnewdirections.SeveralpupilsofWillaert,particularlyCiprianodeRoreandNicolaVicentino,becamethefountainheadsofthenewidiom.Monteverdigavetothenewstyleaname,secondapratica.Certainmorerecentcriticshavecalledthe16thcenturyphasemannerism,butthattermisbetterreservedfortherhetoricalstyleofforexampleMarenziointhemadrigalandLassusinthemotet,astyleoftenmoreconcernedwithillusionisticimagesthanwithaffectiveexpression.

Betterunderstandingofphysiology,particularlythecirculationofthebloodandtheactionofthenerves,speltthedownfalloftheaffectionsinthe18thcentury.AtthesametimemusicalartistsbecamedisillusionedwiththemechanizationthattheprocessofaffectiveexpressionunderwentinItalianopera.Anewconceptionoftheemotionsasfleeting,constantlyshiftingandconflictingreactionsofthemindandbodytointernal,externalandimaginarystimuli,asexemplifiedbytheassociationpsychologyofDavidHumeandDavidHartley,tooktheplaceoftheAffektenlehre(seeRHETORICANDMUSIC,I,4).TheshiftisreflectedinthepracticeofItaliancomposersfromabout1730andcanalsobedocumentedintheattitudesofcritics.DanielWebb(ObservationsintheCorrespondencebetweenPoetryandMusic,London,1769,p.47)observedthatthearousaloffeelingsbymusicisnot,assomehaveimagined,theresultsofanyfixedorpermanentconditionofthenervesandspirits,butspringsfromasuccessionofimpressions,andisgreatlyaugmentedbysuddenorgradualtransitionsfromonekindofstrainofvibrationstoanother.Themusicofthe1730sand1740sbyPergolesi,HasseandJommelli,forexample,nolongerreliedonthestatic

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passionsoftheprecedingdecadesbutexploitedthepossibilitiesofdynamicfluxandtransitionofsentiment.Theadventofthesentimentalstyle,whichPlucheheraldedasthemusiquechantante,markedtheendoftheperiodunderconsideration.

Thusthetwocenturiesbetweenroughly1540and1730canlegitimatelybeconsideredanartisticeraunitedbyacommonideal,and,ifonemustfindawordforit,Baroqueisdefensibleasadesignation.Adoptionofthetermshouldnotobscurethefactthatthereisnounityofeitheridiomorcreativedirectionsinthisperiod.NotonlydoRenaissancepractices(andinthatsensetheRenaissance)continuethroughmuchofthe16thcentury,buttheidealsthatcanbeembracedintheconceptofBaroquereignedinpartsofEuropeaslateas1750,whileelsewhereacounterBaroquereactionhadsetin.

WhetherthechronologicallimitsandspiritoftheBaroqueinmusiccoincidewiththoseinotherartspainting,sculpture,architecture,theatre,literature,dancecanbestbedeterminednotbysearchingforanalogiesorparallelsbutbyinvestigatingthemotivationforcertainartisticdirections.Perhapsevenmoreimportantistorecognizetheforcesthatledtheseartsincommondirections.TodefinetheseforalltheartsisbeyondthescopeofthisarticlebutsomeoftheforcesthatshapedBaroquemusicmaybeoutlined.

Themostimportantstimulusforanewstyleinthe16thcenturywasHUMANISM.Thenewknowledgeandaspirationsthatemanatedfromtherevivalofancientlearningaffectedmusicinnumerousways.ThepoetryofPetrarch,itselfinspiredbythatofantiquity,becamethemodelformodernpoetryandpromptedanintensesearchfornewexpressivemeansforsettingittomusic.TheoverthrowoftheBoethiantheorythroughthefreshinsightsofferedbyPtolemyandAristoxenusopeneduptherecognitionofchromaticresourcesandthepossibilitiesoftonalorganizationoutsidethemodes.Ancientmemoriesofamusicthatpowerfullyaffectedthefeelingsandmoralsofmeninspiredcomposerstoseeksimilareffectsthroughpolyphonicand,later,monodicmusic,whichwasthoughttocorrespondmorecloselytotheancient.Greektragedy,whichbytheinterpretationofAristotlesPoeticsandotherrecentlystudiedtextscouldbeshowntohavebeensungthroughout,becameamodelforastyleofmusicthatcouldbesungonthestagefornotjustcertainlyricalmoments,asinRenaissancetheatre,butfortheentiredrama.

