optimum overhang geometry for high rise office...
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OPTIMUM OVERHANG GEOMETRY FOR HIGH RISE OFFICE
BUILDING ENERGY SAVING IN TROPICAL CLIMATES
DILSHAN REMAZ OSSEN
UNIVERSITY TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
OPTIMUM OVERHANG GEOMETRY FOR HIGH RISE OFFICE BUILDING
ENERGY SAVING IN TROPICAL CLIMATES
DILSHAN REMAZ OSSEN
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Built Environment
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
SEPTEMBER, 2005
iii
To:
My Beloved Father, Mother and Brother
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My deepest gratitude goes to my main thesis supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Hamdan Ahmad for his valuable and close supervision, guidance, comments, resources, encouragement, motivation, inspirations and friendship rendered throughout the study. I am also very thankful to my co-supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nor Haliza Madros for her critics advice, guidance, motivation and friendship. Without their continued support and interest, this thesis would not have been the same as presented here.
The author wishes to acknowledge the Public Service Department, Malaysia and the Malaysian Government for the scholarship. I also acknowledge the Malaysia’s High Commissioner and the staff (year 2001-2002) of the Malaysian High Commission in Sri Lanka for offering the opportunity and information regarding the Malaysian Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan. My thanks also go to Mr. T. K. Azoor and the steering committee members of COSLAM for their encouragement and support in obtaining the scholarship. I would also like to express my gratitude to the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and the Department of Architecture for accepting me as one of their doctorate students.
A special thanks to Mdm. Halimah Yahya for her assistance in obtaining the required weather data and also for her friendship and support. Many thanks also go to Agung Murti for helping with the graphics and Roshida with the translations.
My sincere gratitude also goes to those who have provided assistance in many ways at various occasions: Dr. R. Emmanuel from University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka; Prof. Dr. Najib Ibrahim, Assoc. Prof. Syed Zainol Abidin Idid and family and Dr. Mohd. Tetsu Kubota from UTM. Thank also due to Shahzarimin and his family, Azril and his family, Dr. M. Mukhlis, Dr. Monzurul Alam, Kamarudzaman, Syed Hossin, Adil, Asif, Ashiq, Rumi, Jami, Kayser and Arif for their brotherhood and friendship. I am also grateful to Tilak and family, Praveena and her family, my cousins Suzaniya & Remano and Mr. & Mrs. Ramzan for their constant concern and moral support.
My heartiest and utmost gratitude goes to my dear father, mother and brother for their patience, sacrifices, understanding, constant concern, moral support and prayers during the course of my study. Finally, I thank Almighty Allah for giving me patience, courage, strength, mercy, guidance and blessings to face all challenges in life and to complete this thesis successfully.
v
ABSTRACT
Intercepting the radiant heat wave using external solar shading before
penetrating to the internal environment through the envelope openings is the main
criterion to prevent solar heat gains into the building. In hot and humid climates, one
draw back of using the external shading device is the risk of reducing daylight level
in the interior space, which in turn increases the use of artificial lighting. Therefore,
it is important to understand the magnitude of energy consumption for cooling and
lighting when shading devices are adapted in order to propose optimum external
horizontal shading device strategies as design solutions in hot and humid climates.
This study investigates the effect of six different depths of external horizontal
shading device on incident solar radiation, transmitted solar heat gains, natural-light
penetration, building cooling and energy consumption. The experiment was carried
out using a standard, single fenestration perimeter office room in a typical high-rise
office building. The investigation is conducted using the eQUEST-3 dynamic energy
simulation program supported by the DOE2.2 calculation engine. The results showed
that overhang ratios of 1.2, 1.6, 0.6 and 0.8 reduced the incident direct solar radiation
more than 80% on the east, west, north and south orientations respectively. The
target illuminance of 500lux for internal lighting was obtained for overhang ratios of
1.0, 1.3, 0.2 and 1.0 on respective orientations. Further, findings indicated that
deeper natural light penetration can be achieved through the bare window under
Malaysian sky conditions compared to the common rule of thumb of 2.5 times the
window height on all orientations considered. The findings also revealed that
optimum energy savings of 14%, 11%, 6% and 8% were achieved by optimum
overhang ratios of 1.3, 1.2 and 1.0 on the east, west and north, south orientations
respectively. This study concludes, considering the trade off between total heat gain
and natural-light penetration to optimize the total energy consumption as the best
option in designing external solar shading in hot and humid climates.
vi
ABSTRAK
Pemintasan pancaran haba dari matahari menggunakan alat redupan luaran
sebelum menembusi persekitaran dalaman melalui bukaan adalah ciri-ciri utama bagi
mengelakkan pertambahan haba solar di dalam bangunan. Dalam iklim panas dan
lembap, satu kelemahan menggunakan alat redupan adalah risiko terhadap
pengurangan kadar cahaya siang yang mana boleh sebaliknya meningkatkan
penggunaan cahaya buatan pula. Oleh itu adalah penting bagi memahami magnitud
penggunaan tenaga untuk penyejukan dan pencahayaan apabila alat redupan
digunakan bagi mencadangkan strategi menggunakan alat redupan mendatar luaran
yang optimum sebagai penyelesaian rekabentuk dalam iklim panas dan lembap.
Kajian ini juga menilai kesan enam perbezaan lebar alat redupan mendatar luaran
terhadap insiden gelombang suria, penambahan transmisi kepanasan suria,
kemasukan cahaya semulajadi, penyejukan bangunan dan penggunaan tenaga.
Kajian ini dijalankan melalui simulasi fenestrasi sebuah bilik pejabat dalam
bangunan tinggi yang dianggap tipikal. Penilaian ini dikendalikan menggunakan
eQUEST – 3, satu program simulasi tenaga yang dinamik berbantukan mesin
pengiraan DOE2.2. Keputusan menunjukkan nisbah unjuran 1.2, 1.6, 0.6 dan 0.8
dapat mengurangkan penerimaan pancaran haba terus matahari lebih daripada 80%
pada arah timur, barat, utara dan selatan. Sasaran illuminasi 500lux untuk
pengcahayaan dalaman dicapai pada nisbah unjuran 1.0, 1.3, 0.2 dan 1.0 pada arah
yang sama. Seterusnya, penemuan mendapati kemasukan cahaya semulajadi melalui
tingkap yang terdedah di bawah keadaan awan Malaysia adalah lebih jauh
berbanding dengan 2.5 kali ketinggian tingkap ygmenjadi kebiasaan pada semua arah
yang diambil kira. Penemuan juga mendedahkan bahawa penjimatan tenaga yang
optima pada 14%, 11%, 65 dan 8% dapat dicapai dengan nisbah unjuran yang optima
1.3 dan 1.2 untuk 1.0 pada timur dan barat untuk utara dan selatan. Kajian ini
menyimpulkan bahawa penggunaan alat redupan dengan mengambil kira imbangan
jumlah penambahan haba dan pancaran cahaya semulajadi bagi mencapai jumlah
penggunaan tenaga yang optima adalah pilihan terbaik bagi rekabentuk redupan
luaran dalam iklim panas dan lembap.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
THESIS TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) v
ABSTRAK (BAHASA MELAYU) vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xvi
LIST OF FIGURES xxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxx
LIST OF SYMBOLS xxxiii
LIST OF APPENDIXES xxxix
1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Problem Statement
4
1.3 Research Hypothesis
5
1.4 Research Questions
6
1.5 Research Gap
6
1.6 Research Objective
9
