Ornamental fish culture

BY:-AMIT JOSHI

references

• Hand book of fisheries and aquaculture• Internet

Presentation By:-Amit joshi

REFERENCESReferences• The following list contains references which will aid the interested veterinary student or clinician in diagnosing and treating infectious disease problems

of ornamental fish.• 1. Brown L: Aquaculture for Veterinarians. Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 1993, 447 pp.• 2. Butcher RL: Manual of Ornamental Fish. British Small Animal Veterinary Association. Gloucestershire, England, 1992, 200 pp.• 3. deGuzman E. and E.B. Shotts. Bacterial Culture and Evaluation of Diseases of Fish. Vet Clinics of North America Small Animal Pract., 1988, 18(2): 365-

374.• 4. Gratzek JB: Control and therapy of fish diseases. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 27:297-324, 1983.• 5. Gratzek JB: An overview of ornamental fish diseases and therapy. i Small Anim Pract 22:345-366, 1981.• 6. Gratzek JB: Aquariology: the Science of fish Health Management, Tetra Press, 1992.• 7. Herwig N: Handbook of Drugs and Chemicals Used in the Treatment of Fish Diseases. Springfield IL, Charles C Thomas, 272 pp., 1979.• 8. Hoffman GL and FP Meyer: Parasites of Freshwater Fish. TFH Publications, Neptune City, NJ, 1974.• 9. Johnson, EJ: Koi Health and Disease. Johnson Veterinary Services, 3805 Robinson Rd., Marietta, GA 30068, 1997, 141 pp.• 10. Lewbart, GA: Self-Assessment Color Review of Ornamental Fish. Iowa State University Press, 1998, 192 pp.• 11. Lewbart, GA: Emergency pet fish medicine. In Bonagura JD and Kirk RW (eds.): Current Veterinary Therapy XII: Small Animal Practice. Philadelphia,

WB Saunders Co, 1995, 1369-1374.• 12. Lewbart, G., Vaden, S., Deen, J., Whitt, D., Manaugh, C., Doi, A., Smith, T., and K., Flammer. Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin in the red pacu

(Colossoma brachypomum). Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 20:124-128, 1997.• 13. Noga, EJ: Fish Disease: Diagnosis and Treatment. ISU Press, 2000, 367 pp.• 14. Stoskopf, MK: Fish Medicine. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1993, 882 pp.• 15. Tocidlowksi, ME, Lewbart, GA., and Stoskopf, MK. 1997. Hematologic study of red pacu (Colossoma brachypomum). Veterinary Clinical Pathology,

26(3):119-125.• 16. Untergasser D: Handbook of Fish Diseases. TFH Publications, Neptune, NJ, pp.160, 1989.• 17. The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotica Animal Practice. Various volumes, WB Saunders.• 18. Inglis V, Roberts RJ, Bromage NR (eds): Bacterial Diseases of Fish, New York, NY, Halsted Press, 1993• 19. Trust TJ, Bartlett KH: Occurrence of potential pathogens in water containing ornamental fishes. Applied Microbiology 28(1):35-40, 1974• 20. Frerichs GN: Isolation and identification of fish bacterial pathogens, in Inglis V, Roberts RJ, Bromage NR (eds): Bacterial Diseases of Fish, New York,

NY, Halsted Press, 1993, pp 257-283

Egg layers(oviparous) breeding

1.Egg scatterers laying non adhesive eggs•Zebra fish{brachydanio rerio},pearl danio,giant danio{danio aequipinnatus}•Larger are grouped under DANIO’S ,while smaller are grouped under Brachydanio’s•Bottom of aquarium loaded with pebbles of about 6-8cm dia•Before setting up breeding pair in any aquaria tank parents are fed with smaller zooplankton•Male:Female =2:1 or 3:1 ,female introduced in breeding tank one day earlier than the males.•Difficult to know that female already laid eggs or not , due to small size of eggs,that may hidden behind pebbles.•Egg require 2 – 3 days hatching time,if temperature is favourable

• As soon as hatchlings seen in aquarium tank parents should be removed ,they can eat their own eggs and spawn.

• Hatchligs take 2 days to absorb their yellow yolk sac• After 2days when yolk absorbed, they are fed with

infusorians{paramaeicium} for 4 days,subsequently rotifers and smaller zooplanktons can be fed for 1 week ,after which they can be provide with formulated feed.

• These are called egg scatterers as parents not look after them after laying eggs and even eat them.

2.Egg scatters laying adhesive eggs• Gold fish {Carassius auratus}• Suitable for both aquarium and open outdoor cisterns• Goldfish cover a wide range of species, but they are all members of

the generic family Carassius auratus, and have been bred by the Chinese, Koreans and Japanese. One of the difficulties for the amateur to breed this fish is that they can be difficult to sex. The difference in their gender is only apparent when they are in a spawning condition. The greatest change occurs in the males, they develop white pimples known as "breeding tubercles", on their fins and sometimes their head. Check along the gill operculum, and along the front rays of their pectoral fin.

• After appearance of secondary sexual characters male and female are selected and kept in circular glass tank of 24”x12”x15” or ferrocamment tanks{ 3.5 ft x 2.5 ft },after disinfecting containers with 1ppm KMnO4

• Water should have 50% ground water and 50% filtered pond water

• Containers should placed at such place where it recives some early sun shine and no sunlight afterwards.

• Hydrilla is used as their eggs are adhesive.• Artificial nests can be prepared by making split plastic ropes

with one end tied or burnt to make it blunt.• Even polythene stripes have been found suitable for this

purpose .• The nests should float close to surface of water, and additional

nest also be spread on the bottom of the spawning tank for those eggs that sinks instead of adhering.

• Water temp maintained between 20 – 30 C,but ideal is 27-28 C.• 100 mg vitamin E/kg diet of goldfish is better for early gonadal

maturation

• Spawner:Milter = 1:2, preferred in to breeding tank in late evening hours. • Male chase female presses its operculum against female abdomen and

fertilizes eggs while swimming beside her.Egg laying usually takes place with in 6 – 12 hr of putting male and female together.

• As spawning is over,the nests are transferred to different container or alternatively parents are removed from breeding tank.If this is not done ,the parents are likely to eat away there own eggs to compensate the post spawning loss of energy.

• Female lays generally 2000 – 3000 eggs,healthy eggs are golden transparent at the beginning and gradually the transparent area decreases.Unfertilized eggs remain opaque and continue to remain as such arrested growth.These dead eggs become pale white,and hair like aquatic fungus would grow on all the sides,giving it the appearance of a small powder puff.

• Under ideal condition with in 3 days eggs will hatch out,hatching rate 80-90%,when young larvae starts floating the nest material is taken out of tank,generally tiny larvae clinging to nest so precautions should be taken while transferring the nest from the breeding pool.

Veil tail gold fish

Lion head gold fish

Egg depositors

• Rasboras form small group of spp,About 50 spp of fishes from east africa,south and east asia extended to indonesia, and philippines.

• The very common ones are:-Rasbora daniconius{slender rasbora},Rasbora heteromorpha{harlequin},R.panciperforata{glow light rasbora}and R.trilineata{scissor tail}.

• They are ideal for well planted community aquarium where a shoal of 5-10 individuals look very attractive as they swim actively at upper regions of water.

• Optimum Temp for breeding: 25 – 28 C• Rasboras feed on good quality of dried foods,and different

type of live foods for conditioning the adults for breeding.• Smaller rasboras suitable for aquarium, lays 100 eggs per

female.• rasboras and harlequin require soft slightly acidic pH 5.5

environment with temp 28 C ,similar to barbs.• After conditioning male and female kept in tank which is well

planted with flat leaved plants.• Rasboras in general and harlequin in particular prefers

peaceful and quite environment for breeding and low lighting levels

• The male & female brooders placed together in tank for 1 week, if they not respond then they should separated and reintroduced in any further/later date.

• Once spawning occurred,as indicated by slimeness of female fish,remove both parents from the breeding tank.

• Egg laid on underside of flat leaves ,will hatch after 24 – 36 hr.if female is larger it can lay 250 eggs per female.

• Resulting hatchlings become free swimming after 3-5 days. At this stage the tiny hatchlings are fed with infusorians{zooplankton} and newly hatched brine shrimps.

• As they grow bigger they are fed with zooplanktons like Daphnia and moina.

Egg burriers• Among egg burriers Killi fish Aplochelius panchax, A.lineatus,

A.blochii are important.• They lay their eggs in asoft peat at the bottom of the tank.• In an aquarium,they laytheir eggs in dense planted

environment. They are good jumpers so kept in covered aquarium.

• Eggs are capable ofremaining viable even in dried conditions and hatching may possible even after some weeks or even months, when again placed in water.

• In drought conditions parents may die but their eggs remain alive until the next rains.

• They rarely grow more than 3- 4 cm in total length and are short lived.

Nest builders• Among the nest builders gouramies and their relatives are

most popular. The so called labyrinth or anabantid fishes consist of 4 families and almost 70 species of fresh water fishes from tropical africa and south east asia.

• The characteristic of fishes having accessory respiratory organ, the labyrinth an extension of the gill chamber, and situated behind the eyes/gills region of the head. In low oxygen condition these fishes engulf the atmospheric oxygen and come to water surface.

• Many of the anabantids are bubble nest builders and incubate their eggs in floating nests especially made by the male fish.

• We will discuss here breeding of 3 fishes:-Gourami, betta ,and angel fish

1.Dwarf gourami {Colisa lalia}• This fish comes from eastern India, where it lives in still and heavily weed

infested waters. it may reach length of 5 cm. female is less brightly colored than the male, and has more rounded dorsal and anal fins than the male.

• For breeding purpose males and females are kept separately in different tanks for a few weeks and fed with live food.

• When female abdomen distended with eggs, it is transferred to smaller breeding tank with water level of 5”- 6”{1”=1inch=2.4cm} or 6x2.4=14.4cm at temperature 28 – 30 C.

• The tank should have plenty of fine leaf plants such as Cabomba or myriophyllum and some floating plants.

• The water hardness of 100 -200 ppm and pH = 7- 7.5 are ideal.• After 1 – 2 days, a mature male is introduced in the breeding tank. A transparent

perforated plastic sheet or a glass is covered over the tank to keep the humidity & temperature at high level, which help to maintain bubble nest in good condition. The male soon begins building a bubble nest. This is possible by engulfing a large gulp of air at water surface and converting it in to many smaller bubbles that are passed in to gill chamber and coated with anti-burst agent before release.

• After making nest, the courtship usually ends with both fish embracing near the nest resulting deposition of large numbers of eggs in the nest.

• After breeding, the female is removed. The male guards the eggs, which remain attached to the floating bubble nest. With in 24 hr, hatching takes place.

• The moment, the fry leaving the nest, the male is also removed from the tank.

• After 36 hr when young ones are in free swimming stage they are fed with infusoria as starter feed. After few weeks they start taking newly hatched artemia ,and small cladocerans.

• During this stage fry requires vigorous feeding. Subsequently on growing little bigger they can be stocked in in bigger cemented tanks for furthur growth.

• They accept all kind of prepared feed.

2.Siamese fighting fish{Betta splendens}• It is a native to shallow and warm waters of Thailand, Malaysia ,Vietnam.• Like gouramis this fish breath atmospheric air, so it can be kept in very small containers, where

water pH should remain 7.• Bettas accept all kinds of foods, preferably animal protein supplemented diet.• Adult fish attains a length of 6 cm with regard to sexual dimorphism. The male’s dorsal, caudal,

anal, and ventral fins are longer and may become extremely veil shaped.• The cultured betta is variable in color such as white, orange, green, blue, crimson, and almost black

which are reared in aquaria.• After attaining sexual maturity, male become aggressive and they always have life and death

struggle for territories. It is this character that gave the species its name fighting fish. If female don't spawn even after the male make bubble nest,the male become furious and kill the female.

