on liberty - mill, john stuart
TRANSCRIPT
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 1/661
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 2/661
On Liberty. By JohnStuart Mill.
With an Introduction byW. L. Courtney, LL.D.
The Walter Scott Publishing
Co., Ltd.London and Felling-on-Tyne
ew York and Melbourne
To the beloved and deploredmemory of her who was the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 3/661
inspirer, and in part the author, oall that is best in my writings—thefriend and wife whose exaltedsense of truth and right was mystrongest incitement, and whoseapprobation was my chief reward— I dedicate this volume. Like all thaI have written for many years, i
belongs as much to her as to me; buthe work as it stands has had, in a
very insufficient degree, theinestimable advantage of her revision; some of the mosimportant portions having bee
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 4/661
reserved for a more careful re-examination, which they are nownever destined to receive. Were I
but capable of interpreting to theworld one-half the great thoughtsand noble feelings which are buriedin her grave, I should be the mediuof a greater benefit to it than is ever
likely to arise from anything that Ican write, unprompted and
unassisted by her all but unrivalledwisdom.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 5/661
INTRODUCTION. I.
John Stuart Mill was born o
20th May 1806. He was a delicatechild, and the extraordinaryeducation designed by his father was not calculated to develop andimprove his physical powers. "Inever was a boy," he says; "never
played cricket." His exercise was
taken in the form of walks with hisfather, during which the elder Mill
lectured his son and examined hion his work. It is idle to speculate
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 6/661
on the possible results of a differentreatment. Mill remained delicatethroughout his life, but wasendowed with that intense mentalenergy which is so often combinedwith physical weakness. His youtwas sacrificed to an idea; he wasdesigned by his father to carry o
his work; the individuality of the boy was unimportant. A visit to the
south of France at the age ofourteen, in company with thefamily of General Sir SamuelBentham, was not without its
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 7/661
influence. It was a glimpse oanother atmosphere, though thestudious habits of his home lifewere maintained. Moreover, hederived from it his interest iforeign politics, which remainedone of his characteristics to the endof his life. In 1823 he was
appointed junior clerk in theExaminers' Office at the India
House.Mill's first essays were writtein the Traveller about a year beforehe entered the India House. Fro
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 8/661
that time forward his literary wor was uninterrupted save by attacks oillness. His industry wasstupendous. He wrote articles on ainfinite variety of subjects,
political, metaphysical,
philosophic, religious, poetical. Hediscovered Tennyson for his
generation, he influenced thewriting of Carlyle's French
evolution as well as its success.And all the while he was engaged istudying and preparing for his moreambitious works, while he rose step
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 9/661
by step at the India Office. His ssays on Unsettled Questions inolitical Economy were written i
1831, although they did not appear until thirteen years later. His Systemof Logic , the design of which was
even then fashioning itself in his brain, took thirteen years to
complete, and was actually published before the Political
conomy . In 1844 appeared thearticle on Michelet, which its author anticipated would cause somediscussion, but which did not create
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 10/661
the sensation he expected. Next year there were the "Claims of Labour"and "Guizot," and in 1847 hisarticles on Irish affairs in the
orning Chronicle . These yearswere very much influenced by his
friendship and correspondence witComte, a curious comradeship
between men of such differentemperament. In 1848 Mill
published his Political Economy , towhich he had given his seriousstudy since the completion of his
ogic . His articles and reviews,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 11/661
though they involved a good deal owork—as, for instance, the re-
perusal of the Iliad and the Odysseyin the original before reviewinGrote's Greece —were recreation tothe student. The year 1856 saw hi
head of the Examiners' Office in theIndia House, and another two years
brought the end of his official work,owing to the transfer of India to the
Crown. In the same year his wifedied. Liberty was published shortlyafter, as well as the Thoughts on
arliamentary Reform , and no year
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 12/661
passed without Mill makinimportant contributions on the
political, philosophical, and ethicalquestions of the day.
Seven years after the death ohis wife, Mill was invited to contes
Westminster. His feeling on theconduct of elections made hi
refuse to take any personal action ithe matter, and he gave the frankest
expression to his political views, but nevertheless he was elected bya large majority. He was not aconventional success in the House;
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 13/661
as a speaker he lacked magnetism.But his influence was widely felt."For the sake of the House oCommons at large," said Mr.Gladstone, "I rejoiced in his advenand deplored his disappearance. He
did us all good." After only threeyears in Parliament, he was
defeated at the next GeneralElection by Mr. W. H. Smith. He
retired to Avignon, to the pleasantlittle house where the happiesyears of his life had been spent ithe companionship of his wife, and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 14/661
continued his disinterested labours.He completed his edition of hisfather's Analysis of the Mind , andalso produced, in addition to lessimportant work, The Subjection oWomen , in which he had the active
co-operation of his step-daughter. A book on Socialism was under
consideration, but, like an earlier study of Sociology, it never was
written. He died in 1873, his lasyears being spent peacefully in the pleasant society of his step-daughter, from whose tender care
d ll l h h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 15/661
and earnest intellectual sympathy hecaught maybe a far-off reflection othe light which had irradiated hisspiritual life.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 16/661
II.
The circumstances under whic
John Stuart Mill wrote his Libertyare largely connected with theinfluence which Mrs. Taylor wielded over his career. Thededication is well known. Icontains the most extraordinary
panegyric on a woman that any
philosopher has ever penned."Were I but capable of interpreting
to the world one-half the greathoughts and noble feelings whic
b i d i h I h ld b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 17/661
are buried in her grave, I should bethe medium of a greater benefit to ithan is ever likely to arise froanything that I can write,unprompted and unassisted by her all but unrivalled wisdom." It is
easy for the ordinary worldlycynicism to curl a sceptical lip over
sentences like these. There may beexaggeration of sentiment, the
necessary and inevitable reaction oa man who was trained according tothe "dry light" of sounimpressionable a man as James
Mill th f th b t th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 18/661
Mill, the father; but the passagequoted is not the only one in whicJohn Stuart Mill proclaims hisunhesitating belief in the intellectualinfluence of his wife. The treatiseo n Liberty was written especially
under her authority andencouragement, but there are many
earlier references to the power which she exercised over his mind.
Mill was introduced to her as earlyas 1831, at a dinner-party at Mr.Taylor's house, where were present,amongst others, Roebuck, W. J.
Fo and Miss Harriet Martinea
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 19/661
Fox, and Miss Harriet Martineau.The acquaintance rapidly ripenedinto intimacy and the intimacy intofriendship, and Mill was never weary of expatiating on all theadvantages of so singular a
relationship. In some of the presentation copies of his work o
olitical Economy , he wrote thefollowing dedication:—"To Mrs.
John Taylor, who, of all personsknown to the author, is the mosthighly qualified either to originateor to appreciate speculation o
social advancement this work is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 20/661
social advancement, this work iswith the highest respect and esteededicated." An article on theenfranchisement of women wasmade the occasion for another encomium. We shall hardly be
wrong in attributing a much later book, The Subjection of Women ,
published in 1869, to the influencewielded by Mrs. Taylor. Finally,
the pages of the Autobiography rinwith the dithyrambic praise of his"almost infallible counsellor."
The facts of this remarkable
intimacy can easily be stated The
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 21/661
intimacy can easily be stated. Thedeductions are more difficult. Thereis no question that Mill's infatuatiowas the cause of considerabletrouble to his acquaintances andfriends. His father openly taxed hi
with being in love with another man's wife. Roebuck, Mrs. Grote,
Mrs. Austin, Miss HarrietMartineau were amongst those who
suffered because they made someallusion to a forbidden subject.Mrs. Taylor lived with her daughter in a lodging in the country; but i
1851 her husband died and the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 22/661
1851 her husband died, and theMill made her his wife. Opinionswere widely divergent as to her merits; but every one agreed that upto the time of her death, in 1858,Mill was wholly lost to his friends.
George Mill, one of Mill's younger brothers, gave it as his opinion tha
she was a clever and remarkablewoman, but "nothing like what Joh
took her to be." Carlyle, in hisreminiscences, described her witambiguous epithets. She was"vivid," "iridescent," "pale and
passionate and sad-looking a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 23/661
passionate and sad-looking, aliving-romance heroine of theroyalist volition and questionabledestiny." It is not possible to makemuch of a judgment like this, but weget on more certain ground when we
discover that Mrs. Carlyle said oone occasion that "she is thought to
be dangerous," and that Carlyleadded that she was worse tha
dangerous, she was patronising. Theoccasion when Mill and his wifewere brought into close contacwith the Carlyles is well known.
The manuscript of the first volume
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 24/661
The manuscript of the first volumeof the French Revolution had beelent to Mill, and was accidentally
burnt by Mrs. Mill's servant. Milland his wife drove up to Carlyle'sdoor, the wife speechless, the
husband so full of conversation thahe detained Carlyle with desperate
attempts at loquacity for two hours.But Dr. Garnett tells us, in his Life
of Carlyle , that Mill made asubstantial reparation for thecalamity for which he wasresponsible by inducing the
aggrieved author to accept half o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 25/661
aggrieved author to accept half othe £200 which he offered. Mrs.Mill, as I have said, died in 1858,after seven years of happycompanionship with her husband,and was buried at Avignon. The
inscription which Mill wrote for her grave is too characteristic to be
omitted:—"Her great and lovinheart, her noble soul, her clear,
powerful, original, andcomprehensive intellect, made her the guide and support, the instructor in wisdom and the example i
goodness as she was the sole
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 26/661
goodness, as she was the soleearthly delight of those who had thehappiness to belong to her. Asearnest for all public good as shewas generous and devoted to allwho surrounded her, her influence
has been felt in many of the greatesimprovements of the age, and will
be in those still to come. Were thereeven a few hearts and intellects like
hers, this earth would already become the hoped-for Heaven."These lines prove the intensity oMill's feeling, which is not afraid o
abundant verbiage; but they also
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 27/661
abundant verbiage; but they also prove that he could not imaginewhat the effect would be on others,and, as Grote said, only Mill'sreputation could survive these andsimilar displays.
Every one will judge for himself of this romantic episode i
Mill's career, according to suchexperience as he may possess of the
philosophic mind and of the valueof these curious but not infrequenrelationships. It may have been a
piece of infatuation, or, if we prefer
to say so, it may have been the mos
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 28/661
to say so, it may have been the mosgracious and the most human pagein Mill's career. Mrs. Mill mayhave flattered her husband's vanity
by echoing his opinions, or she mayhave indeed been an Egeria, full o
inspiration and intellectualhelpfulness. What usually happens
in these cases,—although the philosopher himself, through his
belief in the equality of the sexes,was debarred from thinking so,—isthe extremely valuable action andreaction of two different classes
and orders of mind. To any one
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 29/661
ywhose thoughts have been occupiedwith the sphere of abstracspeculation, the lively and vivid
presentment of concrete fact comesas a delightful and agreeable shock.
The instinct of the woman ofteenables her not only to apprehend
but to illustrate a truth for which shewould be totally unable to give the
adequate philosophic reasoning. Othe other hand, the man, with themore careful logical methods andthe slow processes of formal
reasoning, is apt to suppose that the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 30/661
g, p pphappy intuition which leaps to theconclusion is really based on theintellectual processes of which heis conscious in his own case. Thus
both parties to the happy contrac
are equally pleased. The abstractruth gets the concrete illustration;
the concrete illustration finds its proper foundation in a series o
abstract inquiries. Perhaps Carlyle'sepithets of "iridescent" and "vivid"refer incidentally to Mrs. Mill'squick perceptiveness, and thus
throw a useful light on the mutual
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 31/661
gadvantages of the common work ohusband and wife. But it savoursalmost of impertinence even toattempt to lift the veil on a mysterylike this. It is enough to say,
perhaps, that however much we maydeplore the exaggeration of Mill's
references to his wife, we recognisethat, for whatever reason, the pair
lived an ideally happy life.It still, however, remains toestimate the extent to which Mrs.Taylor, both before and after her
marriage with Mill, made actual
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 32/661
gcontributions to his thoughts and his
public work. Here I may be perhaps permitted to avail myself of what Ihave already written in a previouswork. [1] Mill gives us abundan
help in this matter in theutobiography . When first he knew
her, his thoughts were turning to thesubject of Logic. But his published
work on the subject owed nothing toher, he tells us, in its doctrines. Itwas Mill's custom to write thewhole of a book so as to get his
general scheme complete, and the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 33/661
laboriously to re-write it in order to perfect the phrases and thecomposition. Doubtless Mrs. Taylor was of considerable help to him asa critic of style. But to be a critic o
doctrine she was hardly qualified.Mill has made some clear
admissions on this point. "The onlyactual revolution which has ever
taken place in my modes of thinkinwas already complete," [2] he says, before her influence became paramount. There is a curiously
humble estimate of his own powers
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 34/661
(to which Dr. Bain has calledattention), which reads at first sighas if it contradicted this. "During thegreater part of my literary life Ihave performed the office i
relation to her, which, from a rather early period, I had considered as
the most useful part that I wasqualified to take in the domain o
thought, that of an interpreter ooriginal thinkers, and mediator between them and the public." Sofar it would seem that Mill had sa
at the feet of his oracle; but observe
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 35/661
the highly remarkable exceptiowhich is made in the followinsentence:—"For I had always ahumble opinion of my own powersas an original thinker, except in
abstract science (logic,metaphysics, and the theoretic
rinciples of political economyand politics.) " [3] If Mill then wasan original thinker in logic,metaphysics, and the science oeconomy and politics, it is clear thahe had not learnt these from her
lips. And to most men logic and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 36/661
metaphysics may be safely taken asforming a domain in whicoriginality of thought, if it can behonestly professed, is a sufficientitle of distinction.
Mrs. Taylor's assistance in theolitical Economy is confined to
certain definite points. The purelyscientific part was, we are assured,not learnt from her. "But it waschiefly her influence which gave tothe book that general tone by whicit is distinguished from all previous
expositions of political economy
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 37/661
that had any pretensions to bescientific, and which has made it souseful in conciliating minds whicthose previous expositions hadrepelled. This tone consisted
chiefly in making the proper distinction between the laws of the
production of wealth, which arereal laws of Nature, dependent othe properties of objects, and themodes of its distribution, which,subject to certain conditions,depend on human will.... I ha
indeed partially learnt this view o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 38/661
things from the thoughts awakened in me by the speculations of St.Simonians ; but it was made a livin
principle, pervading and animatinthe book, by my wife's promptings."
[4] The part which is italicised isnoticeable. Here, as elsewhere,
Mill thinks out the matter byhimself; the concrete form of thethoughts is suggested or prompted
by the wife. Apart from this"general tone," Mill tells us thathere was a specific contribution.
"The chapter which has had a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 39/661
greater influence on opinion than allthe rest, that on the Probable Futureof the Labouring Classes, is entirelydue to her. In the first draft of the
book that chapter did not exist. She
pointed out the need of such achapter, and the extreme
imperfection of the book without it;she was the cause of my writing it."From this it would appear that shegave Mill that tendency toSocialism which, while it lends a
progressive spirit to his
speculations on politics, at the same
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 40/661
time does not manifestly accordwith his earlier advocacy of peasan
proprietorships. Nor, again, is it, onthe face of it, consistent with thosedoctrines of individual liberty
which, aided by the intellectualcompanionship of his wife, he
propounded in a later work. Theideal of individual freedom is nothe ideal of Socialism, just as thainvocation of governmental aid towhich the Socialist resorts is noconsistent with the theory o
laisser-faire . Yet Liberty wasl d b ll d h f
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 41/661
planned by Mill and his wife iconcert. Perhaps a slighvisionariness of speculation was noless the attribute of Mrs. Mill thaan absence of rigid logical
principles. Be this as it may, sheundoubtedly checked the half-
recognised leanings of her husbandin the direction of Coleridge andCarlyle. Whether this was ainstance of her steadying influence,[5] or whether it added one moreunassimilated element to Mill's
diverse intellectual sustenance, mayb i l l f i W
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 42/661
be wisely left an open question. Wecannot, however, be wrong inattributing to her the parentage o
one book of Mill, The Subjection oWomen . It is true that Mill had
before learnt that men and womeought to be equal in legal, political,
social, and domestic relations. Thiswas a point on which he hadalready fallen foul of his father'sessay on Government . But Mrs.Taylor had actually written on thisvery point, and the warmth and
fervour of Mill's denunciations o' i d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 43/661
women's servitude wereunmistakably caught from his wife'sview of the practical disabilities
entailed by the feminine position.
III.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 44/661
Liberty was published in 1859,when the nineteenth century washalf over, but in its general spiritand in some of its specialtendencies the little tract belongsrather to the standpoint of the
eighteenth century than to that whicsaw its birth. In many of his
speculations John Stuart Mill formsa sort of connecting link betwee
the doctrines of the earlier Englisempirical school and those whic
we associate with the name of Mr.H b t S I hi L gi f
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 45/661
Herbert Spencer. In his Logic , for instance, he represents an advanceon the theories of Hume, and ye
does not see how profoundly thevictories of Science modify the
conclusions of the earlier thinker.Similarly, in his Political
conomy , he desires to improveand to enlarge upon Ricardo, andyet does not advance so far as themodifications of political economy
by Sociology, indicated by somelater—and especially German—
speculations on the subject. In thetract on Liberty Mill is advocatin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 46/661
tract on Liberty , Mill is advocatinthe rights of the individual asagainst Society at the very openin
of an era that was rapidly coming tothe conclusion that the individual
had no absolute rights againsSociety. The eighteenth century
view is that individuals existedfirst, each with their own specialclaims and responsibilities; thathey deliberately formed a SocialState, either by a contract or otherwise; and that then finally they
limited their own action out oregard for the interests of the social
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 47/661
regard for the interests of the socialorganism thus arbitrarily produced.This is hardly the view of the
nineteenth century. It is possible thalogically the individual is prior to
the State; historically and in theorder of Nature, the State is prior to
the individual. In other words, sucrights as every single personality possesses in a modern world do no belong to him by an originalordinance of Nature, but are slowlyacquired in the growth and
development of the social state. It isnot the truth that individual liberties
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 48/661
not the truth that individual libertieswere forfeited by some deliberateact when men made themselves into
a Commonwealth. It is more true tosay, as Aristotle said long ago, that
man is naturally a political animal,that he lived under strict social
laws as a mere item, almost anonentity, as compared with theOrder, Society, or Community towhich he belonged, and that suc
privileges as he subsequentlyacquired have been obtained i
virtue of his growing importance asa member of a growin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 49/661
a member of a growinorganisation. But if this is eveapproximately true, it seriously
restricts that liberty of theindividual for which Mill pleads.
The individual has no chance, because he has no rights, against the
social organism. Society can punishim for acts or even opinions whicare anti-social in character. Hisvirtue lies in recognising theintimate communion with hisfellows. His sphere of activity is
bounded by the common interest.Just as it is an absurd and exploded
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 50/661
Just as it is an absurd and explodedtheory that all men are originallyequal, so it is an ancient and false
doctrine to protest that a man has aindividual liberty to live and thin
as he chooses in any spirit oantagonism to that larger body o
which he forms an insignifican part. Nowadays this view of Society
and of its development, which welargely owe to the Philosophie
ositive of M. Auguste Comte, is so
familiar and possibly so damaginto the individual initiative that i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 51/661
to the individual initiative, that i becomes necessary to advance and proclaim the truth which resides i
an opposite theory. All progress, aswe are aware, depends on the join
process of integration anddifferentiation; synthesis, analysis,
and then a larger synthesis seem toform the law of development. If iever comes to pass that Society istyrannical in its restrictions of theindividual, if, as for instance isome forms of Socialism, based o
deceptive analogies of Nature'sdealings the type is everything and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 52/661
dealings, the type is everything andthe individual nothing, it must beconfidently urged in answer that the
fuller life of the future depends othe manifold activities, even thoug
they may be antagonistic, of theindividual. In England, at all events,
we know that government in all itsdifferent forms, whether as King, or as a caste of nobles, or as aoligarchical plutocracy, or even astrades unions, is so dwarfing in itsaction that, for the sake of the future,
the individual must revolt. Just asour former point of view limited the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 53/661
our former point of view limited thevalue of Mill's treatise on Liberty ,so these considerations tend to
show its eternal importance. Theomnipotence of Society means a
dead level of uniformity. The claimof the individual to be heard, to say
what he likes, to do what he likes,to live as he likes, is absolutelynecessary, not only for the varietyof elements without which life is
poor, but also for the hope of afuture age. So long as individual
initiative and effort are recognisedas a vital element in English history,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 54/661
as a vital element in English history,so long will Mill's Liberty , whiche confesses was based on a
suggestion derived from VonHumboldt, remain as a
indispensable contribution to thespeculations, and also to the healt
and sanity, of the world. What his wife really was to
Mill, we shall, perhaps, never know. But that she was an actualand vivid force, which roused the
latent enthusiasm of his nature, wehave abundant evidence. And when
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 55/661
she died at Avignon, though hisfriends may have regained a
almost estranged companionship,Mill was, personally, the poorer.
Into the sorrow of that bereavemenwe cannot enter: we have no righ
or power to draw the veil. It isenough to quote the simple words,so eloquent of an unspoken grie
"I can say nothing which coulddescribe, even in the faintesmanner, what that loss was and is.
But because I know that she wouldhave wished it, I endeavour to make
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 56/661
,the best of what life I have left, andto work for her purposes with suc
diminished strength as can bederived from thoughts of her, and
communion with her memory."W. L. COURTNEY.
London, July 5th, 1901 .
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Life of John Stuart Mill ,chapter vi. (Walter Scott.)
[2] Autobiography , p. 190.[3] Ibid. , p. 242.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 57/661
[ ] , p[4] Autobiography , pp. 246,
247.
[5] Cf. an instructive page in the Autobiography , p. 252.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I. PAGE
INTRODUCTORY 1
CHAPTER II.
OF THE LIBERTY OFTHOUGHT AND 28
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 58/661
DISCUSSION
CHAPTER III.OF INDIVIDUALITY, ASONE OF THE ELEMENTSOF WELL-BEING
103
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE LIMITS TO THEAUTHORITY OF
SOCIETY OVER THEINDIVIDUAL
140
CHAPTER V
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 59/661
CHAPTER V.APPLICATIONS 177
The grand, leading principle, towards whichevery argument unfolded in
these pages directly converges,is the absolute and essential
importance of human
development in its richestdiversity.—Wilhelm Von
Humboldt: Sphere and Dutiesof Government .
ON LIBERTY.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 60/661
CHAPTER I.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 61/661
INTRODUCTORY.
The subject of this Essay is nothe so-called Liberty of the Will, sounfortunately opposed to themisnamed doctrine of Philosophical
ecessity; but Civil, or SocialLiberty: the nature and limits of the
power which can be legitimatelyexercised by society over theindividual. A question seldom
stated, and hardly ever discussed, igeneral terms, but which profoundly
influences the practicalcontroversies of the age by its laten
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 62/661
presence, and is likely soon to makeitself recognised as the vital
question of the future. It is so far from being new, that in a certain
sense, it has divided mankind,almost from the remotest ages; bu
in the stage of progress into whicthe more civilised portions of thespecies have now entered, i
presents itself under newconditions, and requires a differenand more fundamental treatment.
The struggle between Libertyand Authority is the most
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 63/661
conspicuous feature in the portionsof history with which we are
earliest familiar, particularly in thatof Greece, Rome, and England. Bu
in old times this contest was between subjects, or some classes
of subjects, and the government. Byliberty, was meant protectionagainst the tyranny of the politicalrulers. The rulers were conceived(except in some of the popular governments of Greece) as in a
necessarily antagonistic position tothe people whom they ruled. They
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 64/661
consisted of a governing One, or agoverning tribe or caste, who
derived their authority froinheritance or conquest, who, at all
events, did not hold it at the pleasure of the governed, and
whose supremacy men did noventure, perhaps did not desire, tocontest, whatever precautions migh
be taken against its oppressiveexercise. Their power wasregarded as necessary, but also as
highly dangerous; as a weapowhich they would attempt to use
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 65/661
against their subjects, no less thaagainst external enemies. To
prevent the weaker members of thecommunity from being preyed upo
by innumerable vultures, it wasneedful that there should be a
animal of prey stronger than therest, commissioned to keep thedown. But as the king of the vultureswould be no less bent upon preyinon the flock than any of the minor harpies, it was indispensable to be
in a perpetual attitude of defenceagainst his beak and claws. The
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 66/661
aim, therefore, of patriots, was toset limits to the power which the
ruler should be suffered to exerciseover the community; and this
limitation was what they meant byliberty. It was attempted in two
ways. First, by obtaining arecognition of certain immunities,called political liberties or rights,which it was to be regarded as a
breach of duty in the ruler toinfringe, and which if he did
infringe, specific resistance, or general rebellion, was held to be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 67/661
ustifiable. A second, and generallya later expedient, was the
establishment of constitutionalchecks; by which the consent of the
community, or of a body of somesort, supposed to represent its
interests, was made a necessarycondition to some of the moreimportant acts of the governin
power. To the first of these modesof limitation, the ruling power, inmost European countries, was
compelled, more or less, to submit.It was not so with the second; and to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 68/661
attain this, or when already in somedegree possessed, to attain it more
completely, became everywhere the principal object of the lovers o
liberty. And so long as mankindwere content to combat one enemy
by another, and to be ruled by amaster, on condition of beingguaranteed more or lessefficaciously against his tyranny,they did not carry their aspirations
beyond this point.
A time, however, came, in the progress of human affairs, whe
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 69/661
men ceased to think it a necessity onature that their governors should
be an independent power, opposedin interest to themselves. I
appeared to them much better thathe various magistrates of the State
should be their tenants or delegates,revocable at their pleasure. In thaway alone, it seemed, could theyhave complete security that the
powers of government would never be abused to their disadvantage. By
degrees, this new demand for elective and temporary rulers
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 70/661
became the prominent object of theexertions of the popular party,
wherever any such party existed;and superseded, to a considerable
extent, the previous efforts to limithe power of rulers. As the struggle proceeded for making the rulin power emanate from the periodicalchoice of the ruled, some persons
began to think that too mucimportance had been attached to thelimitation of the power itself. That
(it might seem) was a resourceagainst rulers whose interests were
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 71/661
habitually opposed to those of the people. What was now wanted was,
that the rulers should be identifiedwith the people; that their interes
and will should be the interest andwill of the nation. The nation didnot need to be protected against itsown will. There was no fear of itstyrannising over itself. Let the rulers
be effectually responsible to it, promptly removable by it, and icould afford to trust them wit
power of which it could itseldictate the use to be made. Their
b h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 72/661
power was but the nation's ow power, concentrated, and in a form
convenient for exercise. This modeof thought, or rather perhaps o
feeling, was common among the lasgeneration of European liberalism,in the Continental section of whicit still apparently predominates.Those who admit any limit to whaa government may do, except in thecase of such governments as theythink ought not to exist, stand out as
brilliant exceptions among the political thinkers of the Continent.A i il f i i h b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 73/661
A similar tone of sentiment might bythis time have been prevalent in our
own country, if the circumstanceswhich for a time encouraged it, had
continued unaltered.But, in political and philosophical theories, as well as i persons, success discloses faultsand infirmities which failure mighhave concealed from observation.The notion, that the people have noneed to limit their power over
themselves, might seem axiomatic,when popular government was ahi l d d b d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 74/661
thing only dreamed about, or read oas having existed at some distan
period of the past. Neither was thanotion necessarily disturbed by suc
temporary aberrations as those othe French Revolution, the worst owhich were the work of a usurpinfew, and which, in any case,
belonged, not to the permanenworking of popular institutions, buto a sudden and convulsive outbreaagainst monarchical and aristocratic
despotism. In time, however, ademocratic republic came to occupy
l i f h h'
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 75/661
a large portion of the earth'ssurface, and made itself felt as one
of the most powerful members othe community of nations; and
elective and responsiblegovernment became subject to theobservations and criticisms whicwait upon a great existing fact. Iwas now perceived that suc
phrases as "self-government," and"the power of the people over themselves," do not express the true
state of the case. The "people" whoexercise the power are not alwaysth l ith th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 76/661
the same people with those over whom it is exercised; and the "self-
government" spoken of is not thegovernment of each by himself, bu
of each by all the rest. The will othe people, moreover, practicallymeans, the will of the mosnumerous or the most active part othe people; the majority, or thosewho succeed in making themselvesaccepted as the majority: the
people, consequently, may desire to
oppress a part of their number; and precautions are as much needed
g i t thi g i t th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 77/661
against this, as against any other abuse of power. The limitation,
therefore, of the power ogovernment over individuals, loses
none of its importance when theholders of power are regularlyaccountable to the community, thatis, to the strongest party therein.This view of things, recommendinitself equally to the intelligence othinkers and to the inclination othose important classes in Europea
society to whose real or supposedinterests democracy is adverse, has
had no difficulty in establishin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 78/661
had no difficulty in establishinitself; and in political speculations
"the tyranny of the majority" is nowgenerally included among the evils
against which society requires to beon its guard.Like other tyrannies, the tyranny
of the majority was at first, and isstill vulgarly, held in dread, chieflyas operating through the acts of the
public authorities. But reflectin persons perceived that when society
is itself the tyrant—societycollectively, over the separate
individuals who compose it its
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 79/661
individuals who compose it—itsmeans of tyrannising are no
restricted to the acts which it maydo by the hands of its political
functionaries. Society can and doesexecute its own mandates: and if iissues wrong mandates instead oright, or any mandates at all ithings with which it ought not tomeddle, it practises a social tyrannymore formidable than many kinds o
political oppression, since, thoug
not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means o
escape penetrating much more
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 80/661
escape, penetrating much moredeeply into the details of life, and
enslaving the soul itself. Protection,therefore, against the tyranny of the
magistrate is not enough: thereneeds protection also against thetyranny of the prevailing opinioand feeling; against the tendency osociety to impose, by other meansthan civil penalties, its own ideasand practices as rules of conduct othose who dissent from them; to
fetter the development, and, i possible, prevent the formation, o
any individuality not in harmony
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 81/661
any individuality not in harmonywith its ways, and compel all
characters to fashion themselvesupon the model of its own. There is
a limit to the legitimate interferenceof collective opinion witindividual independence: and tofind that limit, and maintain iagainst encroachment, is asindispensable to a good conditioof human affairs, as protectioagainst political despotism.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 82/661
and by opinion on many thingswhich are not fit subjects for the
operation of law What these rules
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 83/661
operation of law. What these rulesshould be, is the principal questio
in human affairs; but if we except afew of the most obvious cases, it is
one of those which least progresshas been made in resolving. No twoages, and scarcely any twocountries, have decided it alike; andthe decision of one age or country isa wonder to another. Yet the peopleof any given age and country nomore suspect any difficulty in it,
than if it were a subject on whicmankind had always been agreed.