1.7 Scope and Limitations
10
1.8 Importance of the Research
12
viii
1.9 Thesis Organization 13
2 SOLAR RADIATION AND ANALYSIS OF MALAYSIAN SKY CONDITIONS
2.1 Solar Radiation: Source of Heat and Light 17
2.2 Solar Geometry
18
2.3 Solar Distribution
19
2.3.1 Solar Intensity
20
2.3.2 Components of Solar Radiation: Direct,
Diffuse and Reflected Radiation
20
2.4 Solar Radiation Calculation
22
2.4.1 Calculation of Clear Sky Solar Radiation
23
2.4.2 Solar Radiation Calculations on Horizontal Surfaces
24
2.4.3 Solar Radiation Calculations on Vertical Surfaces
25
2.5 Analysis of Kuala Lumpur Sky Conditions
26
2.5.1 Sky Condition
27
2.5.2 Solar Radiation Analysis
30
2.5.3 Outdoor Design Temperature Analysis
37
2.5.4 Exterior Illuminance Analysis
40
2.6 Summary
47
3 ENERGY USE IN HIGH-RISE BUILDING, HEAT GAIN AND SOLAR SHADING
3.1 Energy Consumption Pattern in Malaysia 50
3.1.1 Energy Consumption in Buildings
51
3.1.1.1 Energy Efficient Building Codes and
Standards
52
ix
3.1.2 Basic Principles of Energy Efficiency in High-rise Buildings
54
3.1.2.1 Climate Rejecting Building
55
3.1.2.2 Climate Adapted Building
56
3.1.2.3 Combination of Climate Adapted and
Climate Rejected Building
57
3.1.3 Review Related Research on High-Rise
Office Building
59
3.1.3.1 High-rise Building Form and
Orientation
60
3.1.3.2 High-Rise Building Core
62
3.1.3.3 The Floor Plan
64
3.1.3.4 Building Envelope
66
3.1.3.5 Court Yards, Atria, Wind Scoops and
Open Corridors
68
3.2 Heat Gains
69
3.2.1 Modes of Heat Transfer in Buildings
69
3.2.1.1 Conduction
69
3.2.1.2 Convection
70
3.2.1.3 Radiation
70
3.2.2 Types of Heat Transfer in Buildings
71
3.2.2.1 Heat Transfer through Building Fabric
71
3.2.2.2 Heat Gain through Window
72
3.2.2.3 Infiltration
78
3.2.2.4 Impact of Electric Lighting
79
3.2.2.5 Occupants Heat Gains
81
3.2.2.6 Equipment Heat Gains
81
3.3 Solar Shading
82
x
3.3.1 Analysis of Types of Shading Devices 84
3.3.1.1 Orientation
84
3.3.1.2 Vegetation
85
3.3.1.3 Internal Devices
86
3.3.1.4 External Devices
88
3.3.2 Method of Designing a Shading Device
90
3.3.2.1 Shadow Angles
90
3.3.2.2 Shading Mask and Sun-Path Diagram
91
3.3.2.3 Awning Geometry
94
3.3.3 Heat Gain through Externally Shaded Window
96
3.3.4 Effectiveness of External Shading Device
98
3.3.5 Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of Shading
Device
99
3.3.5.1 Geometry of External Shading Device
99
3.3.5.2 Surface Properties and Color
103
3.3.5.3 Location of Shading Device
104
3.3.5.4 Effectiveness of Different External
Horizontal Shading Methods
105
3.3.5.5 Shading Device Optical Properties
105
3.3.6 External Shading Device and Side-lit Daylight
Concept
109
3.3.6.1 Adequate Illuminance on the Work
Surface
111
3.3.6.2 Daylight Factor and Sun Illuminance
Ratio
112
3.3.6.3 Daylight –Electric Light Integration
116
3.3.7 Research on Solar Shading
119
xi
3.3.7.1 Shading Strategies and Solar Radiation 119
3.3.7.2 Shading Strategies and Daylight
121
3.3.7.3 Solar Shading and Energy Related
Experiments
124
3.3.7.4 Solar Shading Design Methods
127
3.3.7.5 Solar Shading and Human Perception
128
3.4 Summary
129
4 METHODOLOGY
4.1 The Need for the Experiment 132
4.2 Development of Simplified Office Room
Configuration
133
4.2.1 Office Room Geometry
134
4.2.2 Window Size and Work Plane Height
134
4.2.3 External Overhang
135
4.2.4 Office Room Characteristics
137
4.3 Methods of Energy Evaluation
137
4.3.1 Simplified Energy Calculation Methods
138
4.3.2 Detailed Energy Calculation Methods
139
4.4 Methods of Studying Energy in Buildings
141
4.4.1 Manual Calculation Methods
142
4.4.2 Field Experiment or Full Scale Method
142
4.4.3 Computer Simulation
143
4.5 Selection of Computer Program
144
4.5.1 Experimental Requirement
145
4.5.2 Review of Energy Simulation Programs
146
xii
4.6 The eQUEST-3 Computer Simulation Program
147
4.6.1 Simulation Procedure
148
4.6.1.1 Step I: Data Requirement
149
4.6.1.2 Step II: Preparation of the Models
149
4.6.1.3 Step III: Detailed Interface-Selecting
Simulation Parameters and Perform Simulation
155
4.6.1.4 Step IV: Review Simulation Results
157
4.6.2 Simulation Limitations
158
4.6.3 Simulation Design Conditions
160
4.6.3.1 Office Room Characteristics
160
4.6.3.2 Indoor Design Conditions
160
4.6.3.3 Internal Load
162
4.6.3.4 Operating Schedules
163
4.6.3.5 Outdoor Design Conditions
163
4.7 Simulation Analysis Criteria
165
4.8 Summary
169
5 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS: SOLAR RADIATION AND WORK PLANE ILLUMINANCE
5.1 Incident and Transmitted Solar Radiation 171
5.1.1 East Orientation
172
5.1.2 West orientation
175
5.1.3 North Orientation
179
5.1.4 South Orientation
182
5.1.5 Influence of Solar Radiation Components on
Base Case Model
184
xiii
5.1.6 Impact of Overhang on Direct Solar Radiation Incident on Window
188
5.1.7 Impact of Overhang on Diffuse Solar
Radiation Incident on Window
190
5.1.8 Impact of Overhang on Transmitted and Re-
Transmitted Solar Heat Gain through Window System
191
5.1.8.1 Hourly Variation of Transmitted and
Re-Transmitted Solar Heat Gain through Window System
193
5.2 Absolute Work Plane Illuminance
197
5.2.1 East Orientation
198
5.2.1.1 Window Height to Room Depth Ratio-
East Orientation
203
5.2.2 West Orientation
206
5.2.2.1 Window Height to Room Depth Ratio-
West Orientation
211
5.2.3 North Orientation
213
5.2.3.1 Window Height to Room Depth Ratio-
North Orientation
218
5.2.4 South Orientation
219
5.2.4.1 Window Height to Room Depth Ratio-
South Orientation
224
5.2.5 Hourly Variation of Work Plane Illuminance
226
5.2.6 External Horizontal Overhang and Work Plane
Illuminance
229
5.2.6.1 Impact of Overhang on Target
Illuminance Level (500lux)
229
5.2.6.2 Window Height to Room Depth Ratio
231
5.3 Summary
232
xiv
6 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS: ENERGY PERFORMANCE
6.1 Energy Evaluation 234
6.2. Building Component Cooling Loads
235
6.2.1 Base Case Generic Office Room and Building
Component Cooling Loads
235
6.2.2 Influence of External Horizontal Overhang on
Building Component Cooling Loads
237
6.3 Electricity Consumption
245
6.3.1 Annual Electricity Consumption- Base Case
245
6.3.1.1 Influence of Orientation on Annual
Electricity Consumption- Base Case
248
6.3.2 External Horizontal Overhang and Annual
Electricity Consumption
250
6.3.2.1 Incremental Electricity Use
254
6.3.2.2 Influence of External Horizontal
Overhang on Annual Electricity Consumption
266
6.4 Summary
269
7 CONCLUSION
7.1 Review of Thesis Objectives and Research Questions 271
7.2 Thesis Conclusion
272
7.2.1 External Horizontal Overhang and Solar Radiation
273
7.2.2 External Horizontal Overhang and Work Plane
Illuminance
275
7.2.3 Base-case Generic Office Room: Building
Component Cooling Loads
277
7.2.4 External Horizontal Overhang and Building
Component Cooling Loads
278
xv
7.2.5 Base-case Generic Office Room and Energy Consumption
280
7.2.6 External Horizontal Overhang and Building
Energy Consumption
281
7.2.7 Optimum Overhang Ratios for Hot Humid
Tropical Climate
283
7.3 Application of the eQUEST-3 (DOE 2.2) Energy
Simulation in Malaysian Conditions
285
7.4 Suggestions for Further Research
286
BIBLIOGRAPHY 289 APPENDICES 305
A
Summary of Energy Related Research
306
C
Summary of High-rise Office Building and Energy Use
Review
C1
Office Buildings Energy Database, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
309
C2
South East Asian Office Buildings Information
312
C3
Design of Shading Device Considering the Windows Solar Angle Dependent Properties: With Special Reference to Kuala Lumpur Hot Humid Tropical Climate
315
D
Review of Computer Simulation Programs
329
E
Simulation Data and Results
E1
Sample of Input Data
333
E2
Summary: Direct and Diffused Incident Solar Radiation and Transmitted Heat Gains
338
E3
Summary: Work Plane Illuminance at Ref.Pt:01 and Ref.Pt:02
344
F
F1
Summary: Building Cooling Load Data
347
F2
Summary: End Use Energy Consumption Data with
Natural-light utilization
350
xvi
LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO.