• Bettas get sexual maturity at approximately 3 months of age,but it is best to attempt breeding with fishes that are about 9 – 12 months old.Allow 1 male to every 2 or 3 females, taking care to choose females that are atleast of the same size as the male.

• The male individuals are kept in small aquaria with capacity of 2 – 5 litres water. Since fighters have a labyrinth organ, aeration is not necessary.

• The only regular maintenance required is to change 50 – 75% of water every week.• Less aggressive females are also kept together in one aquarium containing 20- 25 ltr water.• Another breeding tank containing 50 ltr water {depth 15 cm} and have fine leaf plants like

Myriophyllum or Cabomba, is required at this stage. The tank has to be partitioned in to 2 halves with fine meshed net. In one portion female is placed and in other mature male is kept.Optimum water temperature is about 27 C.

• Male starts building a bubble nest quite quickly and once this is underway, the partition net is removed. At this crucial point the female should be accepted by male, otherwise male starts vigorous display of chasing which ultimately leads to fin tearing of female. If the fin tearing occurs the female is quickly removed and the same type of female is replaced after few days.

• Fighter often spawn in early morning and up to 15 eggs may result from one embrace and this is repeated many times during a period of few hours to give a final brood of 200-300 eggs, although brood of 600 and more eggs have also been recorded. As the eggs are shed and fertilized, they sink to the tank floor.

• The male fish then collects them in his mouth and spits them in to the bubble nest.

• At the end of spawning female is removed, but the male is left as he guards the nests for several days. However after 3 days of spawning ,the male is removed as well, otherwise it may eventually eat young ones.

• The Eggs hatch after 36-48 hr. The smaller fry become free swimming after 5-6 days, when they accept infusoria or egg-yolk milk several times a day. After 3 or 4 days, the fry generally accepts fine dry foods.

• In small fry , labyrinth develops at 3 to 4 weeks of age. At this time, it is vital that the air above the tank remains warm and humid, and hence a glass or plastic sheet is recommended. If the air is too cool fish may die.

• The males and females should be seprated before they mature and start fighting.

3.Angel fish {Pterophyllum scalare}

• Its origin from Amazon region of South America . It is up to 6”{14.4 cm}.• Ideal water quality:-pH= 6.8, and alkalinity= 50-100 CaCo3 mg/ltr.• Angel fish requires live plants like Amazon sword plant{Echinodorus}.• They can accept flake food. However, they opt to feed on live foods such as adult

brine shrimp, mosquito larvae, and finely chopped tender earthworms.• A tank with 60-70 ltr of water is required for breeding a pair of angel fish. The

mature angelfish have straight top and bottom fins without any bowing and bend in them are selected.

• They should be healthy, strong, robust, and active.• In the beginning, 6-8 potential breeders are selected which can be set in a 100

ltr tank and they are fed well with a good selection of live foods.• Experienced fish keepers , learn to recognize visible differences in shape and size

of male & female angel fish after watching spawning behavior, unfortunately there are no reliable external sexual characteristics. This sex determination is reasonably reliable but is only possible when the fishes have already selected their partners and display breeding and courtship in aquarium.

• If you watch your Angelfish closely right before the spawning commence, you will however notice a small difference in the size of the papilla between the sexes. The papilla is a pink coloured organ formed between the anal fin and the ventral fin. Both sexes will display a papilla right before spawning, but the Angelfish with the largest papilla is usually the female one. Her papilla will also be blunter than the males, and when the female Angelfish becomes gravid she will display a large bulge in the region around her papilla. You can also notice a difference in behaviour; a male Angelfish is more territorial than a female. If one of your female Angelfish becomes gravid, all the male Angelfish in the aquarium will form a papilla. Those fishes that do not display a papilla in this situation are either females or unhealthy males.

• Angelfish forms pair before breeding. They do however not pair up for life. The easiest way of obtaining a pair is to buy an already established pair from a breeder or a fish store. This is however quite expensive and forming your own pair is much cheaper. A recommended way of forming a pair is to buy 4-8 Scalare and place them in the same aquarium, where they can get to know each other and form their own pairs. Choose fish with good external features, that looks strong and that display a healthy appetite. Study the fins and gills extra carefully for signs of illness. It is advisable to buy from an established breeder if you want to produce high quality Angelfish. If you can’t find a Scalare breeder in your area, you can buy your fish online, but make sure to choose a reputable website to ensure high quality fish.

Getting Angelfish into spawning condition• Your Scalare will usually need to become at least 5 cm / 2 inches before they are mature enough to spawn for the first time. If

kept on a suitable diet, this will happen when the Angelfish is between 8 and 12 months old. To induce spawning, you should keep your Angelfish in an aquarium that is large enough and not overcrowded. The aquarium should ideally be at least 40 cm / 16 inches high, since the Angelfish is a tall fish. An aquarium that is to shallow will stunt their growth. Angelfish can survive quite poor water qualities and unsuitable water temperatures, but it can make them stop eating and will inhibit breeding. Frequent water changes should therefore be performed and the water temperature kept between 80 and 85 degrees F (27 and 29 degrees C).

Suitable food is also necessary to get your Angelfish into spawning condition. The diet should be varied. Prepared foods especially made for Angelfish is a good base, but should be supplemented with meaty foods. Mosquito larvae, daphnia, beef heart, brine shrimp and larger brine shrimp cut up into suitable size are food types known to induce spawning in Angelfish. Even though your Angelfish must be given plenty of food, you must also avoid overfeeding them. Check the aquarium 5 minutes after the feeding and remove any food that has not yet been consumed. If you frequently find left over food in the aquarium after 5 minutes, you are feeding your Angelfish to much.

Angel fish

Black marbled angel fish

Ghost angelfish

Database representing breeding season {months darkened} of various ornamentalfihes

Nutrient requirement of ornamental fishes

In general all fishes approximately needs:-• Crude protein=30-45%• Lipid=4-8%• Carbohydrate=30-40%For ornamental fishes:-• Young ones fed 40-50% protein, 4-6% lipid, 40-50% carbohydrate.• The adult or brood fish fed 30-35% protein, 6-8% lipids, 40-50%

carbohydrate, 1% vitamins-minerals .For home aquaria crude • protein=20-25%; carbohydrate=50-55%• ICAR had developed Indigenous feed Varuna for marine

ornamental fishes.

Common Ingredients and their proximate composition for ornamental fishes

Live food

• Asia is largest fish producer in the world because of its tropical and sub tropical climates. Live food is instant nutrient rich live organisms produced in nature.

• These are mainly infusoria{paramaecim}, white worm{Enchytraeus}, brine shrimp{Artemia}, earthworm, West-african night crawler{Eudrilus eugeniae},bradling worm{Eisenia foetida}, sludge-worm{Tubifex}, Water-flea{moina}, bloodworm{chironomids}.

Feeding FryFry food• Infusorians

Infusorians is a suitable food for very small fish fry. You can easily grow your own Infusoria cultures at home. This way you will always have cheap and nutritious food ready for your fry. Infusorians are minuscule single cell organisms that live in water. To cultivate your own Infusoria you will only need tap water, some bruised vegetables and a few clean containers such as jars or similar.

Boil the tap water and let it cool down to room temperature. Fill the jars with the water and add some bruised vegetables to each jar. Bruised lettuce leaves or banana skins are recommended, since they are known to produce a lot of Infusoria. One banana skin or 3-4 lettuce leaves is a good amount for each jar. Do not put any lids on the jars. Place your jars in a warm place where they will receive moderate light.

The water in the jars will soon turn cloudy and begin to smell a bit. As the Infusorians develop, the smell will become increasingly sweet and the water will clear up. It will usually take 3-4 days for Infusoria to develop. When the water looks clear, you can start feeding your fry with the Infusoria. Use a siphon or a spoon to remove the Infusoria from the top of the jar and place it in your fry aquarium. Make sure not to bring any plant material from the Infusoria jars over to the fry rearing tank, since this can pollute the water. Start developing new Infusoria culture every 3-4 day to make sure you always have enough food for your fry until they are big enough to eat larger food.

• Brineshrimps (Artemia salina)Most fish fry is large enough to eat brine shrimp as their first food, especially if you give them newly hatched brine shrimp. Very small fry should instead be fed Infusoria, and brine shrimp can be introduced as a

second food. If you feed your brine shrimp suitable food, they will grow large enough to be used as food for adult fish as well. Growing large brine shrimps is an inexpensive way of providing your fish with much appreciated live food, and is especially recommended when you wish to induce spawning.

Just like Infusoria, brine shrimp is easy to cultivate at home. You can buy a brine shrimp hatchery from your fish store or fix one yourself. Brine shrimp will even hatch in bottles! Some brine shrimp hatcheries will require and air stone connected to an air operated pump. Other brine shrimp hatcheries can be attached to the inside or outside of the aquarium.

If you want to fix your own brine shrimp hatchery in a bottle you can use a clean milk bottle or similar. Boil some water, three-quarters of a pint is enough, and let it cool down before you use it to fill the bottle. Add one teaspoon of aquarium salt to the water and put the bottle in a warm room. It is possible to use ordinary cooking salt instead of aquarium salt, but the result will usually not be as good as with aquarium salt. Insert an air stone in the bottle to provide oxygen. Place a pinch of brine shrimp eggs in the water and wait for them to hatch. The water temperature must never go below 15 degrees Celsius, but this is usually not a problem in a temperate room. Brine shrimp eggs will typically hatch after 48 hours or even earlier. By setting up new bottles you can make sure that you always have suitable size brine shrimp for your fry.

Brine shrimp eggs can be bought in most pet shops and fish stores. If you use eggs with shells you must turn off the air stone in the hatchery to make the shells sink to the bottom. The hatched brine shrimp will stay a few inches above the bottom and can be easily removed. It is important to separate the brine shrimp from the shells, since shells might get stuck inside the fish fry if they consume them. You can also buy shell-free brine shrimp eggs.

• Water Fleas (Daphnia) Water fleas can be hard to disinfect properly, so if you want to feed your fry daphnia you must obtain the daphnia from a source that you can trust and that you know have no sanitary problems. The same is true if

you plan to raise your own daphnia for the fry; you must make sure that you begin with a disease free starter culture.

Once your have obtained a proper starter culture of daphnia, the rest is easy. Fill a plastic container with 5 gallons of tap water and let the water stand for roughly 48 hours in room temperature. Obtain a handful of manure from a stable. You will also need a nylon bag. You can produce one yourself from a pair of nylon stay-ups or use the type of nylon bag that comes with washing machine tablets. Place the manure in the nylon bag and submerge the nylon bag in the water. After roughly 7-10 days the water will have turned cloudy, which means that the water is now filled with micro organisms for the daphnia to feed on. Add the daphnia to the water and wait. The culture will take care of itself for the few weeks needed for the daphnia to grow large and abundant enough to be suitable as fish food. The easiest way of removing daphnia is to use a fine meshed net.

• WhitewormsWhiteworms are a much appreciated fry food that can be cultured at home. You will need to obtain some moist and nutritious garden soil for the whiteworms to grow in. Fill 75% of a shallow box with garden soil.

If necessary, water the soil until it is quite damp. It is important that the soil never is allowed to dry out, but waterlogged soil is just as bad. Add the whiteworm culture to the soil together with a few small pieces of moist white bread. Cover the box with a lid. The box or the lid must have some air holes to allow for ventilation. Put the box in a dark place where the temperature is around 16-18 degrees Celsius. Bring new bread to the box every 3-4 day and make sure that the soil is constantly moist. If you find any uneaten food you should remove it before it turns bad.

When its time for your to collect whiteworms for your fish, you just spoon out some soil from underneath the bread. You will naturally find the largest congregations of whiteworm right beneath the food pieces. Pour the soil with the whiteworms into a bowl or dish filled with water. When the worms have become separated from the soil you can easily collect them and drop them into the aquarium.