The rules which obtain amon
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 84/661
The rules which obtain amonthemselves appear to them self-
evident and self-justifying. This all but universal illusion is one of the
examples of the magical influenceof custom, which is not only, as the proverb says, a second nature, buis continually mistaken for the first.The effect of custom, in preventinany misgiving respecting the rulesof conduct which mankind imposeon one another, is all the more
complete because the subject is oneon which it is not generally
considered necessary that reasons
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 85/661
considered necessary that reasonsshould be given, either by one
person to others, or by each tohimself. People are accustomed to
believe, and have been encouragedin the belief by some who aspire tothe character of philosophers, thatheir feelings, on subjects of thisnature, are better than reasons, andrender reasons unnecessary. The
practical principle which guides
them to their opinions on the
regulation of human conduct, is thefeeling in each person's mind tha
everybody should be required to ac
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 86/661
everybody should be required to acas he, and those with whom he
sympathises, would like them to act.o one, indeed, acknowledges to
himself that his standard oudgment is his own liking; but aopinion on a point of conduct, nosupported by reasons, can onlycount as one person's preference;and if the reasons, when given, area mere appeal to a similar
preference felt by other people, it is
still only many people's likininstead of one. To an ordinary man,
however, his own preference, thus
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 87/661
however, his own preference, thussupported, is not only a perfectly
satisfactory reason, but the only onehe generally has for any of his
notions of morality, taste, or propriety, which are not expresslywritten in his religious creed; andhis chief guide in the interpretatioeven of that. Men's opinions,accordingly, on what is laudable or
blamable, are affected by all the
multifarious causes which influence
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 88/661
there is an ascendant class, a large portion of the morality of the
country emanates from its class
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 89/661
yinterests, and its feelings of class
superiority. The morality betweenSpartans and Helots, betwee
planters and negroes, betwee princes and subjects, betweenobles and roturiers, between meand women, has been for the mos
part the creation of these classinterests and feelings: and thesentiments thus generated, react i
turn upon the moral feelings of the
members of the ascendant class, itheir relations among themselves.
Where, on the other hand, a class,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 90/661
, , ,formerly ascendant, has lost its
ascendancy, or where itsascendancy is unpopular, the
prevailing moral sentimentsfrequently bear the impress of aimpatient dislike of superiority.Another grand determinin
principle of the rules of conduct, both in act and forbearance, whichave been enforced by law or
opinion, has been the servility o
mankind towards the supposed preferences or aversions of their
temporal masters, or of their gods.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 91/661
p , gThis servility, though essentially
selfish, is not hypocrisy; it givesrise to perfectly genuine sentiments
of abhorrence; it made men bur magicians and heretics. Among somany baser influences, the generaland obvious interests of societyhave of course had a share, and alarge one, in the direction of themoral sentiments: less, however, as
a matter of reason, and on their ow
account, than as a consequence othe sympathies and antipathies
which grew out of them: and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 92/661
gsympathies and antipathies whic
had little or nothing to do with theinterests of society, have made
themselves felt in the establishmenof moralities with quite as greaforce.
The likings and dislikings osociety, or of some powerful
portion of it, are thus the main thinwhich has practically determined
the rules laid down for general
observance, under the penalties olaw or opinion. And in general,
those who have been in advance oh h d f l h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 93/661
society in thought and feeling have
left this condition of thingsunassailed in principle, however
they may have come into conflicwith it in some of its details. Theyhave occupied themselves rather iinquiring what things society oughto like or dislike, than iquestioning whether its likings or dislikings should be a law to
individuals. They preferred
endeavouring to alter the feelings omankind on the particular points o
which they were themselvesh i l h h k
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 94/661
heretical, rather than make commo
cause in defence of freedom, witheretics generally. The only case in
which the higher ground has beetaken on principle and maintainedwith consistency, by any but anindividual here and there, is that oreligious belief: a case instructivein many ways, and not least so asforming a most striking instance o
the fallibility of what is called the
moral sense: for the odiumtheologicum , in a sincere bigot, is
one of the most unequivocal casesf l f li Th h fi
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 95/661
of moral feeling. Those who firs
broke the yoke of what called itselthe Universal Church, were i
general as little willing to permidifference of religious opinion asthat church itself. But when the heaof the conflict was over, withoutgiving a complete victory to any
party, and each church or sect wasreduced to limit its hopes to
retaining possession of the ground i
already occupied; minorities, seeinthat they had no chance of becomin
majorities, were under the necessityf l di t th h th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 96/661
of pleading to those whom they
could not convert, for permission todiffer. It is accordingly on this
battle-field, almost solely, that therights of the individual againssociety have been asserted on broadgrounds of principle, and the claiof society to exercise authority over dissentients, openly controverted.The great writers to whom the
world owes what religious liberty i
possesses, have mostly assertedfreedom of conscience as a
indefeasible right, and deniedb l t l th t h b i g i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 97/661
absolutely that a human being is
accountable to others for hisreligious belief. Yet so natural to
mankind is intolerance in whatever they really care about, that religiousfreedom has hardly anywhere bee
practically realised, except wherereligious indifference, whicdislikes to have its peace disturbed
by theological quarrels, has added
its weight to the scale. In the minds
of almost all religious persons,even in the most tolerant countries,
the duty of toleration is admittedwith tacit reserves One person will
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 98/661
with tacit reserves. One person will
bear with dissent in matters ochurch government, but not o
dogma; another can tolerateeverybody, short of a Papist or aUnitarian; another, every one who
believes in revealed religion; a fewextend their charity a little further,
but stop at the belief in a God and ia future state. Wherever the
sentiment of the majority is still
genuine and intense, it is found tohave abated little of its claim to be
obeyed.In England from the peculiar
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 99/661
In England, from the peculiar
circumstances of our politicalhistory, though the yoke of opinion
is perhaps heavier, that of law islighter, than in most other countriesof Europe; and there is considerableealousy of direct interference, by
the legislative or the executive power, with private conduct; not somuch from any just regard for the
independence of the individual, as
from the still subsisting habit olooking on the government as
representing an opposite interest tothe public The majority have no
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 100/661
the public. The majority have no
yet learnt to feel the power of thegovernment their power, or its
opinions their opinions. When theydo so, individual liberty will probably be as much exposed toinvasion from the government, as ialready is from public opinion. But,as yet, there is a considerableamount of feeling ready to be called
forth against any attempt of the law
to control individuals in things iwhich they have not hitherto bee
accustomed to be controlled by it;and this with very little
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 101/661
and this with very little
discrimination as to whether thematter is, or is not, within the
legitimate sphere of legal control;insomuch that the feeling, highlysalutary on the whole, is perhapsquite as often misplaced as wellgrounded in the particular instancesof its application. There is, in fact,no recognised principle by whic
the propriety or impropriety o
government interference iscustomarily tested. People decide
according to their personalpreferences Some whenever they
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 102/661
preferences. Some, whenever they
see any good to be done, or evil to be remedied, would willingly
instigate the government toundertake the business; while others prefer to bear almost any amount osocial evil, rather than add one tothe departments of human interestsamenable to governmental control.And men range themselves on one
or the other side in any particular
case, according to this generaldirection of their sentiments; or
according to the degree of intereswhich they feel in the particular
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 103/661
which they feel in the particular
thing which it is proposed that thegovernment should do, or accordin
to the belief they entertain that thegovernment would, or would not,do it in the manner they prefer; buvery rarely on account of anyopinion to which they consistentlyadhere, as to what things are fit to
be done by a government. And it
seems to me that in consequence o
this absence of rule or principle,one side is at present as ofte
wrong as the other; the interferenceof government is with about equal
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 104/661
of government is, with about equal
frequency, improperly invoked andimproperly condemned.The object of this Essay is to
assert one very simple principle, asentitled to govern absolutely thedealings of society with theindividual in the way of compulsioand control, whether the means used
be physical force in the form o
legal penalties, or the moral
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 105/661
to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because i
will make him happier, because, inthe opinions of others, to do so
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 106/661
the opinions of others, to do so
would be wise, or even right. Theseare good reasons for remonstratinwith him, or reasoning with him, or
persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil in case hedo otherwise. To justify that, theconduct from which it is desired todeter him must be calculated to
produce evil to some one else. The
only part of the conduct of any one,for which he is amenable to society,
is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 107/661
p y ,
his independence is, of right,absolute. Over himself, over hisown body and mind, the individualis sovereign.
It is, perhaps, hardly necessaryto say that this doctrine is meant toapply only to human beings in thematurity of their faculties. We arenot speaking of children, or o
young persons below the age whic
the law may fix as that of manhoodor womanhood. Those who are still
in a state to require being taken careof by others, must be protected
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 108/661
y , p
against their own actions as well asagainst external injury. For the samereason, we may leave out oconsideration those backward statesof society in which the race itselmay be considered as in its nonage.The early difficulties in the way ospontaneous progress are so great,that there is seldom any choice o
means for overcoming them; and a
ruler full of the spirit oimprovement is warranted in the use
of any expedients that will attain aend, perhaps otherwise
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 109/661
, p p
unattainable. Despotism is alegitimate mode of government idealing with barbarians, providedthe end be their improvement, andthe means justified by actuallyeffecting that end. Liberty, as a
principle, has no application to anystate of things anterior to the timewhen mankind have become
capable of being improved by free
and equal discussion. Until then,there is nothing for them but implici
obedience to an Akbar or aCharlemagne, if they are so
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 110/661
g y
fortunate as to find one. But as sooas mankind have attained thecapacity of being guided to their own improvement by conviction or
persuasion (a period long sincereached in all nations with whowe need here concern ourselves),compulsion, either in the direcform or in that of pains and
penalties for non-compliance, is no
longer admissible as a means totheir own good, and justifiable only
for the security of others.It is proper to state that I forego
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 111/661
any advantage which could bederived to my argument from theidea of abstract right, as a thinindependent of utility. I regardutility as the ultimate appeal on allethical questions; but it must beutility in the largest sense, groundedon the permanent interests of man asa progressive being. Those
interests, I contend, authorise the
subjection of individual spontaneityto external control, only in respec
to those actions of each, whicconcern the interest of other people.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 112/661
If any one does an act hurtful toothers, there is a primâ facie casefor punishing him, by law, or,where legal penalties are not safelyapplicable, by generaldisapprobation. There are alsomany positive acts for the benefit oothers, which he may rightfully becompelled to perform; such as, to
give evidence in a court of justice;
to bear his fair share in the commodefence, or in any other joint wor
necessary to the interest of thesociety of which he enjoys the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 113/661
protection; and to perform certaiacts of individual beneficence, sucas saving a fellow-creature's life, or interposing to protect thedefenceless against ill-usage, thingswhich whenever it is obviously aman's duty to do, he may rightfully
be made responsible to society for not doing. A person may cause evil
to others not only by his actions bu
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 114/661
of the individual, he is de jureamenable to those whose interests
are concerned, and if need be, tosociety as their protector. There are
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 115/661
often good reasons for not holdinhim to the responsibility; but thesereasons must arise from the specialexpediencies of the case: either
because it is a kind of case in whiche is on the whole likely to ac
better, when left to his owndiscretion, than when controlled iany way in which society have it i
their power to control him; or
because the attempt to exercisecontrol would produce other evils,
greater than those which it would prevent. When such reasons as these
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 116/661
preclude the enforcement oresponsibility, the conscience of theagent himself should step into thevacant judgment seat, and protecthose interests of others which haveno external protection; judginhimself all the more rigidly,
because the case does not admit ohis being made accountable to the
udgment of his fellow-creatures.
But there is a sphere of action iwhich society, as distinguished
from the individual, has, if any, onlyan indirect interest; comprehendin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 117/661
all that portion of a person's life andconduct which affects only himself,or if it also affects others, only wittheir free, voluntary, andundeceived consent and
participation. When I say onlyhimself, I mean directly, and in thefirst instance: for whatever affectshimself, may affect others through
himself; and the objection whic
may be grounded on thiscontingency, will receive
consideration in the sequel. This,then, is the appropriate region o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 118/661
human liberty. It comprises, first,the inward domain oconsciousness; demanding liberty oconscience, in the moscomprehensive sense; liberty othought and feeling; absolutefreedom of opinion and sentimenon all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or
theological. The liberty o
expressing and publishing opinionsmay seem to fall under a differen
principle, since it belongs to tha part of the conduct of an individual
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 119/661
which concerns other people; but, being almost of as much importanceas the liberty of thought itself, andresting in great part on the samereasons, is practically inseparablefrom it. Secondly, the principlerequires liberty of tastes and
pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; o
doing as we like, subject to suc
consequences as may follow:without impediment from our
fellow-creatures, so long as whawe do does not harm them, eve
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 120/661
though they should think our conducfoolish, perverse, or wrong.Thirdly, from this liberty of eacindividual, follows the liberty,within the same limits, ocombination among individuals;freedom to unite, for any purpose
not involving harm to others: the persons combining being supposed
to be of full age, and not forced or
deceived. No society in which these
liberties are not, on the whole,respected, is free, whatever may be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 121/661
its form of government; and none iscompletely free in which they donot exist absolute and unqualified.The only freedom which deservesthe name, is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so longas we do not attempt to deprive
others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it. Each is the
proper guardian of his own health,
whether bodily, or mental andspiritual. Mankind are greater
gainers by suffering each other tolive as seems good to themselves,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 122/661
than by compelling each to live asseems good to the rest.Though this doctrine is anythin
but new, and, to some persons, mayhave the air of a truism, there is nodoctrine which stands more directlyopposed to the general tendency o
existing opinion and practice.Society has expended fully as muc
effort in the attempt (according to
its lights) to compel people toconform to its notions of personal,
as of social excellence. The anciencommonwealths thought themselves
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 123/661
entitled to practise, and the ancien philosophers countenanced, theregulation of every part of privateconduct by public authority, on theground that the State had a deepinterest in the whole bodily andmental discipline of every one of its
citizens; a mode of thinking whicmay have been admissible in small
republics surrounded by powerful
enemies, in constant peril of beinsubverted by foreign attack or
internal commotion, and to whiceven a short interval of relaxed
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 124/661
energy and self-command might soeasily be fatal, that they could noafford to wait for the salutary
permanent effects of freedom. In themodern world, the greater size o
political communities, and aboveall, the separation between spiritual
and temporal authority (whic placed the direction of men's
consciences in other hands tha
those which controlled their worldly affairs), prevented so grea
an interference by law in the detailsof private life; but the engines o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 125/661
moral repression have beewielded more strenuously againsdivergence from the reigninopinion in self-regarding, than evein social matters; religion, the mos
powerful of the elements whichave entered into the formation o
moral feeling, having almost always been governed either by the
ambition of a hierarchy, seeking
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 126/661
despotism of society over theindividual, surpassing anythin
contemplated in the political idealof the most rigid disciplinaria
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 127/661
among the ancient philosophers.Apart from the peculiar tenets oindividual thinkers, there is also ithe world at large an increasininclination to stretch unduly the
powers of society over theindividual, both by the force o
opinion and even by that olegislation: and as the tendency o
all the changes taking place in the
world is to strengthen society, anddiminish the power of the
individual, this encroachment is noone of the evils which tend
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 128/661
spontaneously to disappear, but, onthe contrary, to grow more andmore formidable. The disposition omankind, whether as rulers or asfellow-citizens to impose their owopinions and inclinations as a ruleof conduct on others, is so
energetically supported by some othe best and by some of the wors
feelings incident to human nature,
that it is hardly ever kept under restraint by anything but want o
power; and as the power is nodeclining, but growing, unless a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 129/661
strong barrier of moral convictiocan be raised against the mischief,we must expect, in the presencircumstances of the world, to see iincrease.
It will be convenient for theargument, if, instead of at once
entering upon the general thesis, weconfine ourselves in the firs
instance to a single branch of it, o
which the principle here stated is, inot fully, yet to a certain point,
recognised by the current opinions.This one branch is the Liberty o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 130/661
Thought: from which it isimpossible to separate the cognateliberty of speaking and of writing.Although these liberties, to someconsiderable amount, form part othe political morality of allcountries which profess religious
toleration and free institutions, thegrounds, both philosophical and
practical, on which they rest, are
perhaps not so familiar to thegeneral mind, nor so thoroughly
appreciated by many even of theleaders of opinion, as might have
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 131/661
been expected. Those grounds,when rightly understood, are omuch wider application than to onlyone division of the subject, and athorough consideration of this par of the question will be found the
best introduction to the remainder.
Those to whom nothing which I aabout to say will be new, may
therefore, I hope, excuse me, if on a
subject which for now threecenturies has been so ofte
discussed, I venture on onediscussion more.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 132/661
CHAPTER II. OF THE
LIBERTY OFTHOUGHT AND
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 133/661
DISCUSSION.
The time, it is to be hoped, isgone by, when any defence would
be necessary of the "liberty of the press" as one of the securitiesagainst corrupt or tyrannicalgovernment. No argument, we maysuppose, can now be needed,against permitting a legislature or
an executive, not identified iinterest with the people, to
prescribe opinions to them, anddetermine what doctrines or wha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 134/661
arguments they shall be allowed tohear. This aspect of the question, besides, has been so often and sotriumphantly enforced by precedinwriters, that it need not be speciallyinsisted on in this place. Though thelaw of England, on the subject o
the press, is as servile to this day asit was in the time of the Tudors,
there is little danger of its bein
actually put in force agains political discussion, except durin
some temporary panic, when fear oinsurrection drives ministers and[6]
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 135/661
udges from their propriety; and,speaking generally, it is not, inconstitutional countries, to beapprehended that the government,whether completely responsible tothe people or not, will often attempto control the expression of opinion,
except when in doing so it makesitself the organ of the general
intolerance of the public. Let us
suppose, therefore, that thegovernment is entirely at one wit
the people, and never thinks oexerting any power of coercio
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 136/661
unless in agreement with what iconceives to be their voice. But Ideny the right of the people toexercise such coercion, either bythemselves or by their government.The power itself is illegitimate. The
best government has no more title to
it than the worst. It is as noxious, or more noxious, when exerted i
accordance with public opinion,
than when in or opposition to it. Iall mankind minus one, were of one
opinion, and only one person wereof the contrary opinion, mankind
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 137/661
would be no more justified isilencing that one person, than he, ihe had the power, would beustified in silencing mankind. Were
an opinion a personal possession ono value except to the owner; if to
be obstructed in the enjoyment of i
were simply a private injury, itwould make some difference
whether the injury was inflicted
only on a few persons or on many.But the peculiar evil of silencing the
expression of an opinion is, that it isrobbing the human race; posterity as
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 138/661
well as the existing generation;those who dissent from the opinion,still more than those who hold it. Ithe opinion is right, they aredeprived of the opportunity oexchanging error for truth: if wrong,they lose, what is almost as great a
benefit, the clearer perception andlivelier impression of truth,
produced by its collision wit
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 139/661
desire to suppress it, of course denyits truth; but they are not infallible.
They have no authority to decide thequestion for all mankind, andexclude every other person from the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 140/661
means of judging. To refuse ahearing to an opinion, because theyare sure that it is false, is to assumethat their certainty is the same thinas absolute certainty. All silencingof discussion is an assumption o
infallibility. Its condemnation may be allowed to rest on this commo
argument, not the worse for bein
common.Unfortunately for the good sense
of mankind, the fact of their fallibility is far from carrying theweight in their practical judgment,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 141/661
which is always allowed to it itheory; for while every one wellknows himself to be fallible, fewthink it necessary to take any
precautions against their owfallibility, or admit the supposition
that any opinion, of which they feelvery certain, may be one of the
examples of the error to which they
acknowledge themselves to beliable. Absolute princes, or others
who are accustomed to unlimiteddeference, usually feel thiscomplete confidence in their ow
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 142/661
opinions on nearly all subjects.People more happily situated, whosometimes hear their opinionsdisputed, and are not wholly unusedto be set right when they are wrong,
place the same unbounded reliance
only on such of their opinions as areshared by all who surround them, or
to whom they habitually defer: for
in proportion to a man's want oconfidence in his own solitary
udgment, does he usually repose,with implicit trust, on theinfallibility of "the world" i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 143/661
general. And the world, to eachindividual, means the part of it witwhich he comes in contact; his
party, his sect, his church, his classof society: the man may be called,
by comparison, almost liberal and
large-minded to whom it meansanything so comprehensive as his
own country or his own age. Nor is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 144/661
London, would have made him aBuddhist or a Confucian in Pekin.
Yet it is as evident in itself as anyamount of argument can make it, thaages are no more infallible tha
d d l h h ld
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 145/661
individuals; every age having heldmany opinions which subsequenages have deemed not only false buabsurd; and it is as certain that manyopinions, now general, will berejected by future ages, as it is tha
many, once general, are rejected bythe present.
The objection likely to be made
to this argument, would probablytake some such form as the
following. There is no greater assumption of infallibility iforbidding the propagation of error,h i h hi hi h i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 146/661
than in any other thing which isdone by public authority on its owudgment and responsibility.
Judgment is given to men that theymay use it. Because it may be usederroneously, are men to be told that
they ought not to use it at all? To prohibit what they think pernicious,
is not claiming exemption fro
error, but fulfilling the dutyincumbent on them, althoug
fallible, of acting on their conscientious conviction. If wewere never to act on our opinions,b h i i b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 147/661
because those opinions may bewrong, we should leave all our interests uncared for, and all our duties unperformed. An objectionwhich applies to all conduct, can beno valid objection to any conduct i
particular. It is the duty ogovernments, and of individuals, to
form the truest opinions they can; to
form them carefully, and never impose them upon others unless they
are quite sure of being right. Buwhen they are sure (such reasonersmay say), it is not conscientiousnessb t di t h i k f ti
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 148/661
but cowardice to shrink from actinon their opinions, and allowdoctrines which they honestly thindangerous to the welfare omankind, either in this life or ianother, to be scattered abroad
without restraint, because other people, in less enlightened times,
have persecuted opinions now
believed to be true. Let us take care,it may be said, not to make the same
mistake: but governments andnations have made mistakes in other things, which are not denied to befit bj t f th i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 149/661
fit subjects for the exercise oauthority: they have laid on badtaxes, made unjust wars. Ought wetherefore to lay on no taxes, and,under whatever provocation, makeno wars? Men, and governments,
must act to the best of their ability.There is no such thing as absolute
certainty, but there is assurance
sufficient for the purposes of humalife. We may, and must, assume our
opinion to be true for the guidanceof our own conduct: and it isassuming no more when we forbidbad men to pervert society by the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 150/661
bad men to pervert society by the propagation of opinions which weregard as false and pernicious.
I answer that it is assuming verymuch more. There is the greatesdifference between presuming a
opinion to be true, because, witevery opportunity for contesting it,
it has not been refuted, and
assuming its truth for the purpose onot permitting its refutation.
Complete liberty of contradictinand disproving our opinion, is thevery condition which justifies us iassuming its truth for purposes o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 151/661
assuming its truth for purposes oaction; and on no other terms can a
being with human faculties have anyrational assurance of being right.
When we consider either thehistory of opinion, or the ordinary
conduct of human life, to what is ito be ascribed that the one and the
other are no worse than they are?
ot certainly to the inherent force othe human understanding; for, on any
matter not self-evident, there areninety-nine persons totallyincapable of judging of it, for onewho is capable; and the capacity o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 152/661
who is capable; and the capacity othe hundredth person is onlycomparative; for the majority of theeminent men of every pasgeneration held many opinions nowknown to be erroneous, and did or
approved numerous things which noone will now justify. Why is it,
then, that there is on the whole a
preponderance among mankind orational opinions and rational
conduct? If there really is this preponderance—which there mus be, unless human affairs are, andhave always been in an almos
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 153/661
have always been, in an almosdesperate state—it is owing to aquality of the human mind, thesource of everything respectable iman either as an intellectual or as amoral being, namely, that his errors
are corrigible. He is capable orectifying his mistakes, by
discussion and experience. Not by
experience alone. There must bediscussion, to show how experience
is to be interpreted. Wrong opinionsand practices gradually yield to facand argument: but facts andarguments to produce any effect o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 154/661
arguments, to produce any effect othe mind, must be brought before it.Very few facts are able to tell their own story, without comments to
bring out their meaning. The wholestrength and value, then, of huma
udgment, depending on the one property, that it can be set right
when it is wrong, reliance can be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 155/661
has felt, that the only way in whica human being can make some
approach to knowing the whole of asubject, is by hearing what can besaid about it by persons of everyvariety of opinion and studying all
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 156/661
variety of opinion, and studying allmodes in which it can be looked a
by every character of mind. Nowise man ever acquired his wisdo
in any mode but this; nor is it in thenature of human intellect to become
wise in any other manner. Thesteady habit of correcting and
completing his own opinion by
collating it with those of others, sofar from causing doubt and
hesitation in carrying it into practice, is the only stablefoundation for a just reliance on it:for, being cognisant of all that can,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 157/661
for, being cognisant of all that can,at least obviously, be said againsthim, and having taken up his
position against all gainsayers—
knowing that he has sought for objections and difficulties, instead
of avoiding them, and has shut ouno light which can be thrown upo
the subject from any quarter—he
has a right to think his judgmen better than that of any person, or any
multitude, who have not gonethrough a similar process.It is not too much to require tha
what the wisest of mankind, those
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 158/661
what the wisest of mankind, thosewho are best entitled to trust their own judgment, find necessary towarrant their relying on it, should
be submitted to by thamiscellaneous collection of a few
wise and many foolish individuals,called the public. The mos
intolerant of churches, the Roma
Catholic Church, even at thecanonisation of a saint, admits, and
listens patiently to, a "devil'sadvocate." The holiest of men, iappears, cannot be admitted to
posthumous honours, until all tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 159/661
p ,the devil could say against him isknown and weighed. If even the
ewtonian philosophy were no
permitted to be questioned, mankindcould not feel as complete
assurance of its truth as they nowdo. The beliefs which we have mos
warrant for, have no safeguard to
rest on, but a standing invitation tothe whole world to prove the
unfounded. If the challenge is noaccepted, or is accepted and theattempt fails, we are far enougfrom certainty still; but we have
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 160/661
y ;done the best that the existing stateof human reason admits of; we haveneglected nothing that could give the
truth a chance of reaching us: if thelists are kept open, we may hope
that if there be a better truth, it will be found when the human mind is
capable of receiving it; and in the
meantime we may rely on havinattained such approach to truth, as is
possible in our own day. This is theamount of certainty attainable by afallible being, and this the sole wayof attaining it.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 161/661
gStrange it is, that men should
admit the validity of the argumentsfor free discussion, but object to
their being "pushed to an extreme;"not seeing that unless the reasons
are good for an extreme case, theyare not good for any case. Strange
that they should imagine that they
are not assuming infallibility, whenthey acknowledge that there should
be free discussion on all subjectswhich can possibly be doubtful , buthink that some particular principleor doctrine should be forbidden to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 162/661
be questioned because it is socertain , that is, because they arecertain that it is certain. To call any
proposition certain, while there isany one who would deny its
certainty if permitted, but who is no permitted, is to assume that we
ourselves, and those who agree
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 163/661
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 164/661
would desire to weaken thesesalutary beliefs; and there can be
nothing wrong, it is thought, irestraining bad men, and prohibitinwhat only such men would wish to
practise. This mode of thinkin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 165/661
makes the justification of restraintson discussion not a question of thetruth of doctrines, but of their
usefulness; and flatters itself by thameans to escape the responsibility
of claiming to be an infallible judgeof opinions. But those who thus
satisfy themselves, do not perceive
that the assumption of infallibility ismerely shifted from one point to
another. The usefulness of anopinion is itself matter of opinion:as disputable, as open todiscussion, and requiring discussio
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 166/661
as much, as the opinion itself. Thereis the same need of an infallibleudge of opinions to decide a
opinion to be noxious, as to decideit to be false, unless the opinio
condemned has full opportunity odefending itself. And it will not do
to say that the heretic may be
allowed to maintain the utility or harmlessness of his opinion, thoug
forbidden to maintain its truth. Thetruth of an opinion is part of itsutility. If we would know whether or not it is desirable that a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 167/661
proposition should be believed, is i possible to exclude theconsideration of whether or not it is
true? In the opinion, not of bad men, but of the best men, no belief whic
is contrary to truth can be reallyuseful: and can you prevent suc
men from urging that plea, whe
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 168/661
indispensable. There can be no fair discussion of the question o
usefulness, when an argument sovital may be employed on one side, but not on the other. And in point ofact, when law or public feeling do
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 169/661
not permit the truth of an opinion to be disputed, they are just as littletolerant of a denial of its usefulness.
The utmost they allow is aextenuation of its absolute
necessity, or of the positive guilt orejecting it.