TITLE PAGE
1.1 Summary of previous research related to solar shading, daylight and energy use
8
2.1
ASHRAE (1999) clear sky model data for 21 day of each month
24
2.2
Different Sky types according to Nebulosity Index, Subang Jaya Malaysia
29
2.3
Comparison of measured SMS and DOE-weather file data for hourly horizontal solar radiation for Kuala Lumpur (2001) (Latitude: 3.120 , Longitude: +101.60,Time zone: +7)
31
2.4
Monthly mean global horizontal solar radiations (W/m2) and MBE & RMSE values for SMS and DOE.wf (Kuala Lumpur)
32
2.5
Hourly direct normal solar radiations (x cloud cover) and diffuse horizontal solar radiation (x cloud cover) - DOE. wf. (Kuala Lumpur); (W/m2)
34
2.6
Percentage of direct normal solar radiation and diffused horizontal solar radiation, DOE.wf for Kuala Lumpur (2001)
34
2.7
Monthly mean values of DBT, WBT and DewPT and correspondence Mean Bias Error (MBE) values
40
2.8
Horizontal exterior diffuse illuminance values (clear sky & overcast sky) on 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December, DOE.wf (Kuala Lumpur)
45
2.9
Hourly maximum global exterior illuminance for 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December, DOE.wf. (Kuala Lumpur)
45
xvii
2.10 Monthly maximum exterior illuminance values from clear sky, overcast sky and direct sun, DOE.wf, (Kuala Lumpur)
46
3.1
Electricity intensity averages for ASEAN countries
52
3.2
Electricity consumption percentages by building components for ASEAN countries
52
3.3
Optimum overhang ratio to intercept maximum direct incident solar radiation; Latitude: 3.120, Longitude: + 101.60- East, West, North and South
101
3.4
Recommended average illuminance levels for office buildings
112
3.5
Standard lowest exterior diffuse illuminance (lux) from Sky for different climatic regions
114
4.1
Description of tested overhang depths of the experiment
136
4.2
Summary of shading strategy with design variables and performance variables
151
4.3
Variables and constants of the study
165
4.4
Data analysis indicators and their interpretation
166
5.1
Summary of cumulative direct and diffuse solar radiation incident and total transmitted heat gain for base case model with percentage values compared to total incident solar radiation on bare window
185
5.2
Summary of maximum intensity of direct and diffuse solar radiation incident and total transmitted heat gain through bare window on east, west, north and south orientations
187
5.3a
Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 21 March and 22 June, East orientation
202
5.3b
Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 24 September and 21 December, East orientation
203
5.4a
Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 21 March and 22 June, West orientation
209
xviii
5.4b Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 24 September and 21 December, West orientation
210
5.5a
Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 21 March and 22 June, North orientation
216
5.5b
Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 24 September and 21 December, North orientation
217
5.6a
Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 21 March and 22 June, South orientation
223
5.6b
Maximum, minimum and mean work plane illuminance values at ref. pt: 01, ref. pt: 02, and total solar heat gain- 24 September and 21 December, South orientation
224
5.7
Reduction percentages of cumulative direct, diffuse and transmitted solar radiation for optimum overhang ratio for target work plane illuminance level
231
5.8
Summary of optimum overhang ratio for incident solar radiations, transmitted heat gains and work plane illuminance
232
6.1
Annual cooling load (MWh) with natural-light utilization and reduction percentage values as compared to base-case model, for tested OHR-East orientation
238
6.2
Annual cooling load (MWh) with natural-light utilization and reduction percentage values as compared to base-case model, for tested OHR-West orientation
239
6.3
Annual cooling load (MWh) with natural-light utilization and reduction percentage values as compared to base-case model, for tested OHR-North orientation
240
6.4
Annual cooling load (MWh) with natural-light utilization and reduction percentage values as compared to base-case model, for tested OHR-South orientation
240
6.5
Summary of building cooling loads and reduction percentages for optimum overhang ratio compared to base-case model, East, West, North and South orientations
242
xix
6.6 The annual total cooling load (MWh) with and without natural-light utilization for base-case model and maximum overhang option, East, West, North and South orientations
245
6.7
The annual electricity consumption for base case (w/o shading devices) model, with and without natural-light utilization, East, West, North and South orientations
247
6.8
Summary of impact of artificial lighting on space cooling energy consumption for base-case generic office room, East, West, North and South orientations
250
6.9
Regression coefficients as a function of overhang ratio for incremental electricity use for area lighting (IEULt) - East, West, North and South orientations
259
6.10
Regression coefficients as a function of overhang ratio for incremental electricity use for space cooling (IEUCL) - East, West, North and South orientations
260
6.11
Regression coefficients as a function of overhang ratio for total incremental electricity use (IEUTOT) - East, West, North and South orientations
261
6.12
Comparison of simulated (e-QUEST-3) to interpolated (regression equation) IEUCL (kWh/m2, yr) for tested overhang ratio
262
6.13
Comparison of simulated (e-QUEST-3) to interpolated (regression equation) IEULt (kWh/m2, yr) for tested overhang ratio
262
6.14
Comparison of simulated (e-QUEST-3) to interpolated (regression equation) IEUTOT (kWh/m2, yr) for tested overhang ratio
263
6.15
Summary of total energy saving and respective work plane illuminance for optimum overhang ratio, East, West, North and South orientations
267
6.16
Summary of energy saving for space cooling and respective work plane illuminance for optimum overhang ratio, East, West, North and South orientations
268
6.17
Summary of lighting energy consumption for optimum overhang ratio for space cooling, East, West, North and South orientations
269
xx
6.18 Summary of lighting energy consumption for optimum overhang ratio for total energy consumption, East, West, North and South orientations
269
7.1
Influence of maximum overhang ratio on direct, diffused solar radiation and total transmitted heat gain, East, West, North and South orientations
274
7.2
Trade-Off between optimum overhang ratios and performance variables for direct incident solar radiation, transmittance heat gain and mean work plane illuminance, East, West, North and South orientations
277
7.3
Trade-Off between optimum overhang ratio and building cooling load components, East, West, North and South orientations
279
7.4
Summary of optimum overhang ratio for total energy consumption and space cooling energy consumption
282
7.5
Summary of optimum overhang ratio for various performance variables on east, west, north and south orientations for tropical climate
283
xxi
LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE
NO TITLE PAGE
1.1 The Problem: A typical fully glazed office space section 5
1.2 The Proposition: Optimum shading during over heated period to reduce total heat gain and obtain target illuminance
5
1.3
User requirements for solar shading systems
13
1.4
The flow of research process and thesis structure
16
2.1
Comparison of global horizontal solar radiation between SMS (measured) and DOE-wf (simulated) for Kuala Lumpur- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December
33
2.2
Hourly total solar radiations (direct & diffuse) on vertical surface on 21 March
35
2.3
Hourly total solar radiations (direct & diffuse) on vertical surface on 22 June
35
2.4
Hourly total solar radiations (direct & diffuse) on vertical surface on 24 September
36
2.5
Hourly total solar radiations (direct & diffuse) on vertical surface on 21 December
36
2.6
Hourly variations of dry bulb temperature (DBT) for 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December, DOE. wf. for Kuala Lumpur
37
2.7
Hourly variations of wet bulb temperature (WBT) for 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December, DOE. wf. for Kuala Lumpur
38
2.8
Comparison of monthly mean DBT (0C) data from SMS and DOE.wf
38
xxii
2.9 Comparison of monthly mean WBT (0C) data from SMS and DOE.wf
39
2.10
Monthly variation of Dew Point Temperatures (0C) data from SMS and DOE.wf
39
2.11
Exterior horizontal illuminance for 21 March, DOE.wf data for Kuala Lumpur
41
2.12
Exterior horizontal illuminance for 22 June, DOE.wf data for Kuala Lumpur
42
2.13
Exterior horizontal illuminance for 24 September, DOE.wf data for Kuala Lumpur
42
2.14
Exterior horizontal illuminance for 21 December, DOE.wf data for Kuala Lumpur
43
2.15
Total exterior horizontal illuminance, DOE.wf data for Kuala Lumpur
44
2.16
Calculated global luminous efficacies (lm/W), DOE.wf data for Kuala Lumpur
44
2.17
Monthly maximum exterior illuminance values from clear sky, overcast sky and direct sun, DOE.wf (Kuala Lumpur)
46
3.1
Examples of climate rejecting high-rise buildings in Malaysia
56
3.2
Example of climate adapted building: Public Works Department (PWD or JKR) building, Kuala Lumpur
57
3.3
Combination of climate adapted and rejected buildings in Malaysia
58
3.4
Optimum high-rise building form according to climatic zones
61
3.5
Arrangement of vertical core according to climatic zones
63
3.6
Core plan and annual cooling loads
63
3.7
Instantaneous heat balances through sunlit glazing material
73
3.8
External solar shading devices horizontal overhang, vertical shading devices and egg-crate devices
89
3.9
Horizontal shadow angle (HSA)
90
xxiii
3.10 Vertical shadow angle (VSA) 91
3.11 The shadow angle protractor
92
3.12
Stereographic projections for Kuala Lumpur (Latitude 3.120, Longitude +101.60, and Time zone 7)
92
3.13
Relationship between horizontal shading depth, window height and vertical shadow angle (VSA)
93
3.14
Sideway extension of external horizontal shading device
94
3.15
Relationship between vertical fin’s depth, window width and horizontal shadow angle (HSA)
94
3.16
Awning geometry
95
3.17
Relationship between external overhang depth, window height and overhang ratio
100
3.18
Overhang ratio for side extension of horizontal shading device
102
3.19
Effect of overhang on daylight distribution in a room