Some other ornamental fishes breeding

Breeding Discus Fish • Discus is not a very easy fish to keep, and breeding them in aquariums is even harder. Only those with

previous experience from keeping easier species should try caring for Discus, since many Discuses have died in the hands of inexperienced aquarists. Discus fish are wonderful to keep – they are beautiful as well as charming – but they do require quite a lot of pampering. The key to successfully breeding Discus lies in always providing them with supreme water conditions, keeping them in an aquarium that is large enough for them, giving them high quality food etcetera. A well kept Discus pair will breed regularly in the aquarium, and there is really no special “fix” that will induce breeding in a couple that do not feel well. Most of the guidelines regarding Discus breeding will therefore be the same as for keeping Discus.

First and foremost – a Discus couple will not breed in an aquarium that is too small. A depth of at least 15 inches is required for these tall fishes. A 36 inches x 18 inches x 18 inches aquarium is therefore usually the smallest suitable standard aquarium for a pair. If you have a 48 inches x 18 inches x 18 inches aquarium you can even keep a group of 4-6 smaller Discus until they have formed their own pairs. The water temperature should be kept at 82 degrees Fahrenheit or higher, and the water must be very soft. Keep the pH as close to 6.5 as possible. The soft water means that you will have to monitor the pH value vigilantly. Soft water is a very bad buffer and the pH value can therefore drop very quickly and your Discus will not do well in acidic water. Keep the levels of soluble waste as low as possible and never allow the nitrate level to rise above 20 ppm. Since your Discus will require a diet rich in protein, they will consequently produce a lot of waste products that will push up the nitrate levels in the aquarium. The best way to combat the nitrate is by performing frequent water changes. Changing 30-50 percent of the water each week is a good rule of thumb.

• As mentioned above, your Discus will require plenty of protein in their diet. Professional Discus breeders usually give their fish beef heart. The beef heart diet should ideally be supplemented with other food types, such as spinach and bloodworms. Some high quality flake food will provide your Discus with extra nutrients, and additional vitamins can also be a good idea.

During the initial stage of the breeding process your Discus couple will start to defend a small region of the aquarium. Both the male and the female Discus will become highly territorial and guard this region together. They will continue by picking a spawning site and carefully clean it. Some Discus pairs clean a number of sites before they finally decide to place the eggs on one of them. The female Discus will swim over the spawning site and deposit her eggs in rows, and they male will swim behind her and promptly fertilize them. I wish to once again stress the importance of keeping your Discus in soft water. Hard water will make the protecting membranes that surround the eggs so hard that it is impossible for the sperm to get through. Hard water can therefore cause the eggs to stay unfertilized and no fry will develop. Hard water can also make it impossible for a fry to hatch.

Discus pairs are attentive parents and will guard and care for the eggs together. They will fan fresh water over the eggs to ensure high levels of oxygen and they will also remove any unfertilized eggs to prevent bacteria growth and mould. Discus eggs will hatch within 48 hours if the water temperature is right. The fry will stay at the spawning site with the parents for an additional 12 hours. After that, the fry will be moved around the aquarium by their parents, and the parents will use different places to hide the fry in. If you keep up the water temperature your will have free swimming fry in the aquarium after approximately one week. Free swimming fry will need no extra food, because they will eat from the scales of their parents. The adult Discus will secrete baby-food from between their scales. This food will provide the fry with everything they need for about one week. After that, they will be large enough to eat more normal food and you can start feeding them newly hatched brine shrimp. Powdered flake food is another option. Just like their parents, Discus fry will appreciate some beef heart, but since the fry are so small you will need to liquidise the beef heart for them. Do not separate the fry from the parents until you know for sure that they are no longer feeding from the scales. If you provide your Discus fry with ideal conditions and suitable food, they will grow very rapidly and be around 2 inches in diameter at an age of 12 weeks. When they have reached this size, they are large enough to be sold to pet shops or other aquarists.

Blue turquoise discus

Breeding Oscar Fish• Oscar fish can be bred in aquariums as long as you provide them with favourable conditions. To

begin with, the aquarium must be large enough. Oscars are large cichlids and their size can exceed one foot. To get a breeding pair, you must house 6 young Oscars together and let them form their own pairs. Make sure you choose healthy Oscars from different broods. It can be hard to sex young Oscars, but you will hopefully get at least one pair from 6 individuals. If you don’t want to wait and let Oscars grow up together, you can instead buy a breeding pair but this is usually much more expensive. The stress and disturbance experienced by the fish when you move them from their old aquarium can also cause them to brake up and stop being a breeding pair.

Once a pair has been formed you should remove the other fish from the aquarium, since breeding Oscars are highly territorial and can hurt intruding fish. If the spawning does not commence immediately there is not easy fix that can kick start it. What you can do is provide the pair with suitable conditions and wait for the spawning to start. The courtship behaviour can be very violent – sometimes too violent and resulting in the death of one of the Oscars before any offspring has been produced. Oscars will do well in soft acidic water as well as in harder alkaline water, as long as you avoid any extremes. Keeping the conditions similar to their native home in Central America is always a good idea. Frequent water changes are important to ensure suitable water chemistry and low levels of soluble waste. Do not change more than 25 percent of the water at once. Changing 20-25 percent of the water once or twice a week is a good rule of thumb. Efficient filtration is also required since Oscars are renowned for being messy eaters and producing plenty of waste. If you have a 50 gallon aquarium you should ideally use filtration that is recommended for a 100 gallon aquarium.

• Feed the pair bait fish or frozen fish. Prawns, crickets, earth worms and other meaty foods are also suitable. Some Oscar keepers feed their fish raw meat from cows and pigs, but this is highly unadvisable since such meat include too much animal fat and can harm the health of your Oscars. Remember that wild Oscars feed mainly on small fish and eating cows, pigs, sheep etc are therefore very unnatural for them. Pellets should also be avoided since a majority of the pellet will slip through the gills of the Oscar and never end up inside the stomach. Your fish will still be hungry and the water will be polluted with uneaten pellet material.

• An Oscar pair will typically dig a pit in the substrate or choose a hard surface, such as a flat stone, as their spawning site. Both the male and the female Oscar will guard and care for eggs and fry. The will be extremely protective and aggressive during this period and should be kept alone. Just like with many other cichlid species, it is common for an Oscar pair to fail their first attempts to raise offspring. Newly hatched brine shrimp is a suitable first food for Oscar fry. You can feed the powdered flake food, but they will grow much faster on brine shrimp. When kept on a brine shrimp diet the fry will be 1.5-2.0 inches long after three months. Keep in mind that one Oscar pair is capable of producing tremendous amounts of offspring. You might have to cull the batch if you can’t provide all the young Oscars with suitable housing.

oscar

Breeding Tiger Barbs• Tiger Barbs are a good choice for beginner aquarists that wish to breed fish, since Tiger Barbs frequently

spawn in aquariums without much pampering. They are hardy and will accept a wide range of temperatures. If you choose a high quality flake food they will do well on a prepared food diet, but it is always recommended to sometimes supplement the flakes with more meaty foods such as Daphnia, bloodworms or similar. More information regarding suitable food during the breeding period can be found further down in this article.

The Tiger Barb is an active fish that can reach a size of 1.5", so make sure you have enough space to keep the produced fish in before attempting to breed them. Since Tiger Barbs do not raise their offspring, one Tiger Barb batch is usually very large to make sure that at least a few of the fry survive. This means that you might have to cull the batch if you do not have a very large aquarium for the fry to grow in. If you refrain from culling and instead let them grow up in a crowded aquarium, the whole batch will suffer.

If you want to breed Tiger Barbs, you must start with separating the males from the females. It is true that healthy Tiger Barbs sometimes spawn when kept together in community aquariums, but this it is not something that happens very often and if you want to induce spawning you should separate the sexes from each other. The smallest Tiger Barbs with the plumpest bodies are the females.

When you have separated the sexes you should start feeding them a spawning-inducing diet. Tiger Barbs are happy eaters and will usually consume anything you give them, but breeding Tiger Barbs require a diet rich in protein to do well. Freeze dried Tubifex is known to induce spawning in Tiger Barbs, but other protein rich food types can also work well. Live food is always a good idea. The temperature in the aquariums where you keep your Tiger Barbs should stay around 80 degrees Fahrenheit. After 3-4 days of separation you should let the Tiger Barbs see each other again. The aquarium where you want them to breed must have slightly soft water, and the pH should be a bit acidic. Just like when they were separated, the water temperature should be kept close to 80 degrees Fahrenheit. A mature sponge filter will help you keep the water conditions optimal. You must also provide your Tiger Barbs with suitable spawning sites, such as two bunches of Cabomba plants or a pair of spawning mops

• Spawning will usually begin very soon when the Tiger Barbs have been brought together again. During the courting period, the male will chase the females. When a female Tiger Barb starts releasing her eggs at the spawning site the male will follow her and leave a trail of sperm in the water. When the spawning is over you should remove the adult fish from the rearing aquarium, since Tiger Barbs are known to eat their own offspring. If you have covered the aquarium floor with marbles the eggs will be safer since the eggs can fall down between the marbles where the adult fish can’t reach them. If you keep the water temperature in the aquarium at 80 degrees Fahrenheit you can expect free swimming fry after approximately five days. The fry will usually cling to the sides of the aquarium.

Newly hatched brine shrimp is a suitable first food for Tiger Barb fry. Powdered flake food will also work, but the growth rate will be slower and powdered flake food is not recommended for larger Tiger Barb fry. If the newly hatched Tiger Barbs are very small, you can feed them liquid fry food until they are big enough to eat solid food. Tiger Barbs are commonly sold to pet stores when they are around three months old.

Tiger barbs

Breeding Bristlenosed Catfish• Bristlenosed catfish is not very hard to breed in aquariums. Keep one male Bristlenosed catfish with several females,

and make sure they are all in top condition. Provide them with good water quality and a varied and nutritious diet. You will most likely never notice the actual spawning behaviour, just the result of it in the form of tiny Bristlenosed catfish babies that suddenly appear in the aquarium.

From what we know about Bristlenosed catfish breeding habits, the spawning seems to be initiated by the male catfish. He will pick a suitable spawning site, usually a cave or a crevice, and subsequently start chasing the females as a part of the courting behaviour. The females will repeatedly inspect the spawning site and this part of the spawning can go on for several days. Eventually the female catfish will deposit her eggs at in a clump at the spawning site where they are fertilized by the male. Newly deposited eggs from a Bristlenosed catfish display a bright orange colour. The female will leave the spawning site immediately and do not stay around to guard or care for the eggs.

The male Bristlenosed catfish stays at the spawning site to protect the eggs from predators. The will place his tail near the eggs and let his head protrude out of the cave or crevice. He is probably placing his tail close to the eggs in order to care for them by fanning fresh water over them, but this has still not be determined. The male Bristlenosed catfish is a very capable parent and you should never remove him from the eggs or try to raise catfish eggs in a breeding tank without the male present.

Fry will emerge from the eggs after 4-5 days. The fry will still eat from their yolk-sac. They will start to spread over the aquarium, and in a community aquarium a lot of them will soon be consumed by the adult fish. If you want to ensure a high fry survival rate it is recommended to breed Bristlenosed catfish a separated tank. You can even remove the females from the aquarium, and leave the fry with the male. When the fry has been free swimming for a week you can remove the male as well. High oxygen levels are very important for Bristlenosed fry and good aeration in the aquarium will typically lead to a higher survival rate.

When the yolk-sac is consumed you can start feeding the Bristlenosed fry vegetable food, such as very finely cut lettuce and cucumber. Dip the vegetables in boiling water before you place them in the aquarium. A good algae growth in the aquarium is beneficial for the fry since this is their natural food source. If kept on a suitable diet the fry will be around 1 ¼ inches long after two months.

Bristelnosed catfish

fish Spawning MethodsA majority of the world's fish species are egg layers, but there are also a lot of species that have developed into livebearers. The egg laying species will typically use some form

of external fertilization of the eggs, while the livebearers perform internal fertilization. The level and type of parental care will also vary considerably between different fish species. Some are extremely devoted parents while others leave their offspring immediately, or even worse – try to eat them! The parental care can also vary a lot between different individuals within the same species, and from batch to batch.