In order more fully to illustrate
the mischief of denying a hearing toopinions because we, in our ow
udgment, have condemned them, iwill be desirable to fix down thediscussion to a concrete case; and Ichoose, by preference, the cases
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 170/661
which are least favourable to me— in which the argument againsfreedom of opinion, both on the
score of truth and on that of utility,is considered the strongest. Let the
opinions impugned be the belief in aGod and in a future state, or any o
the commonly received doctrines o
morality. To fight the battle on suchground, gives a great advantage to
an unfair antagonist; since he will be sure to say (and many who haveno desire to be unfair will say iinternally), Are these the doctrines
h h d d ff l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 171/661
which you do not deem sufficientlycertain to be taken under the
protection of law? Is the belief in a
God one of the opinions, to feelsure of which, you hold to be
assuming infallibility? But I must be permitted to observe, that it is no
the feeling sure of a doctrine (be i
what it may) which I call aassumption of infallibility. It is the
undertaking to decide that questioor others , without allowing them tohear what can be said on thecontrary side. And I denounce and
b hi i h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 172/661
reprobate this pretension not theless, if put forth on the side of mymost solemn convictions. However
positive any one's persuasion may be, not only of the falsity, but of the
pernicious consequences—not onlyof the pernicious consequences, bu
(to adopt expressions which I
altogether condemn) the immoralityand impiety of an opinion; yet if, i pursuance of that private judgment,though backed by the publicudgment of his country or his
contemporaries, he prevents thei i f b i h d i i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 173/661
opinion from being heard in itsdefence, he assumes infallibility.And so far from the assumptio
being less objectionable or lessdangerous because the opinion is
called immoral or impious, this isthe case of all others in which it is
most fatal. These are exactly the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 174/661
from them , or from their receivedinterpretation.Mankind can hardly be too ofte
reminded that there was once a manamed Socrates, between whom andthe legal authorities and public
i i f hi ti th t k l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 175/661
opinion of his time, there took placea memorable collision. Born in aage and country abounding i
individual greatness, this man has been handed down to us by those
who best knew both him and theage, as the most virtuous man in it;
while we know him as the head and
prototype of all subsequent teachersof virtue, the source equally of thelofty inspiration of Plato and theudicious utilitarianism of Aristotle,
"i maëstri di color che sanno ," thetwo headsprings of ethical as of allother philosophy This
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 176/661
other philosophy. Thisacknowledged master of all theeminent thinkers who have since
lived—whose fame, still growinafter more than two thousand years,
all but outweighs the wholeremainder of the names which make
his native city illustrious—was pu
to death by his countrymen, after audicial conviction, for impiety andimmorality. Impiety, in denying thegods recognised by the State;indeed his accuser asserted (see the"Apologia") that he believed in nogods at all Immorality in being by
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 177/661
gods at all. Immorality, in being, byhis doctrines and instructions, a"corruptor of youth." Of these
charges the tribunal, there is everyground for believing, honestly found
him guilty, and condemned the manwho probably of all then born had
deserved best of mankind, to be pu
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 178/661
Almighty in person, wasignominiously put to death, as what?As a blasphemer. Men did notmerely mistake their benefactor;they mistook him for the exaccontrary of what he was, and treatedhim as that prodigy of impiety
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 179/661
him as that prodigy of impiety,which they themselves are now heldto be, for their treatment of him. The
feelings with which mankind nowregard these lamentable
transactions, especially the later othe two, render them extremely
unjust in their judgment of the
unhappy actors. These were, to allappearance, not bad men—noworse than men commonly are, burather the contrary; men who
possessed in a full, or somewhamore than a full measure, thereligious moral and patriotic
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 180/661
religious, moral, and patrioticfeelings of their time and people:the very kind of men who, in all
times, our own included, have everychance of passing through life
blameless and respected. The high- priest who rent his garments whe
the words were pronounced, which,
according to all the ideas of hiscountry, constituted the blackestguilt, was in all probability quite assincere in his horror andindignation, as the generality orespectable and pious men now arein the religious and moral
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 181/661
in the religious and moralsentiments they profess; and most othose who now shudder at his
conduct, if they had lived in histime, and been born Jews, would
have acted precisely as he did.Orthodox Christians who are
tempted to think that those who
stoned to death the first martyrsmust have been worse men than theythemselves are, ought to remember that one of those persecutors wasSaint Paul.
Let us add one more example,the most striking of all if the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 182/661
the most striking of all, if theimpressiveness of an error ismeasured by the wisdom and virtue
of him who falls into it. If ever anyone, possessed of power, had
grounds for thinking himself the besand most enlightened among hiscotemporaries, it was the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius. Absolute monarchof the whole civilised world, he preserved through life not only themost unblemished justice, but whawas less to be expected from hisStoical breeding, the tenderesheart. The few failings which are
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 183/661
heart. The few failings which areattributed to him, were all on theside of indulgence: while his
writings, the highest ethical producof the ancient mind, differ scarcely
perceptibly, if they differ at all,from the most characteristicteachings of Christ. This man, a
better Christian in all but thedogmatic sense of the word, thaalmost any of the ostensiblyChristian sovereigns who havesince reigned, persecutedChristianity. Placed at the summit oall the previous attainments o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 184/661
all the previous attainments ohumanity, with an open, unfetteredintellect, and a character which led
him of himself to embody in hismoral writings the Christian ideal,
he yet failed to see that Christianitywas to be a good and not an evil tothe world, with his duties to whic
he was so deeply penetrated.Existing society he knew to be in adeplorable state. But such as it was,he saw, or thought he saw, that itwas held together, and preventedfrom being worse, by belief andreverence of the received divinities.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 185/661
As a ruler of mankind, he deemed ihis duty not to suffer society to fall
in pieces; and saw not how, if itsexisting ties were removed, any
others could be formed which couldagain knit it together. The newreligion openly aimed at dissolvin
these ties: unless, therefore, it washis duty to adopt that religion, iseemed to be his duty to put idown. Inasmuch then as the theologyof Christianity did not appear to hitrue or of divine origin; inasmuch asthis strange history of a crucified
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 186/661
g yGod was not credible to him, and asystem which purported to res
entirely upon a foundation to him sowholly unbelievable, could not be
foreseen by him to be tharenovating agency which, after allabatements, it has in fact proved to
be; the gentlest and most amiable o philosophers and rulers, under asolemn sense of duty, authorised the
persecution of Christianity. To mymind this is one of the most tragicalfacts in all history. It is a bitter thought, how different a thing the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 187/661
g , gChristianity of the world might have
been, if the Christian faith had bee
adopted as the religion of theempire under the auspices o
Marcus Aurelius instead of those oConstantine. But it would beequally unjust to him and false to
truth, to deny, that no one pleawhich can be urged for punishinanti-Christian teaching, waswanting to Marcus Aurelius for
punishing, as he did, the propagation of Christianity. NoChristian more firmly believes tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 188/661
y
Atheism is false, and tends to thedissolution of society, than Marcus
Aurelius believed the same thingsof Christianity; he who, of all me
then living, might have been thoughthe most capable of appreciating it.Unless any one who approves o
punishment for the promulgation oopinions, flatters himself that he is awiser and better man than MarcusAurelius—more deeply versed ithe wisdom of his time, moreelevated in his intellect above it— more earnest in his search for truth,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 189/661
or more single-minded in hisdevotion to it when found;—let hi
abstain from that assumption of theoint infallibility of himself and the
multitude, which the greaAntoninus made with so unfortunatea result.
Aware of the impossibility odefending the use of punishment for restraining irreligious opinions, byany argument which will not justifyMarcus Antoninus, the enemies oreligious freedom, when hard
pressed, occasionally accept this
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 190/661
consequence, and say, with Dr.Johnson, that the persecutors o
Christianity were in the right; tha persecution is an ordeal throug
which truth ought to pass, andalways passes successfully, legal penalties being, in the end,
powerless against truth, thougsometimes beneficially effectiveagainst mischievous errors. This isa form of the argument for religiousintolerance, sufficiently remarkablenot to be passed without notice.
A theory which maintains that
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 191/661
truth may justifiably be persecuted because persecution canno
possibly do it any harm, cannot becharged with being intentionally
hostile to the reception of newtruths; but we cannot commend thegenerosity of its dealing with the
persons to whom mankind areindebted for them. To discover tothe world something which deeplyconcerns it, and of which it was
previously ignorant; to prove to ithat it had been mistaken on somevital point of temporal or spiritual
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 192/661
interest, is as important a service asa human being can render to his
fellow-creatures, and in certaicases, as in those of the early
Christians and of the Reformers,those who think with Dr. Johnson believe it to have been the mos
precious gift which could be bestowed on mankind. That theauthors of such splendid benefitsshould be requited by martyrdom;that their reward should be to bedealt with as the vilest of criminals,is not, upon this theory, a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 193/661
deplorable error and misfortune, for which humanity should mourn i
sackcloth and ashes, but the normaland justifiable state of things. The
propounder of a new truth,according to this doctrine, shouldstand, as stood, in the legislation o
the Locrians, the proposer of a newlaw, with a halter round his neck, to be instantly tightened if the publicassembly did not, on hearing hisreasons, then and there adopt his
proposition. People who defend thismode of treating benefactors, canno
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 194/661
be supposed to set much value othe benefit; and I believe this view
of the subject is mostly confined tothe sort of persons who think tha
new truths may have been desirableonce, but that we have had enougof them now.
But, indeed, the dictum that trutalways triumphs over persecution,is one of those pleasant falsehoodswhich men repeat after one another till they pass into commonplaces,
but which all experience refutes.History teems with instances o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 195/661
truth put down by persecution. If nosuppressed for ever, it may be
thrown back for centuries. To speak only of religious opinions: the
Reformation broke out at leastwenty times before Luther, and was put down. Arnold of Brescia was
put down. Fra Dolcino was pudown. Savonarola was put down.The Albigeois were put down. TheVaudois were put down. TheLollards were put down. TheHussites were put down. Even after the era of Luther, wherever
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 196/661
persecution was persisted in, it wassuccessful. In Spain, Italy, Flanders,
the Austrian empire, Protestantismwas rooted out; and, most likely,
would have been so in England, hadQueen Mary lived, or QueeElizabeth died. Persecution has
always succeeded, save where theheretics were too strong a party to be effectually persecuted. Noreasonable person can doubt thaChristianity might have beeextirpated in the Roman Empire. Ispread, and became predominant,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 197/661
because the persecutions were onlyoccasional, lasting but a short time,
and separated by long intervals oalmost undisturbed propagandism. I
is a piece of idle sentimentality thatruth, merely as truth, has anyinherent power denied to error, o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 198/661
time when from favourablecircumstances it escapes persecution until it has made suchead as to withstand all subsequenattempts to suppress it.
It will be said, that we do nonow put to death the introducers o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 199/661
new opinions: we are not like our fathers who slew the prophets, we
even build sepulchres to them. It istrue we no longer put heretics to
death; and the amount of penalinfliction which modern feelinwould probably tolerate, eve
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 200/661
said to be of unexceptionableconduct in all relations of life, wassentenced to twenty-one months'imprisonment, for uttering, andwriting on a gate, some offensivewords concerning Christianity.Within a month of the same time, at
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 201/661
the Old Bailey, two persons, on twoseparate occasions, [8] were
rejected as jurymen, and one othem grossly insulted by the judge
and by one of the counsel, becausethey honestly declared that they hadno theological belief; and a third, a
foreigner,[9]
for the same reason,was denied justice against a thief.This refusal of redress took place ivirtue of the legal doctrine, that no
person can be allowed to giveevidence in a court of justice, whodoes not profess belief in a God
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 202/661
(any god is sufficient) and in afuture state; which is equivalent to
declaring such persons to beoutlaws, excluded from the
protection of the tribunals; who maynot only be robbed or assaultedwith impunity, if no one but
themselves, or persons of similar opinions, be present, but any oneelse may be robbed or assaultedwith impunity, if the proof of thefact depends on their evidence. Theassumption on which this isgrounded, is that the oath is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 203/661
worthless, of a person who does no believe in a future state; a
proposition which betokens mucignorance of history in those who
assent to it (since it is historicallytrue that a large proportion oinfidels in all ages have bee
persons of distinguished integrityand honour); and would bemaintained by no one who had thesmallest conception how many othe persons in greatest repute witthe world, both for virtues and for attainments, are well known, a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 204/661
least to their intimates, to beunbelievers. The rule, besides, is
suicidal, and cuts away its owfoundation. Under pretence tha
atheists must be liars, it admits thetestimony of all atheists who arewilling to lie, and rejects only those
who brave the obloquy of publiclyconfessing a detested creed rather than affirm a falsehood. A rule thusself-convicted of absurdity so far asregards its professed purpose, ca
be kept in force only as a badge ohatred, a relic of persecution; a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 205/661
persecution, too, having the peculiarity, that the qualification for
undergoing it, is the being clearly proved not to deserve it. The rule,
and the theory it implies, are hardlyless insulting to believers than toinfidels. For if he who does no
believe in a future state, necessarilylies, it follows that they who do believe are only prevented frolying, if prevented they are, by thefear of hell. We will not do theauthors and abettors of the rule theinjury of supposing, that the
i hi h h h f d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 206/661
conception which they have formedof Christian virtue is drawn fro
their own consciousness.These, indeed, are but rags and
remnants of persecution, and may bethought to be not so much aindication of the wish to persecute,
as an example of that very frequeninfirmity of English minds, whicmakes them take a preposterous
pleasure in the assertion of a bad principle, when they are no longer bad enough to desire to carry ireally into practice. But unhappily
h i i i h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 207/661
there is no security in the state othe public mind, that the suspensio
of worse forms of legal persecution,which has lasted for about the space
of a generation, will continue. Ithis age the quiet surface of routineis as often ruffled by attempts to
resuscitate past evils, as tointroduce new benefits. What is
boasted of at the present time as therevival of religion, is always, inarrow and uncultivated minds, aleast as much the revival of bigotry;and where there is the stron
l f i l i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 208/661
permanent leaven of intolerance ithe feelings of a people, which a
all times abides in the middleclasses of this country, it needs but
little to provoke them into actively persecuting those whom they havenever ceased to think proper objects
of persecution. [10] For it is this—iis the opinions men entertain, andthe feelings they cherish, respectinthose who disown the beliefs theydeem important, which makes thiscountry not a place of mentalfreedom. For a long time past, the
hi f i hi f f th l l lti
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 209/661
chief mischief of the legal penaltiesis that they strengthen the social
stigma. It is that stigma which isreally effective, and so effective is
it that the profession of opinionswhich are under the ban of societyis much less common in England,
than is, in many other countries, theavowal of those which incur risk oudicial punishment. In respect to
all persons but those whose pecuniary circumstances make theindependent of the good will oother people, opinion, on this
bj t i ffi i l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 210/661
subject, is as efficacious as law;men might as well be imprisoned,
as excluded from the means oearning their bread. Those whose
bread is already secured, and whodesire no favours from men i power, or from bodies of men, or
from the public, have nothing to fear from the open avowal of anyopinions, but to be ill-thought of andill-spoken of, and this it ought not torequire a very heroic mould toenable them to bear. There is noroom for any appeal a
misericordiam in behalf of suc
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 211/661
misericordiam in behalf of suc persons. But though we do not now
inflict so much evil on those whothink differently from us, as it was
formerly our custom to do, it may bethat we do ourselves as much evilas ever by our treatment of them.
Socrates was put to death, but theSocratic philosophy rose like thesun in heaven, and spread itsillumination over the wholeintellectual firmament. Christianswere cast to the lions, but theChristian church grew up a stately
and spreading tree overtopping the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 212/661
and spreading tree, overtopping theolder and less vigorous growths,
and stifling them by its shade. Our merely social intolerance kills no
one, roots out no opinions, buinduces men to disguise them, or toabstain from any active effort for
their diffusion. With us, hereticalopinions do not perceptibly gain, or even lose, ground in each decade or generation; they never blaze out far and wide, but continue to smoulder in the narrow circles of thinking andstudious persons among whom they
originate without ever lighting up
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 213/661
originate, without ever lighting upthe general affairs of mankind wit
either a true or a deceptive light.And thus is kept up a state of things
very satisfactory to some minds, because, without the unpleasan process of fining or imprisonin
anybody, it maintains all prevailingopinions outwardly undisturbed,while it does not absolutelyinterdict the exercise of reason bydissentients afflicted with themalady of thought. A convenient
plan for having peace in the
intellectual world and keeping all
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 214/661
intellectual world, and keeping allthings going on therein very much as
they do already. But the price paidfor this sort of intellectual
pacification, is the sacrifice of theentire moral courage of the humamind. A state of things in which a
large portion of the most active andinquiring intellects find it advisableto keep the genuine principles andgrounds of their convictions withitheir own breasts, and attempt, iwhat they address to the public, tofit as much as they can of their ow
conclusions to premises which they
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 215/661
conclusions to premises which theyhave internally renounced, canno
send forth the open, fearlesscharacters, and logical, consisten
intellects who once adorned thethinking world. The sort of mewho can be looked for under it, are
either mere conformers tocommonplace, or time-servers for truth, whose arguments on all greasubjects are meant for their hearers,and are not those which haveconvinced themselves. Those whoavoid this alternative, do so by
narrowing their thoughts and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 216/661
narrowing their thoughts andinterest to things which can be
spoken of without venturing withithe region of principles, that is, tosmall practical matters, whicwould come right of themselves, i
but the minds of mankind were
strengthened and enlarged, andwhich will never be madeeffectually right until then: whilethat which would strengthen andenlarge men's minds, free anddaring speculation on the highessubjects, is abandoned.
Those in whose eyes this
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 217/661
Those in whose eyes thisreticence on the part of heretics is
no evil, should consider in the firs place, that in consequence of ithere is never any fair and thorougdiscussion of heretical opinions;and that such of them as could no
stand such a discussion, though theymay be prevented from spreading,do not disappear. But it is not theminds of heretics that aredeteriorated most, by the ban placedon all inquiry which does not end ithe orthodox conclusions. The
greatest harm done is to those who
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 218/661
greatest harm done is to those whoare not heretics, and whose whole
mental development is cramped,and their reason cowed, by the fear of heresy. Who can compute whatthe world loses in the multitude o
promising intellects combined wit
timid characters, who dare nofollow out any bold, vigorous,independent train of thought, lest ishould land them in somethinwhich would admit of beinconsidered irreligious or immoral?Among them we may occasionally
see some man of deep
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 219/661
see some man of deepconscientiousness, and subtle and
refined understanding, who spendsa life in sophisticating with aintellect which he cannot silence,and exhausts the resources oingenuity in attempting to reconcile
the promptings of his conscienceand reason with orthodoxy, whichyet he does not, perhaps, to the endsucceed in doing. No one can be agreat thinker who does norecognise, that as a thinker it is hisfirst duty to follow his intellect to
whatever conclusions it may lead.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 220/661
whatever conclusions it may lead.Truth gains more even by the errors
of one who, with due study and preparation, thinks for himself, tha by the true opinions of those whoonly hold them because they do nosuffer themselves to think. Not tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 221/661
character, it has been because thedread of heterodox speculation wasfor a time suspended. Where thereis a tacit convention that principlesare not to be disputed; where thediscussion of the greatest questionswhich can occupy humanity is
considered to be closed, we canno
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 222/661
,hope to find that generally hig
scale of mental activity which hasmade some periods of history soremarkable. Never whecontroversy avoided the subjectswhich are large and importan
enough to kindle enthusiasm, wasthe mind of a people stirred up froits foundations, and the impulsegiven which raised even persons othe most ordinary intellect to
something of the dignity of thinkin beings. Of such we have had a
example in the condition of Europed h d l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 223/661
p pduring the times immediately
following the Reformation; another,though limited to the Continent andto a more cultivated class, in thespeculative movement of the latter half of the eighteenth century; and a
third, of still briefer duration, in theintellectual fermentation oGermany during the Goethian andFichtean period. These periodsdiffered widely in the particular
opinions which they developed; buwere alike in this, that during all
three the yoke of authority wasb k I h ld l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 224/661
y y broken. In each, an old mental
despotism had been thrown off, andno new one had yet taken its place.The impulse given at these three
periods has made Europe what inow is. Every single improvemen
which has taken place either in thehuman mind or in institutions, may
be traced distinctly to one or other of them. Appearances have for some time indicated that all three
impulses are well-nigh spent; andwe can expect no fresh start, until
we again assert our mental freedom.L h d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 225/661
gLet us now pass to the second
division of the argument, anddismissing the supposition that anyof the received opinions may befalse, let us assume them to be true,and examine into the worth of the
manner in which they are likely to be held, when their truth is nofreely and openly canvassed.However unwillingly a person whohas a strong opinion may admit the
possibility that his opinion may befalse, he ought to be moved by the
consideration that however true ib if it i t f ll f tl
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 226/661
may be, if it is not fully, frequently,
and fearlessly discussed, it will beheld as a dead dogma, not a livintruth.
There is a class of persons(happily not quite so numerous as
formerly) who think it enough if a person assents undoubtingly to whathey think true, though he has noknowledge whatever of the groundsof the opinion, and could not make a
tenable defence of it against themost superficial objections. Suc
persons, if they can once get their d t ght f th it
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 227/661
creed taught from authority,
naturally think that no good, andsome harm, comes of its beinallowed to be questioned. Wheretheir influence prevails, they makeit nearly impossible for the
received opinion to be rejectedwisely and considerately, though itmay still be rejected rashly andignorantly; for to shut out discussioentirely is seldom possible, and
when it once gets in, beliefs nogrounded on conviction are apt to
give way before the slightessemblance of an argument Waiving
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 228/661
semblance of an argument. Waiving,
however, this possibility— assuming that the true opinioabides in the mind, but abides as a
prejudice, a belief independent of,and proof against, argument—this is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 229/661
him to hold opinions on them? If thecultivation of the understandinconsists in one thing more than ianother, it is surely in learning thegrounds of one's own opinions.
Whatever people believe, osubjects on which it is of the firs
importance to believe rightly, theyought to be able to defend against a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 230/661
ought to be able to defend against a
least the common objections. But,some one may say, "Let them betaught the grounds of their opinions. It does not follow thaopinions must be merely parroted
because they are never heardcontroverted. Persons who lear geometry do not simply commit thetheorems to memory, but understandand learn likewise the
demonstrations; and it would beabsurd to say that they remai
ignorant of the grounds ogeometrical truths because they
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 231/661
geometrical truths, because they
never hear any one deny, andattempt to disprove them."Undoubtedly: and such teachinsuffices on a subject likemathematics, where there is nothin
at all to be said on the wrong sideof the question. The peculiarity othe evidence of mathematical truthsis, that all the argument is on oneside. There are no objections, and
no answers to objections. But oevery subject on which difference
of opinion is possible, the trutdepends on a balance to be struc
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 232/661
depends on a balance to be struc
between two sets of conflictinreasons. Even in natural philosophy,there is always some other explanation possible of the samefacts; some geocentric theory
instead of heliocentric, some phlogiston instead of oxygen; and ihas to be shown why that other theory cannot be the true one: anduntil this is shown, and until we
know how it is shown, we do nounderstand the grounds of our
opinion. But when we turn tosubjects infinitely more
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 233/661
subjects infinitely more
complicated, to morals, religion, politics, social relations, and the business of life, three-fourths of thearguments for every disputedopinion consist in dispelling the
appearances which favour someopinion different from it. Thegreatest orator, save one, oantiquity, has left it on record thathe always studied his adversary's
case with as great, if not with stillgreater, intensity than even his own.
What Cicero practised as the meansof forensic success requires to be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 234/661
of forensic success, requires to be
imitated by all who study anysubject in order to arrive at thetruth. He who knows only his owside of the case, knows little of that.His reasons may be good, and no
one may have been able to refutethem. But if he is equally unable torefute the reasons on the oppositeside; if he does not so much asknow what they are, he has no
ground for preferring either opinion.The rational position for him would
be suspension of judgment, andunless he contents himself with that,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 235/661
unless he contents himself with that,
he is either led by authority, or adopts, like the generality of theworld, the side to which he feelsmost inclination. Nor is it enougthat he should hear the arguments o
adversaries from his own teachers, presented as they state them, andaccompanied by what they offer asrefutations. That is not the way todo justice to the arguments, or brin
them into real contact with his owmind. He must be able to hear the
from persons who actually believethem; who defend them in earnest,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 236/661
them; who defend them in earnest,
and do their very utmost for them.He must know them in their mos plausible and persuasive form; hemust feel the whole force of thedifficulty which the true view of the
subject has to encounter anddispose of; else he will never really
possess himself of the portion otruth which meets and removes thadifficulty. Ninety-nine in a hundred
of what are called educated men arein this condition; even of those who
can argue fluently for their opinions.Their conclusion may be true, but i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 237/661
y ,
might be false for anything theyknow: they have never throwthemselves into the mental positioof those who think differently frothem, and considered what suc
persons may have to say; andconsequently they do not, in any
proper sense of the word, know thedoctrine which they themselves
profess. They do not know those
parts of it which explain and justifythe remainder; the considerations
which show that a fact whicseemingly conflicts with another is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 238/661
g y
reconcilable with it, or that, of twoapparently strong reasons, one andnot the other ought to be preferred.All that part of the truth which turnsthe scale, and decides the judgmen
of a completely informed mind, theyare strangers to; nor is it ever reallyknown, but to those who haveattended equally and impartially to
both sides, and endeavoured to see
the reasons of both in the strongeslight. So essential is this discipline
to a real understanding of moral andhuman subjects, that if opponents o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 239/661
j , pp
all important truths do not exist, it isindispensable to imagine them, andsupply them with the strongesarguments which the most skilfuldevil's advocate can conjure up.
To abate the force of theseconsiderations, an enemy of freediscussion may be supposed to say,that there is no necessity for mankind in general to know and
understand all that can be saidagainst or for their opinions by
philosophers and theologians. Thait is not needful for common men to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 240/661
be able to expose all themisstatements or fallacies of aingenious opponent. That it isenough if there is always somebodycapable of answering them, so tha
nothing likely to misleaduninstructed persons remainsunrefuted. That simple minds,having been taught the obviousgrounds of the truths inculcated o
them, may trust to authority for therest, and being aware that they have
neither knowledge nor talent toresolve every difficulty which ca
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 241/661
be raised, may repose in theassurance that all those which have been raised have been or can beanswered, by those who arespecially trained to the task.
Conceding to this view of thesubject the utmost that can beclaimed for it by those most easilysatisfied with the amount ounderstanding of truth which ough
to accompany the belief of it; eveso, the argument for free discussio
is no way weakened. For even thisdoctrine acknowledges that mankind
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 242/661
g
ought to have a rational assurancethat all objections have beesatisfactorily answered; and howare they to be answered if thawhich requires to be answered is
not spoken? or how can the answer be known to be satisfactory, if theobjectors have no opportunity oshowing that it is unsatisfactory? Inot the public, at least the
philosophers and theologians whoare to resolve the difficulties, mus
make themselves familiar witthose difficulties in their mos
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 243/661
puzzling form; and this cannot beaccomplished unless they are freelystated, and placed in the mosadvantageous light which they admiof. The Catholic Church has its ow
way of dealing with thisembarrassing problem. It makes a
broad separation between thosewho can be permitted to receive itsdoctrines on conviction, and those
who must accept them on trust.either, indeed, are allowed any
choice as to what they will accept; but the clergy, such at least as can
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 244/661
be fully confided in, mayadmissibly and meritoriously makethemselves acquainted with thearguments of opponents, in order toanswer them, and may, therefore,
read heretical books; the laity, notunless by special permission, hardto be obtained. This disciplinerecognises a knowledge of theenemy's case as beneficial to the
teachers, but finds means, consistenwith this, of denying it to the rest o
the world: thus giving to the élitemore mental culture, though no
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 245/661
more mental freedom, than it allowsto the mass. By this device isucceeds in obtaining the kind omental superiority which its
purposes require; for though culture
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 246/661
be kept from the uninstructed. If theteachers of mankind are to becognisant of all that they ought toknow, everything must be free to bewritten and published withou
restraint.If, however, the mischievous
operation of the absence of freediscussion, when the received
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 247/661
opinions are true, were confined toleaving men ignorant of the groundsof those opinions, it might bethought that this, if an intellectual, isno moral evil, and does not affec
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 248/661
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 249/661
undiminished strength, and is perhaps brought out into even fuller consciousness, so long as thestruggle lasts to give the doctrine or creed an ascendency over other
creeds. At last it either prevails,and becomes the general opinion, or
its progress stops; it keeps possession of the ground it has
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 250/661
gained, but ceases to spread further.When either of these results has become apparent, controversy othe subject flags, and gradually diesaway. The doctrine has taken its
place, if not as a received opinion,as one of the admitted sects or divisions of opinion: those whohold it have generally inherited, noadopted it; and conversion from one
of these doctrines to another, beingnow an exceptional fact, occupies
little place in the thoughts of their professors. Instead of being, as afi l h l i h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 251/661
first, constantly on the alert either todefend themselves against theworld, or to bring the world over tothem, they have subsided intoacquiescence, and neither listen,
when they can help it, to argumentsagainst their creed, nor troubledissentients (if there be such) witarguments in its favour. From thistime may usually be dated the
decline in the living power of thedoctrine. We often hear the teachers
of all creeds lamenting the difficultyof keeping up in the minds ob li li l h i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 252/661
believers a lively apprehension othe truth which they nominallyrecognise, so that it may penetratethe feelings, and acquire a realmastery over the conduct. No suc
difficulty is complained of whilethe creed is still fighting for itsexistence: even the weaker combatants then know and feel whathey are fighting for, and the
difference between it and other doctrines; and in that period o
every creed's existence, not a few persons may be found, who haveli d it f d t l i i l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 253/661
realised its fundamental principlesin all the forms of thought, haveweighed and considered them in alltheir important bearings, and haveexperienced the full effect on the
character, which belief in that creedought to produce in a mindthoroughly imbued with it. But wheit has come to be a hereditary creed,and to be received passively, not
actively—when the mind is nolonger compelled, in the same
degree as at first, to exercise itsvital powers on the questions whicits belief presents to it there is a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 254/661
its belief presents to it, there is a progressive tendency to forget all othe belief except the formularies, or to give it a dull and torpid assent, asif accepting it on trust dispensed
with the necessity of realising it iconsciousness, or testing it by
personal experience; until it almosceases to connect itself at all witthe inner life of the human being.
Then are seen the cases, so frequenin this age of the world as almost to
form the majority, in which thecreed remains as it were outside themind encrusting and petrifying i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 255/661
mind, encrusting and petrifying iagainst all other influencesaddressed to the higher parts of our nature; manifesting its power by nosuffering any fresh and livin
conviction to get in, but itself doinnothing for the mind or heart, excepstanding sentinel over them to keepthem vacant.