110
4.1
Base case office room configuration
135
4.2
Office room with overhang design
136
4.3
Sequential simulation approach
140
4.4
Simultaneous simulation approach
141
4.5
DOE 2.2 Simulation engine structure
148
4.6
Calculation procedure of loads from heat gains
149
4.7
Typical eQUEST-3 building wizard screen
150
4.8
The eQUEST-3 exterior window shades and blinds wizard screen
152
4.9
The eQUEST-3 daylight zoning wizard screen
153
4.10
The eQUEST-3 HVAC system wizard screen
154
4.11
The eQUEST-3 detail interface screen
156
4.12
The eQUEST-3 hourly results selection screen
156
xxiv
4.13 The eQUEST-3 results screen of annual end use energy consumption
157
4.14
The eQUEST-3 simulation procedures
157
4.15
Daylight photo sensor positions in office room model
161
4.16
Overall simulation procedures with design variables and performance variables
168
5.1
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, East orientation
173
5.2
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, East orientation
173
5.3
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, East Orientation
174
5.4
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, East Orientation
174
5.5
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, West orientation
176
5.6
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, West orientation
177
5.7
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, West orientation
177
5.8
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, West orientation
178
5.9
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, North orientation
179
5.10
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, North orientation
180
xxv
5.11 Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, North orientation
180
5.12
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, North orientation
181
5.13
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, South orientation
182
5.14
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, South orientation
183
5.15
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, South orientation
183
5.16
Direct, diffuse solar radiation incident on window, and transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, South orientation
184
5.17
Cumulative direct, diffuse and total incident solar radiation and total transmitted heat gains for base-case model with bare window on east, west, north and south orientations
186
5.18
Maximum intensity of direct and diffuse incident solar radiation and total transmitted heat gain for base-case model- East, West, North and South orientations
188
5.19
Reduction percentage (%) of cumulative amount of direct solar radiation incident on window surface as function of horizontal overhang ratio- East, West, North and South
189
5.20
Reduction percentage (%) of cumulative amount of diffuse solar radiation incident on window surface as function of horizontal overhang ratio- East, West, North and South
191
5.21
Reduction percentage (%) of cumulative transmitted and re-conducted solar heat gain in an office room space as function of horizontal overhang ratio- East, West, North and South
192
5.22
Maximum hourly total solar heat gains for tested overhang ratios- East orientation
193
5.23
Maximum hourly total solar heat gains for tested overhang ratios- West orientation
194
xxvi
5.24 Maximum hourly total solar heat gains for tested overhang ratios- North orientation
194
5.25
Maximum hourly total solar heat gains for tested overhang ratios- South orientation
195
5.26
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, East orientation
198
5.27
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, East orientation.
198
5.28
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, East orientation
199
5.29
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, East orientation
199
5.30
Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 01 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September, and 21 December- East orientation.
204
5.31
Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 02 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September, and 21 December- East orientation
204
5.32
Effect of overhang on natural light distribution in perimeter office room- East orientation
205
5.33
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, West orientation
206
5.34
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, West orientation
206
5.35
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, West orientation
207
5.36
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, West orientation
207
xxvii
5.37 Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 01 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December for West orientation.
211
5.38
Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 02 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December for West orientation
212
5.39
Effect of overhangs on natural light distribution in perimeter office room- West orientation
212
5.40
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, North orientation
213
5.41
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, North orientation
213
5.42
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, North orientation
214
5.43
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, North orientation
214
5.44
Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 01 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September, and 21 December for North orientation
218
5.45
Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 02 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December for North orientation.
218
5.46
Effect of overhangs on natural-light distribution in perimeter office room- North orientation
219
5.47
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 March, South orientation
221
5.48
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 22 June, South orientation.
221
5.49
Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 24 September, South orientation
222
xxviii
5.50 Absolute work plane illuminance (lux) at ref.pt:01, ref.pt:02, and solar heat gain (W/m2), as a function of overhang ratio- 21 December, South orientation.
222
5.51
Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 01 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December for South orientation.
225
5.52
Mean work plane illuminance (lux) at reference point 02 for tested overhang ratio- 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21 December for South orientation.
225
5.53
Effect of overhangs on natural-light distribution in perimeter office room- South orientation
226
5.54
Minimum hourly work plane illuminance at reference point 02, East orientation
227
5.55
Minimum hourly work plane illuminance at reference point 02, West orientation
227
5.56
Minimum hourly work plane illuminance at reference point 02, North orientation
228
5.57
Minimum hourly work plane illuminance at reference point 02, South orientation
228
6.1
Breakdown of annual cooling load (MWh) with natural-light utilization and without natural-light for a base-case generic office room- East, West, North and South orientations
236
6.2
Total envelop and internal component cooling loads (MWh) for tested external horizontal overhang ratio, East, West, North and South orientations
241
6.3
Total building space cooling load (MWh) for tested external horizontal overhang ratio, East, West, North and South orientations
242
6.4
Breakdown of annual cooling load (MWh) without natural-light utilization; for base-case model and maximum overhang option, East, West, North and South orientations
243
6.5
The annual total cooling load (MWh) with and without natural-light utilization for base-case model and maximum overhang option, East, West, North and South orientations
244
6.6
Breakdown of annual electricity consumption for base case model, with and without natural-light utilization- East, West, North and South orientations
246
xxix
6.7 Total energy consumption with and without natural-light scheme for base case model, East, West, North and South orientations
247
6.8
(a & b)
Electricity consumption (kWh/m2, yr) for space cooling, area lighting and total energy for tested overhang ratios, East & West orientations
251
6.8
(c & d)
Electricity consumption (kWh/m2, yr) for space cooling, area lighting and total energy for tested overhang ratios, North & South orientations
252
6.9
Total annual electricity consumption for space cooling and annual electricity consumption for cooling to remove the heat gain from artificial lighting for different overhang ratio tested- East, West, North and South orientations
253
6.10
(a & b)
Incremental energy use (kWh/m2, yr) for cooling, lighting and total energy for tested overhang ratios- East and West orientations
256
6.10
(c & d)
Incremental energy uses (kWh/m2, yr) for cooling, lighting and total energy for tested overhang ratios- North and South orientations
257
6.11
Energy saving percentage for space cooling and area lighting incremental energy use as a function of overhang ratio, East, West, North and South orientations
264
6.12
Energy saving percentage for total incremental energy use as a function of overhang ratio, East, West, North and South orientations
265
7.1
Several design option of external horizontal overhang shading device
284
xxx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASEAN - Association of South East Asian Nations
ASEAM - A Simplified Energy Analysis Method
ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
BC - Base Case
BDL - Building Description Language
BLAST - Building Loads Analysis and System Thermodynamics
CAD - Computer Aided Design
CBIP - Commercial Building Incentive Program
CIBS - Charted Institute of Building Service
CIBSE - Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
CIE - International Illumination Commission
COSLAM - Conference of Sri Lankan Malays
CTBUH - Council on Tall Building and Urban Habitat
DBT - Dry Bulb Temperature
DDM - Degree-Day Method
DewPT - Dew Point Temperature
DEU CL - Differential Energy Use (cooling)
DOE - Department of Energy (United States)
DOE.wf - Department of Energy weather file
EC LT - Energy Consumption (lighting)
EC CL - Energy Consumption (cooling)
EC TOT - Energy Consumption (total)
EEM - Energy Efficient Measures
eQUEST - Quick Energy Simulation Tool
GFA - Gross Floor Area
GIA - Gross Internal Area
xxxi
HVAC - Heating, Ventilation & Air-Conditioning
HSA - Horizontal Shadow Angle
IB - Intelligent Building
IES - Illuminating engineers society of North America