• Livebearers Livebearing fish species give birth to free swimming fry. A lot of the commonly kept aquarium species are livebearers, such as the Guppy. The eggs are fertilized by the male

while they are still inside the body of the female fish, so called internal fertilization. In livebearing species, the male's anal fin has developed into a reproductive organ. This type of modified anal fin is called a gonopodium. After the fertilization, the eggs develop into fry inside the female fish. When the fry is born, they look like miniatures of adult fish, but sometimes without the striking colours of their parents. Many species develop striking colours as they grow larger and mature. In some livebearing species the female fish can store spermatozoa (semen) from one single mating and use it to fertilize several batches in a row. This is why female livebearers sometimes give birth in aquariums where they are kept without any males.

• Egg scatterers Egg scattering species are often living in fast flowing waters in the wild. The eggs are released by the female and fertilized, and then rapidly swept away by the current. This is

why egg scattering species will usually eat their own offspring if they spawn in aquariums. If you are planning to breed an egg scatterer, e.g.a Zebra Danios, you must protect the eggs from the parents. You can cover the aquarium floor with marble and keep the water shallow. The eggs will sink and since the water is shallow they will rapidly reach the bottom, where they will lay hidden among the marbles. Larger marbles will also provide hiding places for the fry when they emerge. Some breeders place a net in the aquarium, to prevent the adult fish from reaching the bottom. The mesh must be large enough for the eggs to fall through.

• Egg DepositersThere are two types of egg depositers: open water spawners and secretive spawners. Open water spawners will not hide their eggs. Open water spawners typically deposit

the eggs on a flat rock, on the aquarium floor or on the leaves of broad leaved aquatic plants. Some open water spawners will dig a crater in the substrate and place their eggs inside. Secretive egg depositers wants to hide their eggs, and will choose a cave, a crevice or similar as spawning site. In the aquarium they will usually appreciate turned over terracotta flowerpot. Both open water spawners and secretive spawners clean the site before they deposit their eggs, and they will usually also defend the eggs and care for them by cleaning them. Before the fry emerge, many egg depositers will move the eggs around to other pre-cleaned sites. Egg depositers are also known to guard their fry and the fry is often seen swimming around with their parents.

• Nest BuildersThe nest building group is actually a sub-category to the egg depositers. Nest builders create nests of bubbles and deposit their eggs inside. The nests are formed by the male

fish by blowing saliva bubbles, and a bubble nest will often contain plant fragments. When the female has released the eggs they are carefully gathered by the male and placed inside the bubble nest. In some species, the female will gather the eggs. In some species the eggs will float up into the nest without help from the parents.

• Mouth broodersMouth brooders are also a kind of egg depositers, but the offspring is guarded inside the mouth of a parent. The eggs are often deposited in a shallow crater where they are

fertilized by the male before being picked up by the male or the female fish. In some species the eggs are fertilized by the male when they have already been picked up by the female. Some mouth brooding species will carry only the eggs inside the mouth and spit out the emerging fry, while others will care for the eggs on the spawning site and pick up the fry with their mouth when they emerge. Some species will carry both egg and fry. Even after being released, the fry might flee into the mouth of their parent if they are scared by something or sleep inside the mouth during the night.

• Egg buriersThe egg burying species have developed in areas subjected to seasonal draughts. During the rainy season, the eggs will be deposited deep down in the mud. The eggs will

then stay buried during the draught. When a new rainy season begins, the water will trigger the hatching of the eggs and fry will emerge. The egg burying species will not guard their offspring, since the parents are usually dead long before the rainy season begins. If you want to breed egg burying species in your aquarium you must simulate a dry season and a subsequent rainy season. The adult fish can be given a container filled with peat moss to deposit their eggs inside instead of placing them in mud. The container can be removed from the water and subjected to a several month long dry season in a cupboard. Once you add water to the peat moss again, the eggs will hatch and you can start feeding the fry.

Aquarium Decoration • In this part of the articles library you will find information about different types of aquarium decorations and what to think about when you select,

purchase and arrange them. Aquarium decoration is not only beautiful for the aquarist to admire; the fish will also appreciate an aquarium that is decorated instead of barren. If you arrange your aquarium decorations properly they will form hiding places and natural borders and make the aquarium more like the natural environment for fish. Natural borders can help to reduce the amount of aggression in an aquarium. If you want to introduce a new fishes, you can rearrange the aquarium decorations and break up all the old territories in order to make the old inhabitants less territorial and give the new fishes a chance to claim their own territories.

• Cave dwelling fish species will love aquarium decorations that form caves, holes and crevices. Fish that live in densely grown waters will appreciate plants and other types of tiny hiding places. An intelligent and curious fish that is bored in your aquarium can perk up significantly when you give him a plastic diver that is blowing bubbles. Aquarium decorations can even be used as spawning sites for many fish species. Plants are one form of aquarium decoration that can play a much larger part in the aquarium than simply being beautiful. Plants will bind carbon dioxide and oxygenate the water. They will also use organic waste products as nutrition and thereby remove potentially harmful compounds from the water. Some aquarists use cheap but sensitive aquatic plants as canaries in the aquarium. If the water suddenly goes bad, the plant will die before the fish and the aquarist will notice the problem and be able to handle it before the fish begin to die.

• Some people find aquarium decorations tacky and want their aquarium to be as clean and sterile as possible when it comes to decorations, but the fish do not care about fashion – they care about sheltering places, a varied environment and things to investigate. Today, there are fortunately a lot of beautiful and stylish aquarium decorations to choose among and even the pickiest minimalist can find something to his or her liking.

• It is common for aquarium decorations to consist of natural materials; such as rock, wood or coral. These are commonly used in set ups that have been arranged in order to look as natural as possible. An aquarium can be like a tiny piece of the true habitat for the fish species. Some aquarists will for instance set up an aquarium with Tanganyika cichlids, and turn the aquarium into a small replica of the part of Lake Tanganyika where the selected species live; including Lake Tanganyika plants and a substrate that is similar to the sandy bottom in Lake Tanganyika. There are also plenty of artificial aquarium decorations that can look very realistic. Plastic plants can for instance be a good idea in an aquarium with plant eating fish species. Coral replicas and artificial anemones are popular in saltwater aquariums. If you are a beginner saltwater aquarists, it is recommend to start out with a fish only aquarium and use artificial coral and anemones as aquarium decoration, since corals and anemones are hard to keep and have very particular requirements.

• In addition to the natural or natural looking aquarium decorations, there are also a wide range of aquarium decorations that would not normally be found in a lake, river or ocean. It can for instance be fantasy sea monsters from fairytales or copies of the Egyptian pyramids. Sculls, bones, shipwrecks, and half buried treasure boxes are also popular. Some fish keepers like the idea of a sunken Atlantis and decorate their aquarium with statues and temple ruins.

• It is very important that you only use aquarium decorations that are safe to use in aquariums. If you have a saltwater aquarium, you should make sure that they are saltwater-safe as well. If you place normal decorations that are not intended for aquarium use in the water they might leak toxic compounds. It is for instance common for many types of ornaments to contain minerals that will be dissolved by the water and slowly poison your fish. If you pick stones, wood etcetera from the wild you can introduce harmful organisms to your aquarium, e.g. parasites, fungus, virus and bacteria..

Breeding of live bearers• In central America ,these small, colorful, tiny fishes are very popular

with the fish hobbiyists owing to the fact that they accept all kinds of food, are prolific breeders, and produce living, free swimming young ones.Because of its habits to keep any colour strain pure,one must isolate it from any possible contamination{cross breeds}.

• For which one must require a number of tanks, one for males and another for females, and few breeding tanks for each selected pair and some tamks for young ones.

• Unlike other fishes female live bearers are fertilized internally by means of males modified anal fin, the gonopodium by which milt transfers to female. Fishes in this groups include mollies, which have enlarged, sail like dorsal fin; platys usually have rounded tail fin; guppy a species with multicolor and; sword tail, so named because males have long pointed sword-like extension to the caudal fin.

Breeding of guppy{poecilia reticulata}• The guppy (poecilia reticulata) is a live bearing fish, which has its

origin from south America, north of the Amazon but now it is seen world wide.

• The probable reasons of spreading in many countries are:-a.mosquito larvae eating nature ;b.aesthetic point of view they look very beautiful

• Greater demand through out the Europe• Male guppy may reach up to 2.5-3.5cm in length, while the

female is usually larger when fully grown.• They thrive well in a large well planted tank with steady

temperature with in 20-25 C.• During summer, a special cooling care has to be maintain to

sustain the guppies, as the water temperature in many places rise up to 37 C.

• From the community tanks, the gravid females are to be removed, those start to swell with developing young ones and placed in breeding tanks {30cmx20cmx20cm} individually or pair.

• Plants like cabomba can be placed in aquarium. At this stage aeration is not essential but one has to keep in mind, when the individual female gives birth 20-200 young ones aeration is required.

• For mass breeding of guppy a tanks of size (100cm x100cm x60cm) is ideal, where a perforated cylindrical baskets can be provided in one side of the tank encircled with fibrous plastic flowing filaments where female can drop the young ones.

• Soon after the birth, young ones escape from their mother and enter in to the perforated basket and latter the young ones are collected from the basket and placed in separate tanks for further rearing.

Breeding of Platy, sword tail, and mollies

• The platies, swordtails, {Xiphophorus} and the mollies {poecilia} are all close relatives of the guppy and have originated from Central and North –Eastern South America.

• Adult livebearers of platies and swordtail take 6-8 weeks and mollies 12-16 weeks to mature. Like guppies the male insert its gonopodium with milts in to the female fish, and eggs are fertilized inside the mother’s body.

• After fertilization, the embryo grows to tiny young ones and becomes ready for free swimming with in 4 weeks of gestation period.

• Platies, swordtails, mollies are quite hardy fish, but in no case they should be neglected with standard culture conditions.

• They will breed well in most types of water, so long as it is not too soft or acidic.Many of mollies appear to benefit from the addition of a little aquarium marine salt or common salt to the water(0.5-1 g/litre) and ensure that this salt level is maintained at every partial water change.

Sex reversal in sword tails• In sword tail (xiphophorus helleri), the phenomenon of sex

reversal is frequently noticed by the researchers or hobbyists.• Each immature fish can develop in to male or a female

depending on whether the male or female reproductive organs develop first. If the ovaries {female reproductive organs} develops first, these will secrete female hormones ‘estrogen’ and the fish will develop in to a female. The case may be same for males. Later on, the female fish can turn in to functional male. Female to male change is common, but male to female change is rare.

• Sometimes, the external factors such as pH can affect the sexual development of some fishes. It has been observed that the low pH of 5 -6 develop more male in the broods of sword tail and pH value more than 7 develop more females.

Instant breeding table for live bearers

Breeding traps used for livebearers species• When female of livebearer species are ready to drop young ones,

they should be taken in to breeding tank where individual or group of fishes can be kept in perforated nylon bag cages from which the youngones escape from their mother through mesh to outside to avoid parental predation.

• Various types of net cages, perforated plastic bins, or fabricated perforated containers of required size can be used for this purpose.

• Depending upon size of the net cages or traps,the females can be provided accordingly. A box type or cyllindrical, but not a cage, can fitted or hooked on to wall of aquarium for one or more mothers whose new-borns drop through the mesh opening in to the lower space of the aquarium.

• When it is observed that the female has stopped dropping the young ones, these should be removed and reared separately with the balanced nutritious diet.

Feeding for breeding{live bearers case}

• Livebearers are generally omnivorous, this means they normally accept both animal and plant based food. This applies even to those species that are regarded as herbivores{plant eaters},like many of mollies. In fact, mollies sometimes eat their owwn young ones, proving beyond doubt that they can digest animal protein like any other carnivorous fish.

