ordinary men? “there are many societies afflicted by racism and caught in the siege mentality of...

Ordinary Men?Ordinary Men?““There are many societies afflicted by racism and There are many societies afflicted by racism and

caught in the siege mentality of war. caught in the siege mentality of war. Everywhere society conditions people to accept Everywhere society conditions people to accept authority. Everywhere people seek career authority. Everywhere people seek career advancement. In every modern society advancement. In every modern society bureaucratization and specialization attenuate the bureaucratization and specialization attenuate the sense of personal responsibility of those sense of personal responsibility of those implementing official policy. Within every implementing official policy. Within every social collective the peer group sets moral social collective the peer group sets moral norms…If the [German] men could become norms…If the [German] men could become killers under such circumstances, what group of killers under such circumstances, what group of men cannot?” men cannot?” (Browning, adapted)(Browning, adapted)

Christopher Browning:Christopher Browning:

““The German invasion and The German invasion and conquest of Poland in conquest of Poland in September 1939 was an event of September 1939 was an event of decisive importance in the decisive importance in the evolution of Nazi Jewish policy evolution of Nazi Jewish policy toward the Final solution.”toward the Final solution.”

Impact of Polish InvasionImpact of Polish Invasion

2 million Polish Jews now in German hands2 million Polish Jews now in German hands War constricted possibility of emigrationWar constricted possibility of emigration Numbers were anyway too great for Numbers were anyway too great for

emigration to be offered as a solutionemigration to be offered as a solution Conquest of Poland sets in motion search Conquest of Poland sets in motion search

for new kind of solutionfor new kind of solution War also removed inhibitions from the Nazi War also removed inhibitions from the Nazi

leadership – the Jew was an integral part of leadership – the Jew was an integral part of the portrayal of the enemythe portrayal of the enemy

Impact of Polish InvasionImpact of Polish Invasion

Brutalised measures could be rationalised Brutalised measures could be rationalised by ordinary Germans as the necessary by ordinary Germans as the necessary excesses that accompany warexcesses that accompany war

Foreign reaction could be dismissed as Foreign reaction could be dismissed as propagandapropaganda

German soldiers encountered the much less German soldiers encountered the much less assimilated Jews of Eastern Europe, and in assimilated Jews of Eastern Europe, and in large numbers.large numbers.

Lebensraum and GenocideLebensraum and Genocide

The search for The search for lebensraumlebensraum also encouraged also encouraged radical solutions to the Jewish question.radical solutions to the Jewish question.

Germany’s war was seen as akin to the old Germany’s war was seen as akin to the old wars of imperialismwars of imperialism

The racial superiority that older European The racial superiority that older European powers experienced was now ascribed to powers experienced was now ascribed to the German attitudes towards Eastern the German attitudes towards Eastern EuropeEurope

Lebensraum and GenocideLebensraum and Genocide

““Poland was …destined to become a Poland was …destined to become a “laboratory” for Nazi experiments in racial “laboratory” for Nazi experiments in racial imperialism” (Browning)imperialism” (Browning)

Such experiments included lebensraum, Such experiments included lebensraum, ethnic or racial struggle (Volkstumskampf), ethnic or racial struggle (Volkstumskampf), and the Final Solution to the Jewish and the Final Solution to the Jewish question.question.

When did the killing start?When did the killing start?

During 1940 and 1941, Germany continued During 1940 and 1941, Germany continued to try and ‘eliminate’ Jews through to try and ‘eliminate’ Jews through emigration, expulsion or deportation.emigration, expulsion or deportation.

Eichmann actively assisted German Jews Eichmann actively assisted German Jews using escape routes through Italy and using escape routes through Italy and Lithuania.Lithuania.

German Jews sometimes forcibly expelled German Jews sometimes forcibly expelled westwards – e.g. Oct. 1940, 6,504 to westwards – e.g. Oct. 1940, 6,504 to France.France.


However, orders given in August and October However, orders given in August and October 1941 prohibited further Jewish departures from 1941 prohibited further Jewish departures from German areas.German areas.

22 June 1941 – Germany invaded Soviet Union22 June 1941 – Germany invaded Soviet Union First indiscriminate mass killings of Jews began First indiscriminate mass killings of Jews began

shortly aftershortly after EinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppen shot and killed half a million Jews shot and killed half a million Jews

on Soviet or Soviet-occupied territory from June on Soviet or Soviet-occupied territory from June to November 1941.to November 1941.


By November 1941, preparations underway By November 1941, preparations underway for special killing centres in occupied for special killing centres in occupied Poland.Poland.

Thus, the ban on emigration coincided with Thus, the ban on emigration coincided with the transition to systematic mass murder.the transition to systematic mass murder.

Why begin Killing?Why begin Killing?

Some historians argue that the setting up of Some historians argue that the setting up of the ghettos marks the beginning of actual the ghettos marks the beginning of actual killing operations, as these were effectively killing operations, as these were effectively sites of mass death.sites of mass death.