IES - International Energy Standards
IES - Integrated environmental Solutions
IEU - Incremental Energy Use
IEUCL - Incremental Energy Use (cooling)
IEULT - Incremental Energy Use (lighting)
IEUTOT - Incremental Energy Use (total)
LEO - Low Energy Office
LEED - Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
MBE - Mean Bias Error
MDD - Modified Degree-Day method
MECM - Ministry of Energy, Communications & Multimedia (Malaysia)
MEWC - Ministry of Energy, Water and Communication (Malaysia)
MS - Malaysian Standards
NFRC - National Fenestration Rating Council
NI - Nebulosity Index
NRA - Net Rentable Area
OHR - Overhang Ratio
OHRé - Overhang Ratio (Side extension é)
OHRfin - Overhang Ratio vertical fins
ORI - Façade Orientation
OTTV - Overall Thermal Transfer Value
PC - Personal Computer
PF - Projection Factor
PSALI - Permanent Supplementary Artificial Lighting of Interiors
PWD - Public Works Department
RMSE - Root Mean Square Error
SHGF - Solar Heat Gain Factor
SHGFv - Solar Heat Gain Factor vertical surface
xxxii
SHGFsh - Solar Heat Gain Factor shaded window
SMS - Subang Meteorological Station
SIR - Sun Illuminance Ratio
TMY - Typical Metrological Year
THG - Total Heat Gain
TRY - Test Reference Year
UMNO - United Malaya National Organization
USAID - Unite States Agency for International Development
UTM - Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
VE - Virtual Environment
VSA - Vertical Shadow Angle
WBT - Wet Bulb Temperature
WWR - Window-to-Wall Ratio
WYEC - Weather Year for Energy Calculations
xxxiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A - Surface Area (m2)
α - Absorptance (dimensionless)
A1, A2, A3 - Coefficients of absorptions (constants)
A4, A5, A6 - Coefficients of absorptions (constants)
Acog - Projected area center of glass (m2)
Aeog - Projected area edge of glass (m2)
Aframe - Projected area of frame (m2)
AG - Fraction of window area exposed to the sun (m2)
Ar - Rayleigh scattering coefficient
Asun - Area of window exposed to the sun (m2)
αb - Absorptance of reference glazing for direct beam
αdiff - Absorptance of reference glazing for diffuse radiation
B - Atmospheric extinction coefficient (dimensionless)
β - Solar altitude angle above the horizontal (0)
C - Diffuse sky factor
C1, C2, C3 - Coefficients of transmission (constants)
C4, C5, C6 - Coefficients of transmission (constants)
Cd - Compensation factor for window dirt (DF calculation)
Cf - Compensation factor for frame (DF calculation)
Cg - Compensation factor for glazing (DF calculation)
Cn - Clearness number of the atmosphere (dimensionless)
CR - Cloud Ratio
D - Depth of the horizontal projection (m)
δ - Solar declination angle (0)
d - Horizontal projection of the distance between the awning’s lower corner and its shadow on the vertical wall (m)
DF - Daylight Factor
xxxiv
Ėdiff,cl - Clear sky diffuse illuminance (lux)
Edsky - Direct illuminance from sky (lux)
Er(ext)sky - External reflected component from sky illuminance (lux)
Er(int)sky - Internal reflected component from sky illuminance (lux)
Eidsun - Internal direct illuminance from sunlight (lux)
Eirsun - Internal reflected illuminance from sunlight (lux)
Eo,sun - Exterior illuminance from sunlight (lux)
Eo,sky - Exterior illuminance from sky (lux)
Ei - Interior illuminance (lux)
Eo - Exterior illuminance (lux)
Et - Equation of time
e - Projection side ways from the window vertical edge (m)
e1 - Length of the shading device over the window (m)
é - Awning width exceeding window width on each side (m)
φ - Latitude of the location (0)
Ffl - Flue loss factor, equipment
Fra - Radiation factor, equipment
Fs - Lighting special allowance factor
Fsg - Angle factor between the surface and the sky
Fss - Angle factor between the surface and the sky
Fu - Light use factor, lighting
Fua - Use factor, equipment
f - Depth of the vertical fin (m)
fr - Fraction of diffuse radiation obstructed by the shading device
γ - Surface solar azimuth (0)
G-value - Total fraction of incident solar energy transmitted (dimensionless)
Gref - Reflectance of the ground
Gsunshade - G-value for corresponding shading device (dimensionless)
Gsystem - G-value for corresponding window system with shading (dimensionless)
Gwindow - G-value for window (dimensionless)
η1, η2 - Regression coefficients for total energy (dimensionless)
Hfen - Height of fenestration (m)
Hi - Inside air enthalpy, (kJ/kg) (dry air)
xxxv
Ho - Outside air enthalpy, (kJ/kg) (dry air)
h - Horizontal projection of the awning (m)
hi - Heat transfer coefficient, inside glazing surface (W/m2 K)
ho - Heat transfer coefficient, outside glazing surface(W/m2 K)
Isc - Solar constant
Io - Extraterrestrial solar radiation (W/m2)
Ibn - Direct beam normal solar radiation (W/m2)
Ibh - Direct beam solar radiation on horizontal surface (W/m2)
Ibv - Direct beam solar radiation on vertical surface (W/m2)
Idiff,h - Diffused solar radiation on horizontal surface (W/m2)
Idiff,v - Diffused sky radiation on vertical surface (W/m2)
IGh - Global irradiance horizontal surface (W/m2)
IGv - Global irradiance vertical surface (W/m2)
Ir - Ground reflected radiation (W/m2)
It,θ - Total horizontal radiation strikes the ground surface (W/m2)
Itot,h - Total solar radiation on horizontal surface (W/m2)
Itot,v - Total solar radiation on vertical surface
Icl,diff - Diffused solar radiation clear sky (W/m2)
İdv - Diffused & reflected radiation on vertical glazing (W/m2)
İbv - Direct beam radiation on vertical plane (W/m2)
Ї - Apparent extraterrestrial irradiance (W/m2)
Ídr - Direct solar radiation transmitted through standard 3mm clear glass
Ídf - Diffused solar radiation transmitted through standard 3mm clear glass Ítot - Total (direct + diffused) solar radiation transmitted
through standard 3mm clear glass
ϕ - Awning slope (0)
K - Luminous efficacy (lm/W)
KB - Beam luminous efficacy (lm/W)
Kcc - Cloud cover ratio
KD - Diffused luminous efficacy (lm/W)
KG - Global luminous efficacy (lm/W)
k - Fraction of diffuse radiation obstructed by the shading device
xxxvi
L - Awning length (m)
λ1 - Regression coefficient for lighting energy (dimensionless)
L edge - Length of window frame edge (m)
Lloc - Longitude of the location (in degree)
Lstd - Standard meridian for the local time zone (Longitude of the time zone)
Ltot - Total Length (m)
m - Optical air mass
µ1, µ2 - Regression coefficients for cooling energy (dimensionless)
N - Cloud amount
Ni - Inward flowing fraction of the absorbed radiation
No - Number of people
Nt - Cloud type
n - Daily sunshine duration
no - Maximum possible sunshine duration
pa - Atmospheric pressure
Q - Ventilation air flow (L/s)
θ - Incident angle (0)
θh - Angle of incidence on horizontal surface (0)
θv - Angle of incidence on vertical surface (0)
Qc - Conduction heat flow rate (w)
Qcl - Cooling energy use (W/m2)
Qel - Heat gain from electric lighting (w)
Qeq - Appliances heat gain (w)
Qi - Occupants heat gain (w)
Qs,win - Total solar heat gain flow rate, window (w)
Qv - Convection heat flow rate (w)
Qwin - Thermal heat gain, window (W/m2K)
ρ - Reflectance (dimensionless)
Rgap - Thermal resistance of gap between panes (m2K/W)
Rgl - Thermal resistance of glass pane (m2K/W)
Rsi - Internal surface resistance (m2K/W)
Rse - External surface resistance (m2K/W)
Rtot - Total thermal resistance (m2K/W)
xxxvii
R2 - Coefficient of determination
S - Relative sunshine duration
SC - Shading coefficient
SC clearglass - Shading coefficient of clear glass
SCshadingdevice - Shading coefficient of shading device
SC net - Net shading coefficient for partially shaded window
Sdf - Sky diffusive factor
Sec - Solar extinction coefficient
∆T - Temperature difference (0C)
τ - Τransmittance (dimensionless)
Td - Dew point temperature (0C)
Tdt - Out door dry-bulb temperature (0C)
Tsol - Local solar time
Tstd - Local standard time
Twt - Out door wet-bulb temperature (0C)
τa - Secondary heat transmittance (dimensionless)
τb - Transmittance of reference glazing for direct beam (dimensionless)
τdiff - Transmittance of reference glazing for diffuse radiation
ti - Daily mean indoor temperature (0C)
to - Daily mean out door temperature (0C)
U - Thermal transmittance value (W/m2K)
Ucog - Thermal transmittance center of glass (W/m2K)
Ueog - Thermal transmittance edge of glass (W/m2K)
Uframe - Thermal transmittance frame (W/m2K)
UPD - Average lighting unit power density (W/m2)
Uwin - Thermal transmittance of window (W/m2K)
Vd - Wind direction
Vs - Wind speed
v - Vertical projection of the awning/ horizontal shading device (m)
W - Total light wattage
ω - Solar hour angle (0)
Wawn - Width of the awning (m)
xxxviii
Wfen - Width of fenestration (m)
Wo - Outside humidity ratio, kg (water)/ kg (dry air)
Wi - Inside humidity ratio, kg (water)/ kg (dry air)
ψedge - Linear heat transmittance coefficient (W/mK)
ζ - Surface tilt angle (0)
xxxix
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Summary of Energy Related Research 306
C Summary of High-Rise Office Building and Energy Use Review
C1. Office Buildings Energy Data Base
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
309
C2. South East Asian Office Building
Information
312
C3. Design of Shading Device Considering the
Windows Solar Angle Dependent Properties: With Special Reference to Kuala Lumpur Hot and Humid Tropical Climates
315
D
Review of Computer Simulation Programs
329
E
Simulation Data and Results
E1. Sample of Input Data
333
E2. Summary: Direct and Diffused Incident
Solar Radiation and Transmitted Heat Gains
338
E3. Summary: Work Plane Illuminance at
Ref.Pt:01 and Ref.Pt:02
344
F
Summary Building Energy Use
F1. Summary: Building Cooling Load Data
347
F2. Summary: End Use Energy Consumption
Data with Natural-light utilization
350
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Protection of buildings against the influences of the climate and its forces had
been a challenging task throughout history. In modern scenario the task has been
more challenging by the fact that this protection should not categorically eliminate
all climatic influences, thus rendering the interior space independent from the
external environment. The most important facet of a building's internal environment
is the control of the physical conditions- light, temperature, humidity, airflow and
noise within the building (Codella et al, 1981). Unbalancing any of these conditions
will prevent the proper functioning of the building, as the comfort level for people
engage in the type of activity that the building is intended will be affected.