To what an extent doctrines
intrinsically fitted to make thedeepest impression upon the mind
may remain in it as dead beliefs,without being ever realised in theimagination the feelings or the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 256/661
imagination, the feelings, or theunderstanding, is exemplified by themanner in which the majority o
believers hold the doctrines oChristianity. By Christianity I here
mean what is accounted such by allchurches and sects—the maximsand precepts contained in the New
Testament. These are consideredsacred, and accepted as laws, by all
professing Christians. Yet it isscarcely too much to say that no
one Christian in a thousand guidesor tests his individual conduct byreference to those laws The
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 257/661
reference to those laws. Thestandard to which he does refer it,is the custom of his nation, hisclass, or his religious profession.He has thus, on the one hand, a
collection of ethical maxims, whiche believes to have beevouchsafed to him by infallible
wisdom as rules for his government;and on the other, a set of every-day
udgments and practices, which go acertain length with some of those
maxims, not so great a length witothers, stand in direct opposition tosome and are on the whole a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 258/661
some, and are, on the whole, acompromise between the Christiacreed and the interests andsuggestions of worldly life. To thefirst of these standards he gives his
homage; to the other his realallegiance. All Christians believethat the blessed are the poor and
humble, and those who are ill-used by the world; that it is easier for a
camel to pass through the eye of aneedle than for a rich man to enter
the kingdom of heaven; that theyshould judge not, lest they beudged; that they should swear not a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 259/661
udged; that they should swear not aall; that they should love their neighbour as themselves; that if onetake their cloak, they should givehim their coat also; that they should
take no thought for the morrow; thaif they would be perfect, theyshould sell all that they have and
give it to the poor. They are notinsincere when they say that they
believe these things. They do believe them, as people believe
what they have always heard laudedand never discussed. But in thesense of that living belief whic
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 260/661
sense of that living belief whicregulates conduct, they believethese doctrines just up to the pointo which it is usual to act upothem. The doctrines in their integrity
are serviceable to pelt adversarieswith; and it is understood that theyare to be put forward (whe
possible) as the reasons for whatever people do that they thin
laudable. But any one whoreminded them that the maxims
require an infinity of things whicthey never even think of doing,would gain nothing but to be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 261/661
would gain nothing but to beclassed among those very unpopular characters who affect to be better than other people. The doctrineshave no hold on ordinary believers
are not a power in their minds.They have a habitual respect for thesound of them, but no feeling whic
spreads from the words to the thingssignified, and forces the mind to
t a k e them in, and make theconform to the formula. Whenever
conduct is concerned, they looround for Mr. A and B to directthem how far to go in obeyin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 262/661
them how far to go in obeyinChrist.
Now we may be well assuredthat the case was not thus, but far otherwise, with the early Christians.
Had it been thus, Christianity never would have expanded from aobscure sect of the despised
Hebrews into the religion of theRoman empire. When their enemies
said, "See how these Christianslove one another" (a remark no
likely to be made by anybody now),they assuredly had a much livelier feeling of the meaning of their creed
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 263/661
g gthan they have ever had since. Andto this cause, probably, it is chieflyowing that Christianity now makesso little progress in extending its
domain, and after eighteecenturies, is still nearly confined toEuropeans and the descendants o
Europeans. Even with the strictlyreligious, who are much in earnes
about their doctrines, and attach agreater amount of meaning to many
of them than people in general, icommonly happens that the par which is thus comparatively active
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 264/661
p yin their minds is that which wasmade by Calvin, or Knox, or somesuch person much nearer icharacter to themselves. The
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 265/661
open gainsayers. Both teachers andlearners go to sleep at their post, assoon as there is no enemy in the
field.The same thing holds true,
generally speaking, of all traditionaldoctrines—those of prudence and
knowledge of life, as well as omorals or religion. All languagesand literatures are full of general
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 266/661
gobservations on life, both as to whait is, and how to conduct oneself iit; observations which everybodyknows, which everybody repeats, or
hears with acquiescence, which arereceived as truisms, yet of whicmost people first truly learn the
meaning, when experience,generally of a painful kind, has
made it a reality to them. Howoften, when smarting under some
unforeseen misfortune or disappointment, does a person callto mind some proverb or commo
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 267/661
saying, familiar to him all his life,the meaning of which, if he had ever
before felt it as he does now, wouldhave saved him from the calamity.
There are indeed reasons for this,other than the absence odiscussion: there are many truths o
which the full meaning cannot berealised, until personal experience
has brought it home. But much moreof the meaning even of these would
have been understood, and whawas understood would have beefar more deeply impressed on the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 268/661
mind, if the man had beeaccustomed to hear it argued proa n d con by people who didunderstand it. The fatal tendency o
mankind to leave off thinking aboua thing when it is no longer doubtful, is the cause of half their
errors. A contemporary author haswell spoken of "the deep slumber o
a decided opinion."But what! (it may be asked) Is
the absence of unanimity aindispensable condition of trueknowledge? Is it necessary tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 269/661
some part of mankind should persisin error, to enable any to realise thetruth? Does a belief cease to be realand vital as soon as it is generally
received—and is a propositionever thoroughly understood andfelt unless some doubt of i
remains? As soon as mankind haveunanimously accepted a truth, does
the truth perish within them? Thehighest aim and best result o
improved intelligence, it hashitherto been thought, is to unitemankind more and more in the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 270/661
acknowledgment of all importantruths: and does the intelligenceonly last as long as it has noachieved its object? Do the fruits o
conquest perish by the verycompleteness of the victory?
I affirm no such thing. As
mankind improve, the number odoctrines which are no longer
disputed or doubted will beconstantly on the increase: and the
well-being of mankind may almos be measured by the number andgravity of the truths which have
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 271/661
reached the point of beinuncontested. The cessation, on onequestion after another, of seriouscontroversy, is one of the necessary
incidents of the consolidation oopinion; a consolidation as salutaryin the case of true opinions, as it is
dangerous and noxious when theopinions are erroneous. But thoug
this gradual narrowing of the bounds of diversity of opinion is
necessary in both senses of the term, being at once inevitable andindispensable, we are not therefore
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 272/661
obliged to conclude that all itsconsequences must be beneficial.The loss of so important an aid tothe intelligent and livin
apprehension of a truth, as isafforded by the necessity oexplaining it to, or defending i
against, opponents, though nosufficient to outweigh, is no triflin
drawback from, the benefit of itsuniversal recognition. Where this
advantage can no longer be had, Iconfess I should like to see theteachers of mankind endeavourin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 273/661
to provide a substitute for it; somecontrivance for making thedifficulties of the question as
present to the learner's
consciousness, as if they were pressed upon him by a dissentienchampion, eager for his conversion.
But instead of seekincontrivances for this purpose, they
have lost those they formerly had.The Socratic dialectics, so
magnificently exemplified in thedialogues of Plato, were acontrivance of this description.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 274/661
They were essentially a negativediscussion of the great questions o
philosophy and life, directed witconsummate skill to the purpose o
convincing any one who had merelyadopted the commonplaces oreceived opinion, that he did no
understand the subject—that he asyet attached no definite meaning to
the doctrines he professed; in order that, becoming aware of his
ignorance, he might be put in theway to attain a stable belief, restinon a clear apprehension both of the
f d d f h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 275/661
meaning of doctrines and of their evidence. The school disputationsof the middle ages had a somewhasimilar object. They were intended
to make sure that the pupilunderstood his own opinion, and(by necessary correlation) the
opinion opposed to it, and couldenforce the grounds of the one and
confute those of the other. Theselast-mentioned contests had indeed
the incurable defect, that the premises appealed to were takefrom authority, not from reason;
d di i li h i d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 276/661
and, as a discipline to the mind,they were in every respect inferior to the powerful dialectics whicformed the intellects of the
"Socratici viri": but the moder mind owes far more to both than iis generally willing to admit, and
the present modes of educatiocontain nothing which in the
smallest degree supplies the placeeither of the one or of the other. A
person who derives all hisinstruction from teachers or books,even if he escape the besettin
i f i hi l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 277/661
temptation of contenting himselwith cram, is under no compulsioto hear both sides; accordingly it isfar from a frequent accomplishment,
even among thinkers, to know botsides; and the weakest part of whaeverybody says in defence of his
opinion, is what he intends as areply to antagonists. It is the fashio
of the present time to disparagenegative logic—that which points
out weaknesses in theory or errorsin practice, without establishin positive truths. Such negative
iti i ld i d d b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 278/661
criticism would indeed be poor enough as an ultimate result; but asa means to attaining any positiveknowledge or conviction worthy the
name, it cannot be valued toohighly; and until people are agaisystematically trained to it, there
will be few great thinkers, and alow general average of intellect, i
any but the mathematical and physical departments o
speculation. On any other subject noone's opinions deserve the name oknowledge, except so far as he hasith h d f d hi b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 279/661
either had forced upon him byothers, or gone through of himself,the same mental process whicwould have been required of him i
carrying on an active controversywith opponents. That, therefore,which when absent, it is so
indispensable, but so difficult, tocreate, how worse than absurd is i
to forego, when spontaneouslyoffering itself! If there are any
persons who contest a receivedopinion, or who will do so if law or opinion will let them, let us thanthem for it open our minds to liste
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 280/661
them for it, open our minds to listeto them, and rejoice that there issome one to do for us what weotherwise ought, if we have any
regard for either the certainty or thevitality of our convictions, to dowith much greater labour for
ourselves.
It still remains to speak of oneof the principal causes which make
diversity of opinion advantageous,and will continue to do so untilmankind shall have entered a stageof intellectual advancement whic
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 281/661
of intellectual advancement whicat present seems at an incalculabledistance. We have hithertoconsidered only two possibilities:
that the received opinion may befalse, and some other opinion,consequently, true; or that, the
received opinion being true, aconflict with the opposite error is
essential to a clear apprehensioand deep feeling of its truth. Bu
there is a commoner case than either of these; when the conflictindoctrines, instead of being one trueand the other false share the trut
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 282/661
and the other false, share the trut between them; and thenonconforming opinion is needed tosupply the remainder of the truth, o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 283/661
kept them down, and either seekinreconciliation with the trutcontained in the common opinion,
or fronting it as enemies, and settinthemselves up, with similar
exclusiveness, as the whole truth.The latter case is hitherto the mos
frequent, as, in the human mind,one-sidedness has always been therule, and many-sidedness theexception Hence even i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 284/661
exception. Hence, even irevolutions of opinion, one part othe truth usually sets while another rises. Even progress, which ought to
superadd, for the most part onlysubstitutes one partial andincomplete truth for another;
improvement consisting chiefly ithis, that the new fragment of truth is
more wanted, more adapted to theneeds of the time, than that which idisplaces. Such being the partialcharacter of prevailing opinions,even when resting on a truefoundation; every opinion whic
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 285/661
foundation; every opinion whicembodies somewhat of the portioof truth which the common opinioomits, ought to be considered
precious, with whatever amount oerror and confusion that truth may
be blended. No sober judge o
human affairs will feel bound to beindignant because those who force
on our notice truths which weshould otherwise have overlooked,overlook some of those which wesee. Rather, he will think that solong as popular truth is one-sided, iis more desirable than otherwise
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 286/661
is more desirable than otherwisethat unpopular truth should haveone-sided asserters too; such beinusually the most energetic, and the
most likely to compel reluctanattention to the fragment of wisdowhich they proclaim as if it were
the whole.Thus, in the eighteenth century,
when nearly all the instructed, andall those of the uninstructed whowere led by them, were lost iadmiration of what is calledcivilisation, and of the marvels omodern science, literature, and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 287/661
modern science, literature, and philosophy, and while greatlyoverrating the amount of unlikeness
between the men of modern and
those of ancient times, indulged the belief that the whole of thedifference was in their own favour;
with what a salutary shock did the paradoxes of Rousseau explode like
bombshells in the midst, dislocatinthe compact mass of one-sidedopinion, and forcing its elements torecombine in a better form and witadditional ingredients. Not that thecurrent opinions were on the whole
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 288/661
current opinions were on the wholefarther from the truth thaRousseau's were; on the contrary,they were nearer to it; they
contained more of positive truth,and very much less of error.
evertheless there lay i
Rousseau's doctrine, and has floateddown the stream of opinion alon
with it, a considerable amount oexactly those truths which the popular opinion wanted; and theseare the deposit which was lef
behind when the flood subsided.The superior worth of simplicity o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 289/661
p p ylife, the enervating anddemoralising effect of the trammelsand hypocrisies of artificial society,
are ideas which have never beeentirely absent from cultivatedminds since Rousseau wrote; and
they will in time produce their dueeffect, though at present needing to
be asserted as much as ever, and to be asserted by deeds, for words, othis subject, have nearly exhaustedtheir power.
In politics, again, it is almost acommonplace, that a party of order
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 290/661
p , p yor stability, and a party of progressor reform, are both necessaryelements of a healthy state o
political life; until the one or theother shall have so enlarged itsmental grasp as to be a party
equally of order and of progress,knowing and distinguishing what is
fit to be preserved from what oughto be swept away. Each of thesemodes of thinking derives its utilityfrom the deficiencies of the other;
but it is in a great measure theopposition of the other that keeps
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 291/661
pp peach within the limits of reason andsanity. Unless opinions favourableto democracy and to aristocracy, to
property and to equality, to co-
operation and to competition, toluxury and to abstinence, to
sociality and individuality, toliberty and discipline, and all the
other standing antagonisms o practical life, are expressed witequal freedom, and enforced anddefended with equal talent andenergy, there is no chance of bothelements obtaining their due; one
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 292/661
gscale is sure to go up and the other down. Truth, in the great practicalconcerns of life, is so much a
question of the reconciling and
combining of opposites, that veryfew have minds sufficiently
capacious and impartial to make theadjustment with an approach to
correctness, and it has to be made by the rough process of a struggle between combatants fighting under hostile banners. On any of the greaopen questions just enumerated, ieither of the two opinions has a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 293/661
p better claim than the other, notmerely to be tolerated, but to beencouraged and countenanced, it is
the one which happens at the
particular time and place to be in aminority. That is the opinion which,
for the time being, represents theneglected interests, the side o
human well-being which is idanger of obtaining less than itsshare. I am aware that there is not,in this country, any intolerance odifferences of opinion on most othese topics. They are adduced to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 294/661
show, by admitted and multipliedexamples, the universality of thefact, that only through diversity o
opinion is there, in the existing state
of human intellect, a chance of fair- play to all sides of the truth. Whe
there are persons to be found, whoform an exception to the apparen
unanimity of the world on anysubject, even if the world is in theright, it is always probable thadissentients have something worthearing to say for themselves, andthat truth would lose something by
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 295/661
their silence.It may be objected, "But some
received principles, especially o
the highest and most vital subjects,
are more than half-truths. TheChristian morality, for instance, is
the whole truth on that subject, andif any one teaches a morality whic
varies from it, he is wholly ierror." As this is of all cases themost important in practice, none ca
be fitter to test the general maxim.But before pronouncing whaChristian morality is or is not, i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 296/661
would be desirable to decide whais meant by Christian morality. If itmeans the morality of the New
Testament, I wonder that any one
who derives his knowledge of thisfrom the book itself, can suppose
that it was announced, or intended,as a complete doctrine of morals.
The Gospel always refers to a pre-existing morality, and confines its precepts to the particulars in whicthat morality was to be corrected,or superseded by a wider andhigher; expressing itself, moreover,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 297/661
in terms most general, ofteimpossible to be interpretedliterally, and possessing rather the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 298/661
namely, that of the Greeks and
Romans; and his advice toChristians is in a great measure a
system of accommodation to that;even to the extent of giving a
apparent sanction to slavery. Whatis called Christian, but shouldrather be termed theological,morality, was not the work of Christor the Apostles, but is of much later origin, having been gradually buil
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 299/661
up by the Catholic church of the firsfive centuries, and though noimplicitly adopted by moderns and
Protestants, has been much less
modified by them than might have been expected. For the most part,
indeed, they have contentedthemselves with cutting off the
additions which had been made to iin the middle ages, each secsupplying the place by fresadditions, adapted to its owcharacter and tendencies. Thamankind owe a great debt to this
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 300/661
morality, and to its early teachers, I
should be the last person to deny; but I do not scruple to say of it, tha
it is, in many important points,
incomplete and one-sided, and thaunless ideas and feelings, no
sanctioned by it, had contributed tothe formation of European life and
character, human affairs would have been in a worse condition than theynow are. Christian morality (socalled) has all the characters of areaction; it is, in great part, a
protest against Paganism. Its idealh h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 301/661
is negative rather than positive;
passive rather than active;Innocence rather than Nobleness;
Abstinence from Evil, rather tha
energetic Pursuit of Good: in its precepts (as has been well said)
"thou shalt not" predominatesunduly over "thou shalt." In its
horror of sensuality, it made an idolof asceticism, which has beegradually compromised away intoone of legality. It holds out the hopeof heaven and the threat of hell, asthe appointed and appropriate
i i lif i hi
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 302/661
motives to a virtuous life: in this
falling far below the best of theancients, and doing what lies in it to
give to human morality a
essentially selfish character, bydisconnecting each man's feelings o
duty from the interests of hisfellow-creatures, except so far as a
self-interested inducement isoffered to him for consulting them.It is essentially a doctrine o
passive obedience; it inculcatessubmission to all authorities foundestablished; who indeed are not tob i l b d h h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 303/661
be actively obeyed when they
command what religion forbids, buwho are not to be resisted, far less
rebelled against, for any amount o
wrong to ourselves. And while, inthe morality of the best Paga
nations, duty to the State holds evea disproportionate place, infringin
on the just liberty of the individual;in purely Christian ethics, that granddepartment of duty is scarcelynoticed or acknowledged. It is ithe Koran, not the New Testament,that we read the maxim—"A ruler
h i t t ffi
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 304/661
who appoints any man to an office,
when there is in his dominionsanother man better qualified for it,
sins against God and against the
State." What little recognition theidea of obligation to the public
obtains in modern morality, isderived from Greek and Roma
sources, not from Christian; as,even in the morality of private life,whatever exists of magnanimity,high-mindedness, personal dignity,even the sense of honour, is derivedfrom the purely human, not the
ligi t f d ti d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 305/661
religious part of our education, and
never could have grown out of astandard of ethics in which the only
worth, professedly recognised, is
that of obedience.I am as far as any one fro
pretending that these defects arenecessarily inherent in the Christia
ethics, in every manner in which ican be conceived, or that the manyrequisites of a complete moraldoctrine which it does not contain,do not admit of being reconciledwith it. Far less would I insinuatethis of the doctrines and precepts o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 306/661
this of the doctrines and precepts o
Christ himself. I believe that thesayings of Christ are all, that I ca
see any evidence of their havin
been intended to be; that they areirreconcilable with nothing which a
comprehensive morality requires;that everything which is excellent i
ethics may be brought within them,with no greater violence to their language than has been done to it byall who have attempted to deducefrom them any practical system oconduct whatever. But it is quiteconsistent with this to believe tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 307/661
consistent with this, to believe tha
they contain, and were meant tocontain, only a part of the truth; tha
many essential elements of the
highest morality are among thethings which are not provided for,
nor intended to be provided for, inthe recorded deliverances of the
Founder of Christianity, and whichhave been entirely thrown aside ithe system of ethics erected on the
basis of those deliverances by theChristian Church. And this being so,I think it a great error to persist iattempting to find in the Christia
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 308/661
attempting to find in the Christia
doctrine that complete rule for our guidance, which its author intended
it to sanction and enforce, but only
partially to provide. I believe, too,that this narrow theory is becomin
a grave practical evil, detractingreatly from the value of the moral
training and instruction, which somany well-meaning persons arenow at length exerting themselves to
promote. I much fear that byattempting to form the mind andfeelings on an exclusively religioustype and discarding those secular
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 309/661
type, and discarding those secular
standards (as for want of a better name they may be called) whic
heretofore co-existed with and
supplemented the Christian ethics,receiving some of its spirit, and
infusing into it some of theirs, therewill result, and is even now
resulting, a low, abject, servile typeof character, which, submit itself asit may to what it deems the SupremeWill, is incapable of rising to or sympathising in the conception oSupreme Goodness. I believe thaother ethics than any which can be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 310/661
other ethics than any which can be
evolved from exclusively Christiasources, must exist side by side
with Christian ethics to produce the
moral regeneration of mankind; andthat the Christian system is no
exception to the rule, that in aimperfect state of the human mind,
the interests of truth require adiversity of opinions. It is nonecessary that in ceasing to ignorethe moral truths not contained iChristianity, men should ignore anyof those which it does contain. Sucprejudice or oversight when i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 311/661
prejudice, or oversight, when i
occurs, is altogether an evil; but iis one from which we cannot hope
to be always exempt, and must be
regarded as the price paid for ainestimable good. The exclusive
pretension made by a part of thetruth to be the whole, must and
ought to be protested against, and ia reactionary impulse should makethe protestors unjust in their turn,this one-sidedness, like the other,may be lamented, but must betolerated. If Christians would teacinfidels to be just to Christianity
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 312/661
infidels to be just to Christianity,
they should themselves be just toinfidelity. It can do truth no service
to blink the fact, known to all who
have the most ordinary acquaintancewith literary history, that a large
portion of the noblest and mosvaluable moral teaching has bee
the work, not only of men who didnot know, but of men who knew andrejected, the Christian faith.
I do not pretend that the mosunlimited use of the freedom oenunciating all possible opinionswould put an end to the evils o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 313/661
would put an end to the evils o
religious or philosophicalsectarianism. Every truth which me
of narrow capacity are in earnes
about, is sure to be asserted,inculcated, and in many ways eve
acted on, as if no other truth existedin the world, or at all events none
that could limit or qualify the first. Iacknowledge that the tendency of allopinions to become sectarian is nocured by the freest discussion, but isoften heightened and exacerbatedthereby; the truth which ought tohave been, but was not, seen, bein
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 314/661
have been, but was not, seen, bein
rejected all the more violently because proclaimed by persons
regarded as opponents. But it is no
on the impassioned partisan, it is othe calmer and more disinterested
bystander, that this collision oopinions works its salutary effect.
ot the violent conflict betwee parts of the truth, but the quiesuppression of half of it, is theformidable evil: there is alwayshope when people are forced tolisten to both sides; it is when theyattend only to one that errors harde
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 315/661
y
into prejudices, and truth itselceases to have the effect of truth, by
being exaggerated into falsehood.
And since there are few mentalattributes more rare than tha
udicial faculty which can sit iintelligent judgment between two
sides of a question, of which onlyone is represented by an advocate before it, truth has no chance but i proportion as every side of it, everyopinion which embodies anyfraction of the truth, not only findsadvocates, but is so advocated as to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 316/661
,
be listened to.
We have now recognised the
necessity to the mental well-beinof mankind (on which all their other
well-being depends) of freedom oopinion, and freedom of the
expression of opinion, on four distinct grounds; which we willnow briefly recapitulate.
First, if any opinion iscompelled to silence, that opiniomay, for aught we can certainlyknow, be true. To deny this is to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 317/661
, y
assume our own infallibility.Secondly, though the silenced
opinion be an error, it may, and
very commonly does, contain a portion of truth; and since the
general or prevailing opinion oany subject is rarely or never the
whole truth, it is only by thecollision of adverse opinions, thathe remainder of the truth has anychance of being supplied.
Thirdly, even if the receivedopinion be not only true, but thewhole truth; unless it is suffered to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 318/661
be, and actually is, vigorously andearnestly contested, it will, by mos
of those who receive it, be held i
the manner of a prejudice, witlittle comprehension or feeling o
its rational grounds. And not onlythis, but, fourthly, the meaning of the
doctrine itself will be in danger o being lost, or enfeebled, anddeprived of its vital effect on thecharacter and conduct: the dogma
becoming a mere formal profession,inefficacious for good, bucumbering the ground, and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 319/661
g g
preventing the growth of any realand heartfelt conviction, fro
reason or personal experience.
Before quitting the subject ofreedom of opinion, it is fit to take
some notice of those who say, thatthe free expression of all opinionsshould be permitted, on conditiothat the manner be temperate, anddo not pass the bounds of fair discussion. Much might be said ot h e impossibility of fixing wherethese supposed bounds are to be
placed; for if the test be offence to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 320/661
those whose opinion is attacked, Ithink experience testifies that this
offence is given whenever the attac
is telling and powerful, and thaevery opponent who pushes the
hard, and whom they find it difficulto answer, appears to them, if heshows any strong feeling on thesubject, an intemperate opponent.But this, though an importanconsideration in a practical point oview, merges in a more fundamentalobjection. Undoubtedly the manner of asserting an opinion, even thoug
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 321/661
it be a true one, may be veryobjectionable, and may justly incur
severe censure. But the principal
offences of the kind are such as it ismostly impossible, unless by
accidental self-betrayal, to brinhome to conviction. The gravest othem is, to argue sophistically, tosuppress facts or arguments, tomisstate the elements of the case, or misrepresent the opposite opinion.But all this, even to the mosaggravated degree, is so continuallydone in perfect good faith, by
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 322/661
persons who are not considered,and in many other respects may no
deserve to be considered, ignoran
or incompetent, that it is rarely possible on adequate grounds
conscientiously to stamp themisrepresentation as morallyculpable; and still less could law
presume to interfere with this kindof controversial misconduct. Withregard to what is commonly mean
by intemperate discussion, namelyinvective, sarcasm, personality, andthe like, the denunciation of these
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 323/661
weapons would deserve moresympathy if it were ever proposed
to interdict them equally to bot
sides; but it is only desired torestrain the employment of the
against the prevailing opinion:against the unprevailing they maynot only be used without generaldisapproval, but will be likely toobtain for him who uses them the
praise of honest zeal and righteousindignation. Yet whatever mischief arises from their use, is greateswhen they are employed against the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 324/661
comparatively defenceless; andwhatever unfair advantage can be
derived by any opinion from this
mode of asserting it, accrues almosexclusively to received opinions.
The worst offence of this kindwhich can be committed by a polemic, is to stigmatise those whohold the contrary opinion as badand immoral men. To calumny othis sort, those who hold anyunpopular opinion are peculiarlyexposed, because they are igeneral few and uninfluential, and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 325/661
nobody but themselves feel mucinterest in seeing justice done them;
but this weapon is, from the nature
of the case, denied to those whoattack a prevailing opinion: they ca
neither use it with safety tothemselves, nor, if they could,would it do anything but recoil otheir own cause. In general,opinions contrary to thosecommonly received can only obtaia hearing by studied moderation olanguage, and the most cautiousavoidance of unnecessary offence,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 326/661
from which they hardly ever deviateeven in a slight degree withou
losing ground: while unmeasured
vituperation employed on the sideof the prevailing opinion, really
does deter people from professincontrary opinions, and frolistening to those who profess them.For the interest, therefore, of trutand justice, it is far more importanto restrain this employment ovituperative language than the other;and, for example, if it werenecessary to choose, there would be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 327/661
much more need to discourageoffensive attacks on infidelity, than
on religion. It is, however, obvious
that law and authority have no business with restraining either,
while opinion ought, in everyinstance, to determine its verdict bythe circumstances of the individualcase; condemning every one, owhichever side of the argument he
places himself, in whose mode oadvocacy either want of candour, or malignity, bigotry, or intolerance ofeeling manifest themselves; but no
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 328/661
inferring these vices from the sidewhich a person takes, though it be
the contrary side of the question to
our own: and giving merited honour to every one, whatever opinion he
may hold, who has calmness to seeand honesty to state what hisopponents and their opinions reallyare, exaggerating nothing to their discredit, keeping nothing bacwhich tells, or can be supposed totell, in their favour. This is the realmorality of public discussion; and ioften violated, I am happy to thin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 329/661
that there are many controversialistswho to a great extent observe it, and
a still greater number who
conscientiously strive towards it.
FOOTNOTES:[6] These words had scarcely
been written, when, as if to givethem an emphatic contradiction,occurred the Government PressProsecutions of 1858. That ill-
judged interference with the libertyof public discussion has not,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 330/661
however, induced me to alter asingle word in the text, nor has it at
all weakened my conviction that,
moments of panic excepted, the eraof pains and penalties for political
discussion has, in our own country, passed away. For, in the first place,the prosecutions were not persisted
in; and, in the second, they werenever, properly speaking, political prosecutions. The offence charged
was not that of criticisinginstitutions, or the acts or persons orulers, but of circulating what was
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 331/661
deemed an immoral doctrine, thelawfulness of Tyrannicide.
If the arguments of the present
chapter are of any validity, thereought to exist the fullest liberty of
professing and discussing, as amatter of ethical conviction, anydoctrine, however immoral it may
be considered. It would, therefore, be irrelevant and out of place to
examine here, whether the doctrineof Tyrannicide deserves that title. I
shall content myself with saying,that the subject has been at all times
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 332/661
one of the open questions of morals;that the act of a private citizen in
striking down a criminal, who, by
raising himself above the law, has placed himself beyond the reach of
legal punishment or control, has been accounted by whole nations,and by some of the best and wisestof men, not a crime, but an act of exalted virtue; and that, right or wrong, it is not of the nature of
assassination, but of civil war. Assuch, I hold that the instigation to it,in a specific case, may be a proper
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 333/661
subject of punishment, but only if anovert act has followed, and at least
a probable connection can be
established between the act and theinstigation. Even then, it is not a
foreign government, but the verygovernment assailed, which alone,in the exercise of self-defence, canlegitimately punish attacks directed
against its own existence.[7] Thomas Pooley, Bodmin
Assizes, July 31, 1857. InDecember following, he received a
free pardon from the Crown.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 334/661
[8] George Jacob Holyoake,August 17, 1857; Edward Truelove,
July, 1857.