• During periods of growth and recuperation, diets, that are slightly higher in protein than normal {say, around 35%} must be given, that may be advantageous.

• While at other time lower levelsof protein (around 25- 30 %)can be given in granular form.

• They have more tendency towards plant feed comparison to animal feed .

General information of discus, oscar, parrot fish and clown fish.

1.Discus (fish) TaxonomyDiscus belong to the genus Symphysodon, which currently includes three species: The common discus

(Symphysodon aequifasciatus), the Heckel discus (Symphysodon discus), and a new species which has been named Symphysodon tarzoo.However, a further investigation published in August 2007 suggested that the genus held the three species: S. aequifasciatus (the green discus), S. haraldi (the blue/brown/common discus) and S. discus (the Heckel discus). Both studies suggest three species; the only disagreement is in the scientific names for each.

AppearanceRed turquoise discusLike cichlids from the genus Pterophyllum, all Symphysodon species have a laterally compressed body shape. In

contrast to Pterophyllum, however, extended finnage is absent giving Symphysodon a more rounded shape. It is this body shape from which their common name, "discus", is derived. The sides of the fish are frequently patterned in shades of green, red, brown, and blue. The height and length of the grown fish are both about 20–25 cm (8–10 in).

Reproduction and sexual dimorphismDiscus with two of its young nearbyAnother characteristic of Symphysodon species is their care for the larvae. As for most cichlids, brood care is

highly developed with both the parents caring for the young. Additionally, adult discus produce a secretion through their skin, which the larvae live off during their first few days. This behaviour has also been observed for Uaru species. However when bred in captivity the larvae will tend to live off their parents secretion for up to 2 weeks

DISCUS{Symphysodon aequifasciatus}

2. Oscar (fish)Astronotus ocellatus is a species of fish from the cichlid family known under a variety of common names

including oscar, tiger oscar, velvet cichlid, or marble cichlid. In South America, where the species naturally resides, A. ocellatus are often found for sale as a food fish in the local markets. The fish can also be found in other areas including China, Australia, and the United States. It is one of the fastest growing aquarium cichlids kept, reaching a size of over 12 inches in less than 1 year and is considered a popular aquarium fish

TaxonomyThe species was originally described by Louis Agassiz in 1831 as Lobotes ocellatus, as he mistakenly believed the

species was marine, later work assigned the species to the genus Astronotus.The species also has a number of junior synonyms: Acara compressus, Acara hyposticta, Astronotus ocellatus zebra, and Astronotus orbiculatus. A. ocellatus have been reported to grow into a length of 34 cm (approximately 15 in) and a mass of 1.6 kg (2.6 lb). The wild caught forms of the species are typically darkly coloured with orange ringed-spots or ocelli on the caudal peduncle and on the dorsal fin. It has been suggested that these ocelli function to limit fin-nipping by piranha (Serrasalmus spp.) which co-occur with A. ocellatus in its natural environment.The species is also able to rapidly alter its colouration, a trait which facilitates ritualised territorial and combat behaviours amongst conspecifics. Juvenile A. ocellatus have a different colouration from adults and are striped with white and orange wavy bands and have spotted heads.

Distribution and habitatTwo Tiger OscarsA. ocellatus is native to Peru, Colombia, Brazil, and French Guiana and occurs in the Amazon river basin, along the

Amazonas, Içá, Negro, Solimões, and Ucayali river systems, and also in the Approuague and Oyapock drainages. In its natural environment the species typically occurs in slow moving white-water habitats, and has been observed sheltering under submerged branches.Feral populations also occur in China, northern Australia, and Florida, USA[13] as a by-product of the ornamental fish trade. The species is limited in its distribution by its intolerance of cooler water temperatures, the lower lethal limit for the species is 12.9 °C (55.2 °F).

Sexual DimorphismAlthough the species is widely regarded as sexually monomorphic, it has also been suggested that males grow more quickly, and in

some naturally occurring strains, males are noted to possess dark blotches on the base of the dorsal fin. [ The species reaches sexual maturity at approximately one year of age and continues to reproduce for nine to ten years. Frequency and timing of spawning may be related to the occurrence of rain. A. ocellatus are biparental substrate spawners, though detailed information regarding their reproduction in the wild are scarce.

Young Oscar approx 2 inchesIt has been observed that the closely related Astronotus crassipinnis may, in times of danger, protect food in its mouth in a manner

reminiscent of mouthbrooding geophagine cichlids. This behaviour, however, has not yet been observed in A. ocellatus. In captivity, pairs are known to select and clean generally flattened horizontal or vertical surfaces on which to lay their 1,000 to 3,000 eggs. Like most cichlids, A. ocellatus practice brood care, although the duration of brood care in the wild remains unknown

FeedingCaptive oscars may be fed prepared fish food designed for large carnivorous fish, crayfish, worms, and insects such as flies or

grasshoppers. Crickets are also good live food. Since these fish are found in the wild, fruit can also be used as a type of food. Just about anything that fell into the water would be eaten by Oscars. These fish basically eat anything. Live feeder fish can be given, but fish such as goldfish and rosy red feeder minnows should not be fed. They are typically kept in filthy conditions within the pet store, and will spread disease to oscars, as well as containing an enzyme within their flesh which binds vitamin B1, leading to deficiency. Most fish eaten by A. ocellatus in the wild are relatively sedentary catfish, and included Bunocephalus, Rineloricaria, and Ochmacanthus species.[The species uses a suction mechanism to capture prey, and has been reported to exhibit "laying-on-side" death mimicry in a similar fashion to Parachromis friedrichsthalii and Nimbochromis livingstonii. The species also has an absolute requirement for vitamin C and develops health problems in its absence.

Selective breedingA number of ornamental varieties of A. ocellatus have been developed for the aquarium industry. These include forms with greater

intensity and quantities of red marbling across the body, albino, leucistic, and xanthistic forms. A. ocellatus with marbled patches of red pigmentation are sold as red tiger oscars, while those strains with mainly red colouration of the flanks are frequently sold under the trade name of red oscars. The patterning of red pigment differs between individuals; in the United Kingdom, one A. ocellatus reportedly had markings that resembled the Arabic word for "Allah."] In recent years long-finned varieties have also been developed. The species is also occasionally artificially coloured by a process known as painting.

Oscar{Astronotus ocellatus }

A leucistic long-finned oscar

3. Parrotfish• Taxonomy• Traditionally, the parrotfishes have been considered a family level taxon,

Scaridae. Although phylogenetic and evolutionary analysis of parrotfishes is still ongoing, it is now accepted that they are a clade in the tribe Cheilini, and are now commonly referred to as scarine labrids (subfamily Scarinae, family Labridae).[1] Some authorities have preferred to maintain the parrotfishes as a family level taxon, resulting in Labridae not being monophyletic.

• Characteristics• Chlorurus microrhinos from the north coast of East Timor• Parrot fish sleeping at coral reef, Red Sea• Parrotfish are named for their dentition, which also is distinct from that

of other labrids. Their numerous teeth are arranged in a tightly-packed mosaic on the external surface of the jaw bones, forming a parrot-like beak with which they rasp algae from coral and other rocky substrates (which contributes to the process of bioerosion).

• Although they are considered to be herbivores, parrotfish eat a wide variety of reef organisms, and they are not necessarily vegetarian. Species such as the green humphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum) include coral (polyps) in their diet. Their feeding activity is important for the production and distribution of coral sands in the reef biome, and can prevent algae from choking coral. The teeth grow continuously, replacing material worn away by feeding. The pharyngeal teeth grind up coral rock the fish ingest during feeding. After they digest the rock, they excrete it as sand, helping to create small islands and the sandy beaches of the Caribbean. One parrotfish can produce 90 kg of sand each year.

• Maximum sizes vary within the family, with the majority of species reaching 30–50 centimetres (12–20 in) in length. However, a very few species reach almost 1 metre (3.3 ft), and the green humphead parrotfish reaches up to 1.3 metres (4.3 ft).

• Their bodies are deep, with large, thick cycloid scales, large pectoral fins and homocercal tail fins.

• Parrotfish use their pectorals as their primary means of locomotion, engaging the tail only to achieve higher speed.

• Life cycle• The bicolor parrotfish (Cetoscarus bicolor) was described by Rüppell in

1829. In 1835, he mistakenly described the terminal phase, featured on this photo, as a separate species, C. pulchellus

• The development of parrotfish is complex and accompanied by a series of changes in color termed polychromatism. Almost all species are sequential hermaphrodites, starting as females (known as the initial phase) and then changing to males (the terminal phase). However, in many species, for example the stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride), a number of individuals develop directly to males (i.e., they do not start as females). These directly developing males usually most resemble the initial phase, and often display a different mating strategy than the terminal phase males of the same species. A few species, for example the Mediterranean parrotfish (S. cretense), are secondary gonochorist, meaning that some females do not change sex, and the ones that do, change from female to male while still immature (i.e., reproductively functioning females do not change to males). The marbled parrotfish (Leptoscarus vaigiensis) is the only species of parrotfish known not to change sex. In most species, the initial phase is dull red, brown or grey, while the terminal phase is vividly green or blue with bright pink or yellow patches. The remarkably different terminal and initial phases were first described as separate species in several cases, but there are also some species where the phases are similar.

• In most parrotfish species, juveniles have a different color pattern from adults. Juveniles of some tropical species can alter their color temporarily to mimic other species.

• Parrotfish sleeping in a nook on a rock wall• Feeding parrotfish of most tropical species form large schools grouped

by size. Fights of several females presided over by a single male are the norm in most species, the males vigorously defending their position from any challenge.

• Parrotfish are pelagic spawners; they release many tiny buoyant eggs into the water, which become part of the plankton. The eggs float freely, settling into the coral until hatching.

• Economic importance• A commercial fishery exists for some of the larger tropical species,

particularly in the Indo-Pacific. Their meat is considered a delicacy in some parts of the world.

• Protecting parrotfish is proposed as a way of saving Caribbean coral reefs from being overgrown with seaweed.

• Despite their striking colors, their feeding behavior renders them highly unsuitable for most marine aquaria.

• Mucus• A number of parrotfish species, including the queen parrotfish (Scarus

vetuala), excrete a mucus cocoon, particularly at night. Prior to going to sleep, some species extrude mucus from their mouths, forming a protective cocoon that envelops and secures the fish at a particular location and, presumably hides its scent from predators. This mucus envelope may also act as an early warning system, allowing the parrotfish to flee when it detects predators such as moray eels disturbing the protective membrane. The mucus has antioxidant properties that may serve to repair bodily damage, or repel parasites, and to provide added protection from UV light

Parrot fish {Chlorurus microrhinos}

4.Clownfish{Ocellaris clownfish, Amphiprion ocellaris}

• Clownfish or anemonefish are fishes from the subfamily Amphiprioninae in the family Pomacentridae. About twenty-nine species are recognized, one in the genus Premnas, while the remaining are in the genus Amphiprion. In the wild they all form symbiotic mutualisms with sea anemones. Depending on species, clownfish are overall yellow, orange, reddish or blackish, and many show white bars or patches. The largest can reach a length of 18 centimetres (7.1 in), while some barely can reach 10 centimetres (3.9 in). In popular culture, "Finding Nemo" by Pixar / Disney prominently features clownfish as the main characters.

• Ecology and habitat• Clownfish are native to warmer waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans, including the Great Barrier Reef and the Red Sea.

While most species have restricted distributions, others are widespread. They are generally highly host specific, and especially the genera Heteractis and Stichodactyla, and the species Entacmaea quadricolor are frequent partners.