However, rapid pace of urbanization and development of technology played a part in
neglecting valuable experience of climate adopted building technology and often
controlled by artificial means. This is evident by the fact that intensive use of
electricity for lighting and air-conditioning to improve comfort levels has been major
consuming issues in high-rise office buildings.
The intensity of solar radiation in hot and humid climates such as Malaysia is
generally high and consistent throughout the year. Records of hourly solar radiation
data for altitude 3.70 north and latitude 101.30 east (Subang Jaya Meteorological
Station), received a maximum of 1055 W/m2 for the year 2001. This is about 75-
80% of the solar radiation intensity outside the earth’s atmosphere. Further, annual
maximum intensity of solar radiation falling on horizontal is about 1000 W/m2 and
2
on vertical surface is about 850 W/m2 for east and west facing surfaces. Thus, in
tropical hot and humid climates, solar radiation prevention is one of the crucial
factors in climate design criteria.
Daylight is one of the passive design strategies that architects and designers
can utilize in building design. What makes daylight utilization so interesting is that
it can be used to replace artificial lighting. Thus, it has two advantages in terms of
building energy use; firstly it reduces the electricity consumption for lighting and
secondly reduces the cooling demand through reduction of internal heat load from
lights. Other than energy saving and economical benefits, there are other
advantages and also potential drawbacks in daylight utilization. Use of daylight
implies the presence of windows in the immediate surrounding which has
psychological and physiological benefits. The quality of natural illumination may
also be highly desirable.
According to Nor Haliza (2002), Azni Zain-Ahmed (2002a) and Hamdan
(1996) the abundance of daylight in the tropics that has not been utilized to the
maximum, nor has it been considered as design criterion. The main drawback is
maximum daylight availability is usually concurrent with intense solar heat gain,
especially in hot and humid climates, like in Malaysia. Further, the sky conditions
in Malaysia can vary significantly throughout the day from overcast to clear sky, due
to formation of clouds (Hamdan, 1996). Therefore, availability of sunlight and
daylight can fluctuate significantly throughout the day. In this context, top lit
concept for daylight is not desirable and side lighting is the main source of daylight
into the building. The side daylight system produces a non-uniform light
contribution from window to wall at deep end of the room. Steep depth in ‘plan
form’ also creates gloomy interior where daylight penetration is limited. Another
main concern is glare caused by extreme contrasts or unsuitable distribution of
luminance. In order to avoid unbalanced conditions, artificial lighting is used to
create a brighter internal environment.
The high-rise buildings have significantly larger façade and fenestration area
than their low building counter part. The building vertical surface area is a major
3
variable in determining the impact of the climate forces, practically which cannot be
covered by a roof. The roof plays a significant role in controlling the climatic forces
in low rise buildings. Hence, high-rise buildings are more exposed to the full impact
of external temperatures, radiant heat and wind forces. Consequently by nature the
high rise buildings are energy intensive. The necessity to reduce energy use is
further challenged by the use of large glazing area for office buildings. Whether this
is the result of improvement in the glazing technology or to increase daylight levels
of the interior or aesthetic trend remains to be determined (Dubois, 2001c). Glass
facades create problems of overheating and high air-conditioning cost, excessive
brightness and discomforting glare problems.
Daylight and solar heat are two components directly affecting building
fenestration design. The main climate and energy conscious design initiatives in hot
and humid climates is to achieve a balance between solar radiation prevention and
daylight utilization (Lam and Li, 1999; Lee et al, 1998). The solutions remain in
thermal resistance of building envelope, preventing solar radiation falling on the
façade and allowing beneficial daylight in. Although use of tiny windows and tinted
glazing reduce heat gain through fenestration, they also cut off the view from the
window and tend to reduce the penetration of daylight into the space. Studies also
have shown that reducing window sizes do not prevent glare, but reduce amount of
daylight in the interior (Chauvel et al, 1982). But, heat reduction is best achieved by
excluding unwanted heat rather than removing it later, often by air-conditioning.
Previous researches (Dubois, 2000; Givoni, 1981; Harkness, 1978; Olgyay, 1957)
suggest that the use of appropriate solar shading devices can give better solutions to
solve the overheating, lack of daylight and glare problems in modern offices.
External shading devices also have a few advantages over other options like
different glazing types and reduction of window sizes. They can improve the light
distribution in the room and reduce the discomfort glare problem. Further, use of
shading devices are often more attractive to the architect than reducing the glazing
area or using reflective or tinted glazing, which may alter the architectural character
intended for the building (Dubois, 2001c).
4
Review by Abdul Majid (1996) and Nor Haliza (2002) of solar shading
designs in high-rise buildings in two major cities in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur
(Latitude 3.70 N) and Johor Bahru (Latitude 1.380 N), showed that inappropriate
attentions given to the shading and daylight problems. According to Hassan, KAKU
(1996) most designers incorporate shading devices as an aesthetic element rather
than a useful climatic design element. The reasons may be of little knowledge on
solar radiation and daylight penetration and the energy implication often used to
achieve internal thermal and visual comforts. In this context it can be argued that
the role of external shading strategies required a rethinking in terms of reducing the
impact of solar radiation, obtain a better daylight distribution and energy
consumption for cooling and lighting.
1.2 The Problem Statement Local climatic conditions affect the energy consumed by a building. In
Malaysia, buildings are subject to significant cooling requirements due to high
intensity of solar radiation penetration through fenestration. Previous works on
energy audits and surveys of office buildings for Malaysia indicated that the energy
consumed to cool the building is about 68% of the total electricity use (Loewen, J.M
et al 1992). The external solar shading devices can substantially reduce the cooling
load of buildings and large energy savings can be achieved.
However, a total shading to cut off unwanted solar radiation may reduce the
daylight level in buildings. A reduction in the use of daylight will increase in the
use of artificial lighting. This again results in the cooling load to remove the internal
heat gains from light as well as consume electricity on artificial lighting. Apart from
energy consumption, oversized shading devices reduce view out through building
which is a primary function of a window. In hot and humid climates, the problem is
emphasized by the fact that it is important to understand the magnitude of solar heat
gain, daylight penetration and high energy consumption in high-rise office buildings
in order to determine energy efficient shading strategy.
5
Figure 1.1: The Problem: A Typical Fully Glazed Office Space Section. 1.3 Research Hypothesis The hypothesis of this study is that an optimum depth of a horizontal shading
device will achieve the following:
i. Reduction of solar heat gain into the building
ii. Obtain adequate daylight quantity at deep end of the interior space.
iii. Thus reduce the total energy consumption from cooling and lighting and
predict an optimum energy saving.
Figure 1.2: The Proposition: Optimum shading during over heated period to reduce total heat gain and obtain target illuminance
09.00 am 17.00 pm
θ1θ2
Over heating
Increase in cooling load
High energy use
Glare
Over lighting
Direct sunlight
& Diffused
light
Direct sunlight
& Diffused
light
Optimum shading depth
Natural-light illuminance
Direct sunlight is blocked during the over heated period
500lux
Increase artificial illuminance
θ
Reduction in cooling load
Total work plane illuminance
Reduction Solar heat gain
Optimum Energy
9.00 am -17.00pm
6
The term “optimum depth” refers to the external horizontal shading device
depth which will reduce maximum heat gain and provide target illuminance to obtain
an optimum energy saving, by correlating between them.