[9] Baron de Gleichen,Marlborough-Street Police Court,
August 4, 1857.[10] Ample warning may bedrawn from the large infusion of the
passions of a persecutor, whichmingled with the general display of
the worst parts of our nationalcharacter on the occasion of the
Sepoy insurrection. The ravings of fanatics or charlatans from the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 335/661
pulpit may be unworthy of notice; but the heads of the Evangelical
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 336/661
millions of British subjects), "the
superstition which they calledreligion, by the British Government,
had had the effect of retarding theascendency of the British name, and preventing the salutary growth of Christianity.... Toleration was thegreat corner-stone of the religiousliberties of this country; but do notlet them abuse that precious word
toleration. As he understood it, itmeant the complete liberty to all,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 337/661
freedom of worship, among Christians, who worshipped upon
the same foundation . It meant
toleration of all sects anddenominations of Christians who
believed in the one mediation ." Idesire to call attention to the fact,that a man who has been deemed fit
to fill a high office in thegovernment of this country, under a
liberal Ministry, maintains thedoctrine that all who do not believe
in the divinity of Christ are beyondthe pale of toleration. Who, after
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 338/661
this imbecile display, can indulgethe illusion that religious
persecution has passed away, never
to return?
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 339/661
CHAPTER III. OFINDIVIDUALITY, AS
ONE OF THEELEMENTS OFWELL-BEING.
Such being the reasons whicmake it imperative that huma
beings should be free to for opinions, and to express their
i i i h d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 340/661
opinions without reserve; and sucthe baneful consequences to the
intellectual, and through that to the
moral nature of man, unless thisliberty is either conceded, or
asserted in spite of prohibition; leus next examine whether the samereasons do not require that meshould be free to act upon their opinions—to carry these out in their lives, without hindrance, either
physical or moral, from their
fellow-men, so long as it is at their own risk and peril. This las
i i f i di bl
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 341/661
proviso is of course indispensable.o one pretends that actions should
be as free as opinions. On the
contrary, even opinions lose their immunity, when the circumstances
in which they are expressed aresuch as to constitute their expression a positive instigation tosome mischievous act. An opinionthat corn-dealers are starvers of the
poor, or that private property isrobbery, ought to be unmolested
when simply circulated through the press, but may justly incur
i h t h d li d ll
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 342/661
punishment when delivered orallyto an excited mob assembled before
the house of a corn-dealer, or when
handed about among the same mobin the form of a placard. Acts, o
whatever kind, which, withouustifiable cause, do harm to others,may be, and in the more importancases absolutely require to be,controlled by the unfavourablesentiments, and, when needful, bythe active interference of mankind.
The liberty of the individual mus be thus far limited; he must no
k hi lf i t th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 343/661
make himself a nuisance to other people. But if he refrains fro
molesting others in what concerns
them, and merely acts according tohis own inclination and judgment i
things which concern himself, thesame reasons which show thaopinion should be free, prove alsothat he should be allowed, withoumolestation, to carry his opinionsinto practice at his own cost. Thamankind are not infallible; that their
truths, for the most part, are onlyhalf-truths; that unity of opinion,
unless resulting from the fullest and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 344/661
unless resulting from the fullest andfreest comparison of opposite
opinions, is not desirable, and
diversity not an evil, but a good,until mankind are much more
capable than at present orecognising all sides of the truth,are principles applicable to men'smodes of action, not less than totheir opinions. As it is useful thatwhile mankind are imperfect thereshould be different opinions, so is i
that there should be differenexperiments of living; that free
scope should be given to varieties
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 345/661
scope should be given to varietiesof character, short of injury to
others; and that the worth o
different modes of life should be proved practically, when any one
thinks fit to try them. It is desirable,in short, that in things which do no primarily concern others,individuality should assert itself.Where, not the person's owcharacter, but the traditions or customs of other people are the rule
of conduct, there is wanting one othe principal ingredients of huma
happiness and quite the chie
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 346/661
happiness, and quite the chieingredient of individual and social
progress.
In maintaining this principle, thegreatest difficulty to be encountered
does not lie in the appreciation omeans towards an acknowledgedend, but in the indifference o
persons in general to the end itself.If it were felt that the freedevelopment of individuality is oneof the leading essentials of well-
being; that it is not only a co-ordinate element with all that is
designated by the terms civilisation
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 347/661
designated by the terms civilisation,instruction, education, culture, but is
itself a necessary part and conditio
of all those things; there would beno danger that liberty should be
under-valued, and the adjustment othe boundaries between it andsocial control would present noextraordinary difficulty. But the evilis, that individual spontaneity ishardly recognised by the commomodes of thinking, as having any
intrinsic worth, or deserving anyregard on its own account. The
majority being satisfied with the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 348/661
majority, being satisfied with theways of mankind as they now are
(for it is they who make them wha
they are), cannot comprehend whythose ways should not be good
enough for everybody; and what ismore, spontaneity forms no part othe ideal of the majority of moraland social reformers, but is rather looked on with jealousy, as atroublesome and perhaps rebelliousobstruction to the general
acceptance of what these reformers,in their own judgment, think would
be best for mankind Few persons
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 349/661
be best for mankind. Few persons,out of Germany, even comprehend
the meaning of the doctrine whic
Wilhelm von Humboldt, so eminent both as a savant and as a politician,
made the text of a treatise—that "theend of man, or that which is prescribed by the eternal or immutable dictates of reason, andnot suggested by vague and transiendesires, is the highest and mosharmonious development of his
powers to a complete and consistenwhole;" that, therefore, the objec
"towards which every human bein
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 350/661
towards which every human beinmust ceaselessly direct his efforts,
and on which especially those who
design to influence their fellow-memust ever keep their eyes, is the
individuality of power anddevelopment;" that for this there aretwo requisites, "freedom, and avariety of situations;" and that frothe union of these arise "individualvigour and manifold diversity,"which combine themselves i
"originality." [11]Little, however, as people are
accustomed to a doctrine like that o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 351/661
accustomed to a doctrine like that oVon Humboldt, and surprising as it
may be to them to find so high a
value attached to individuality, thequestion, one must nevertheless
think, can only be one of degree. Noone's idea of excellence in conducis that people should do absolutelynothing but copy one another. Noone would assert that people oughnot to put into their mode of life,and into the conduct of their
concerns, any impress whatever otheir own judgment, or of their ow
individual character On the other
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 352/661
individual character. On the other hand, it would be absurd to pretend
that people ought to live as i
nothing whatever had been knowin the world before they came into
it; as if experience had as yet donenothing towards showing that onemode of existence, or of conduct, is
preferable to another. Nobodydenies that people should be sotaught and trained in youth, as toknow and benefit by the ascertained
results of human experience. But iis the privilege and proper
condition of a human being, arrivedh f h f l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 353/661
condition of a human being, arrivedat the maturity of his faculties, to
use and interpret experience in his
own way. It is for him to find outwhat part of recorded experience is properly applicable to his owcircumstances and character. Thetraditions and customs of other
people are, to a certain extent,evidence of what their experiencehas taught them ; presumptiveevidence, and as such, have a clai
to his deference: but, in the firs place, their experience may be too
narrow; or they may not havei d i i h l S dl
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 354/661
narrow; or they may not haveinterpreted it rightly. Secondly,
their interpretation of experience
may be correct, but unsuitable tohim. Customs are made for customary circumstances, andcustomary characters: and hiscircumstances or his character may
be uncustomary. Thirdly, though thecustoms be both good as customs,and suitable to him, yet to confor to custom, merely as custom, does
not educate or develop in him anyof the qualities which are the
distinctive endowment of a humab i Th h f l i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 355/661
being. The human faculties o
perception, judgment,
discriminative feeling, mentalactivity, and even moral preference,are exercised only in making achoice. He who does anythin
because it is the custom, makes nochoice. He gains no practice either in discerning or in desiring what is
best. The mental and moral, like themuscular powers, are improved
only by being used. The facultiesare called into no exercise by doin
a thing merely because others do it,th b b li i thi
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 356/661
g y ,no more than by believing a thin
only because others believe it. If the
grounds of an opinion are noconclusive to the person's owreason, his reason cannot bestrengthened, but is likely to beweakened by his adopting it: and ithe inducements to an act are nosuch as are consentaneous to hisown feelings and character (whereaffection, or the rights of others, are
not concerned), it is so much donetowards rendering his feelings and
character inert and torpid, insteadf ti d g ti
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 357/661
p ,of active and energetic.
He who lets the world, or his
own portion of it, choose his plan olife for him, has no need of any
other faculty than the ape-like oneof imitation. He who chooses his plan for himself, employs all hisfaculties. He must use observatioto see, reasoning and judgment toforesee, activity to gather materialsfor decision, discrimination to
decide, and when he has decided,firmness and self-control to hold to
his deliberate decision. And theseliti h i d i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 358/661
qualities he requires and exercises
exactly in proportion as the part o
his conduct which he determinesaccording to his own judgment andfeelings is a large one. It is possiblethat he might be guided in somegood path, and kept out of harm'sway, without any of these things.But what will be his comparativeworth as a human being? It really isof importance, not only what me
do, but also what manner of methey are that do it. Among the works
of man, which human life is rightlyemployed in perfecting and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 359/661
g yemployed in perfecting and
beautifying, the first in importance
surely is man himself. Supposing iwere possible to get houses built,corn grown, battles fought, causestried, and even churches erectedand prayers said, by machinery—byautomatons in human form—iwould be a considerable loss toexchange for these automatons evethe men and women who at presen
inhabit the more civilised parts othe world, and who assuredly are
but starved specimens of whanature can and will produce Huma
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 360/661
nature can and will produce. Huma
nature is not a machine to be buil
after a model, and set to do exactlythe work prescribed for it, but atree, which requires to grow anddevelop itself on all sides,according to the tendency of theinward forces which make it aliving thing.
It will probably be concededthat it is desirable people should
exercise their understandings, andthat an intelligent following o
custom, or even occasionally aintelligent deviation from custom is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 361/661
intelligent deviation from custom, is
better than a blind and simply
mechanical adhesion to it. To acertain extent it is admitted, that our understanding should be our own:
but there is not the same willingnessto admit that our desires andimpulses should be our owlikewise; or that to possessimpulses of our own, and of anystrength, is anything but a peril and
a snare. Yet desires and impulsesare as much a part of a perfec
human being, as beliefs andrestraints: and strong impulses are
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 362/661
restraints: and strong impulses are
only perilous when not properly
balanced; when one set of aims andinclinations is developed intostrength, while others, which oughto co-exist with them, remain weaand inactive. It is not because men'sdesires are strong that they act ill; iis because their consciences areweak. There is no naturalconnection between strong impulses
and a weak conscience. The naturalconnection is the other way. To say
that one person's desires andfeelings are stronger and more
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 363/661
feelings are stronger and more
various than those of another, is
merely to say that he has more of theraw material of human nature, andis therefore capable, perhaps omore evil, but certainly of moregood. Strong impulses are buanother name for energy. Energymay be turned to bad uses; but moregood may always be made of aenergetic nature, than of an indolen
and impassive one. Those who havemost natural feeling, are always
those whose cultivated feelings maybe made the strongest The same
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 364/661
be made the strongest. The same
strong susceptibilities which make
the personal impulses vivid and powerful, are also the source frowhence are generated the mos
passionate love of virtue, and thesternest self-control. It is througthe cultivation of these, that society
both does its duty and protects itsinterests: not by rejecting the stuf of which heroes are made, because
it knows not how to make them. A person whose desires and impulses
are his own—are the expression ohis own nature, as it has bee
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 365/661
his own nature, as it has bee
developed and modified by his ow
culture—is said to have a character.One whose desires and impulsesare not his own, has no character,no more than a steam-engine has acharacter. If, in addition to being hisown, his impulses are strong, andare under the government of a stronwill, he has an energetic character.Whoever thinks that individuality o
desires and impulses should not beencouraged to unfold itself, mus
maintain that society has no need ostrong natures—is not the better for
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 366/661
strong natures is not the better for
containing many persons who have
much character—and that a higgeneral average of energy is nodesirable.
In some early states of society,these forces might be, and were, toomuch ahead of the power whicsociety then possessed odisciplining and controlling them.There has been a time when the
element of spontaneity andindividuality was in excess, and the
social principle had a hard strugglewith it. The difficulty then was, to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 367/661
w t t. e d cu ty t e was, to
induce men of strong bodies or
minds to pay obedience to any ruleswhich required them to control their impulses. To overcome thisdifficulty, law and discipline, likethe Popes struggling against theEmperors, asserted a power over the whole man, claiming to controlall his life in order to control hischaracter—which society had no
found any other sufficient means o binding. But society has now fairly
got the better of individuality; andthe danger which threatens huma
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 368/661
g
nature is not the excess, but the
deficiency, of personal impulsesand preferences. Things are vastlychanged, since the passions of thosewho were strong by station or by
personal endowment were in a stateof habitual rebellion against lawsand ordinances, and required to be
rigorously chained up to enable the persons within their reach to enjoy
any particle of security. In our times, from the highest class o
society down to the lowest, everyone lives as under the eye of a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 369/661
y
hostile and dreaded censorship. No
only in what concerns others, but iwhat concerns only themselves, theindividual, or the family, do not ask themselves—what do I prefer? or,what would suit my character anddisposition? or, what would allowthe best and highest in me to have
fair-play, and enable it to grow andthrive? They ask themselves, wha
is suitable to my position? what isusually done by persons of my
station and pecuniarycircumstances? or (worse still)
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 370/661
( )
what is usually done by persons of a
station and circumstances superior to mine? I do not mean that theychoose what is customary, in
preference to what suits their owinclination. It does not occur tothem to have any inclination, excepfor what is customary. Thus the
mind itself is bowed to the yoke:even in what people do for
pleasure, conformity is the firsthing thought of; they like in crowds;
they exercise choice only amonthings commonly done: peculiarity
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 371/661
g y p y
of taste, eccentricity of conduct, are
shunned equally with crimes: until by dint of not following their ownature, they have no nature tofollow: their human capacities arewithered and starved: they becomeincapable of any strong wishes or native pleasures, and are generally
without either opinions or feelingsof home growth, or properly their
own. Now is this, or is it not, thedesirable condition of huma
nature?It is so, on the Calvinistic
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 372/661
theory. According to that, the one
great offence of man is Self-will.All the good of which humanity iscapable, is comprised iObedience. You have no choice;thus you must do, and no otherwise:"whatever is not a duty, is a sin."Human nature being radically
corrupt, there is no redemption for any one until human nature is killed
within him. To one holding thistheory of life, crushing out any o
the human faculties, capacities, andsusceptibilities, is no evil: ma
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 373/661
needs no capacity, but that o
surrendering himself to the will oGod: and if he uses any of hisfaculties for any other purpose buto do that supposed will moreeffectually, he is better withoutthem. That is the theory oCalvinism; and it is held, in a
mitigated form, by many who do noconsider themselves Calvinists; the
mitigation consisting in giving aless ascetic interpretation to the
alleged will of God; asserting it to be his will that mankind should
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 374/661
gratify some of their inclinations; o
course not in the manner theythemselves prefer, but in the way oobedience, that is, in a way
prescribed to them by authority;and, therefore, by the necessaryconditions of the case, the same for all.
In some such insidious for there is at present a strong tendency
to this narrow theory of life, and tothe pinched and hidebound type o
human character which i patronises. Many persons, no doubt,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 375/661
sincerely think that human beings
thus cramped and dwarfed, are astheir Maker designed them to be;ust as many have thought that trees
are a much finer thing when clippedinto pollards, or cut out into figuresof animals, than as nature madethem. But if it be any part o
religion to believe that man wasmade by a good being, it is more
consistent with that faith to believe,that this Being gave all huma
faculties that they might becultivated and unfolded, not rooted
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 376/661
out and consumed, and that he takes
delight in every nearer approacmade by his creatures to the idealconception embodied in them, everyincrease in any of their capabilitiesof comprehension, of action, or oenjoyment. There is a different typeof human excellence from the
Calvinistic; a conception ohumanity as having its nature
bestowed on it for other purposesthan merely to be abnegated. "Paga
self-assertion" is one of theelements of human worth, as well as
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 377/661
"Christian self-denial." [12] There is
a Greek ideal of self-development,which the Platonic and Christiaideal of self-government blendswith, but does not supersede. It may
be better to be a John Knox than aAlcibiades, but it is better to be aPericles than either; nor would a
Pericles, if we had one in thesedays, be without anything good
which belonged to John Knox.It is not by wearing down into
uniformity all that is individual ithemselves, but by cultivating it and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 378/661
calling it forth, within the limits
imposed by the rights and interestsof others, that human beings becomea noble and beautiful object ocontemplation; and as the works
partake the character of those whodo them, by the same process humalife also becomes rich, diversified,
and animating, furnishing moreabundant aliment to high thoughts
and elevating feelings, andstrengthening the tie which binds
every individual to the race, bymaking the race infinitely better
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 379/661
worth belonging to. In proportion to
the development of hisindividuality, each person becomesmore valuable to himself, and istherefore capable of being morevaluable to others. There is agreater fulness of life about his owexistence, and when there is more
life in the units there is more in themass which is composed of them.
As much compression as isnecessary to prevent the stronger
specimens of human nature froencroaching on the rights of others,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 380/661
cannot be dispensed with; but for
this there is ample compensatioeven in the point of view of humadevelopment. The means odevelopment which the individualloses by being prevented frogratifying his inclinations to theinjury of others, are chiefly
obtained at the expense of thedevelopment of other people. And
even to himself there is a fullequivalent in the better developmen
of the social part of his nature,rendered possible by the restrain
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 381/661
put upon the selfish part. To be held
to rigid rules of justice for the sakeof others, develops the feelings andcapacities which have the good oothers for their object. But to berestrained in things not affectintheir good, by their meredispleasure, develops nothin
valuable, except such force ocharacter as may unfold itself i
resisting the restraint. If acquiescedin, it dulls and blunts the whole
nature. To give any fair-play to thenature of each, it is essential tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 382/661
different persons should be allowed
to lead different lives. In proportioas this latitude has been exercisedin any age, has that age beenoteworthy to posterity. Evendespotism does not produce itsworst effects, so long asIndividuality exists under it; and
whatever crushes individuality isdespotism, by whatever name it may
be called, and whether it professesto be enforcing the will of God or
the injunctions of men.Having said that Individuality is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 383/661
the same thing with development,
and that it is only the cultivation oindividuality which produces, or can produce, well-developedhuman beings, I might here close theargument: for what more or better can be said of any condition ohuman affairs, than that it brings
human beings themselves nearer tothe best thing they can be? or wha
worse can be said of anyobstruction to good, than that i
prevents this? Doubtless, however,these considerations will not suffice
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 384/661
to convince those who most need
convincing; and it is necessaryfurther to show, that thesedeveloped human beings are osome use to the undeveloped—to
point out to those who do not desireliberty, and would not availthemselves of it, that they may be i
some intelligible manner rewardedfor allowing other people to make
use of it without hindrance.In the first place, then, I would
suggest that they might possiblylearn something from them. It will
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 385/661
not be denied by anybody, that
originality is a valuable element ihuman affairs. There is always needof persons not only to discover newtruths, and point out when whawere once truths are true no longer,
but also to commence new practices, and set the example o
more enlightened conduct, and better taste and sense in human life.
This cannot well be gainsaid byanybody who does not believe tha
the world has already attained perfection in all its ways and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 386/661
practices. It is true that this benefi
is not capable of being rendered byeverybody alike: there are but few persons, in comparison with thewhole of mankind, whoseexperiments, if adopted by others,would be likely to be anyimprovement on established
practice. But these few are the salof the earth; without them, huma
life would become a stagnant pool.ot only is it they who introduce
good things which did not beforeexist; it is they who keep the life i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 387/661
those which already existed. If there
were nothing new to be done,would human intellect cease to benecessary? Would it be a reasonwhy those who do the old thingsshould forget why they are done,and do them like cattle, not likehuman beings? There is only too
great a tendency in the best beliefsand practices to degenerate into the
mechanical; and unless there were asuccession of persons whose ever-
recurring originality prevents thegrounds of those beliefs and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 388/661
practices from becoming merelytraditional, such dead matter wouldnot resist the smallest shock froanything really alive, and therewould be no reason whycivilisation should not die out, as ithe Byzantine Empire. Persons ogenius, it is true, are, and are
always likely to be, a smallminority; but in order to have them,
it is necessary to preserve the soilin which they grow. Genius can
only breathe freely in aatmosphere of freedom. Persons o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 389/661
genius are, ex vi termini , moreindividual than any other people— less capable, consequently, ofitting themselves, without hurtfulcompression, into any of the smallnumber of moulds which society
provides in order to save itsmembers the trouble of formin
their own character. If from timiditythey consent to be forced into one o
these moulds, and to let all that par of themselves which cannot expand
under the pressure remaiunexpanded, society will be little
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 390/661
the better for their genius. If they areof a strong character, and break their fetters, they become a mark for the society which has not succeededin reducing them to commonplace,to point at with solemn warning as"wild," "erratic," and the like; mucas if one should complain of the
iagara river for not flowinsmoothly between its banks like a
Dutch canal.I insist thus emphatically on the
importance of genius, and thenecessity of allowing it to unfold
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 391/661
itself freely both in thought and i practice, being well aware that noone will deny the position in theory,
but knowing also that almost everyone, in reality, is totally indifferentto it. People think genius a fine thinif it enables a man to write aexciting poem, or paint a picture.
But in its true sense, that ooriginality in thought and action,
though no one says that it is not athing to be admired, nearly all, a
heart, think that they can do verywell without it. Unhappily this is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 392/661
too natural to be wondered at.Originality is the one thing whicunoriginal minds cannot feel the useof. They cannot see what it is to dofor them: how should they? If theycould see what it would do for them, it would not be originality.The first service which originality
has to render them, is that oopening their eyes: which bein
once fully done, they would have achance of being themselves
original. Meanwhile, recollectinthat nothing was ever yet done
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 393/661
which some one was not the first todo, and that all good things whicexist are the fruits of originality, letthem be modest enough to believethat there is something still left for ito accomplish, and assurethemselves that they are more ineed of originality, the less they are
conscious of the want.In sober truth, whatever homage
may be professed, or even paid, toreal or supposed mental superiority,
the general tendency of thingsthroughout the world is to render
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 394/661
mediocrity the ascendant power among mankind. In ancient history,in the middle ages, and in adiminishing degree through the lontransition from feudality to the
present time, the individual was a power in himself; and if he hadeither great talents or a high social
position, he was a considerable power. At present individuals are
lost in the crowd. In politics it isalmost a triviality to say that public
opinion now rules the world. Theonly power deserving the name is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 395/661
that of masses, and of governmentswhile they make themselves theorgan of the tendencies and instinctsof masses. This is as true in themoral and social relations o
private life as in publictransactions. Those whose opinionsgo by the name of public opinion,
are not always the same sort o public: in America they are the
whole white population; in England,chiefly the middle class. But they
are always a mass, that is to say,collective mediocrity. And what is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 396/661
a still greater novelty, the mass donot now take their opinions frodignitaries in Church or State, froostensible leaders, or from books.Their thinking is done for them bymen much like themselves,addressing them or speaking in their name, on the spur of the moment,
through the newspapers. I am nocomplaining of all this. I do no
assert that anything better iscompatible, as a general rule, witthe present low state of the humamind. But that does not hinder the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 397/661
government of mediocrity fro being mediocre government. Nogovernment by a democracy or anumerous aristocracy, either in its
political acts or in the opinions,qualities, and tone of mind which ifosters, ever did or could riseabove mediocrity, except in so far
as the sovereign Many have lethemselves be guided (which i
their best times they always havedone) by the counsels and influenceof a more highly gifted andinstructed One or Few. The
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 398/661
initiation of all wise or noblethings, comes and must come froindividuals; generally at first frosome one individual. The honour and glory of the average man is thahe is capable of following thainitiative; that he can respondinternally to wise and noble things,
and be led to them with his eyesopen. I am not countenancing the
sort of "hero-worship" whicapplauds the strong man of geniusfor forcibly seizing on thegovernment of the world and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 399/661
making it do his bidding in spite oitself. All he can claim is, freedomto point out the way. The power ocompelling others into it, is not onlyinconsistent with the freedom anddevelopment of all the rest, bucorrupting to the strong mahimself. It does seem, however, that
when the opinions of masses omerely average men are everywhere
become or becoming the dominan power, the counterpoise andcorrective to that tendency would
be, the more and more pronounced
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 400/661
individuality of those who stand othe higher eminences of thought. It isin these circumstances mosespecially, that exceptionalindividuals, instead of beindeterred, should be encouraged iacting differently from the mass. Iother times there was no advantage
in their doing so, unless they actednot only differently, but better. In
this age the mere example ononconformity, the mere refusal to bend the knee to custom, is itself aservice. Precisely because the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 401/661
tyranny of opinion is such as tomake eccentricity a reproach, it isdesirable, in order to break througthat tyranny, that people should beeccentric. Eccentricity has alwaysabounded when and where strengtof character has abounded; and theamount of eccentricity in a society
has generally been proportional tothe amount of genius, mental vigour,
and moral courage which icontained. That so few now dare to be eccentric, marks the chief danger of the time.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 402/661
I have said that it is important togive the freest scope possible touncustomary things, in order that imay in time appear which of theseare fit to be converted into customs.But independence of action, anddisregard of custom are not solelydeserving of encouragement for the
chance they afford that better modesof action, and customs more worthy
of general adoption, may be strucout; nor is it only persons o
decided mental superiority whohave a just claim to carry on their
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 403/661
lives in their own way. There is noreason that all human existencesshould be constructed on some one,or some small number of patterns. Ia person possesses any tolerableamount of common-sense and
experience, his own mode of layinout his existence is the best, no
because it is the best in itself, bu because it is his own mode. Huma
beings are not like sheep; and evesheep are not undistinguishablyalike. A man cannot get a coat or a
pair of boots to fit him, unless they
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 404/661
are either made to his measure, or he has a whole warehouseful tochoose from: and is it easier to fihim with a life than with a coat, or are human beings more like oneanother in their whole physical and
spiritual conformation than in theshape of their feet? If it were only
that people have diversities of taste,that is reason enough for no
attempting to shape them all after one model. But different personsalso require different conditions for their spiritual development; and ca
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 405/661
no more exist healthily in the samemoral, than all the variety of plantscan in the same physical,atmosphere and climate. The samethings which are helps to one
person towards the cultivation o
his higher nature, are hindrances toanother. The same mode of life is a
healthy excitement to one, keepinall his faculties of action and
enjoyment in their best order, whileto another it is a distracting burthen,which suspends or crushes allinternal life. Such are the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 406/661
differences among human beings itheir sources of pleasure, their susceptibilities of pain, and theoperation on them of differen
physical and moral agencies, thaunless there is a correspondin
diversity in their modes of life, theyneither obtain their fair share o
happiness, nor grow up to themental, moral, and aesthetic stature
of which their nature is capable.Why then should tolerance, as far asthe public sentiment is concerned,extend only to tastes and modes o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 407/661
life which extort acquiescence bythe multitude of their adherents?
owhere (except in some monasticinstitutions) is diversity of tasteentirely unrecognised; a persomay, without blame, either like or
dislike rowing, or smoking, or music, or athletic exercises, or
chess, or cards, or study, because both those who like each of these
things, and those who dislike them,are too numerous to be put down.But the man, and still more thewoman, who can be accused either
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 408/661
of doing "what nobody does," or onot doing "what everybody does," isthe subject of as much depreciatoryremark as if he or she hadcommitted some grave moraldelinquency. Persons require to
possess a title, or some other badgeof rank, or of the consideration o
people of rank, to be able to indulgesomewhat in the luxury of doing as
they like without detriment to their estimation. To indulge somewhat, Irepeat: for whoever allowthemselves much of that indulgence,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 409/661
incur the risk of something worsethan disparaging speeches—theyare in peril of a commission delunatico , and of having their
property taken from them and giveto their relations. [13]
There is one characteristic othe present direction of public
opinion, peculiarly calculated tomake it intolerant of any marked
demonstration of individuality. Thegeneral average of mankind are noonly moderate in intellect, but alsomoderate in inclinations: they have
h h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 410/661
no tastes or wishes strong enough toincline them to do anything unusual,and they consequently do nounderstand those who have, andclass all such with the wild andintemperate whom they are
accustomed to look down upon.ow, in addition to this fact which
is general, we have only to supposethat a strong movement has set i
towards the improvement of morals,and it is evident what we have toexpect. In these days such amovement has set in; much has
ll b ff d i h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 411/661
actually been effected in the way oincreased regularity of conduct, anddiscouragement of excesses; andthere is a philanthropic spiriabroad, for the exercise of whicthere is no more inviting field tha
the moral and prudentialimprovement of our fellow-
creatures. These tendencies of thetimes cause the public to be more
disposed than at most former periods to prescribe general rulesof conduct, and endeavour to makeevery one conform to the approved
d d A d h d d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 412/661
standard. And that standard, expressor tacit, is to desire nothinstrongly. Its ideal of character is to
be without any marked character; tomaim by compression, like aChinese lady's foot, every part o
human nature which stands ou prominently, and tends to make the
person markedly dissimilar ioutline to commonplace humanity.