• Clownfish live at the bottom of the sea in sheltered reefs or in shallow lagoons, usually in pairs They are found in northwest Australia, southeast Asia, Japan and the Indo-Malaysian region. There are no clownfish in the Caribbean. Scientific name: Amphiprion species Country: Worldwide tropical

•Continent: Oceania, Asia, Africa, South America, Central and North America

• Diet: Algae, crustaceans, molluscs• Food & feeding: Omnivore• Habitats: Ocean• Conservation status: Not Threatened• Relatives: Thread-fin damselfish• Diet• The clownfish feeds on small invertebrates which otherwise potentially could harm the sea anemone, and the fecal matter

from the clownfish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. Clownfish are omnivorous: in the wild they eat live food such as algae, plankton, mollusks, and crustacea; in captivity they can survive on live food, fish flakes, and fish pellets. Algae accounts for around 20 to 25 percent of its diet in the wild (and should also account for its amount of algae diet in captivity as well). The diet of the clownfish also consists of copepods, mysids, isopods, zooplankton and undigested food from their host anemones.

• years. In the wild, they live 6 to 10 years.

• Special Characteristics• This article may contain too much repetition or redundant language. Please help improve it by merging similar text or removing

repeated statements. (January 2011)• Clownfish and certain damselfish are the only species of fishes that can avoid the potent poison of a sea anemone. There are several

theories about how this is accomplished:• The mucus coating of the fish may be based on sugars rather than proteins. This would mean that anemones fail to recognize the fish

as a potential food source and do not fire their nematocysts, or sting organelles.• The coevolution of certain species of clownfish with specific anemone host species and may have acquired an immunity to the

nematocysts and toxins of their host anemone. Experimentation has shown that Amphiprion percula may develop resistance to the toxin from Heteractis magnifica, but it is not totally protected, since it was shown experimentally to die when its skin, devoid of mucus, was exposed to the nematocysts of its host.

• A pair of pink anemonefish (Amphiprion perideraion) in their anemone home.• Clownfish live in pairs inhabiting a single anemone. When the female dies, the dominant male changes sex and becomes the female.

This life history strategy is known as sequential hermaphroditism. Because clownfish are all born as males, they are protandrous hermaphrodites (pro=first; androus=male). On the top of the hierarchy is the reproducing female followed by the mating male. Below them are a bunch of non-mating males. But, if the female dies, the whole hierarchy gets disrupted. The predominant male then morphs into a female and chooses a partner from the various non-mating males. The largest fish in the group is a female and the second biggest is a male. All the other clownfish are neuter, which means they have not fully developed functioning sex organs for either gender. If the female should die, the male will change sex, while the biggest neuter clownfish will develop functioning male sex organs to replace the male.

• In a group of clownfish, there is a strict hierarchy of dominance. The largest and most aggressive female is found at the top. Only two clownfish, a male and a female, in a group reproduce through external fertilization. The clownfish are hermaphrodites, meaning that they develop into males first, and when they mature, they become females. Also, as mentioned earlier, more than one clownfish is able to live in a sea anemone. If the female clownfish is removed from the group, such as by death, one of the largest and most dominant males would become a female. The rest of the remaining males will move up a rank on the hierarchy.

• Life of a clown fish• Clownfish lay eggs on any flat surface close to their host anemones. In the wild, clownfish spawn around the time of the full moon

and the male parent guards them until they hatch about 6 to 10 days later, typically 2 hours after dusk.• Depending on the species, clownfish can lay hundreds or thousands of eggs. Clownfish were the first type of marine ornamental fish

to be successfully bred in captivity on a large scale. It is one of a handful of marine ornamentals whose complete life cycle has been closed in captivity. Members of some clownfish species, such as the maroon clownfish, become aggressive in captivity; others, like the false percula clownfish, can be kept successfully with other individuals of the same species.

• In captivity, the clownfish can live from 3 to 5 years. In the wild, they live 6 to 10 years.

• Symbiosis and Mutualism• Symbiosis describes the special relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. It has been

suggested that the activity of the clownfish results in greater water circulation around the sea anemone. In addition to providing food for the clownfish, the sea anemone also provides safety due to its poison. The Clown Fish is dependent on the Sea Anemone for its daily bread. After the Anemone paralyzes and eats a fish, the Clown fish will polish off the remaining uneaten bits and pieces. In return, the Clown Fish helps to keep the Anemone free of dead tentacles by eating these. The Clown Fish also helps the Anemone get food by using its bright coloration to lure unsuspecting fish into the vicinity of the Anemone. This symbiotic relationship with the Anemone makes the Clown Fish one of the most curious creatures living in water.

• In the aquarium• Clownfish are now reared in captivity by a handful of marine ornamental farms in the USA.

Clownfish were the first species of Saltwater fish to successfully be Tank-raised. Tank-raised fish are a better choice for aquarist, because wild-caught fish are more likely to die soon after purchasing them due to the stress of capture and shipping. Also, tank-bred fish are usually more disease resistant and in general are less affected by stress when introduced to the aquarium. Captive bred clownfishes may not have the same instinctual behavior to live in an anemone. They may have to be coaxed into finding the anemone by the home aquarist. Even then, there is no guarantee that the anemone will host the clownfish.

• When a sea anemone is not available in an aquarium, the clownfish may settle in some varieties of soft corals, or large polyp stony corals. If the fish settles in a coral, it could agitate the fish's skin, and, in some cases, may kill the coral. Once an anemone or coral has been adopted, the clownfish will defend it. As there is less pressure to forage for food in an aquarium, it is common for clownfish to remain within 2-4 inches of their host for an entire lifetime.

• Taxonomy• Genus Amphiprion:

– Amphiprion akallopisos – Skunk clownfish– Amphiprion akindynos – Barrier Reef Anemonefish– Amphiprion allardi – Twobar anemonefish– Amphiprion bicinctus – Twoband anemonefish– Amphiprion chagosensis – Chagos anemonefish– Amphiprion chrysogaster – Mauritian anemonefish– Amphiprion chrysopterus – Orange-fin anemonefish– Amphiprion clarkii – Yellowtail clownfish– Amphiprion ephippium – Saddle anemonefish– Amphiprion frenatus – Tomato clownfish– Amphiprion fuscocaudatus – Seychelles anemonefish– Amphiprion latezonatus – Wide-band Anemonefish– Amphiprion latifasciatus – Madagascar anemonefish– Amphiprion leucokranos – Whitebonnet anemonefish– Amphiprion mccullochi – Whitesnout anemonefish– Amphiprion melanopus – Fire clownfish– Amphiprion nigripes – Maldive anemonefish– Amphiprion ocellaris – Clown anemonefish– Amphiprion omanensis – Oman anemonefish– Amphiprion percula – Orange clownfish– Amphiprion perideraion – Pink skunk clownfish– Amphiprion polymnus – Saddleback clownfish– Amphiprion rubacinctus – Red Anemonefish– Amphiprion sandaracinos – Yellow clownfish– Amphiprion sebae – Sebae anemonefish– Amphiprion thiellei – Thielle's anemonefish– Amphiprion tricinctus – Three-band anemonefish

• Genus Premnas:– Premnas biaculeatus – Maroon clownfish

Upper view of sea anemone with clown fish

Aquarium Plant Propagation• The production or propagation of aquarium plants has come a long way in the past few years. Now that there are much larger

producers of aquarium plants all over the world and it is recognized as a powerful and growing industry more work, money and time has been invested into its growth with very interesting and important developments.

• Three Types of Propagation• Vegetative propagation is when the plant is propagated by using part of the plant itself either a stem cutting or bulb or other part of

the plant that a new plant is grown from. This is the most widely used method and normally the easiest and cheapest. Most of the stem plants like Nomaphilla, Limnophylla, Alternanthera, Rotala etc. are propagated this way.

• Sexual or seed propagation is when a new plant is grown from a seed or spore that the parent plants have produced. This is the traditional means of propagation. Plants like Samolus and Cyperus species propagate easily this way.

• Micropropagation or Tissue culture is when plants are propagated in a sterile environment using just part of the plant like the meristematic region or the undifferentiated prothallus of a fern. Plants are generally grown in Clear plastic or glass containers under controlled lighting and temperature. Normally a sterile jelly like medium is used (agar or similar) that has nutrients and sometimes antibiotics, hormones etc. to control the plants growth. Once the plants have reached a suitable size they are taken out of the container and hardened in greenhouse conditions. Most Anubias species are produced this way.

• Vegetative and Sexual Propagation• The first two means of propagation are well known and most widely used in the aquarium plant trade, they are cheap and fairly

successful with most plants. They do however have drawbacks. Both require stock or mother plants to collect the propagation material from whether it is seed or cuttings or other parts of the plant. This takes up allot of space which could be used for plants that will become salable. There is also the risk of diseases which can be carried from the stock plants to the salable or visa versa. The time factor can with some species like the slower growing Anubias can be a problem slowing down production.

• Micropropagation or Tissue Culture• Micropropagation is being more widely used in the production of Aquarium plants and is very much a part of the ornamental plant

industry where large numbers of pot plants and flowers are produced.• Micropropagation seems to be the answer to allot of propagation problems for aquarium plants. This means of propagation allows a

large turnover of plants in a very short time with very little space and ensures healthy disease free plants that generally give a better looking plant once it has reached salable size. It may also help with preservation of the wild plants that are collected for propagation material.

• The problems are that it is a specialist type of production and a lot of experimentation is needed. Setup costs are generally high too, making the end products or plants expensive. However it is being used by the large producers and promises to play a bigger role in the growing future of aquarium plants.

• Acorus gramineus pusillus Acorus gramineus Acorus gramineus varigated

Alternanthera lilacina Alternanthera rosaefolia Alternanthera green specie Alternanthera sessillis Alternanthera versicolor Anubias afzellis Anubias nana Anubias barteri Anubias congensis Anubias gracillis Anubias hastifolia Bacopa caroliniana Bacopa moneri Bolbitis heudelotii Cardimine lyrata Ceratopteris cornuta Ceratopteris thalictroides Cryptocoryne wendtii brown Cryptocoryne wendtii

green Cryptocoryne wendtii tall Cryptocoryne willisii Cyperus helferi Echinodorus bartii Echinodorus grandiflorus Echinodorus harbich Echinodorus marble queen Echinodorus martii Echinodorus osoris rubra Echinodorus paniculatus Echinodorus parviflorus Echinodorus palaefolius Echinodorus radicans Echinodorus schlueteri Echinodorus subulatus Echinodorus uruguayensis Echinodorus x rose Hemigraphis colorata Hemigraphis colorata narrow Hemigraphis repanda Houttunyia cordata chameleon

Houttunyia cordata Hydrocotyle verticillata Hygrophila corymbosa Hygrophila polysperma Hygrophila siamensis Hygrophila difformis Hygrophila aquatica Lilaeopsis brasiliensis Limnophylla sessiliflora Ludwigia perenis Ludwigia repens Ludwigia species Lysimachia numularia Microsorium pteropus Nymphea species Ophiopogon japonicus dwarf Pistia stratiotes Rotala rotundifolia Saururus cernuus Shinersia rivularis

• List of aquarium plants

Aquarium Plant Growing Media• Media for Production• There are obviously many growing media available and used in plant propagation. Aquarium

plants are a specialized crop and so need a medium that will suite the conditions of where the plant will end up which will be the aquarium. Rockwool or Cultiwool is most commonly used these days. There are still growers that are using other media like synthetic nylon floss, peat moss and types of clays and composted materials like straw and pine bark. Cultiwool is a type of fibre glass often used for heat or acoustic insulation in houses and factories.

• Cultiwool is used for a number of reasons: • It is inhert and so will not pollute the aquarium or affect the pH or water quality when the

plants are put in the water. • Most countries do not allow soil or other organic growing materials to be brought in through

their airports and because cultiwool is inhert and not organic there are no problems with phytosanitary requirements.

• Cultiwool has excellent growing media properties like a high air fill porosity, it wets easily and has a high nutrient exchange capacity

• Cultiwool is also a clean and easy medium to work with so helps with planting, cleaning and packaging and transport of plants.

• Other growing media than Cultiwool do also have their place especially for plants that are very specific as to their conditions they need. In the aquarium itself cultiwool is not a good medium and we recommend that the cultiwool is removed from the plants roots before they are planted in their final position in the gravel or rock or other position the plant is wanted in.