1.4 Research Questions
The following questions will be addressed in this thesis:
1. Does the orientation of the fenestration influence the solar heat gain and
daylight penetration into the building and the depth of the shading device?
2. What are the effective overhang ratios to intercept the maximum direct and
diffuse incident solar radiations during the over heated period from 9:00 am
to 17:00 pm?
3. What is the effective overhang ratios for the maximum reduction of
transmitted heat gains during the over heated period from 9.00 am to 17.00
pm?
4. What is the effective overhang ratio to obtain adequate work plane
illuminance at deep end of the space considered?
5. Does the effective depth obtained at (2), reduce the work plane illuminance
below the target level?
6. What is the trade off between the transmitted heat gain and the shading depth
to achieve target work plane illuminance?
7. What is the optimum shading geometry to obtain an optimum energy saving
in relation to cardinal orientations?
1.5 Research Gap
Previous researches on solar shading were reviewed in order to get a clear
understanding of the state-of –art knowledge in the field and identify the areas which
had not been covered in the past. The review revealed that research on solar shading
7
had been focused mainly on five issues: impact on solar radiation, impact on daylight
quality and distribution, impact on energy use, shading design methods, and impact
on human comfort and perception. Few studies during the summer time and under
hot humid tropical climate suggested that use of external shading strategies
significantly reduce impinging solar radiation on the fenestration than the internal
shading devices (Olgyay and Olgyay, 1957; Givoni, 1998; Hassan KAKU, 1996).
Previous studies on external shading devices in hot and humid tropical climates
(Hassan KAKU, 1996; Sharifah and Sia, 2001) only concentrated on the incident
solar radiation (direct, diffused and reflected) and expressed the capacity of shading
device to cut out the impinging solar radiation. Yet they do not indicate amount of
solar heat gain transmitted into the space when different external shading strategies
were applied in order to understand the energy implication of employing such
strategies.
Though it was stated in many research works and publication that the external
solar shading reduces daylight distribution into the space, there were only few
researches done on this aspect in hot and humid tropical climate conditions (Sharifah
and Sia, 2004 Hamdan, 1996). Also, little is known about the relationship between
external shading device geometry and the daylight distribution, especially under high
illuminance global sky conditions like in Malaysia.
Review also suggested that shading strategies have a significant impact on the
energy consumption for cooling, heating and lighting. Few studies have looked into
this aspect under different climate conditions and with different shading strategies
(Bojic et al, 2002; Bülow-Hübe, 2001; Dubois, 1999; Huang et al 1992; Bordart et al,
2002; Li & Lam, 1999; Lee, E. S et al, 1998). Studies by Huang et al (1992) in
office buildings in Singapore, were dependent on other variables (different
illuminance levels, lighting power requirements, window-to-wall ratio) as well,
therefore it is difficult to derive clear conclusion on the effect of solar shading on
total energy consumption. Further they do not indicate an optimal shading strategy
for any particular climate. Hence, there is room for further research on relationship
between external shading device geometry and on the electric consumption for
cooling and lighting.
8
Table 1.1: Summary of previous research related to solar shading, daylight and energy use
Design Variables Performance Variable
External Internal Nat-ural Geometry Thermal Visual
Res
earc
h
Clim
ate
zone
Hor
izon
tal
Ver
tical
Egg
-cra
te
Aw
ning
s
Blin
ds
Scre
ens
Gla
zing
B
uild
.
orie
ntat
ion
vege
tatio
n
Win
dow
-to-
wal
l
Dep
th
Wid
th
Ang
le
Col
or
Sola
r r
adia
tion
Sola
r tr
ansm
it
Tem
pera
ture
Illu
min
ance
Gla
re
Uni
form
ity
Ene
rgy
Des
ign
Met
h
Oth
ers
Olgyay (1957) T * * * * * * * *
Hassan, KAKU (1996)
HH * * * * *
Givoni (1981/1998) T * * * * * *
Dubois (1999) T * * * * *
Dubois (1998) T * * * * * *
Dubois (2001c) T * * * * * * *
Sharifah & Sia
(2001) HH * *
Sharifah & Sia
(2004) HH * *
Raeissi & Taheri (1997) HA * * * *
Azni Zain-Ahmad (2002)
HH * * *
Al-Shareef (2001) HA * * * * *
Robbins (1986) T * * * *
Chirarttanano
n (1996)
HH * * * * * * *
Dinapradipta (2003) HH * * *
Huang (1992) HH * * * * * *
Bojic (2002) HH * * * *
Present Study HH √ √ √ √ √ √
T = Temperate climate HA = Hot and arid climate HH = Hot and humid climate Table 1.1 gives a summary of related research work and their variables.
Thus, the above review suggest that effect of solar shading on solar heat gain,
internal daylight level and on energy consumptions have been dealt as separate
9
issues. There is no specific research done to study the relationship between external
shading devices and the correspondence solar heat gain, daylight level and energy
consumptions. Therefore, this thesis attempts to focus on the application of external
horizontal solar shading device and to asses their performance with respect to the
impact of solar radiation, internal daylight illuminance level and the optimal energy
saving.
1.6 Research Objective The main objective of this study is to assess and evaluate the impact of
external horizontal shading devices in reducing the unwanted solar heat gain and the
amount of daylight penetration into the building. Thereby, to determine the
geometry of horizontal shading device to optimize the energy savings for cooling and
lighting for buildings in hot and humid climates.
Other specific objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To determine the amount of direct, diffuse and reflected solar radiation
incident on the window pane and transmitted solar radiation through window.
2. To determine the depth of external horizontal shading device considering the
window solar angle dependent properties.
3. To determine the direct, diffuse and reflected solar radiation incident on the
window pane and transmitted solar radiation through the window for the
proposed external horizontal shading devices described in (2).
4. To determine the work plane illuminance for the proposed external horizontal
shading devices described in (2).
5. To determine the potential trade-offs involved between the solar heat gain
and daylight penetration into the interior space to optimize the depth of the
external horizontal shading devices described in (2).
6. To determine the energy performance of proposed external horizontal shading
devices described in (2).
10
7. To compare the energy performances of proposed external horizontal shading
devices with a base-case model (without shading device) and results obtained
from (3), (4) and (6) for determining the optimum overhang depth to achieve
optimum energy saving.
8. To determine the influence of building orientation on the external horizontal
shading strategy.
1.7 Scope and Limitations There are several necessities for using shading systems in buildings, ranging
from individual level (better thermal and visual comforts, low energy bills) to
national or global levels (reducing energy consumptions). However, scope of this
study is to evaluate the solar heat gain and daylight penetration in order to optimize
the energy consumption for cooling and artificial lighting when external solar
shadings are applied.
The thermal performance of a building largely depends on two parameters:
unsteady climatic parameters and building design variables (Bouchlaghem, 2000).
The thermal analysis is mainly focused on the amount of direct, diffuse solar
radiation and transmitted and retransmitted solar heat gain through fenestration.
Although, there are other means of solar heat gain into the building such as,
conduction through wall and infiltration, assumptions are made that heat gain from
these modes are constant for all the tested shading strategies. Further, relative
humidity and wind flow also can effect on the building thermal performances, but
these parameters were not considered in this experiment.
The thermal comfort aspect is not dealt within this thesis as a major issue.
This is because there are other parameters effecting thermal comfort, for e.g. air
temperature, humidity, air velocity, clothing and metabolic heat production (Givoni,
1981; Sharifah, 1995). It is assumed that by setting the indoor temperature at
recommended comfort value, will provide the required thermal quality for that space.
11
The daylight evaluation is limited to determining the work plane illuminance
at 0.9 meter from the ground level. Uniformity of daylight distribution, luminance
ratio between the surfaces of the space, effects on color rendering and effect on glare,
which contribute to the determining the qualities of daylight of a space are not dealt
in this thesis. Although evaluation of daylight quality is not within the scope of this
study, assumptions were made, by providing an optimum shading strategy so that
these criteria were acknowledged, thus provide appropriate visual comfort for the
user.
The energy performance of a building largely depends on three parameters;
building design variables, mechanical and technical system efficiency and efficient
management of systems. An approach focusing on architectural form and envelope
are directly under the control of the architect and also provides a visual picture of the
impact of environment on people and architecture. In this study energy analysis is
carried out for different external horizontal shading geometry only. Other building
design parameters such as, properties of building materials, location and size of
fenestration, surface treatment and insulation were kept as constant to all shading
cases tested.