Experimentalscience,closelylinkedwithhumanisminthatitbeganasatestingofthedoctrinesfoundinancienttexts,wasanotherimportantsourceofnewtrends.Discoveryofthetruecauseandnatureofsound,pitchandpitchrelationsliberatedmusicalthoughtfromthenumerologythathadpreservedcertainmyths(suchasthesanctityofthenumbersixasthedeterminantofconsonance).Thispavedthewayforequaltemperamentandintermodulationamongawidecircleofkeys.ThescientificmovementalsostimulatedRameautodevelopatheorythatreplacedthepurelypragmaticchordalsystemsofthoroughbassfiguring.

TheinfluenceofthecounterReformationonthedirectionmusictookinthelate16thcenturyhasprobablybeenoverestimated.Butitsurelyhastenedthesecularizationofchurchstylesthroughtheintroductionofmotetsforsoloorfewvoicesandvernacularoratoriosthatwereessentiallyinthestyleofthetheatre.ThesestyleseventuallyspreadtotheProtestantchurchesofGermany,EnglandandFrance.

Thepatronageofmusicasaninstrumentofdiplomacyintensifiedduringthesecondhalfofthe16thcentury,particularlyamongthecardinalsinRomeandintheItalianprincipalitiesoftheMedici,EsteandGonzagafamilies.MeanwhileinmercantilecentressuchasVenice,Naples,HamburgandLondon,operatheatresthatdependeduponsubscribersorleasersofboxescateredforanewmiddleclass.Tasteshiftedatthesecentresfromthemythologicalplotsfavouredattheprincelycourtstomorerealisticorhistoricalsubjects.Eventuallycommercialpressureledtotheintroductionofcomicepisodesandeventuallycomicintermezzos,leadingtoacounterBaroqueidiomthatsoonspreadtoinstrumentalandsacredgenres.Thegrowthofthebourgeoisclassalsoledtotheestablishmentofmusicalacademies,suchastheAccademiaFilarmonicaofVerona,orinGermanyofcadresofmusicianshiredbytowncouncilstofunctionbothinthechurchandinthesecularcommunityandevenintheuniversitythroughacollegiummusicum.

Insofarastheseandsimilarunderlyingconditionsformusicmakingwerepartoftheintellectual

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andsocialsubstratumofartisticactivityingeneral,musicshareswiththeotherartsacommonsourceforstylisticchangeandcontinuity.Itisnotsurprising,then,thatthemusicofthisperiodrevealscertainsuperficialfeaturesthatparallelthoseofartisticproductsinothermedia.Thesimilarityofappearancesshouldnot,however,beattributedtoaspiritofthetimeaBaroqueZeitgeistbutrathertothecommonunderlyingconditionsthatsometimesexpressthemselvesinuncannyresemblances.

AmusichistoriancancontributemoretotheunderstandingoftheBaroqueasaculturalphenomenonbydescribingfaithfully,asBukofzerandClercxhavedone,thetechnicalfeaturesofthemusicoftheperiodthanbypursuingabstractionssuchaslinearversuspainterlyandpicturesque,orclosedversusopenforms.

4.TechnicalfeaturesofBaroquemusic.