Half a million Polish Jews died before Half a million Polish Jews died before systematic mass killing begansystematic mass killing began

However, the Soviet Union presented However, the Soviet Union presented particular problemsparticular problems


4 million Jews inhabited Soviet territory4 million Jews inhabited Soviet territory Hitler’s link between Jews and Bolsheviks Hitler’s link between Jews and Bolsheviks

made them especially dangerousmade them especially dangerous Hitler’s war against communism was to be Hitler’s war against communism was to be

a ‘war of extermination’.a ‘war of extermination’. IntentionalistsIntentionalists argue that the oral order to argue that the oral order to

kill all Jews went out at the same time as kill all Jews went out at the same time as the Soviet campaign was planned.the Soviet campaign was planned.


FunctionalistsFunctionalists first dispute that the ghettos first dispute that the ghettos were intended as a method of mass killingwere intended as a method of mass killing

Browning’s research shows that local Browning’s research shows that local officials set up ghettos as temporary officials set up ghettos as temporary solutions, and that they hoped to use Jewish solutions, and that they hoped to use Jewish labour.labour.

Even Einstazgruppen activity was not part Even Einstazgruppen activity was not part of a planned programme to kill all Jewsof a planned programme to kill all Jews


The killings were part of a measured The killings were part of a measured escalation growing out of the ideological escalation growing out of the ideological war against ‘Jewish Bolshevism’.war against ‘Jewish Bolshevism’.

From targeting Jewish state and communist From targeting Jewish state and communist party officials, it grew to encompass party officials, it grew to encompass ordinary Jews.ordinary Jews.

Functionalists argue that the change in Functionalists argue that the change in policy arose from the failure to conquer policy arose from the failure to conquer adequate Soviet territoryadequate Soviet territory


With only a limited eastern dumping With only a limited eastern dumping ground, local officials resorted to killing – ground, local officials resorted to killing – e.g 7 Nov. 1941, a mass shooting of Minsk e.g 7 Nov. 1941, a mass shooting of Minsk Jews cleared room for 1,500 deportees from Jews cleared room for 1,500 deportees from Hamburg.Hamburg.

New deportees were themselves often New deportees were themselves often simply shot on arrival at their destinations simply shot on arrival at their destinations (Kaunas, 25-29 Nov., Riga 30 Nov.)(Kaunas, 25-29 Nov., Riga 30 Nov.)


Disagreements about when the killings Disagreements about when the killings began reflect the disagreements about the began reflect the disagreements about the intentional or functional nature of the intentional or functional nature of the decision.decision.

The euphemistic nature of much German The euphemistic nature of much German documentation doesn’t help.documentation doesn’t help.

For example, Goering’s famous order to For example, Goering’s famous order to Heydrich, referring to a ‘final solution’, did Heydrich, referring to a ‘final solution’, did not define the nature of the solution.not define the nature of the solution.


In fact, the order was a supplement to an In fact, the order was a supplement to an earlier order (Jan. 1939) which explicitly earlier order (Jan. 1939) which explicitly referred to ‘emigration and evacuation’.referred to ‘emigration and evacuation’.

As well as the intentional/functional As well as the intentional/functional arguments, some historians prefer to link arguments, some historians prefer to link the Jewish killings with the wider Nazi the Jewish killings with the wider Nazi racial policy.racial policy.


Such historians refer to the killings of other Such historians refer to the killings of other groups who threatened the Nazi vision of an groups who threatened the Nazi vision of an ideal Aryan Germanic race.ideal Aryan Germanic race.

The techniques used to kill Jews had been The techniques used to kill Jews had been used by the T4 organisation in 1939-40 used by the T4 organisation in 1939-40 against handicapped people.against handicapped people.

T4 personnel also heavily involved in T4 personnel also heavily involved in slaughtering Jews and Gypsies.slaughtering Jews and Gypsies.


““One cannot explain any one of One cannot explain any one of these Nazi killing operations these Nazi killing operations without explaining the without explaining the others.”others.”

Henry FriedlanderHenry Friedlander..


Others explain the holocaust against the Others explain the holocaust against the background of Nazi Germany’s overall economic background of Nazi Germany’s overall economic and population policies in eastern Europe.and population policies in eastern Europe.

Killing off surplus eastern populations freed the Killing off surplus eastern populations freed the eastern territories for German habitation and eastern territories for German habitation and economic modernisation.economic modernisation.

Most historians dispute this thesis, on the grounds Most historians dispute this thesis, on the grounds that it fails to identify a distinct hatred towards that it fails to identify a distinct hatred towards Jews, which was clearly a feature of Nazi Jews, which was clearly a feature of Nazi attitudes.attitudes.


Thus, the question of why the Nazi regime Thus, the question of why the Nazi regime began mass killing of Jews remains began mass killing of Jews remains unsettled.unsettled.

ordinary men? “there are many societies afflicted by racism and caught in the siege mentality of...

Documents