As is usually the case witideals which exclude one-half owhat is desirable, the presenstandard of approbation produces
l i f i i it ti f th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 413/661
only an inferior imitation of theother half. Instead of great energiesguided by vigorous reason, andstrong feelings strongly controlled
by a conscientious will, its result isweak feelings and weak energies,
which therefore can be kept ioutward conformity to rule withou
any strength either of will or oreason. Already energetic
characters on any large scale are becoming merely traditional. Thereis now scarcely any outlet for energy in this country excep
b siness The energ e pended i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 414/661
business. The energy expended ithat may still be regarded asconsiderable. What little is lef from that employment, is expendedon some hobby; which may be auseful, even a philanthropic hobby,
but is always some one thing, andgenerally a thing of small
dimensions. The greatness oEngland is now all collective:
individually small, we only appear capable of anything great by our habit of combining; and with thisour moral and religious
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 415/661
progress or improvement The spiri
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 416/661
progress or improvement. The spiriof improvement is not always aspirit of liberty, for it may aim atforcing improvements on aunwilling people; and the spirit oliberty, in so far as it resists such
attempts, may ally itself locally andtemporarily with the opponents o
improvement; but the only unfailinand permanent source o
improvement is liberty, since by itthere are as many possibleindependent centres of improvemenas there are individuals. The
progressive principle however in
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 417/661
progressive principle, however, ineither shape, whether as the love oliberty or of improvement, isantagonistic to the sway of Custom,involving at least emancipatiofrom that yoke; and the contes
between the two constitutes thechief interest of the history o
mankind. The greater part of theworld has, properly speaking, no
history, because the despotism oCustom is complete. This is thecase over the whole East. Custom isthere, in all things, the final appeal;
ustice and right mean conformity to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 418/661
ustice and right mean conformity tocustom; the argument of custom noone, unless some tyrant intoxicatedwith power, thinks of resisting. Andwe see the result. Those nationsmust once have had originality; they
did not start out of the ground populous, lettered, and versed i
many of the arts of life; they madethemselves all this, and were the
the greatest and most powerfulnations in the world. What are theynow? The subjects or dependants otribes whose forefathers wandered
in the forests when theirs had
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 419/661
in the forests when theirs hadmagnificent palaces and gorgeoustemples, but over whom custoexercised only a divided rule witliberty and progress. A people, itappears, may be progressive for a
certain length of time, and then stop:when does it stop? When it ceases
to possess individuality. If a similar change should befall the nations o
Europe, it will not be in exactly thesame shape: the despotism ocustom with which these nations arethreatened is not precisely
stationariness It proscribes
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 420/661
stationariness. It proscribessingularity, but it does not precludechange, provided all changetogether. We have discarded thefixed costumes of our forefathers;every one must still dress like other
people, but the fashion may changeonce or twice a year. We thus take
care that when there is change, ishall be for change's sake, and no
from any idea of beauty or convenience; for the same idea o beauty or convenience would nostrike all the world at the same
moment and be simultaneously
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 421/661
moment, and be simultaneouslythrown aside by all at another moment. But we are progressive aswell as changeable: we continuallymake new inventions in mechanicalthings, and keep them until they are
again superseded by better; we areeager for improvement in politics,
in education, even in morals, thougin this last our idea of improvemen
chiefly consists in persuading or forcing other people to be as goodas ourselves. It is not progress thawe object to; on the contrary, we
flatter ourselves that we are the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 422/661
flatter ourselves that we are themost progressive people who ever lived. It is individuality that we war against: we should think we haddone wonders if we had madeourselves all alike; forgetting tha
the unlikeness of one person toanother is generally the first thin
which draws the attention of either to the imperfection of his own type,
and the superiority of another, or the possibility, by combining theadvantages of both, of producinsomething better than either. We
have a warning example in China—
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 423/661
have a warning example in China a nation of much talent, and, in somerespects, even wisdom, owing tothe rare good fortune of having bee
provided at an early period with a particularly good set of customs, the
work, in some measure, of men towhom even the most enlightened
European must accord, under certain limitations, the title of sages
and philosophers. They areremarkable, too, in the excellenceof their apparatus for impressing, asfar as possible, the best wisdo
they possess upon every mind in the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 424/661
y p p ycommunity, and securing that thosewho have appropriated most of ishall occupy the posts of honour and
power. Surely the people who didthis have discovered the secret o
human progressiveness, and mushave kept themselves steadily at the
head of the movement of the world.On the contrary, they have become
stationary—have remained so for thousands of years; and if they areever to be farther improved, it mus
be by foreigners. They have
succeeded beyond all hope in wha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 425/661
y pEnglish philanthropists are soindustriously working at—imaking a people all alike, allgoverning their thoughts andconduct by the same maxims and
rules; and these are the fruits. Themodern régime of public opinion is,
in an unorganised form, what theChinese educational and political
systems are in an organised; andunless individuality shall be ablesuccessfully to assert itself againsthis yoke, Europe, notwithstandin
its noble antecedents and its
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 426/661
professed Christianity, will tend to become another China.
What is it that has hitherto preserved Europe from this lot?What has made the European family
of nations an improving, instead oa stationary portion of mankind?
ot any superior excellence ithem, which, when it exists, exists
as the effect, not as the cause; butheir remarkable diversity ocharacter and culture. Individuals,classes, nations, have bee
extremely unlike one another: they
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 427/661
y yhave struck out a great variety o
paths, each leading to somethinvaluable; and although at every
period those who travelled idifferent paths have been intoleran
of one another, and each wouldhave thought it an excellent thing i
all the rest could have beecompelled to travel his road, their
attempts to thwart each other'sdevelopment have rarely had any permanent success, and each has itime endured to receive the good
which the others have offered.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 428/661
Europe is, in my judgment, whollyindebted to this plurality of pathsfor its progressive and many-sideddevelopment. But it already beginsto possess this benefit in a
considerably less degree. It isdecidedly advancing towards the
Chinese ideal of making all peoplealike. M. de Tocqueville, in his last
important work, remarks how mucmore the Frenchmen of the presenday resemble one another, than didthose even of the last generation.
The same remark might be made o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 429/661
Englishmen in a far greater degree.In a passage already quoted froWilhelm von Humboldt, he pointsout two things as necessaryconditions of human development,
because necessary to render peopleunlike one another; namely,
freedom, and variety of situations.The second of these two conditions
is in this country every daydiminishing. The circumstanceswhich surround different classesand individuals, and shape their
characters, are daily becomin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 430/661
more assimilated. Formerly,different ranks, differenneighbourhoods, different tradesand professions, lived in what migh
be called different worlds; a
present, to a great degree in thesame. Comparatively speaking, they
now read the same things, listen tothe same things, see the same things,go to the same places, have their hopes and fears directed to the sameobjects, have the same rights andliberties, and the same means o
asserting them. Great as are the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 431/661
differences of position whicremain, they are nothing to thosewhich have ceased. And theassimilation is still proceeding. Allthe political changes of the age
promote it, since they all tend toraise the low and to lower the high.
Every extension of educatio promotes it, because educatio brings people under commoinfluences, and gives them access tothe general stock of facts andsentiments. Improvements in the
means of communication promote it,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 432/661
by bringing the inhabitants of distan places into personal contact, andkeeping up a rapid flow of changesof residence between one place andanother. The increase of commerce
and manufactures promotes it, bydiffusing more widely the
advantages of easy circumstances,and opening all objects of ambition,even the highest, to generalcompetition, whereby the desire orising becomes no longer thecharacter of a particular class, bu
of all classes. A more powerful
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 433/661
agency than even all these, i bringing about a general similarityamong mankind, is the completeestablishment, in this and other freecountries, of the ascendency o
public opinion in the State. As thevarious social eminences whic
enabled persons entrenched on theto disregard the opinion of themultitude, gradually becomelevelled; as the very idea oresisting the will of the public,when it is positively known tha
they have a will, disappears more
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 434/661
and more from the minds o practical politicians; there ceases to be any social support for non-conformity—any substantive power in society, which, itself opposed to
the ascendency of numbers, isinterested in taking under its
protection opinions and tendenciesat variance with those of the public.The combination of all these
causes forms so great a mass oinfluences hostile to Individuality,that it is not easy to see how it ca
stand its ground. It will do so wit
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 435/661
increasing difficulty, unless theintelligent part of the public can bemade to feel its value—to see that iis good there should be differences,even though not for the better, even
though, as it may appear to them,some should be for the worse. If the
claims of Individuality are ever to be asserted, the time is now, whilemuch is still wanting to completethe enforced assimilation. It is onlyin the earlier stages that any standcan be successfully made agains
the encroachment. The demand thall h l h ll bl
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 436/661
all other people shall resembleourselves, grows by what it feedson. If resistance waits till life isreduced nearly to one uniform type,all deviations from that type will
come to be considered impious,immoral, even monstrous and
contrary to nature. Mankindspeedily become unable to conceivediversity, when they have been for some time unaccustomed to see it.
FOOTNOTES:
[11] The Sphere and Duties of f h f
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 437/661
Government , from the German of Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt, pp.
11-13.[12] Sterling's Essays .
[13] There is something both
contemptible and frightful in the sor of evidence on which, of late years,
any person can be judiciallydeclared unfit for the management
of his affairs; and after his death,his disposal of his property can beset aside, if there is enough of it to pay the expenses of litigation—
which are charged on the propertyi lf All h i d il f hi
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 438/661
itself. All the minute details of hisdaily life are pried into, and
whatever is found which, seen
through the medium of the perceiving and describing faculties
of the lowest of the low, bears anappearance unlike absolute
commonplace, is laid before the jury as evidence of insanity, andoften with success; the jurors being
little, if at all, less vulgar andignorant than the witnesses; whilethe judges, with that extraordinary
want of knowledge of human natured lif hi h ti ll
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 439/661
and life which continuallyastonishes us in English lawyers,often help to mislead them. These
trials speak volumes as to the stateof feeling and opinion among the
vulgar with regard to human liberty.So far from setting any value on
individuality—so far fromrespecting the rights of eachindividual to act, in things
indifferent, as seems good to hisown judgment and inclinations, judges and juries cannot even
conceive that a person in a state of it d i h f d I
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 440/661
sanity can desire such freedom. Informer days, when it was proposedto burn atheists, charitable people
used to suggest putting them in amadhouse instead: it would be
nothing surprising nowadays werewe to see this done, and the doers
applauding themselves, because,instead of persecuting for religion,they had adopted so humane and
Christian a mode of treating theseunfortunates, not without a silent
satisfaction at their having thereby
obtained their deserts.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 441/661
CHAPTER IV. OF
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 442/661
THE LIMITS TO THEAUTHORITY OFSOCIETY OVER THE
INDIVIDUAL.What, then, is the rightful limi
to the sovereignty of the individualover himself? Where does theauthority of society begin? Howmuch of human life should beassigned to individuality, and how
much to society?Each will receive its proper
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 443/661
Each will receive its proper share, if each has that which more
particularly concerns it. To
individuality should belong the par of life in which it is chiefly the
individual that is interested; tosociety, the part which chiefly
interests society.Though society is not foundedon a contract, and though no good
purpose is answered by inventing acontract in order to deduce socialobligations from it, every one who
receives the protection of societyowes a return for the benefit and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 444/661
owes a return for the benefit, andthe fact of living in society rendersit indispensable that each should be
bound to observe a certain line oconduct towards the rest. This
conduct consists, first, in noinjuring the interests of one another;
or rather certain interests which,either by express legal provision or by tacit understanding, ought to beconsidered as rights; and secondly,in each person's bearing his share(to be fixed on some equitable
principle) of the labours andsacrifices incurred for defending the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 445/661
sacrifices incurred for defending thesociety or its members from injuryand molestation. These conditions
society is justified in enforcing, aall costs to those who endeavour to
withhold fulfilment. Nor is this allthat society may do. The acts of a
individual may be hurtful to others,or wanting in due consideration for their welfare, without going thelength of violating any of their constituted rights. The offender maythen be justly punished by opinio
though not by law. As soon as anypart of a person's conduct affects
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 446/661
part of a person s conduct affects prejudicially the interests of others,society has jurisdiction over it, and
the question whether the generalwelfare will or will not be
promoted by interfering with it, becomes open to discussion. Bu
there is no room for entertaining anysuch question when a person'sconduct affects the interests of no
persons besides himself, or needsnot affect them unless they like (allthe persons concerned being of full
age, and the ordinary amount ounderstanding) In all such cases
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 447/661
understanding). In all such casesthere should be perfect freedom,legal and social, to do the actio
and stand the consequences.It would be a grea
misunderstanding of this doctrine, tosuppose that it is one of selfis
indifference, which pretends thahuman beings have no business witeach other's conduct in life, and thathey should not concern themselvesabout the well-doing or well-beinof one another, unless their own
interest is involved. Instead of anydiminution, there is need of a grea
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 448/661
diminution, there is need of a greaincrease of disinterested exertion to
promote the good of others. Bu
disinterested benevolence can findother instruments to persuade
people to their good, than whipsand scourges, either of the literal or
the metaphorical sort. I am the las person to undervalue the self-regarding virtues; they are onlysecond in importance, if evesecond, to the social. It is equallythe business of education to
cultivate both. But even educatioworks by conviction and persuasio
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 449/661
works by conviction and persuasioas well as by compulsion, and it is
by the former only that, when the
period of education is past, the self-regarding virtues should be
inculcated. Human beings owe toeach other help to distinguish the
better from the worse, andencouragement to choose the former and avoid the latter. They should befor ever stimulating each other toincreased exercise of their higher faculties, and increased direction o
their feelings and aims towardswise instead of foolish, elevatin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 450/661
,instead of degrading, objects andcontemplations. But neither one
person, nor any number of persons,is warranted in saying to another
human creature of ripe years, that heshall not do with his life for his
own benefit what he chooses to dowith it. He is the person mosinterested in his own well-being:the interest which any other person,except in cases of strong personalattachment, can have in it, is trifling,
compared with that which hehimself has; the interest whic
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 451/661
;society has in him individually(except as to his conduct to others)
is fractional, and altogether indirect: while, with respect to his
own feelings and circumstances, themost ordinary man or woman has
means of knowledge immeasurablysurpassing those that can be possessed by any one else. Theinterference of society to overrulehis judgment and purposes in whaonly regards himself, must be
grounded on general presumptions;which may be altogether wrong, and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 452/661
y g g,even if right, are as likely as not to
be misapplied to individual cases,
by persons no better acquaintedwith the circumstances of suc
cases than those are who look athem merely from without. In this
department, therefore, of humaaffairs, Individuality has its proper field of action. In the conduct ohuman beings towards one another,it is necessary that general rulesshould for the most part be
observed, in order that people mayknow what they have to expect; bu
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 453/661
y pin each person's own concerns, hisindividual spontaneity is entitled to
free exercise. Considerations to aidhis judgment, exhortations to
strengthen his will, may be offeredto him, even obtruded on him, by
others; but he himself is the finaludge. All errors which he is likelyto commit against advice andwarning, are far outweighed by theevil of allowing others to constraihim to what they deem his good.
I do not mean that the feelingswith which a person is regarded by
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 454/661
p g yothers, ought not to be in any wayaffected by his self-regardin
qualities or deficiencies. This isneither possible nor desirable. If he
is eminent in any of the qualitieswhich conduce to his own good, he
is, so far, a proper object oadmiration. He is so much thenearer to the ideal perfection ohuman nature. If he is grosslydeficient in those qualities, asentiment the opposite of admiratio
will follow. There is a degree ofolly, and a degree of what may be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 455/661
called (though the phrase is nounobjectionable) lowness or
depravation of taste, which, thougit cannot justify doing harm to the
person who manifests it, rendershim necessarily and properly a
subject of distaste, or, in extremecases, even of contempt: a persocould not have the oppositequalities in due strength withouentertaining these feelings. Thougdoing no wrong to any one, a perso
may so act as to compel us to judgehim, and feel to him, as a fool, or as
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 456/661
a being of an inferior order: andsince this judgment and feeling are a
fact which he would prefer toavoid, it is doing him a service to
warn him of it beforehand, as of anyother disagreeable consequence to
which he exposes himself. It would be well, indeed, if this good officewere much more freely renderedthan the common notions o
politeness at present permit, and ione person could honestly point ou
to another that he thinks him in fault,without being considered
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 457/661
unmannerly or presuming. We havea right, also, in various ways, to ac
upon our unfavourable opinion oany one, not to the oppression of his
individuality, but in the exercise oours. We are not bound, for
example, to seek his society; wehave a right to avoid it (though noto parade the avoidance), for wehave a right to choose the societymost acceptable to us. We have aright, and it may be our duty, to
caution others against him, if wethink his example or conversatio
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 458/661
likely to have a pernicious effect othose with whom he associates. We
may give others a preference over him in optional good offices, excep
those which tend to hisimprovement. In these various
modes a person may suffer verysevere penalties at the hands oothers, for faults which directlyconcern only himself; but he suffersthese penalties only in so far as theyare the natural, and, as it were, the
spontaneous consequences of thefaults themselves, not because they
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 459/661
are purposely inflicted on him for the sake of punishment. A person
who shows rashness, obstinacy,self-conceit—who cannot live
within moderate means—whocannot restrain himself from hurtful
indulgences—who pursues animal pleasures at the expense of those ofeeling and intellect—must expecto be lowered in the opinion oothers, and to have a less share otheir favourable sentiments; but o
this he has no right to complain,unless he has merited their favour
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 460/661
by special excellence in his socialrelations, and has thus established a
title to their good offices, which isnot affected by his demerits towards
himself.What I contend for is, that the
inconveniences which are strictlyinseparable from the unfavourableudgment of others, are the only
ones to which a person should ever be subjected for that portion of hisconduct and character whic
concerns his own good, but whicdoes not affect the interests o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 461/661
others in their relations with him.Acts injurious to others require a
totally different treatment.Encroachment on their rights;
infliction on them of any loss or damage not justified by his ow
rights; falsehood or duplicity idealing with them; unfair or ungenerous use of advantages over them; even selfish abstinence frodefending them against injury— these are fit objects of moral
reprobation, and, in grave cases, omoral retribution and punishment.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 462/661
And not only these acts, but thedispositions which lead to them, are
properly immoral, and fit subjectsof disapprobation which may rise to
abhorrence. Cruelty of disposition;malice and ill-nature; that most anti-
social and odious of all passions,envy; dissimulation and insincerity;irascibility on insufficient cause,and resentment disproportioned tothe provocation; the love odomineering over others; the desire
to engross more than one's share oadvantages (the πλεονεξ α [Greek:
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 463/661
pleonexia] of the Greeks); the pridewhich derives gratification from the
abasement of others; the egotiswhich thinks self and its concerns
more important than everything else,and decides all doubtful questions
in its own favour;—these are moralvices, and constitute a bad andodious moral character: unlike theself-regarding faults previouslymentioned, which are not properlyimmoralities, and to whatever pitc
they may be carried, do noconstitute wickedness. They may be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 464/661
proofs of any amount of folly, or want of personal dignity and self-
respect; but they are only a subjecof moral reprobation when they
involve a breach of duty to others,for whose sake the individual is
bound to have care for himself.What are called duties to ourselvesare not socially obligatory, unlesscircumstances render them at thesame time duties to others. The ter duty to oneself, when it means
anything more than prudence, meansself-respect or self-development;
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 465/661
and for none of these is any oneaccountable to his fellow-creatures,
because for none of them is it for the good of mankind that he be held
accountable to them.The distinction between the lossof consideration which a persomay rightly incur by defect o
prudence or of personal dignity, andthe reprobation which is due to hifor an offence against the rights oothers, is not a merely nominal
distinction. It makes a vasdifference both in our feelings and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 466/661
in our conduct towards him,whether he displeases us in things
in which we think we have a right tocontrol him, or in things in whic
we know that we have not. If hedispleases us, we may express our distaste, and we may stand aloofrom a person as well as from athing that displeases us; but weshall not therefore feel called on tomake his life uncomfortable. Weshall reflect that he already bears,
or will bear, the whole penalty ohis error; if he spoils his life by
h ll f
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 467/661
mismanagement, we shall not, for that reason, desire to spoil it still
further: instead of wishing to punishim, we shall rather endeavour to
alleviate his punishment, byshowing him how he may avoid or cure the evils his conduct tends to
bring upon him. He may be to us aobject of pity, perhaps of dislike,
but not of anger or resentment; weshall not treat him like an enemy osociety: the worst we shall thin
ourselves justified in doing isleaving him to himself, if we do noi f b l l b h i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 468/661
interfere benevolently by showininterest or concern for him. It is far
otherwise if he has infringed therules necessary for the protection o
his fellow-creatures, individuallyor collectively. The evilconsequences of his acts do not thefall on himself, but on others; andsociety, as the protector of all itsmembers, must retaliate on him;must inflict pain on him for theexpress purpose of punishment, and
must take care that it be sufficientlysevere. In the one case, he is aff d b d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 469/661
offender at our bar, and we arecalled on not only to sit in judgmen
on him, but, in one shape or another,to execute our own sentence: in the
other case, it is not our part toinflict any suffering on him, excepwhat may incidentally follow froour using the same liberty in theregulation of our own affairs, whicwe allow to him in his.
The distinction here pointed ou between the part of a person's life
which concerns only himself, andthat which concerns others, many
ill f d i H
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 470/661
persons will refuse to admit. How(it may be asked) can any part of the
conduct of a member of society be amatter of indifference to the other
members? No person is an entirelyisolated being; it is impossible for a person to do anything seriously or permanently hurtful to himself,without mischief reaching at least tohis near connections, and often far
beyond them. If he injures his property, he does harm to those who
directly or indirectly derivedsupport from it, and usuallydi i i h b t l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 471/661
diminishes, by a greater or lessamount, the general resources of the
community. If he deteriorates his bodily or mental faculties, he no
only brings evil upon all whodepended on him for any portion otheir happiness, but disqualifieshimself for rendering the serviceswhich he owes to his fellow-creatures generally; perhaps
becomes a burthen on their affectioor benevolence; and if such conduc
were very frequent, hardly anyoffence that is committed would
d t t f th g l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 472/661
detract more from the general suof good. Finally, if by his vices or
follies a person does no direct har to others, he is nevertheless (it may
be said) injurious by his example;and ought to be compelled tocontrol himself, for the sake othose whom the sight or knowledgeof his conduct might corrupt or mislead.
And even (it will be added) ithe consequences of misconduc
could be confined to the vicious or thoughtless individual, ought society
to abandon to their own guidance
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 473/661
to abandon to their own guidancethose who are manifestly unfit for
it? If protection against themselvesis confessedly due to children and
persons under age, is not societyequally bound to afford it to personsof mature years who are equallyincapable of self-government? Igambling, or drunkenness, or incontinence, or idleness, or uncleanliness, are as injurious tohappiness, and as great a hindrance
to improvement, as many or most othe acts prohibited by law, why (it
may be asked) should not law so
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 474/661
may be asked) should not law, sofar as is consistent wit
practicability and socialconvenience, endeavour to repress
these also? And as a supplement tothe unavoidable imperfections olaw, ought not opinion at least toorganise a powerful police againsthese vices, and visit rigidly witsocial penalties those who areknown to practise them? There is noquestion here (it may be said) abou
restricting individuality, or impeding the trial of new and
original experiments in living The
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 475/661
original experiments in living. Theonly things it is sought to preven
are things which have been triedand condemned from the beginnin
of the world until now; things whicexperience has shown not to beuseful or suitable to any person'sindividuality. There must be somelength of time and amount oexperience, after which a moral or
prudential truth may be regarded asestablished: and it is merely desired
to prevent generation after generation from falling over the
same precipice which has been fatal
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 476/661
same precipice which has been fatalto their predecessors.
I fully admit that the mischiewhich a person does to himself,
may seriously affect, both througtheir sympathies and their interests,those nearly connected with him,and in a minor degree, society alarge. When, by conduct of this sort,a person is led to violate a distincand assignable obligation to anyother person or persons, the case is
taken out of the self-regarding class,and becomes amenable to moral
disapprobation in the proper sense
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 477/661
disapprobation in the proper senseof the term. If, for example, a man,
through intemperance or extravagance, becomes unable to
pay his debts, or, having undertakenthe moral responsibility of a family, becomes from the same causeincapable of supporting or educating them, he is deservedlyreprobated, and might be justly
punished; but it is for the breach oduty to his family or creditors, no
for the extravagance. If theresources which ought to have bee
devoted to them had been diverted
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 478/661
devoted to them, had been divertedfrom them for the most pruden
investment, the moral culpabilitywould have been the same. George
Barnwell murdered his uncle to gemoney for his mistress, but if he haddone it to set himself up in business,he would equally have been hanged.Again, in the frequent case of a mawho causes grief to his family byaddiction to bad habits, he deservesreproach for his unkindness or
ingratitude; but so he may for cultivating habits not in themselves
vicious if they are painful to those
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 479/661
vicious, if they are painful to thosewith whom he passes his life, or
who from personal ties aredependent on him for their comfort.
Whoever fails in the consideratiogenerally due to the interests andfeelings of others, not beincompelled by some moreimperative duty, or justified byallowable self-preference, is asubject of moral disapprobation for that failure, but not for the cause o
it, nor for the errors, merely personal to himself, which may
have remotely led to it In like
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 480/661
have remotely led to it. In likemanner, when a person disables
himself, by conduct purely self-regarding, from the performance o
some definite duty incumbent ohim to the public, he is guilty of asocial offence. No person ought to
be punished simply for being drunk; but a soldier or a policeman should be punished for being drunk on duty.Whenever, in short, there is a
definite damage, or a definite ris
of damage, either to an individualor to the public, the case is take
out of the province of liberty, and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 481/661
out of the province of liberty, and placed in that of morality or law.
But with regard to the merelycontingent, or, as it may be called,
constructive injury which a persocauses to society, by conduct whichneither violates any specific duty tothe public, nor occasions
perceptible hurt to any assignableindividual except himself; theinconvenience is one which society
can afford to bear, for the sake o
the greater good of human freedom.If grown persons are to be punished
for not taking proper care o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 482/661
for not taking proper care othemselves, I would rather it were
for their own sake, than under pretence of preventing them fro
impairing their capacity orendering to society benefits whicsociety does not pretend it has aright to exact. But I cannot consento argue the point as if society hadno means of bringing its weaker members up to its ordinary standard
of rational conduct, except waitin
till they do something irrational, andthen punishing them, legally or
morally, for it. Society has had
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 483/661
morally, for it. Society has hadabsolute power over them during all
the early portion of their existence:it has had the whole period o
childhood and nonage in which totry whether it could make thecapable of rational conduct in life.The existing generation is master
both of the training and the entirecircumstances of the generation tocome; it cannot indeed make the
perfectly wise and good, because i
is itself so lamentably deficient igoodness and wisdom; and its bes
efforts are not always, in individual
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 484/661
y ,cases, its most successful ones; bu
it is perfectly well able to make therising generation, as a whole, as
good as, and a little better than,itself. If society lets anyconsiderable number of its membersgrow up mere children, incapableof being acted on by rationalconsideration of distant motives,society has itself to blame for the
consequences. Armed not only with
all the powers of education, buwith the ascendency which the
authority of a received opinio
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 485/661
y palways exercises over the minds
who are least fitted to judge for themselves; and aided by the
natural penalties which cannot be prevented from falling on those whoincur the distaste or the contempt othose who know them; let nosociety pretend that it needs,
besides all this, the power to issuecommands and enforce obedience i
the personal concerns o
individuals, in which, on all principles of justice and policy, the
decision ought to rest with those
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 486/661
gwho are to abide the consequences.
or is there anything which tendsmore to discredit and frustrate the
better means of influencing conduct,than a resort to the worse. If there be among those whom it isattempted to coerce into prudenceor temperance, any of the materialof which vigorous and independencharacters are made, they will
infallibly rebel against the yoke. No
such person will ever feel thaothers have a right to control him i
his concerns, such as they have to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 487/661
y prevent him from injuring them i
theirs; and it easily comes to beconsidered a mark of spirit and
courage to fly in the face of sucusurped authority, and do withostentation the exact opposite owhat it enjoins; as in the fashion ogrossness which succeeded, in thetime of Charles II., to the fanaticalmoral intolerance of the Puritans.
With respect to what is said of the
necessity of protecting society frothe bad example set to others by the
vicious or the self-indulgent; it ish b d l h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 488/661
gtrue that bad example may have a
pernicious effect, especially theexample of doing wrong to others
with impunity to the wrong-doer.But we are now speaking of conducwhich, while it does no wrong toothers, is supposed to do great har to the agent himself: and I do nosee how those who believe this, cathink otherwise than that the
example, on the whole, must be
more salutary than hurtful, since, iit displays the misconduct, i
displays also the painful or d di hi h i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 489/661
degrading consequences which, i
the conduct is justly censured, mus be supposed to be in all or mos
cases attendant on it.But the strongest of all thearguments against the interferenceof the public with purely personalconduct, is that when it doesinterfere, the odds are that iinterferes wrongly, and in the wron
place. On questions of social
morality, of duty to others, theopinion of the public, that is, of a
overruling majority, though ofteni lik l b ill f
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 490/661
wrong, is likely to be still oftener
right; because on such questionsthey are only required to judge o
their own interests; of the manner iwhich some mode of conduct, iallowed to be practised, wouldaffect themselves. But the opinioof a similar majority, imposed as alaw on the minority, on questions oself-regarding conduct, is quite as
likely to be wrong as right; for i
these cases public opinion means, athe best, some people's opinion o
what is good or bad for other l hil ft it d
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 491/661
people; while very often it does no
even mean that; the public, with themost perfect indifference, passin
over the pleasure or convenience othose whose conduct they censure,and considering only their ow
preference. There are many whoconsider as an injury to themselvesany conduct which they have adistaste for, and resent it as an
outrage to their feelings; as a
religious bigot, when charged witdisregarding the religious feelings
of others, has been known to retor th t th di g d hi f li g b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 492/661
that they disregard his feelings, by
persisting in their abominableworship or creed. But there is no
parity between the feeling of a person for his own opinion, and thefeeling of another who is offendedat his holding it; no more tha
between the desire of a thief to takea purse, and the desire of the righowner to keep it. And a person's
taste is as much his own peculiar
concern as his opinion or his purse.It is easy for any one to imagine a
ideal public, which leaves thefreedom and choice of individuals
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 493/661
freedom and choice of individuals
in all uncertain matters undisturbed,and only requires them to abstai
from modes of conduct whicuniversal experience hascondemned. But where has there
been seen a public which set anysuch limit to its censorship? or when does the public trouble itselabout universal experience? In its
interferences with personal conduc
it is seldom thinking of anything buthe enormity of acting or feelin
differently from itself; and thisstandard of judgment thinly
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 494/661
standard of judgment, thinly
disguised, is held up to mankind asthe dictate of religion and
philosophy, by nine-tenths of allmoralists and speculative writers.These teach that things are righ
because they are right; because wefeel them to be so. They tell us tosearch in our own minds and heartsfor laws of conduct binding o
ourselves and on all others. Wha
can the poor public do but applythese instructions, and make their
own personal feelings of good andevil if they are tolerably unanimous
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 495/661
evil, if they are tolerably unanimous
in them, obligatory on all theworld?