Thethoroughbass,whichbeganasashorthandtoindicatetheharmonyimpliedbytwooutervoices,soonbecameaconstructivedevice,ameansofachievingcontinuitywhileleavingtheuppervoiceorvoicesfreetoexpressatextorsoarininstrumentalfantasies.TodefinethescopeoftheBaroqueperiodonthebasisofthepersistenceofthethoroughbasshasbeenchallengedonthegroundsthatthebassocontinuopersistswellintothe1770s,bywhichtimeanewstylehadcrystallized.Thisisnotaseriousobjection,however,becauseby1722,whenRameaupublishedhisTraitdelharmonie,itwasevidentthatamorecomplexsetofconsiderationsruledthepracticeofcomposersthanthecounterpointoftheouterpartsanditschordalfilling.AsystemofrelationsbetweentriadsinagivenkeyandbetweenthoseandcertainsupportingtriadsfromoutsidethekeywasimplicitinthemusicbeingwrittentowardstheendoftheBaroqueperiod.Thethoroughbassafterthe1740swasanaccompanimentalconvention,andceasedtohavemucheffectonorchestralorchoraltextureindeed,itbecameasorelyinadequatemeansofnotatingtheaccompanimenttosolovoicesorinstruments.

Thewishtoprolongtherathermanneristicandfleetingexpressionsofparticularpassionsforlongerspansthancouldbeachievedthroughtherecitativeoreventheariosopassagesoftheearlymonodiesledtotheadoptionofthestrophicvariationandofvariousextendedharmonicpatterns,suchastheariadellaromanesca,Ruggiero,ballodelgranduca,thedescendingtetrachordandsimilarostinatos.Thesepermittedboththeprolongationofareigningaffectionandtheconstantrenewalofmelodicinventionandornamentation.Thatpracticetoofadedoutaboutthe1740s,tobereplacedbyvariationsonclosedforms,suchasminuets,operaticariasandthelike,whichfindtheirbeginningsbutnottheirultimatefloweringinthedoublesofBaroquedancesuites.

Aconsequenceofthethoroughbasspracticewastothrowthehighpitchedvoicesintorelief:andthisproducedatexturethatpersistedfromthefirstdecadeofthe17thcenturytothe1740s.Oneorapairoftreblevoiceselaboratedtheirlines,oftenthroughcanonicandimitativeorothermotivicinterplay,overabassthatdeterminedordefinedtheharmonicmotion,whileotherpartsorchordalinstrumentsoccupiedasubordinatefillerrole.Suchatexturemayinvolvenontreblevoices,andseveralsuchensemblesmaybefoundtoproceedsimultaneouslywithmoreorlessinteraction.

Aspecializationoffunctionsresultedfromthistexture,someinstrumentsfulfillingafunctionofharmonicstuffingorripieno,othersasolorole.Thisdivisionoflabour,andnotthepolychoralmedium,wasthetruesourceofthevocalandinstrumentalconcerto.The16thcenturypolychoralidiomanditsamplificationinthe17thcentury,whichDellaCorteidentifiedasagenuineBaroquestraininItalianmusic,wasactuallyalatesurvivalofthecorospezzatotechniquepopularintheVenetofromabout1520.ItstruesignificancefortheBaroqueisthatthepolychoraltextureservedasamodelfortheearliestattemptsatwritingchurchmusicforfewsolovoices.Thedivisionofripienoandsolofunctionstogetherwiththeantiphonalcontrastsinspiredbypolychoralmusicproducednewcombinationsofsoloandtuttivocalandinstrumentalensembles.Thesecombinationsresultinwhatissometimescalledtheconcertatostylebutisreallyaconcertatomediumthatlentitselftoavarietyofstyles.

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Patternsofstylisticdecorumemerged,wereconsolidatedandeventuallydissolvedduringthisperiod.MarcoScacchirecognizedthat,whereasintheearliermusiconestyleandpracticedominated,inhisagetherewerethreestyles,church,chamberandtheatre,andtwopractices,theancientandmodern,latercalledstrictandfree(Brevediscorsosopralamusicamoderna,Warsaw,1649).Particularstylesandpracticeswerethoughtfittingforparticularrecreational,entertainmentordevotionalfunctions.Stylisticdecorumdidnotpreventtheborrowingofstyles,however,aswhenthetheatrestylewasintroducedintothechamberorchurch.Butwhenthesestyleswereborrowed,theyweresubjectedtoaprocessofabstractionandconventionalizationthatpurifiedthemofoffensiveordistractingconnotations,aswhenrecitativeorariawasadmittedintothechurch,ordancesintoachambersonata.Thesedistinctionstendedtodissolvetowardstheendoftheperiod,andbythemid18thcenturyacommonstyleemergedthatpassedfreelyfromgenretogenreandfromonesocialusagetoanother.