Media for the Aquarium• When the person receives the plant from his pet store the rockwool should be carefully removed if possible. The

plants roots can sometimes be trimmed before planting or in faster growing plants even be cut off to stop rotting in the tank because of damage.

• Organic and Animal material and manuresI would stay clear of these as they can be unstable when they break down in the substrate.

• Peat mossThis is also organic but can be useful to try and stabilize the pH of the water it can also help to stop compaction. I would not make more than about a quarter of the mix peat.

• Mineral soilsThese are made up of clays, silts and sands. These are the most useful. In particular the red clay soils as they generally have a high soil nutrient capacity and have a high iron content.

• Commercial mixesThere are commercially made mixes for the aquarium made by some of the larger companies - often mentioned is commercial laterite which is basically a red clay.

• The medium in the aquarium needs to serve as anchorage and as a source of nutrients for the plants. I recommend that for the nutrients a red clay soil should be used mixed with 2mm to 8mm rounded gravel about half clay and half gravel, peat can be added to this as well preferably composted peat. You need to be sure there is no organic matter in the clay soil and that the soil is sterile before you place this mixture at the bottom of the tank about 2cm to 4cm thick or thicker depending on the size of the aquarium.

• On top of this a layer place a layer of washed rounded gravel about 2cm to 8cm to stop the clay being disturbed in the water. It is important that the gravel is rounded (like river pebbles) so debris can easily slide through and be broken down in the gravel layer where the bacteria will be. Sharp gravel like silica sand does not allow this and you get a build up of debris on the surface of the gravel that does not break down easily. There are many other types of gravel offered like the synthetic coloured beads etc which I would stay away from for aesthetic reasons.

• If you are going to have a sloping gravel bed it is better not to slope the clay layer as it can later level it self through the gravel and cause it to be disturbed. Also try and use rocks or bog wood to rather terrace the levels rather than make slope.

• When filling the tank you need to be careful to not disturb the clay - the same goes for planting. it is sometimes easier to plant the plants before you fill the aquarium up.

Lighting for aquariums• The Aim• The aim of putting lights over the aquarium is to try and simulate natural light. • Light sources• It is important where the aquarium is positioned when you are lighting it. Ideally you want to be able to

control the light completely so a dark area away from the window is best. Sunlight on the tank can cause algae blooms and also tempreture fluctuations.

• There are a few types of lights that are suitable - I am only going to mention fluorescent as they are generally the cheapest to get, run and maintain. Fluorescent lights are also suitable for almost all aquariums.

• The type of tube you use is very important. You want to simulate natural sun light so it is best steer away from all the fancy colours available and go for a full spectrum light (not a broad spectrum). Many of the ''aquarium lights' are not ideal for plant growth as the manufacturers have concentrated on bringing out the the fishes natural colours and not not plant growth.

• How much light• A reasonable rule of thumb is about ONE Watt per LITRE of aquarium water. There are many varying

opinions here but one needs to also remember that different plants need different conditions eg. Anubias sp. need less light than Echinodorus sp. to thrive.

• It is very difficult to overdo the amount of lights and I feel its a good idea to jam as many tubes under the hood as you can afford (within reason).

• Light Duration• Most aquarium plants are from the tropics where there are equal day and night lengths. Many Aquarists

try and copy this. I find I get better results with less algae when the lights are on for no more than 10 hours a day.

• A timer is a big help with this. Try and time the aquariums day period when you are most likely to be there so you aren't tempted to turn on the lights at the wrong time.

Lightning above the aquarium

Aquarium Plant Fertilization• Fertilization of aquarium plants has been a problem from the

start because of the varied and specialized habitats that the plants come from. Aquatic plants have special adaptations for the uptake of water and nutrients. The watery environment also offers nutrients differently to normal plants.

Nutrient Absorption• To know what nutrients to give aquatic plants it will help to

understand how they absorb nutrients. Generally aquatic plants can absorb nutrients through their leaves and their root systems unlike normal terrestrial plants that absorb most of their nutrients from their roots.

• Generally aquatic plants have a very thin or no cuticle on their leaves and stems as they are in no danger of drying out. This helps with absorption of nutrients as well but also makes the plants more vulnerable to damage and disease.

What Nutrients• All plants require an uninterrupted supply of 14 nutrient elements to grow properly. • These are the Macro-nutrients:• nitrates (N)• phosphates (P)• calcium (Ca)• chloride (Cl)• sodium (Na)• magnesium (Mg)• potassium (K)• sulfates (S)• And the micro-nutrients:• iron (Fe)• boron (B)• copper (Cu)• zinc (Zn)• molybdenum (Mo)• manganese (Mn)• All these nutrients are needed by plants but the proportion they are given to the plants in is where aquarium plants and normal plants differ. I am not going to talk about each indivdual

element but rather the macro and micro-nutrients as a group.Algae is the Enemy• Normal fertilizer mixes made for garden and pot plants are made with large quantities of the macro nutrients and small portions of the micro-nutrients.• These are unsuitable for the aquarium. The main reason being that these cause algae blooms.• Algae is one of the main problems in aquariums and is normally from incorrect fertilization. Algae needs large quantities of macro nutrients and if it gets these they will generally grow

wild and cover the glass and plants ruining your chances of getting a good looking aquarium and also choking your plants.Plant Fertilizer mixes• A good aquarium plant fertilizer mix differs from a normal fertilizer by having very few or no macro-nutrients. The main reason for this is algae as mentioned above.• The macro-nutrients in the aquarium should come from water changes (tap water normally has all these nutrients in small amounts) and small amounts from the fish. Water changes

should be done at least every 2 weeks and about 15% should be drained and replaced. This should supply sufficient macros.• The micro-nutrients are different and are normally in short supply in tap water. The other problem with the micro-nutrients is that they are very unstable in their inorganic form and

normally precipitate and become unusable.The Chelate Breakthrough• The discovery of an organic molecule the chelate which binds to metal-ions tightly allowing them to be dissolved in a water solution with no precipitation so making the nutrient available

to the plant. This very important for aquatic plants which normally have a very large appetite for iron and may need as much as 4ppm to allow healthy growth without chlorosis. Chelate Types• There are six types of chelates important to hydroponic growth but only two that need to be mentioned for aquarium plants both for production and in the aquarium. • EDTA (Ethylene-Diamene-Tetra-Acetic-acid) is the first and most commonly known. This is not ideally suited for aquatic plants because it is unstable at a higher pH than 6.0 and generally

aquarium conditions are between pH6.0 and pH8.0. This is also a cheaper chelate and so is unfortunately used to cut costs, so absorption is limited.• DTPA (Dethylene-Triamine-Penta-Acetic-acid) would be a better choice and should be more widely used because it is stable up to a pH of 7.5. This is within the aquariums conditions.

A Good Aquarium Plant Fertilizer• When looking for a fertilizer as a very general rule look for:• Preferably a liquid• Low or No macro-nutrients• High Iron (Fe) in the chelated form• All the other micro-nutrients also in a chelated form if possible• There is still a lot of experimentation needed in the aquarium but the plants are getting to

be of a higher quality all the time and people are putting more time into the development of fertilizers.

• It must also be noted that fertilizers for the production of aquarium plants are not suitable for the aquarium and will cause problems (mainly algae).

Carbon Dioxide Enrichment• To photosynthesize plants need light, CO2 and nutrients. If either of these is deficient the

plant will not grow and photosynthesize properly. If there is not enough light the plants will not be able to use the CO2 in the water or visa versa.

Carbonate Hardness and General Hardness• The two different types of hardness KH and GH are often confused. Carbonate hardness is

the concentration of carbonates (CaCO3) in the water and general hardness refers to the dissolved minerals like calcium and magnesium in the water.

• When talking about CO2, KH is the hardness that is important. CO2 is not only important in the aquarium because plants need it to photosynthesize but also because of how it affects the pH of the water. Dissolved carbonates will raise both the KH and pH of the water and CO2 will lower the pH by producing carbonic acid.

• Plants generally need at least 5mg/l CO2 to photosynthesize and most aquatic plants grown for the aquarium need a slightly acid water (this also helps with nutrient absorption and helps keep nutrients like Fe available). Fish generally don't like more than 20mg/l CO2 so as a rule of thumb the right amount of CO2 in the water 5-20 mg/l CO2 would be good for a normal aquarium. This would obviously differ with different types of plants and lighting.

• There are various testing kits available for pH and hardness. The CO2-KH-pH equilibrium should be quite accurate if your tests are accurate unless you are changing the water allot by adding buffers or acids.

CO2 Generation• The most common method of CO2 generation is the use of a Gas cylinder with a

regulator to control the flow. There are many variations on this. Other DIY ways of CO2 generation are the use of yeast and sugar brews which are quite effective and very cheap but more difficult to monitor or get accurate results.

CO2 Reactors• These are to get the CO2 dissolved in the water. There are many diff rent types

commercially available as well as DIY types. The general principal is to get the CO2 to have as long a contact as possible with the water to give it time to dissolve. It is done in a few ways some of them quite complex others as simple as an upside down collection bowl or dome under the water that the CO2 will stay in till dissolved. Others use air type stones or power heads that that the gas is bubbled through to try and get a high contact with the water.

Aquarium Pests and Diseases• Pests and diseases are a part of any horticultural practice whether the plants

are grown above or below water. There are many types of pest and diseases from viruses, bacterial diseases and fungal diseases to aphids, snails and many other varieties of insects worms and larvae.

In the Aquarium• The most common pests in the aquarium are snails. Unfortunately most snails

breed very fast and can cause some significant damage to plants. Snail eating fish and removing them by hand is generally the best defense.

• Other diseases are fungal and bacterial diseases which normally stem from poor water quality, regular water changes and being careful not to overstock with fish are best to prevent this.

• The wrong kinds of fish can also be a pest, damaging, digging up or eating the plants.

• Other diseases like chlorosis, nutrient deficiencies and poor growth of plants is normally due to either fertilization, CO2 or lighting conditions. These can lead to other problems like bacterial rots etc. because the plants are weak. It is normally better to try not treat with any chemicals, it is very easy to make mistakes with these in a small environment like an aquarium. There are also not many chemicals that can be used in combination with fish.

Important Infectious Diseases of Ornamental FishGreg Lewbart M.S., V.M.D., Dipl. ACZM

greg_lewbart@ncsu.edu Viral Diseases• Several viral diseases have been thoroughly described in ornamental tropical fishes. The most commonly observed viral disease of tropical fish is called

lymphocystis disease. This disease is caused by an iridovirus which infects connective tissue cells of the fish. The virus induces these cells to undergo extensive hypertrophy until the cells may actually be visible to the naked eye. Affected cells can increase a thousand fold in size. The disease appears to be more common in marine and brackish water fishes. Certain species of freshwater tropical fish like the green terror (Aequidens rivulatus) are prone to the disease. Members of the genera Scatophagus, Monodactylus, and Changa are all brackish water fishes that seem predisposed to lymphocystis disease. Stress is almost certainly a factor in this disease since outbreaks are frequently observed following capture and shipping of fishes. Gross lesions appear white and granular and usually are seen on the skin and fins. Occasionally, lesions will be seen in the mouth and on the gills. There is no proven chemotherapeutic treatment. Most cases are self limiting if the fish is provided with proper water quality and nutrition. Surgery can be performed on affected fish by carefully scraping the hyperplastic fibroblasts clear of the fish with a sterile scalpel or scissors. This procedure should be performed quickly and the patient(s) should receive 5-10 days of topical antibiotic therapy following the surgery. A definitive diagnosis can be made by microscopically examining a scraping of the affected area. The enlarged connective tissue cells will appear circular and in clusters. These cells frequently emit a light orange hue under the microscope.