The evil here pointed out is noone which exists only in theory; andit may perhaps be expected that Ishould specify the instances iwhich the public of this age andcountry improperly invests its ow
preferences with the character o
moral laws. I am not writing a
essay on the aberrations of existinmoral feeling. That is too weighty a
subject to be discussedparenthetically and by way o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 496/661
parenthetically, and by way o
illustration. Yet examples arenecessary, to show that the
principle I maintain is of seriousand practical moment, and that I anot endeavouring to erect a barrier against imaginary evils. And it isnot difficult to show, by abundantinstances, that to extend the boundsof what may be called moral police,
until it encroaches on the mos
unquestionably legitimate liberty othe individual, is one of the mos
universal of all human propensities.As a first instance consider the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 497/661
As a first instance, consider the
antipathies which men cherish on no better grounds than that persons
whose religious opinions aredifferent from theirs, do not practisetheir religious observances,especially their religiousabstinences. To cite a rather trivialexample, nothing in the creed or
practice of Christians does more to
envenom the hatred of Mahomedans
against them, than the fact of their eating pork. There are few acts
which Christians and Europeansregard with more unaffected
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 498/661
regard with more unaffected
disgust, than Mussulmans regardthis particular mode of satisfyin
hunger. It is, in the first place, anoffence against their religion; buthis circumstance by no meansexplains either the degree or thekind of their repugnance; for winealso is forbidden by their religion,and to partake of it is by all
Mussulmans accounted wrong, bu
not disgusting. Their aversion to theflesh of the "unclean beast" is, o
the contrary, of that peculiar character resembling an instinctive
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 499/661
character, resembling an instinctive
antipathy, which the idea ouncleanness, when once ithoroughly sinks into the feelings,seems always to excite even ithose whose personal habits areanything but scrupulously cleanly,and of which the sentiment oreligious impurity, so intense in theHindoos, is a remarkable example.
Suppose now that in a people, o
whom the majority wereMussulmans, that majority should
insist upon not permitting pork to beeaten within the limits of the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 500/661
eaten within the limits of the
country. This would be nothing newin Mahomedan countries. [14] Wouldit be a legitimate exercise of themoral authority of public opinion?and if not, why not? The practice isreally revolting to such a public.They also sincerely think that it isforbidden and abhorred by theDeity. Neither could the prohibition
be censured as religious
persecution. It might be religious iits origin, but it would not be
persecution for religion, sincenobody's religion makes it a duty to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 501/661
nobody s religion makes it a duty to
eat pork. The only tenable ground ocondemnation would be, that witthe personal tastes and self-regarding concerns of individualsthe public has no business tointerfere.
To come somewhat nearer home: the majority of Spaniardsconsider it a gross impiety,
offensive in the highest degree to
the Supreme Being, to worship hiin any other manner than the Roma
Catholic; and no other publicworship is lawful on Spanish soil.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 502/661
p p
The people of all Southern Europelook upon a married clergy as noonly irreligious, but unchaste,indecent, gross, disgusting. What doProtestants think of these perfectlysincere feelings, and of the attempto enforce them against non-Catholics? Yet, if mankind areustified in interfering with eac
other's liberty in things which do
not concern the interests of others,on what principle is it possible
consistently to exclude these cases?or who can blame people for
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 503/661
p p
desiring to suppress what theyregard as a scandal in the sight oGod and man? No stronger case ca
be shown for prohibiting anythinwhich is regarded as a personalimmorality, than is made out for suppressing these practices in theeyes of those who regard them asimpieties; and unless we are willin
to adopt the logic of persecutors,
and to say that we may persecuteothers because we are right, and
that they must not persecute us because they are wrong, we mus
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 504/661
y g,
beware of admitting a principle owhich we should resent as a grossinjustice the application toourselves.
The preceding instances may beobjected to, although unreasonably,as drawn from contingenciesimpossible among us: opinion, ithis country, not being likely to
enforce abstinence from meats, or to
interfere with people for worshipping, and for either
marrying or not marrying, accordinto their creed or inclination. The
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 505/661
next example, however, shall betaken from an interference witliberty which we have by no means
passed all danger of. Wherever thePuritans have been sufficiently
powerful, as in New England, andin Great Britain at the time of theCommonwealth, they haveendeavoured, with considerable
success, to put down all public, and
nearly all private, amusements:especially music, dancing, public
games, or other assemblages for purposes of diversion, and the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 506/661
theatre. There are still in thiscountry large bodies of persons bywhose notions of morality andreligion these recreations arecondemned; and those persons
belonging chiefly to the middleclass, who are the ascendant power in the present social and politicalcondition of the kingdom, it is by no
means impossible that persons o
these sentiments may at some timeor other command a majority i
Parliament. How will the remainin portion of the community like to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 507/661
have the amusements that shall be permitted to them regulated by thereligious and moral sentiments othe stricter Calvinists andMethodists? Would they not, withconsiderable peremptoriness,desire these intrusively piousmembers of society to mind their own business? This is precisely
what should be said to every
government and every public, whohave the pretension that no perso
shall enjoy any pleasure which theythink wrong. But if the principle o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 508/661
the pretension be admitted, no onecan reasonably object to its beinacted on in the sense of themajority, or other preponderating
power in the country; and all persons must be ready to conform tothe idea of a Christiacommonwealth, as understood bythe early settlers in New England, i
a religious profession similar to
theirs should ever succeed iregaining its lost ground, as
religions supposed to be declininhave so often been known to do.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 509/661
To imagine another contingency, perhaps more likely to be realisedthan the one last mentioned. Thereis confessedly a strong tendency ithe modern world towards ademocratic constitution of society,accompanied or not by popular
political institutions. It is affirmedthat in the country where this
tendency is most completely
realised—where both society andthe government are most democratic
the United States—the feeling othe majority, to whom any
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 510/661
appearance of a more showy or costly style of living than they cahope to rival is disagreeable,operates as a tolerably effectualsumptuary law, and that in many
parts of the Union it is reallydifficult for a person possessing avery large income, to find any modeof spending it, which will not incur
popular disapprobation. Thoug
such statements as these aredoubtless much exaggerated as a
representation of existing facts, thestate of things they describe is no
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 511/661
only a conceivable and possible, but a probable result of democraticfeeling, combined with the notiothat the public has a right to a vetoon the manner in which individualsshall spend their incomes. We haveonly further to suppose aconsiderable diffusion of Socialisopinions, and it may become
infamous in the eyes of the majority
to possess more property than somevery small amount, or any income
not earned by manual labour.Opinions similar in principle to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 512/661
these, already prevail widelyamong the artisan class, and weigoppressively on those who areamenable to the opinion chiefly othat class, namely, its ownmembers. It is known that the badworkmen who form the majority othe operatives in many branches oindustry, are decidedly of opinion
that bad workmen ought to receive
the same wages as good, and that noone ought to be allowed, throug
piecework or otherwise, to earn bysuperior skill or industry more tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 513/661
others can without it. And theyemploy a moral police, whicoccasionally becomes a physicalone, to deter skilful workmen froreceiving, and employers frogiving, a larger remuneration for amore useful service. If the publichave any jurisdiction over privateconcerns, I cannot see that these
people are in fault, or that any
individual's particular public can be blamed for asserting the same
authority over his individualconduct, which the general public
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 514/661
asserts over people in general.But, without dwelling uposupposititious cases, there are, iour own day, gross usurpationsupon the liberty of private lifeactually practised, and still greater ones threatened with some
expectation of success, andopinions proposed which assert a
unlimited right in the public not only
to prohibit by law everything whicit thinks wrong, but in order to get a
what it thinks wrong, to prohibit anynumber of things which it admits to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 515/661
be innocent.Under the name of preventinintemperance, the people of oneEnglish colony, and of nearly halthe United States, have beeinterdicted by law from making anyuse whatever of fermented drinks,
except for medical purposes: for prohibition of their sale is in fact,
as it is intended to be, prohibitio
of their use. And though theimpracticability of executing the
law has caused its repeal in severalof the States which had adopted it,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 516/661
including the one from which iderives its name, an attempt hasnotwithstanding been commenced,and is prosecuted with considerablezeal by many of the professed
philanthropists, to agitate for asimilar law in this country. The
association, or "Alliance" as iterms itself, which has been formed
for this purpose, has acquired some
notoriety through the publicity giveto a correspondence between its
Secretary and one of the very fewEnglish public men who hold that a
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 517/661
politician's opinions ought to befounded on principles. LordStanley's share in thiscorrespondence is calculated tostrengthen the hopes already builon him, by those who know howrare such qualities as are
manifested in some of his publicappearances, unhappily are amon
those who figure in political life.
The organ of the Alliance, whowould "deeply deplore the
recognition of any principle whiccould be wrested to justify bigotry
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 518/661
and persecution," undertakes to point out the "broad and impassable barrier" which divides suc principles from those of theassociation. "All matters relating tothought, opinion, conscience,appear to me," he says, "to be
without the sphere of legislation; all pertaining to social act, habit,
relation, subject only to a
discretionary power vested in theState itself, and not in the
individual, to be within it." Nomention is made of a third class,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 519/661
different from either of these, viz.acts and habits which are not social, but individual; although it is to thisclass, surely, that the act of drinkingfermented liquors belongs. Sellinfermented liquors, however, istrading, and trading is a social act.
But the infringement complained ois not on the liberty of the seller, but
on that of the buyer and consumer;
since the State might just as wellforbid him to drink wine, as
purposely make it impossible for him to obtain it. The Secretary,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 520/661
however, says, "I claim, as acitizen, a right to legislate whenever my social rights are invaded by thesocial act of another." And now for the definition of these "socialrights." "If anything invades mysocial rights, certainly the traffic i
strong drink does. It destroys my primary right of security, by
constantly creating and stimulatin
social disorder. It invades my rightof equality, by deriving a profit
from the creation of a misery, I amtaxed to support. It impedes my
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 521/661
right to free moral and intellectualdevelopment, by surrounding my path with dangers, and byweakening and demoralisinsociety, from which I have a right toclaim mutual aid and intercourse."A theory of "social rights," the like
of which probably never beforefound its way into distinct language
being nothing short of this—tha
it is the absolute social right oevery individual, that every other
individual shall act in every respecexactly as he ought; that whosoever
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 522/661
fails thereof in the smalles particular, violates my social right,and entitles me to demand from thelegislature the removal of thegrievance. So monstrous a principleis far more dangerous than anysingle interference with liberty;
there is no violation of libertywhich it would not justify; i
acknowledges no right to any
freedom whatever, except perhapsto that of holding opinions in secret,
without ever disclosing them: for the moment an opinion which I
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 523/661
consider noxious, passes any one'slips, it invades all the "socialrights" attributed to me by theAlliance. The doctrine ascribes toall mankind a vested interest in eacother's moral, intellectual, and eve
physical perfection, to be defined
by each claimant according to hisown standard.
Another important example o
illegitimate interference with therightful liberty of the individual, no
simply threatened, but long sincecarried into triumphant effect, is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 524/661
Sabbatarian legislation. Withoutdoubt, abstinence on one day in theweek, so far as the exigencies olife permit, from the usual dailyoccupation, though in no respecreligiously binding on any excepJews, is a highly beneficial custom.
And inasmuch as this custom canno be observed without a general
consent to that effect among the
industrious classes, therefore, in sofar as some persons by workin
may impose the same necessity oothers, it may be allowable and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 525/661
right that the law should guaranteeto each, the observance by others othe custom, by suspending thegreater operations of industry on a
particular day. But this justification,grounded on the direct intereswhich others have in eac
individual's observance of the practice, does not apply to the self-
chosen occupations in which a
person may think fit to employ hisleisure; nor does it hold good, in the
smallest degree, for legalrestrictions on amusements. It is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 526/661
true that the amusement of some isthe day's work of others; but the pleasure, not to say the usefulrecreation, of many, is worth thelabour of a few, provided theoccupation is freely chosen, and ca
be freely resigned. The operatives
are perfectly right in thinking that iall worked on Sunday, seven days'
work would have to be given for si
days' wages: but so long as the greamass of employments are
suspended, the small number whofor the enjoyment of others mus
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 527/661
still work, obtain a proportionalincrease of earnings; and they arenot obliged to follow thoseoccupations, if they prefer leisure toemolument. If a further remedy issought, it might be found in theestablishment by custom of a
holiday on some other day of theweek for those particular classes o
persons. The only ground, therefore,
on which restrictions on Sundayamusements can be defended, mus
be that they are religiously wrong; amotive of legislation which never
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 528/661
can be too earnestly protestedagainst. "Deorum injuriæ Diiscuræ." It remains to be proved thasociety or any of its officers holds acommission from on high to avengeany supposed offence toOmnipotence, which is not also a
wrong to our fellow-creatures. Thenotion that it is one man's duty tha
another should be religious, was the
foundation of all the religious persecutions ever perpetrated, and
if admitted, would fully justifythem. Though the feeling whic
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 529/661
breaks out in the repeated attemptsto stop railway travelling oSunday, in the resistance to theopening of Museums, and the like,has not the cruelty of the old
persecutors, the state of mindindicated by it is fundamentally the
same. It is a determination not totolerate others in doing what is
permitted by their religion, because
it is not permitted by the persecutor's religion. It is a belie
that God not only abominates the acof the misbeliever, but will not hold
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 530/661
us guiltless if we leave hiunmolested.I cannot refrain from adding to
these examples of the little accouncommonly made of human liberty,the language of downrigh
persecution which breaks out fro
the press of this country, whenever it feels called on to notice the
remarkable phenomenon o
Mormonism. Much might be said othe unexpected and instructive fact,
that an alleged new revelation, anda religion founded on it, the produc
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 531/661
of palpable imposture, not evesupported by the prestige oextraordinary qualities in itsfounder, is believed by hundreds othousands, and has been made thefoundation of a society, in the age onewspapers, railways, and the
electric telegraph. What hereconcerns us is, that this religion,
like other and better religions, has
its martyrs; that its prophet andfounder was, for his teaching, put to
death by a mob; that others of itsadherents lost their lives by the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 532/661
same lawless violence; that theywere forcibly expelled, in a body,from the country in which they firsgrew up; while, now that they have
been chased into a solitary recess ithe midst of a desert, many in thiscountry openly declare that it would
be right (only that it is noconvenient) to send an expeditio
against them, and compel them by
force to conform to the opinions oother people. The article of the
Mormonite doctrine which is thechief provocative to the antipathy
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 533/661
which thus breaks through theordinary restraints of religioustolerance, is its sanction o
polygamy; which, though permittedto Mahomedans, and Hindoos, andChinese, seems to exciteunquenchable animosity whe
practised by persons who speaEnglish, and profess to be a kind o
Christians. No one has a deeper
disapprobation than I have of thisMormon institution; both for other
reasons, and because, far fro being in any way countenanced bythe principle of liberty, it is a direct
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 534/661
infraction of that principle, being amere riveting of the chains of onehalf of the community, and anemancipation of the other froreciprocity of obligation towardsthem. Still, it must be remembered
that this relation is as mucvoluntary on the part of the wome
concerned in it, and who may be
deemed the sufferers by it, as is thecase with any other form of the
marriage institution; and however surprising this fact may appear, ithas its explanation in the commo
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 535/661
ideas and customs of the world,which teaching women to thinmarriage the one thing needful,make it intelligible that many awoman should prefer being one oseveral wives, to not being a wife
at all. Other countries are not askedto recognise such unions, or release
any portion of their inhabitants fro
their own laws on the score oMormonite opinions. But when the
dissentients have conceded to thehostile sentiments of others, far more than could justly be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 536/661
demanded; when they have left thecountries to which their doctrineswere unacceptable, and establishedthemselves in a remote corner of theearth, which they have been the firsto render habitable to human beings;
it is difficult to see on wha principles but those of tyranny they
can be prevented from living there
under what laws they please, provided they commit no aggressio
on other nations, and allow perfecfreedom of departure to those whoare dissatisfied with their ways. A
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 537/661
recent writer, in some respects oconsiderable merit, proposes (touse his own words), not a crusade,
but a civilizade , against this polygamous community, to put anend to what seems to him a
retrograde step in civilisation. Ialso appears so to me, but I am no
aware that any community has a
right to force another to becivilised. So long as the sufferers
by the bad law do not invokeassistance from other communities,I cannot admit that persons entirely
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 538/661
unconnected with them ought to stepin and require that a condition othings with which all who aredirectly interested appear to besatisfied, should be put an end to
because it is a scandal to persons
some thousands of miles distant,who have no part or concern in it.
Let them send missionaries, if they
please, to preach against it; and lethem, by any fair means (of whic
silencing the teachers is not one),oppose the progress of similar doctrines among their own people.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 539/661
If civilisation has got the better o barbarism when barbarism had theworld to itself, it is too much to
profess to be afraid lest barbarism,after having been fairly got under,should revive and conquer
civilisation. A civilisation that canthus succumb to its vanquished
enemy, must first have become so
degenerate, that neither itsappointed priests and teachers, nor
anybody else, has the capacity, or will take the trouble, to stand up for it. If this be so, the sooner such a
l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 540/661
civilisation receives notice to quit,the better. It can only go on from
bad to worse, until destroyed andregenerated (like the WesternEmpire) by energetic barbarians.
FOOTNOTE:
[14] The case of the Bombay
Parsees is a curious instance in point. When this industrious and
enterprising tribe, the descendantsof the Persian fire-worshippers,flying from their native countryb f h C li h i d i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 541/661
before the Caliphs, arrived inWestern India, they were admitted
to toleration by the Hindoosovereigns, on condition of noteating beef. When those regions
afterwards fell under the dominion
of Mahomedan conquerors, theParsees obtained from them a
continuance of indulgence, on
condition of refraining from pork.What was at first obedience to
authority became a second nature,and the Parsees to this day abstain both from beef and pork. Though no
i d b h i li i h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 542/661
required by their religion, thedouble abstinence has had time togrow into a custom of their tribe;
and custom, in the East, is areligion.
CHAPTER V.APPLICATIONS.
The principles asserted in thesepages must be more generally
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 543/661
pages must be more generallyadmitted as the basis for discussio
of details, before a consistenapplication of them to all the
various departments of governmenand morals can be attempted wit
any prospect of advantage. The fewobservations I propose to make oquestions of detail, are designed toillustrate the principles, rather tha
to follow them out to their consequences. I offer, not so much
applications, as specimens oapplication; which may serve to bring into greater clearness the
i g d li it f th t
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 544/661
meaning and limits of the twomaxims which together form theentire doctrine of this Essay, and toassist the judgment in holding the
balance between them, in the caseswhere it appears doubtful which o
them is applicable to the case.The maxims are, first, that the
individual is not accountable to
society for his actions, in so far asthese concern the interests of no
person but himself. Advice,instruction, persuasion, andavoidance by other people ithought necessary by them for their
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 545/661
thought necessary by them for their own good, are the only measures bywhich society can justifiablyexpress its dislike or disapprobation of his conduct.Secondly, that for such actions as
are prejudicial to the interests oothers, the individual is accountable
and may be subjected either to
social or to legal punishments, isociety is of opinion that the one or
the other is requisite for its protection.In the first place, it must by no
means be supposed because
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 546/661
means be supposed, becausedamage, or probability of damage,to the interests of others, can aloneustify the interference of society,
that therefore it always does justifysuch interference. In many cases, a
individual, in pursuing a legitimateobject, necessarily and therefore
legitimately causes pain or loss to
others, or intercepts a good whicthey had a reasonable hope o
obtaining. Such oppositions ointerest between individuals oftearise from bad social institutions,but are unavoidable while those
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 547/661
but are unavoidable while thoseinstitutions last; and some would beunavoidable under any institutions.Whoever succeeds in aovercrowded profession, or in acompetitive examination; whoever
is preferred to another in anycontest for an object which bot
desire, reaps benefit from the loss
of others, from their wastedexertion and their disappointment.
But it is, by common admission, better for the general interest omankind, that persons should pursuetheir objects undeterred by this sor
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 548/661
their objects undeterred by this sor of consequences. In other words,society admits no rights, either legalor moral, in the disappointedcompetitors, to immunity from thiskind of suffering; and feels called
on to interfere, only when means osuccess have been employed whic
it is contrary to the general interes
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 549/661
processes of manufacture. But it isnow recognised, though not till after
a long struggle, that both thecheapness and the good quality ocommodities are most effectuallyprovided for by leaving the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 550/661
provided for by leaving the producers and sellers perfectly free,under the sole check of equalfreedom to the buyers for supplyin
themselves elsewhere. This is theso-called doctrine of Free Trade,
which rests on grounds differenfrom, though equally solid with, the
principle of individual liberty
asserted in this Essay. Restrictionson trade, or on production for
purposes of trade, are indeedrestraints; and all restraint, quârestraint, is an evil: but therestraints in question affect only tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 551/661
restraints in question affect only tha part of conduct which society iscompetent to restrain, and arewrong solely because they do no
really produce the results which iis desired to produce by them. As
the principle of individual liberty isnot involved in the doctrine of Free
Trade, so neither is it in most of the
questions which arise respecting thelimits of that doctrine: as for
example, what amount of publiccontrol is admissible for the prevention of fraud by adulteration;how far sanitary precautions, or
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 552/661
how far sanitary precautions, or arrangements to protect work-
people employed in dangerousoccupations, should be enforced o
employers. Such questions involveconsiderations of liberty, only in so
far as leaving people to themselvesis always better, cæteris paribus ,
than controlling them: but that they
may be legitimately controlled for these ends, is in principle
undeniable. On the other hand, thereare questions relating tointerference with trade, which areessentially questions of liberty; suc
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 553/661
essentially questions of liberty; sucas the Maine Law, already touchedupon; the prohibition of theimportation of opium into China; the
restriction of the sale of poisons; allcases, in short, where the object o
the interference is to make iimpossible or difficult to obtain a
particular commodity. These
interferences are objectionable, noas infringements on the liberty of the
producer or seller, but on that of the buyer.One of these examples, that o
the sale of poisons, opens a new
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 554/661
p , pquestion; the proper limits of whamay be called the functions o
police; how far liberty may
legitimately be invaded for the prevention of crime, or of accident.
It is one of the undisputed functionsof government to take precautions
against crime before it has bee
committed, as well as to detect and punish it afterwards. The preventive
function of government, however, isfar more liable to be abused, to the prejudice of liberty, than the punitory function; for there is hardly
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 555/661
p y ; yany part of the legitimate freedom oaction of a human being whicwould not admit of bein
represented, and fairly too, asincreasing the facilities for some
form or other of delinquency.evertheless, if a public authority,
or even a private person, sees any
one evidently preparing to commit acrime, they are not bound to look o
inactive until the crime iscommitted, but may interfere to prevent it. If poisons were never bought or used for any purpose
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 556/661
g y p pexcept the commission of murder, itwould be right to prohibit their manufacture and sale. They may,
however, be wanted not only for innocent but for useful purposes,
and restrictions cannot be imposedin the one case without operating i
the other. Again, it is a proper
office of public authority to guardagainst accidents. If either a public
officer or any one else saw a persoattempting to cross a bridge whichad been ascertained to be unsafe,and there were no time to warn hi
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 557/661
of his danger, they might seize himand turn him back, without any realinfringement of his liberty; for
liberty consists in doing what onedesires, and he does not desire to
fall into the river. Nevertheless,when there is not a certainty, but
only a danger of mischief, no one
but the person himself can judge othe sufficiency of the motive whic
may prompt him to incur the risk: ithis case, therefore (unless he is achild, or delirious, or in some stateof excitement or absorptio
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 558/661
incompatible with the full use of thereflecting faculty), he ought, Iconceive, to be only warned of the
danger; not forcibly prevented froexposing himself to it. Similar
considerations, applied to such aquestion as the sale of poisons, may
enable us to decide which amon
the possible modes of regulation areor are not contrary to principle.
Such a precaution, for example, asthat of labelling the drug with someword expressive of its dangerouscharacter, may be enforced without
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 559/661
violation of liberty: the buyer cannot wish not to know that thething he possesses has poisonous
qualities. But to require in all casesthe certificate of a medical
practitioner, would make itsometimes impossible, always
expensive, to obtain the article for
legitimate uses. The only modeapparent to me, in which difficulties
may be thrown in the way of crimecommitted through this means,without any infringement, worttaking into account, upon the liberty
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 560/661
of those who desire the poisonoussubstance for other purposes,consists in providing what, in the
apt language of Bentham, is called"preappointed evidence." This
provision is familiar to every one ithe case of contracts. It is usual and
right that the law, when a contract is
entered into, should require as thecondition of its enforcin
performance, that certaiformalities should be observed,such as signatures, attestation owitnesses, and the like, in order tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 561/661
in case of subsequent dispute, theremay be evidence to prove that thecontract was really entered into,
and that there was nothing in thecircumstances to render it legally
invalid: the effect being, to throwgreat obstacles in the way o
fictitious contracts, or contracts
made in circumstances which, iknown, would destroy their
validity. Precautions of a similar nature might be enforced in the saleof articles adapted to be instrumentsof crime. The seller, for example,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 562/661
might be required to enter into aregister the exact time of thetransaction, the name and address o
the buyer, the precise quality andquantity sold; to ask the purpose for
which it was wanted, and record theanswer he received. When there
was no medical prescription, the
presence of some third person migh be required, to bring home the fac
to the purchaser, in case thereshould afterwards be reason to believe that the article had beeapplied to criminal purposes. Suc
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 563/661
regulations would in general be nomaterial impediment to obtaininthe article, but a very considerable
one to making an improper use of iwithout detection.
The right inherent in society, toward off crimes against itself by
antecedent precautions, suggests the
obvious limitations to the maxim,that purely self-regardin
misconduct cannot properly bemeddled with in the way o prevention or punishment.Drunkenness, for example, i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 564/661
ordinary cases, is not a fit subjecfor legislative interference; but Ishould deem it perfectly legitimate
that a person, who had once beeconvicted of any act of violence to
others under the influence of drink,should be placed under a special
legal restriction, personal to
himself; that if he were afterwardsfound drunk, he should be liable to
a penalty, and that if when in thatstate he committed another offence,the punishment to which he would
be liable for that other offence
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 565/661
should be increased in severity. Themaking himself drunk, in a persowhom drunkenness excites to do
harm to others, is a crime againsothers. So, again, idleness, excep
in a person receiving support frothe public, or except when i
constitutes a breach of contract,
cannot without tyranny be made asubject of legal punishment; but i
either from idleness or from anyother avoidable cause, a man failsto perform his legal duties to others,as for instance to support hish ld f
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 566/661
children, it is no tyranny to forcehim to fulfil that obligation, bycompulsory labour, if no other
means are available.Again, there are many acts
which, being directly injurious onlyto the agents themselves, ought no
to be legally interdicted, but which,
if done publicly, are a violation ogood manners and coming thus
within the category of offencesagainst others may rightfully be prohibited. Of this kind are offencesagainst decency; on which it is
d ll h h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 567/661
unnecessary to dwell, the rather asthey are only connected indirectlywith our subject, the objection to
publicity being equally strong in thecase of many actions not i
themselves condemnable, nor supposed to be so.
There is another question to
which an answer must be found,consistent with the principles whichave been laid down. In cases o
personal conduct supposed to be blamable, but which respect for liberty precludes society fro
i i hi b h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 568/661
preventing or punishing, because theevil directly resulting falls whollyon the agent; what the agent is free
to do, ought other persons to beequally free to counsel or instigate?
This question is not free frodifficulty. The case of a person who
solicits another to do an act, is no
strictly a case of self-regardinconduct. To give advice or offer inducements to any one, is a socialact, and may therefore, like actionsin general which affect others, besupposed amenable to social
t l B t littl fl ti
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 569/661
control. But a little reflectiocorrects the first impression, byshowing that if the case is no
strictly within the definition oindividual liberty, yet the reasons
on which the principle of individualliberty is grounded, are applicable
to it. If people must be allowed, i
whatever concerns only themselves,to act as seems best to themselves atheir own peril, they must equally
be free to consult with one another about what is fit to be so done; toexchange opinions, and give and
i gg ti Wh t it i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 570/661
receive suggestions. Whatever it is permitted to do, it must be permittedto advise to do. The question is
doubtful, only when the instigator derives a personal benefit from his
advice; when he makes it hisoccupation, for subsistence or
pecuniary gain, to promote wha
society and the state consider to bean evil. Then, indeed, a newelement of complication isintroduced; namely, the existence oclasses of persons with an interesopposed to what is considered asthe public weal and whose mode o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 571/661
the public weal, and whose mode oliving is grounded on thecounteraction of it. Ought this to be
interfered with, or not? Fornication,for example, must be tolerated, and
so must gambling; but should a person be free to be a pimp, or to
keep a gambling-house? The case is
one of those which lie on the exac boundary line between two principles, and it is not at onceapparent to which of the two i
properly belongs. There arearguments on both sides. On theside of toleration it may be said
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 572/661
side of toleration it may be said,that the fact of following anything asan occupation, and living or
profiting by the practice of it,cannot make that criminal whic
would otherwise be admissible; thathe act should either be consistently
permitted or consistently
prohibited; that if the principleswhich we have hitherto defendedare true, society has no business, associety, to decide anything to bewrong which concerns only theindividual; that it cannot go beyonddissuasion and that one perso
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 573/661
dissuasion, and that one persoshould be as free to persuade, asanother to dissuade. In opposition to
this it may be contended, thaalthough the public, or the State, are
not warranted in authoritativelydeciding, for purposes of repressio
or punishment, that such or suc
conduct affecting only the interestsof the individual is good or bad,they are fully justified in assuming,if they regard it as bad, that its
being so or not is at least adisputable question: That, this beinsupposed they cannot be actin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 574/661
supposed, they cannot be actinwrongly in endeavouring to excludethe influence of solicitations whic
are not disinterested, of instigatorswho cannot possibly be impartial—
who have a direct personal intereson one side, and that side the one
which the State believes to be
wrong, and who confessedly promote it for personal objectsonly. There can surely, it may beurged, be nothing lost, no sacrificeof good, by so ordering matters tha
persons shall make their election,either wisely or foolishly on their
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 575/661
either wisely or foolishly, on their own prompting, as free as possiblefrom the arts of persons who
stimulate their inclinations for interested purposes of their own.