TherhythmicpracticesofBaroquemusicreflectedtheconventionsofstylisticdecorum.Theprincipalschemesofrhythmicorganizationwerefoundedonthedanceandonspeech.Tothesemustbeaddedtheallabreveofthestileantico,continuedfromanearlierageforthesakeofreligiouspropriety.Whiletherhythmofspeechruledtherecitativeandarioso,therhythmofdancegovernedtheariaandchorus.Evenkeyboardgenresandviolinsonataswerepermeatedbythisdichotomy.Thedifferentdancesandtheirmetresbecamethemodelsforcharacteristicmusicthatevokedcertainaffectionsthroughassociationandthroughmysteriousaffinitiesthatwereperceivedbetweenfeelingsandmovement.

MostBaroquecomposersnavigatedtheunchartedwatersofpretonality.Some,tobesure,continuedtobeguidedbythechurchmodes,butVincenzoGalileiwasprobablymoreobservantthanpropheticwhenhecelebratedtheirdemisein1589(Ilprimolibrodellapratticadelcontrapuntointornoallusodelleconsonanze,ed.F.Rempp,Cologne,1980).Thedissolutionofthemodalsystemwasinfactwellunderwaybythe1530s.Thereturntoakeypitchwithinadiscretepiecereplacedtheunityofmode,andexcursionsintocloselyrelatedkeysreplacedtheadmissiblecadencesofmodalpolyphony.Ontheotherhand,theconstraintsthattonalwritingbegantoacquireinthemiddleofthe18thcenturydidnotyethampercomposersintheperiod.Thecontinuousmodulationoftherecitatives,theinnocencewithwhichkeysfluctuatedinanoperaormass,theinconsistencyofmodulatoryschemesintheconcertos:theseareevidencesofafreeexplorationoftheresourcesthatthenewtuningsoffered.

200yearsarealongtimeinthequicklypacedcultureoftheWest.EventheverygeneralcharacteristicsproposedabovefortheBaroquehadtobecouchedindevelopmentalterms.Itisuseful,therefore,todividetheperiodintomorehomogeneoussubperiods,withtheunderstandingthatnoborderformalitieswereinvokedinpassingfromonetotheother.

Thelate16thandearly17thcenturiesweretimesofexplorationofnewresources,suchaschromaticism,dissonance,tonality,monody,recitative,andnewvocalandinstrumentalcombinations.Noconsistentapproachtocompositionemergeduntilabout1640,bywhichtimethenewresourcesweretamed,andafairlyhomogeneousstylearoseinItalythatwastospreadeverywhereinEuropeinthenextgeneration.Theperiodbetween1640and1690wasarelativelystableoneinwhichgenressuchasthetriosonataanddacapoariaenjoyedasureness,yetfreshness,thathasledsometocallthisaclassicalphase.From1690to1730genressuchasthearia,concertoandsonatareachedanalmostoverripeelaborateness,andtheoncespontaneousexpressionoftheaffectionsbecameformalized,atitsworstmechanized.Areactionbecameinevitable.Anewstylebegantomanifestitselfinthecomicintermezzostotheoperaseria,morenaturalinitsmelody,morevariedinitsrhythms,simpleryetmoremovinginitsharmoniesand,mostimportant,truertotheflowofhumansensibilities.

Generalizationsofthiskindarechargedwithoversimplificationsandadmitofabundantexceptions.Butthereisenoughtruthtothemtomakeanobserverfromthevantagepointofthe21stcenturycomfortablewiththepropositionthattheperiodfromthelate16thcenturyto1730knewsomecontinuityandhomogeneity,andthattheperiodmightforpracticalpurposesbesummedupinaword,Baroque.

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