Mechanical and technical system operating conditions were also kept
identical to all experiments tested. The working schedule for the office is considered
from 9:00 am to 17:00 pm.
A standard office room with a single fenestration was selected for the
experiment, with a typical room configuration capturing the variety of solar heat
gains and lighting distributions found in typical high-rise office buildings in
Malaysia. Therefore, analysis of data and energy is performed and discussed as
reference to the base case model and as a ratio to the base case values. The base case
office room is developed to comply with the Malaysian MS 1525 Standards. Due to
above stated reasons; no comparisons were made with any existing building energy
estimates.
12
This study is entirely carried out by using computer simulation program
eQUEST-3 DOE 2.2 (Version 3) and thus bears the limitations of the simulation tool
used. In chapter 4, a review on common research methods used by previous
researches and justification for the selection of the present tool are discussed.
Finally, the simulation is performed under clear sky conditions and the main
cardinal orientations, East, West, North and South, were considered. The following
days were chosen for hourly analysis; 21 March, 22 June, 24 September and 21
December. Since Malaysia receives similar climatic condition throughout the year,
the selected dates do not represent extreme days or average days, but suggest the
position of the sun related to certain façades at certain orientations. During 21 March
and 24 September the sun is within the plane of the equator and in tropical regions, a
high amount of solar radiation is received on these dates. In 22 June and 21
December the sun is in the equinox and it is at farthest point from the tropical region.
Therefore it is assumed the impact of solar radiation is less on these two dates
compared to other dates of the year.
1.8 Importance of the Research The out come of the study is expected to show that, the effectiveness of the
solar shading system depends on the relative balance between solar heat gain
reduction and adequate daylight in the building. The study also expect to suggest
that appropriate design decisions on solar shading systems can significantly reduce
the high energy consumption in office buildings in Malaysia.
Apart from the protection against harsh solar radiation and energy
conservation, the use of solar shading has benefit on various other aspects as shown
in figure 1.3. The most important aspect is the thermal and visual comforts, which
determines the human behavior. Hence, findings of this study will enable and
provide the building designer with wider range of options in selecting an appropriate
13
shading strategy for achieving the balance between desired daylight level and
optimum energy consumptions for space cooling and lighting.
Figure 1.3: User requirements for solar shading systems
1.9 Thesis Organization The thesis is organized into eight chapters as summarized bellow. Chapter one introduces the main issue of this research. This chapter also
contains the proposed hypothesis of the study, research questions, and objectives of
the study. Further, the research gap, scope and limitations of the study and the overall
thesis structure are also presented in this chapter.
Chapter two reviews the theory of solar radiation and the sky conditions of
Malaysia, particular to Kuala Lumpur (Latitude: 3.120; Longitude: +101.60; Time
zone: +7). Review on solar radiation includes the geometry of solar movement,
solar intensity and its computations for different radiation types in order to
understand their influence on the building. Also, a critical evaluation is carried out
Requirements on Solar shading systems
Thermal comfort
Visual comfort
Low cost
Aesthetic requirement
Reliability and
compliance with
technical aspects
Protection against:
fire, noise, weather, burglary -Protection from
unwanted solar heat gains -Induce internal air flow
Reduce energy
consumption
-Provide adequate daylight - Uniform illuminance in the room - Glare protection - Provide adequate privacy and view out - Provide visual quality
-Reduce cooling load -Reduce lighting energy consumption-Reduce total electricity demand
14
between measured weather statistics for the location considered and data obtained
from the simulation weather file in order to clarify the validity of the latter to be used
in the study.
Chapter three is divided into three sections. Section one reviews the energy
consumption patterns in Malaysia in general and in office buildings in particular.
The building standards for energy control in commercial buildings are also reviewed
to understand the energy scenario in Malaysia. The high-rise office building and
basic principles of energy efficient high-rise building are discussed. Based on the
review initial design conditions for the present study are also presented. Section two
reviews the principles of heat gains, types of heat transfer and factors influencing
heat gains in the building. A method to compute the solar heat gains are explored.
Finally, in section three, different shading devices are analyzed to understand their
implication as a shading element. Their basic functions as a solar radiation control
device are discussed to get a clear understanding of the state-of-the-art knowledge in
the field. Aspects determining the effectiveness of the shading are presented in order
to find a suitable energy efficient shading strategy. Methods for designing shading
device are reviewed and a new method is proposed to determine the shading depth in
hot and humid climate conditions.
Chapter four discuss the methodology implemented in this present study.
Initially, the energy evaluation methods and common research methodologies used
by previous researchers are reviewed. Thus, an appropriate methodology to be
employed in this thesis is formulated. Further, development of the base model,
experimental procedures, assumptions, limitations and the overall sequence of the
selected experiment method are described. Finally, the data analysis criterions are
discussed, which is used to analyze the results of the experiment.
Chapter five presents the results and analysis of the incident solar radiation
transmitted solar heat gain and work plane illuminance for the tested external
horizontal shading strategies. The principle findings of the simulation are also
summarized. The results of the simulation are analyzed as follows:
15
o Assess the impact of shading strategies on incident solar radiation (direct
& diffused).
o Assess the impact of shading strategies on transmitted solar heat gain into
building.
o Assess the influence of shading strategies on target illuminance level at
deep end of the room to determine the optimum shading strategy for
natural-lighting.
o Assess the relationship between natural-light penetration and the office
room geometry.
Chapter six investigates the influence of the external horizontal overhang
strategies on building cooling load and energy consumptions. The results of the
experiments are analyzed as follows:
o Assess the impact of shading strategy on annual building cooling load.
o Assess the impact of shading strategy on annual energy consumption for
cooling, lighting and on total consumption to determine the optimum
energy consumption.
o Assess the natural-light level and annual energy consumption to determine
the optimum shading strategy.
Chapter seven presents the overall review of the thesis objectives and
research questions, followed by the conclusion remarks of the major findings of the
experiment. Finally, suggests further works to complement with the thesis findings.
16
Figure 1.4 The flow of research process and thesis structure
Thesis Problem
Literature Review
Methodology
Chapter 4 (Computer Simulation)
Results and Analysis
Chapter 5 & 6
Conclusion Chapter 7
Energy use in High-rise
Office Buildings and Solar Shading
Chapter 3
Solar Radiation and Malaysian Sky
Condition Chapter 2
287
internal natural lighting and to optimize energy savings. In other words little had
been known about the relationship between the energy use and the external
horizontal shading device geometry. Therefore, the solar shading design strategies
require a rethinking in light of energy efficiency. However, several areas of study
need further investigation, to develop the knowledge of the shading strategies in
Malaysia and regions with similar climates. The following are some suggestions:
1) Investigation on the effectiveness of the geometry. Apart from the depth of
the overhang, the other factors need to be investigated are; the impact of angle and
the width of the overhang with respect to, daylight, solar heat gain and overall energy
consumption.
2) Investigation on the effectiveness of surface material and colour of shading
devices on energy consumption. Effectiveness of shading device also depends on the
material and surface colours as they affect on thermal and daylight reflection.
Therefore, these aspects need to be studied in terms of surface texture, light and dark
colours etc. It may also contribute to the aesthetics of the shading device.
3) Further investigations are required to determine the effects of external
shading strategy on deep plan office buildings and on various building forms.
4) In terms of daylight, the influence of energy efficient shading strategy on
daylight quality and glare need to be explored. In hot and humid tropics, glare from
window create visual discomforts on the inhabitants and quality of daylight is not
incorporated as design criteria in buildings. Therefore, information on relationship
between shading strategies, daylight quality, glare and energy consumption are very
important.
5) Investigation of other different external shading devices and their influence
on energy consumption. A detail study should be carried out to look into the impact
of horizontal fins, vertical and egg-crate external shading devices on daylight
penetration, solar heat gain and on energy consumption.
288
6) Further studies need to be carried out to develop a method to define shading
devices by considering the total solar energy transmittance. In hot and humid tropics
influence of diffuse component of solar radiation on thermal effects are significant.
Therefore, considering the total solar energy transmittance may be an important
aspect in determining different shading strategies. Considering the total solar energy
transmittance may also be a better replacement for defining shading devices rather
than based on shading coefficient. Studies on solar transmittance properties can be
used to develop a design method to determine different shading strategies for the
tropics.
7) Investigation on the influence of solar shading strategies on the OTTV
(overall thermal transfer value) standards. The standard design criterion for non-
residential building envelope is determined by the OTTV, which is developed based
on solar heat gain through the building envelope. The scope may extend to
determine the influence of solar shading strategy on building OTTV and on the
overall energy consumption of the building. By investigating this aspect, it would
alleviate the problem of trade off between daylight, solar heat gain, use of artificial
lighting and overall energy consumptions.
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