Bacterial Diseases• Bacterial disease is the most common infectious problem of ornamental fishes. Collectively, only water quality problems exceed bacterial diseases in the area of

pet fish morbidity and mortality. The majority of bacterial infections are caused by Gram-negative organisms including the following pathogenic genera: Aeromonas, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, Flavobacterium (Flexibacter), Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio. Streptococcus, a Gram-positive genus, has been shown to cause disease in ornamental fishes. Bacterial organisms may be the primary cause of disease, or they may be secondary invaders, taking advantage of a breach in the fish's integument or compromise of its immune system. The majority of bacterial fish pathogens are natural inhabitants of the aquatic environment, whether it be freshwater or marine. Nearly every bacterial pathogen of fish is capable of living independently away from the fish host (Inglis et al., 1993). Virtually any extrinsic stress, including shipping, crowding, poor water quality, and inadequate nutrition, may predispose an ornamental fish to bacterial disease.

• Bacteria are simply everywhere. One study sampled water from pet store aquariums and found a wide vareity of Gram-positive, Gram-negative, aerobic, and anaerobic organisms (Trust, 1974). In fact, every one of the eighteen samples of tropical fish water in this study contained Pseudomonas and Citrobacter while over 80% of the goldfish water samples contained Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, and Escherichia .

• For a complete review of bacterial diseases of fish (primarily food fish species), the reader is encouraged to examine Bacterial Diseases of Fish, edited by Inglis, Roberts, and Bromage.

Fungal Diseases• It is common for hobbyists and pet store owners alike to refer to any grossly visible skin disease of tropical fish as "fungus." one frequently sees diseases such as

lymphocystis and protozoal ectoparasitic diseases lumped into the fungus category. Fortunately, fungal disease is very easy to identify under the microscope and other disease problems can be quickly ruled out following a simple skin scraping. Fungi belonging to the genus Saprolegnia are the most commonly observed species affecting tropical fishes. Such fungi are opportunistic pathogens which typically colonize exposed damaged tissue. A typical presentation of Saprolegnia would be on the fin rays of a catfish which had been recklessly handled with a net. Under most conditions, if the fish is well supported with clean water and good food, the fungal tufts will slough off in time without the necessity of treatment. In severe cases, treatment may be warranted. These fungi are susceptible to several compounds including formaldehyde, malachite green and salt. Microscopically, the clinician will see typical fungal hyphae wound in a tight mat with the possibility of reproductive bodies being present.

Protozoal Diseases• The following list provides the correct spellings and a brief description of some important protozoal disease agents of tropical fish.• Brooklynella- The marine "cousin" of Chilodonella. Found on saltwater tropicals. Looks very similar to Chilodonella. This parasite is also easily treated with

protozoicides.• Chilodonella- A ciliated protozoan which can cause high morbidity and mortality among freshwater tropical fishes at the wholesale and fish farming levels of the

industry. Attacks skin and gills. Easily identified microscopically by its heart-shaped structure and slow circular motion when not crawling on the surface of the fish. Once diagnosed, this problem is easily treated with formaldehyde, malachite green or salt.

• Cryptocaryon- The marine form of "Ich." Frequently referred to as "white spot disease." This large ciliate possesses both free-swimming and encysted stages. Many aquarists control its spread with the prophylactic use of copper sulfate in the water. A quarantine protocol for new fishes can greatly help reduce the spread of this disease.

• Epistylis (Heteropolaria)- A stalked ciliate which is commonly found in freshwater containing a high organic load. Tends to colonize bottom dwelling fish such as the plecostomus catfish. Lesions appear pale and white in color and resemble a fungal disease. Microscopically, one sees a ciliated crown atop a long stalk which is prone to frequent contractions. Easily treated with formaldehyde however a clean well filtered tank is the best solution to the problem. This disease is usually not fatal in itself but may open the fish up to secondary bacterial disease.

• Henneguya- A sporozoan which presents in the form of small white cysts on the fins and gills of some fish. The cysts contain infective spores. Commonly seen on the dorsal fins of imported Leporinus species. Not harmful to the fish. Careful removal by scraping with a scalpel is the best treatment since the parasite is aesthetically undesirable.

• Hexamita (Spironucleus)- These flagellated protozoa may cause severe gastrointestinal disease if present in large numbers. Normal inhabitant of fish digestive tract. As an ectoparasite it is believed to be involved with "Hole in the Head Disease" (Head and Lateral Line Erosion) common to oscars and other cichlids. Treated effectively with metronidazole.

• Ichthyobodo- Formerly (and still commonly) called Costia. A flagellated protozoal ectoparasite. A normal inhabitant of fish skin. Poor water quality and other stresses (especially crowding) may allow this normally mutualistic parasite to reproduce rapidly and overwhelm the host. It is responsive to treatment with formaldehyde and malachite green but tougher than most protozoa. Microscopically the protozoa are very small (5-10 microns), move rapidly, and are shaped like small sickles. They may be attached to host tissue or swimming free. Most common in freshwater species of fishes but has been reported from several marine fishes.

• Ichthyophthirius- Known commonly simply as "Ich." The largest protozoal parasite of fish and one of the most commonly encountered. Trophozoites may reach 1.0 mm in diameter. Can affect skin, gills or both. Prevention is the best method of control although the parasite is susceptible to a variety of parasiticides including malachite green and formaldehyde.

• Plistophora- A microsporidian sporozoan which is the causative agent for true "Neon Tetra Disease." The parasite is not specific to neon tetras and when present will attack the musculature of the affected fish. Infected muscle will contain numerous sporoblasts containing spores. Grossly infected muscle will appear white or pale. Certain bacterial skin diseases will produce similar gross lesions. Such sporozoan infections are usually unresponsive to treatment and diseased fish should be removed from the tank. High mortality is usually associated with this disease.

• Tetrahymena- Commonly called "Guppy Killer Disease." A ciliated protozoan which can be free-living or parasitic. Common in crowded conditions and in water containing excessive organic debris. Unaffected by parasiticides because of its ability to burrow deeply into skin of host which ultimately protects parasites from chemotherapeutics. Best method of control is prevention through sound husbandry practices. These pear-shaped protozoa may be present in very large numbers when the infestation is severe.

• Trichodina- A disc-shaped ciliate protozoan found on the skin and gills of many fish. Circular rows of denticles and a ciliary girdle give this parasite a unique radial symmetry. Probably not harmful when present in small numbers.

• Uronema- The marine counterpart of Tetrahymena. This is also a significant disease causing parasite. Tissue destruction by this protozoan will allow for secondary invasion by pathogenic bacteria.

Trematode Diseases• Both monogenean and digenean trematodes parasitize tropical fishes. Monogenean parasites including Dactylogyrus and

Gyrodactylus are ectoparasitic and can cause considerable damage to the host when present in high numbers. These parasites possess a multiple hooked attachment organ called an opisthaptor which disrupts the integrity of the host's skin and mucus membranes. These monogeneans can complete their entire life cycle on a single host and in some species the cycle may be as short as 60 hours if all environmental conditions are optimal. Crowding and other stress factors predispose tropical fish to monogenean trematode problems. These parasites are generally resistant to low doses of formaldehyde and even some organophosphates. Most freshwater monogeneans can be killed quickly with a 3 to 5 minute saltwater bath (30-35 parts per thousand). Glacial acetic acid or hydrogen peroxide dips will also kill these parasites. Dosage information is given in the provided articles and references. Praziquantel baths have also proved to be effective in killing some monogenean worms. While expensive, this is a relatively safe treatment when used at a concentration of 10 parts per million for 3 to 6 hours.

• The majority of digenean fluke problems appear to be primarily aesthetic in nature among tropical fish. Fish commonly serve as an intermediate host for these parasites which frequently have a complex life cycle. Invertebrates may be the first host and a bird or mammal the primary host. Encysted digeneans are commonly observed as metacercaria in the skin and underlying tissues of tropical fish. Occasionally these metacercaria are found in the coelomic cavity of tropical fish. Imported silver dollar fish species from South America are commonly infected with metacercaria belonging to the genus Neascus. Some fish may have only one or two metacercaria while others may harbor hundreds. This disease will not harm the fish and will not progress unless the fish is consumed by an appropriate primary host animal. Fish which are affected are sometimes said to have "Salt and Pepper" disease since the cysts become pigmented and the uplifted scales appear especially white or shiny. Another common digenean parasite is Clinostomum which is called the "Grub" by fish farmers in Florida. Excysted worms may be more than 5 millimeters long and are easily visible to the naked eye. If the metacercaria are not too numerous, they can be removed safely with a clean scalpel.

• Occasionally, larvae belonging to the genus Diplostomum have been found associated with the lens in the eyes of tropical fish. In such cases the lens will become opaque and the fish may be blinded. There is no reported treatment for this disease.

Cestode Diseases• Tapeworms are found inhabiting the digestive tract of wild tropical fishes. Diagnosis can be made by fecal examination

observing proglottids exiting the vent of a fish, or during necropsy. Recently, work has been published using praziquantel to treat infected fishes and it appears that certain tapeworms are susceptible to a dose as low as 2 parts per million in the water. Infected fish can be bathed in this solution for 3 hours with adequate aeration.

• Tropical fish commonly act as an intermediate host in a cestode's life cycle and encysted tapeworm larvae called procercoids can be found in the coelomic cavity of tropical fishes.

Nematode Diseases• Nematodes are common parasites of fish and can be especially abundant in wild species. In some cases the tropical fish is the

definitive host and the nematodes will be found in the gastrointestinal tract. In other instances the fish is an intermediate host and the larval nematodes will be seen encysted beneath the skin, in the musculature or in the coelomic cavity. Medical treatment of the larval forms is very difficult because these nematodes are encysted and well protected. Some species of Eustrongyloides form large cysts just under the skin of tropical fish and can be removed surgically, especially if the fish is relatively large. As is the case with other encysted larval helminth parasites, the disease will usually not progress unless the fish is eaten by the definitive host.

• Gastrointestinal nematodes can be observed on necropsy and ova are readily seen on examination of the feces. While the presence of these parasites may not cause a problem in nature, the stresses of captivity and shipping may exacerbate any parasitic problem. Nematodicides such as fenbendazole and piperazine may be incorporated into food in order to successfully treat these problems. The attached articles contain dosage and treatment information.

Crustacean Diseases• There are several important crustacean parasites of tropical fish. Laernea, known commonly as "Anchorworm," is a modified

copepod parasite which infects large scaled freshwater tropical and temperate species of fish. This parasite possesses a life cycle that includes microscopic pelagic larval stages that molt and grow several times before attacking the fish host. On the host the female anchorworm matures and produces two large egg sacs containing hundreds of Laernea eggs. This parasite is easily visible to the naked eye and may be more than 2 centimeters in length. They get their name from the attachment organ which is a highly modified structure which resembles the anchor on a ship. This structure is buried in the host's musculature and allows for the invasion of pathogenic bacteria. Plucking the parasites from the fish is warranted and usually results in inflamed areas which heal quickly. Organophosphates and glacial acetic acid dips are successful in treating the problem. The disease is especially common in imported and domestic goldfish.

• The other major crustacean parasite is Argulus. This branchiuran crustacean is commonly called the "Fish Louse." Fish lice are flattened creatures with a very distinctive shape and appearance. They have a pair of eyespots and are about 5-10 millimeters in length. They move about the skin of a fish very effectively and camouflage themselves well on the host. They suck bodily fluids from the fish via a sharp stiletto that actually injects a small amount of toxin into the fish. These parasites are especially harmful to small fish. Argulus also possesses a life cycle with pelagic larval stages so the entire aquarium system may have to be treated with organophosphates to control the disease. Depending on temperature, the total life cycle takes between 6 and 20 weeks.

• A less commonly seen group of crustacean parasites are the isopods. While most isopods are free living, members of the genus Livoneca can be parasitic. Terrestrial pill bugs commonly seen under rocks and logs are isopods and the aquatic parasitic forms resemble their land dwelling relatives. While Argulus is dorsoventrally compressed, isopods like Livoneca are laterally compressed and appear segmented.

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