Thus (it may be said) though thestatutes respecting unlawful games
are utterly indefensible—though all
persons should be free to gamble itheir own or each other's houses, or in any place of meeting established
by their own subscriptions, andopen only to the members and their visitors—yet public gambling-houses should not be permitted It is
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 576/661
houses should not be permitted. It istrue that the prohibition is never effectual, and that whatever amoun
of tyrannical power is given to the police, gambling-houses can always
be maintained under other pretences; but they may be
compelled to conduct their
operations with a certain degree osecrecy and mystery, so that nobodyknows anything about them but thosewho seek them; and more than this,society ought not to aim at. There isconsiderable force in thesearguments; I will not venture to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 577/661
arguments; I will not venture todecide whether they are sufficient toustify the moral anomaly o
punishing the accessary, when the principal is (and must be) allowed
to go free; or fining or imprisoninthe procurer, but not the fornicator,the gambling-house keeper, but not
the gambler. Still less ought thecommon operations of buying andselling to be interfered with oanalogous grounds. Almost everyarticle which is bought and soldmay be used in excess, and thesellers have a pecuniary interest i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 578/661
sellers have a pecuniary interest iencouraging that excess; but noargument can be founded on this, i
favour, for instance, of the MaineLaw; because the class of dealers i
strong drinks, though interested itheir abuse, are indispensablyrequired for the sake of their
legitimate use. The interest,however, of these dealers in promoting intemperance is a realevil, and justifies the State iimposing restrictions and requiringuarantees, which but for thaustification would be infringements
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 579/661
ustification would be infringementsof legitimate liberty.
A further question is, whether
the State, while it permits, shouldnevertheless indirectly discourage
conduct which it deems contrary tothe best interests of the agent;whether, for example, it should take
measures to render the means odrunkenness more costly, or add tothe difficulty of procuring them, bylimiting the number of the places osale. On this as on most other
practical questions, manydistinctions require to be made. To
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 580/661
qtax stimulants for the sole purposeof making them more difficult to be
obtained, is a measure differinonly in degree from their entire
prohibition; and would beustifiable only if that wereustifiable. Every increase of cost is
a prohibition, to those whose meansdo not come up to the augmented price; and to those who do, it is a penalty laid on them for gratifying a particular taste. Their choice o pleasures, and their mode oexpending their income, after
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 581/661
p g ,satisfying their legal and moralobligations to the State and to
individuals, are their own concern,and must rest with their ow
udgment. These considerations mayseem at first sight to condemn theselection of stimulants as special
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 582/661
can best spare; and à fortiori , toselect in preference those of whicit deems the use, beyond a verymoderate quantity, to be positivelyinjurious. Taxation, therefore, ostimulants, up to the point whic
produces the largest amount o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 583/661
p g
revenue (supposing that the Stateneeds all the revenue which i
yields) is not only admissible, buto be approved of.
The question of making the saleof these commodities a more or lessexclusive privilege, must be
answered differently, according tothe purposes to which the restrictiois intended to be subservient. All
places of public resort require therestraint of a police, and places othis kind peculiarly, becauseoffences against society are
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 584/661
especially apt to originate there. Iis, therefore, fit to confine the
power of selling these commodities(at least for consumption on the
spot) to persons of known or vouched-for respectability oconduct; to make such regulations
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 585/661
spirit-houses, for the express purpose of rendering them moredifficult of access, and diminishinthe occasions of temptation, noonly exposes all to ainconvenience because there aresome by whom the facility would be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 586/661
abused, but is suited only to a stateof society in which the labourin
classes are avowedly treated aschildren or savages, and placed
under an education of restraint, to fithem for future admission to the privileges of freedom. This is no
the principle on which the labourinclasses are professedly governed iany free country; and no person whosets due value on freedom will givehis adhesion to their being sogoverned, unless after all effortshave been exhausted to educate
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 587/661
them for freedom and govern theas freemen, and it has bee
definitively proved that they caonly be governed as children. The
bare statement of the alternativeshows the absurdity of supposinthat such efforts have been made i
any case which needs be consideredhere. It is only because theinstitutions of this country are amass of inconsistencies, that thingsfind admittance into our practicewhich belong to the system odespotic, or what is called paternal,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 588/661
government, while the generalfreedom of our institutions
precludes the exercise of the amounof control necessary to render the
restraint of any real efficacy as amoral education.It was pointed out in an early
part of this Essay, that the liberty othe individual, in things wherein theindividual is alone concerned,implies a corresponding liberty iany number of individuals toregulate by mutual agreement sucthings as regard them jointly, and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 589/661
regard no persons but themselves.This question presents no difficulty,
so long as the will of all the personsimplicated remains unaltered; bu
since that will may change, it isoften necessary, even in things inwhich they alone are concerned,
that they should enter intoengagements with one another; andwhen they do, it is fit, as a generalrule, that those engagements should
be kept. Yet in the laws, probably,of every country, this general rulehas some exceptions. Not only
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 590/661
persons are not held to engagementswhich violate the rights of third
parties, but it is sometimesconsidered a sufficient reason for
releasing them from an engagement,that it is injurious to themselves. Ithis and most other civilised
countries, for example, aengagement by which a persoshould sell himself, or allowhimself to be sold, as a slave,would be null and void; neither enforced by law nor by opinion.The ground for thus limiting his
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 591/661
power of voluntarily disposing ohis own lot in life, is apparent, and
is very clearly seen in this extremecase. The reason for not interfering,
unless for the sake of others, with a person's voluntary acts, isconsideration for his liberty. His
voluntary choice is evidence thawhat he so chooses is desirable, or at the least endurable, to him, andhis good is on the whole bes
provided for by allowing him totake his own means of pursuing it.But by selling himself for a slave,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 592/661
he abdicates his liberty; he foregoesany future use of it, beyond tha
single act. He therefore defeats, ihis own case, the very purpose
which is the justification oallowing him to dispose of himself.He is no longer free; but is
thenceforth in a position which hasno longer the presumption in itsfavour, that would be afforded byhis voluntarily remaining in it. The
principle of freedom cannot requirethat he should be free not to be free.It is not freedom, to be allowed to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 593/661
alienate his freedom. Thesereasons, the force of which is so
conspicuous in this peculiar case,are evidently of far wider
application; yet a limit iseverywhere set to them by thenecessities of life, whic
continually require, not indeed thawe should resign our freedom, buthat we should consent to this andthe other limitation of it. The
principle, however, which demandsuncontrolled freedom of action iall that concerns only the agents
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 594/661
themselves, requires that those whohave become bound to one another,
in things which concern no third party, should be able to release one
another from the engagement: andeven without such voluntaryrelease, there are perhaps no
contracts or engagements, excepthose that relate to money or money's worth, of which one caventure to say that there ought to beno liberty whatever of retractation.Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt, inthe excellent essay from which I
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 595/661
have already quoted, states it as hisconviction, that engagements whic
involve personal relations or services, should never be legally
binding beyond a limited duratioof time; and that the most importanof these engagements, marriage,
having the peculiarity that itsobjects are frustrated unless thefeelings of both the parties are iharmony with it, should requirenothing more than the declared willof either party to dissolve it. Thissubject is too important, and too
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 596/661
complicated, to be discussed in a parenthesis, and I touch on it only
so far as is necessary for purposesof illustration. If the conciseness
and generality of Baron Humboldt'sdissertation had not obliged him ithis instance to content himself wit
enunciating his conclusion withoudiscussing the premises, he woulddoubtless have recognised that thequestion cannot be decided ogrounds so simple as those to whiche confines himself. When a person,either by express promise or by
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 597/661
conduct, has encouraged another torely upon his continuing to act in a
certain way—to build expectationsand calculations, and stake any par
of his plan of life upon thasupposition, a new series of moralobligations arises on his par
towards that person, which may possibly be overruled, but canno be ignored. And again, if therelation between two contractin
parties has been followed byconsequences to others; if it has
placed third parties in any peculiar
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 598/661
position, or, as in the case omarriage, has even called third
parties into existence, obligationsarise on the part of both the
contracting parties towards thosethird persons, the fulfilment owhich, or at all events the mode o
fulfilment, must be greatly affected by the continuance or disruption othe relation between the original
parties to the contract. It does nofollow, nor can I admit, that theseobligations extend to requiring thefulfilment of the contract at all costs
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 599/661
to the happiness of the reluctan party; but they are a necessary
element in the question; and even if,as Von Humboldt maintains, they
ought to make no difference in thelegal freedom of the parties torelease themselves from the
engagement (and I also hold thathey ought not to make muchdifference), they necessarily make agreat difference in the moral freedom. A person is bound to takeall these circumstances intoaccount, before resolving on a step
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 600/661
which may affect such importaninterests of others; and if he does
not allow proper weight to thoseinterests, he is morally responsible
for the wrong. I have made theseobvious remarks for the better illustration of the general principle
of liberty, and not because they areat all needed on the particular question, which, on the contrary, isusually discussed as if the interesof children was everything, and thaof grown persons nothing.
I have already observed that,
i h b f
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 601/661
owing to the absence of anyrecognised general principles,
liberty is often granted where ishould be withheld, as well as
withheld where it should begranted; and one of the cases iwhich, in the modern Europea
world, the sentiment of liberty is thestrongest, is a case where, in myview, it is altogether misplaced. A
person should be free to do as helikes in his own concerns; but heought not to be free to do as he likesin acting for another, under the
h h ff i f h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 602/661
pretext that the affairs of another arehis own affairs. The State, while i
respects the liberty of each in whaspecially regards himself, is bound
to maintain a vigilant control over his exercise of any power which iallows him to possess over others.
This obligation is almost entirelydisregarded in the case of the familyrelations, a case, in its direcinfluence on human happiness, moreimportant than all others taketogether. The almost despotic
power of husbands over wives need
b l d h b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 603/661
not be enlarged upon here becausenothing more is needed for the
complete removal of the evil, thathat wives should have the same
rights, and should receive the protection of law in the samemanner, as all other persons; and
because, on this subject, thedefenders of established injusticedo not avail themselves of the pleaof liberty, but stand forth openly asthe champions of power. It is in thecase of children, that misappliednotions of liberty are a real obstacle
t th f lfil t b th St t f it
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 604/661
to the fulfilment by the State of itsduties. One would almost think tha
a man's children were supposed to be literally, and not metaphorically,
a part of himself, so jealous isopinion of the smallest interferenceof law with his absolute and
exclusive control over them; moreealous than of almost any
interference with his own freedoof action: so much less do thegenerality of mankind value libertythan power. Consider, for example,the case of education. Is it no
l t lf id t i th t th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 605/661
almost a self-evident axiom, that theState should require and compel the
education, up to a certain standard,of every human being who is bor
its citizen? Yet who is there that isnot afraid to recognise and asser this truth? Hardly any one indeed
will deny that it is one of the mossacred duties of the parents (or, aslaw and usage now stand, thefather), after summoning a huma
being into the world, to give to tha being an education fitting him to perform his part well in life
towards others and towards
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 606/661
towards others and towardshimself. But while this is
unanimously declared to be thefather's duty, scarcely anybody, in
this country, will bear to hear oobliging him to perform it. Insteadof his being required to make any
exertion or sacrifice for securineducation to the child, it is left tohis choice to accept it or not when iis provided gratis! It still remainsunrecognised, that to bring a childinto existence without a fair
prospect of being able, not only to
provide food for its body but
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 607/661
provide food for its body, butinstruction and training for its mind,
is a moral crime, both against theunfortunate offspring and agains
society; and that if the parent doesnot fulfil this obligation, the Stateought to see it fulfilled, at the
charge, as far as possible, of the parent.
Were the duty of enforcinguniversal education once admitted,there would be an end to thedifficulties about what the Stateshould teach, and how it should
teach which now convert the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 608/661
teach, which now convert thesubject into a mere battle-field for
sects and parties, causing the timeand labour which should have bee
spent in educating, to be wasted iquarrelling about education. If thegovernment would make up its mind
t o require for every child a goodeducation, it might save itself thetrouble of providing one. It mighleave to parents to obtain theeducation where and how they
pleased, and content itself withelping to pay the school fees of the
poorer class of children and
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 609/661
poorer class of children, anddefraying the entire school expenses
of those who have no one else to pay for them. The objections whic
are urged with reason against Stateeducation, do not apply to theenforcement of education by the
State, but to the State's taking upoitself to direct that education; whicis a totally different thing. That thewhole or any large part of theeducation of the people should be iState hands, I go as far as any one ideprecating. All that has been said
of the importance of individuality o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 610/661
of the importance of individuality ocharacter, and diversity in opinions
and modes of conduct, involves, asof the same unspeakable
importance, diversity of education.A general State education is a merecontrivance for moulding people to
be exactly like one another; and asthe mould in which it casts them isthat which pleases the predominan
power in the government, whether this be a monarch, a priesthood, aaristocracy, or the majority of theexisting generation, in proportion as
it is efficient and successful i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 611/661
it is efficient and successful, iestablishes a despotism over the
mind, leading by natural tendency toone over the body. An educationestablished and controlled by theState, should only exist, if it exist aall, as one among many competin
experiments, carried on for the purpose of example and stimulus, tokeep the others up to a certaistandard of excellence. Unless,indeed, when society in general isin so backward a state that it couldnot or would not provide for itsel
any proper institutions of education
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 612/661
any proper institutions of education,unless the government undertook the
task; then, indeed, the governmenmay, as the less of two great evils,take upon itself the business oschools and universities, as it maythat of joint stock companies, whe
private enterprise, in a shape fittedfor undertaking great works oindustry, does not exist in thecountry. But in general, if thecountry contains a sufficient number of persons qualified to provideeducation under governmen
auspices the same persons would
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 613/661
auspices, the same persons would be able and willing to give a
equally good education on thevoluntary principle, under theassurance of remuneration afforded
by a law rendering educatiocompulsory, combined with State
aid to those unable to defray theexpense.
The instrument for enforcing thelaw could be no other than publicexaminations, extending to allchildren, and beginning at an earlyage. An age might be fixed at which
every child must be examined to
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 614/661
every child must be examined, toascertain if he (or she) is able to
read. If a child proves unable, thefather, unless he has some sufficientground of excuse, might besubjected to a moderate fine, to beworked out, if necessary, by his
labour, and the child might be put toschool at his expense. Once ievery year the examination should
be renewed, with a graduallyextending range of subjects, so as tomake the universal acquisition, andwhat is more, retention, of a certai
minimum of general knowledge,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 615/661
minimum of general knowledge,virtually compulsory. Beyond that
minimum, there should be voluntaryexaminations on all subjects, awhich all who come up to a certaistandard of proficiency might claia certificate. To prevent the State
from exercising, through thesearrangements, an improper influence over opinion, theknowledge required for passing aexamination (beyond the merelyinstrumental parts of knowledge,such as languages and their use)
should, even in the higher class o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 616/661
should, even in the higher class oexaminations, be confined to facts
and positive science exclusively.The examinations on religion, politics, or other disputed topics,should not turn on the truth or falsehood of opinions, but on the
matter of fact that such and such aopinion is held, on such grounds, bysuch authors, or schools, or churches. Under this system, therising generation would be noworse off in regard to all disputedtruths, than they are at present; they
would be brought up either
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 617/661
g pchurchmen or dissenters as they
now are, the state merely takincare that they should be instructedchurchmen, or instructed dissenters.There would be nothing to hinder them from being taught religion, i
their parents chose, at the sameschools where they were taughother things. All attempts by thestate to bias the conclusions of itscitizens on disputed subjects, are
evil; but it may very properly offer to ascertain and certify that a perso
possesses the knowledge, requisitek h l
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 618/661
p g , qto make his conclusions, on any
given subject, worth attending to. Astudent of philosophy would be the better for being able to stand aexamination both in Locke and iKant, whichever of the two he takes
up with, or even if with neither: andthere is no reasonable objection toexamining an atheist in theevidences of Christianity, providedhe is not required to profess a belie
in them. The examinations,however, in the higher branches o
knowledge should, I conceive, bei l l I ld b
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 619/661
g , ,entirely voluntary. It would be
giving too dangerous a power togovernments, were they allowed toexclude any one from professions,even from the profession of teacher,for alleged deficiency o
qualifications: and I think, witWilhelm von Humboldt, thatdegrees, or other public certificatesof scientific or professionalacquirements, should be given to all
who present themselves for examination, and stand the test; bu
that such certificates should confer d i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 620/661
no advantage over competitors,
other than the weight which may beattached to their testimony by publicopinion.
It is not in the matter oeducation only, that misplaced
notions of liberty prevent moralobligations on the part of parentsfrom being recognised, and legalobligations from being imposed,where there are the stronges
grounds for the former always, andin many cases for the latter also.
The fact itself, of causing thei t f h b i i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 621/661
gexistence of a human being, is one
of the most responsible actions ithe range of human life. Toundertake this responsibility—to
bestow a life which may be either acurse or a blessing—unless the
being on whom it is to be bestowedwill have at least the ordinarychances of a desirable existence, isa crime against that being. And in acountry either over-peopled, or
threatened with being so, to producechildren, beyond a very small
number, with the effect of reducinth d f l b b th i
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 622/661
the reward of labour by their
competition, is a serious offenceagainst all who live by theremuneration of their labour. Thelaws which, in many countries othe Continent, forbid marriage
unless the parties can show that theyhave the means of supporting afamily, do not exceed the legitimate
powers of the state: and whether such laws be expedient or not (a
question mainly dependent on localcircumstances and feelings), they
are not objectionable as violationsof liberty Such laws are
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 623/661
of liberty. Such laws are
interferences of the state to prohibia mischievous act—an act injuriousto others, which ought to be asubject of reprobation, and socialstigma, even when it is not deemed
expedient to superadd legal punishment. Yet the current ideas of liberty, which bend so easily to realinfringements of the freedom of theindividual, in things which concer
only himself, would repel theattempt to put any restraint upon his
inclinations when the consequenceof their indulgence is a life or
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 624/661
of their indulgence is a life, or
lives, of wretchedness anddepravity to the offspring, witmanifold evils to those sufficientlywithin reach to be in any wayaffected by their actions. When we
compare the strange respect omankind for liberty, with their strange want of respect for it, wemight imagine that a man had aindispensable right to do harm to
others, and no right at all to pleasehimself without giving pain to any
one.I have reserved for the las
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 625/661
I have reserved for the las
place a large class of questionsrespecting the limits of governmeninterference, which, though closelyconnected with the subject of thisEssay, do not, in strictness, belong
to it. These are cases in which thereasons against interference do noturn upon the principle of liberty:the question is not about restraininthe actions of individuals, but abou
helping them: it is asked whether the government should do, or cause
to be done, something for their benefit instead of leaving it to be
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 626/661
benefit, instead of leaving it to be
done by themselves, individually,or in voluntary combination.The objections to governmen
interference, when it is not such asto involve infringement of liberty,
may be of three kinds.The first is, when the thing to be
done is likely to be better done byindividuals than by the government.Speaking generally, there is no one
so fit to conduct any business, or todetermine how or by whom it shall
be conducted, as those who arepersonally interested in it This
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 627/661
personally interested in it. This
principle condemns theinterferences, once so common, othe legislature, or the officers ogovernment, with the ordinary
processes of industry. But this part
of the subject has been sufficientlyenlarged upon by politicaleconomists, and is not particularlyrelated to the principles of thisEssay.
The second objection is morenearly allied to our subject. In many
cases, though individuals may nodo the particular thing so well o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 628/661
do the particular thing so well, o
the average, as the officers ogovernment, it is neverthelessdesirable that it should be done bythem, rather than by the government,as a means to their own mental
education—a mode of strengthenintheir active faculties, exercisintheir judgment, and giving them afamiliar knowledge of the subjectswith which they are thus left to deal.
This is a principal, though not thesole, recommendation of jury trial
(in cases not political); of free andpopular local and municipal
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 629/661
popular local and municipal
institutions; of the conduct oindustrial and philanthropicenterprises by voluntaryassociations. These are noquestions of liberty, and are
connected with that subject only byremote tendencies; but they arequestions of development. I
belongs to a different occasion frothe present to dwell on these things
as parts of national education; as being, in truth, the peculiar trainin
of a citizen, the practical part of thepolitical education of a free people,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 630/661
political education of a free people,
taking them out of the narrow circleof personal and family selfishness,and accustoming them to thecomprehension of joint interests, themanagement of joint concerns—
habituating them to act from publicor semi-public motives, and guidetheir conduct by aims which uniteinstead of isolating them from oneanother. Without these habits and
powers, a free constitution caneither be worked nor preserved, as
is exemplified by the too-oftetransitory nature of political
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 631/661
transitory nature of political
freedom in countries where it doesnot rest upon a sufficient basis olocal liberties. The management o
purely local business by thelocalities, and of the grea
enterprises of industry by the unioof those who voluntarily supply the
pecuniary means, is further recommended by all the advantageswhich have been set forth in this
Essay as belonging to individualityof development, and diversity o
modes of action. Governmenoperations tend to be everywhere
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 632/661
p y
alike. With individuals andvoluntary associations, on thecontrary, there are variedexperiments, and endless diversityof experience. What the State ca
usefully do, is to make itself acentral depository, and activecirculator and diffuser, of theexperience resulting from manytrials. Its business is to enable eac
experimentalist to benefit by theexperiments of others, instead o
tolerating no experiments but itsown.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 633/661
The third, and most cogenreason for restricting theinterference of government, is thegreat evil of adding unnecessarily toits power. Every function
superadded to those alreadyexercised by the government, causesits influence over hopes and fears to
be more widely diffused, andconverts, more and more, the active
and ambitious part of the public intohangers-on of the government, or o
some party which aims at becominthe government. If the roads, the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 634/661
g ,
railways, the banks, the insuranceoffices, the great joint-stoccompanies, the universities, and the
public charities, were all of the branches of the government; if, i
addition, the municipal corporationsand local boards, with all that nowdevolves on them, becamedepartments of the centraladministration; if the employés o
all these different enterprises wereappointed and paid by the
government, and looked to thegovernment for every rise in life;
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 635/661
g y
not all the freedom of the press and popular constitution of thelegislature would make this or anyother country free otherwise than iname. And the evil would be
greater, the more efficiently andscientifically the administrativemachinery was constructed—themore skilful the arrangements for obtaining the best qualified hands
and heads with which to work it. IEngland it has of late bee
proposed that all the members of thecivil service of government should
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 636/661
be selected by competitiveexamination, to obtain for thoseemployments the most intelligenand instructed persons procurable;and much has been said and writte
for and against this proposal. Oneof the arguments most insisted on byits opponents, is that the occupatioof a permanent official servant othe State does not hold out sufficien
prospects of emolument andimportance to attract the highes
talents, which will always be ableto find a more inviting career in the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 637/661
professions, or in the service ocompanies and other public bodies.One would not have been surprisedif this argument had been used bythe friends of the proposition, as a
answer to its principal difficulty.Coming from the opponents it isstrange enough. What is urged as aobjection is the safety-valve of the
proposed system. If indeed all the
high talent of the country could bedrawn into the service of the
government, a proposal tending to bring about that result might well
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 638/661
inspire uneasiness. If every part othe business of society whicrequired organised concert, or largeand comprehensive views, were ithe hands of the government, and i
government offices wereuniversally filled by the ablest men,all the enlarged culture and
practised intelligence in the country,except the purely speculative,
would be concentrated in anumerous bureaucracy, to whom
alone the rest of the communitywould look for all things: the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 639/661
multitude for direction and dictatioin all they had to do; the able andaspiring for personal advancement.To be admitted into the ranks of this
bureaucracy, and when admitted, to
rise therein, would be the soleobjects of ambition. Under thisrégime, not only is the outside
public ill-qualified, for want o practical experience, to criticise or
check the mode of operation of the bureaucracy, but even if the
accidents of despotic or the naturalworking of popular institutions
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 640/661
occasionally raise to the summit aruler or rulers of reformininclinations, no reform can beeffected which is contrary to theinterest of the bureaucracy. Such is
the melancholy condition of theRussian empire, as is shown in theaccounts of those who have hadsufficient opportunity oobservation. The Czar himself is
powerless against the bureaucratic body; he can send any one of the
to Siberia, but he cannot gover without them, or against their will.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 641/661
On every decree of his they have atacit veto, by merely refraining frocarrying it into effect. In countriesof more advanced civilisation andof a more insurrectionary spirit, the
public, accustomed to expeceverything to be done for them bythe State, or at least to do nothinfor themselves without asking frothe State not only leave to do it, bu
even how it is to be done, naturallyhold the State responsible for all
evil which befalls them, and whethe evil exceeds their amount o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 642/661
patience, they rise against thegovernment and make what is calleda revolution; whereupon somebodyelse, with or without legitimateauthority from the nation, vaults into
the seat, issues his orders to the bureaucracy, and everything goes omuch as it did before; the
bureaucracy being unchanged, andnobody else being capable of takin
their place.A very different spectacle is
exhibited among a peopleaccustomed to transact their ow
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 643/661
business. In France, a large part othe people having been engaged imilitary service, many of whohave held at least the rank of non-commissioned officers, there are i
every popular insurrection several persons competent to take the lead,and improvise some tolerable plaof action. What the French are imilitary affairs, the Americans are
in every kind of civil business; lethem be left without a government,
every body of Americans is able toimprovise one, and to carry on tha
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 644/661
or any other public business with asufficient amount of intelligence,order, and decision. This is whatevery free people ought to be: and a
people capable of this is certain to
be free; it will never let itself beenslaved by any man or body omen because these are able to seizeand pull the reins of the centraladministration. No bureaucracy ca
hope to make such a people as thisdo or undergo anything that they do
not like. But where everything isdone through the bureaucracy,
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 645/661
nothing to which the bureaucracy isreally adverse can be done at all.The constitution of such countries isan organisation of the experienceand practical ability of the nation,
into a disciplined body for the purpose of governing the rest; andthe more perfect that organisation isin itself, the more successful idrawing to itself and educating for
itself the persons of greatescapacity from all ranks of the
community, the more complete isthe bondage of all, the members oh b i l d d F h
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 646/661
the bureaucracy included. For thegovernors are as much the slaves otheir organisation and discipline, asthe governed are of the governors.A Chinese mandarin is as much the
tool and creature of a despotism asthe humblest cultivator. Anindividual Jesuit is to the utmosdegree of abasement the slave of hisorder, though the order itself exists
for the collective power andimportance of its members.
It is not, also, to be forgotten,that the absorption of all thei i l bilit f th t i t
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 647/661
principal ability of the country intothe governing body is fatal, sooner or later, to the mental activity and
progressiveness of the body itself.Banded together as they are—
working a system which, like allsystems, necessarily proceeds in agreat measure by fixed rules—theofficial body are under the constantemptation of sinking into indolen
routine, or, if they now and thendesert that mill-horse round, o
rushing into some half-examinedcrudity which has struck the fancyf l di g b f th
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 648/661
of some leading member of thecorps: and the sole check to theseclosely allied, though seeminglyopposite, tendencies, the onlystimulus which can keep the ability
of the body itself up to a higstandard, is liability to the watchfulcriticism of equal ability outside the
body. It is indispensable, therefore,that the means should exist,
independently of the government, oforming such ability, and furnishing
it with the opportunities andexperience necessary for a correcudgment of great practical affairs
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 649/661
udgment of great practical affairs.If we would possess permanently askilful and efficient body ofunctionaries—above all, a bodyable to originate and willing to
adopt improvements; if we wouldnot have our bureaucracydegenerate into a pedantocracy, this
body must not engross all theoccupations which form and
cultivate the faculties required for the government of mankind.
To determine the point at whichevils, so formidable to humafreedom and advancement begin or
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 650/661
freedom and advancement, begin, or rather at which they begin to
predominate over the benefitsattending the collective applicatioof the force of society, under its
recognised chiefs, for the removalof the obstacles which stand in theway of its well-being; to secure asmuch of the advantages ocentralised power and intelligence,
as can be had without turning intogovernmental channels too great a
proportion of the general activity, isone of the most difficult andcomplicated questions in the art o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 651/661
complicated questions in the art ogovernment. It is, in a greameasure, a question of detail, iwhich many and variousconsiderations must be kept i
view, and no absolute rule can belaid down. But I believe that the
practical principle in which safety
resides, the ideal to be kept iview, the standard by which to test
all arrangements intended for overcoming the difficulty, may be
conveyed in these words: thegreatest dissemination of power consistent with efficiency; but the
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 652/661
consistent with efficiency; but thegreatest possible centralisation oinformation, and diffusion of it frothe centre. Thus, in municipaladministration, there would be, as
in the New England States, a verymi nute division among separateofficers, chosen by the localities, o
all business which is not better lef to the persons directly interested;
but besides this, there would be, ieach department of local affairs, a
central superintendence, forming a branch of the general government.The organ of this superintendence
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 653/661
The organ of this superintendencewould concentrate, as in a focus, thevariety of information andexperience derived from theconduct of that branch of public
business in all the localities, froeverything analogous which is donein foreign countries, and from the
general principles of politicalscience. This central organ should
have a right to know all that is done,and its special duty should be tha
of making the knowledge acquiredin one place available for others.Emancipated from the petty
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 654/661
Emancipated from the petty prejudices and narrow views of alocality by its elevated position andcomprehensive sphere oobservation, its advice would
naturally carry much authority; buits actual power, as a permanentinstitution, should, I conceive, be
limited to compelling the localofficers to obey the laws laid dow
for their guidance. In all things no provided for by general rules, those
officers should be left to their owudgment, under responsibility totheir constituents For the violatio
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 655/661
their constituents. For the violatioof rules, they should be responsibleto law, and the rules themselvesshould be laid down by thelegislature; the central
administrative authority onlywatching over their execution, andif they were not properly carried
into effect, appealing, according tothe nature of the case, to the tribunal
to enforce the law, or to theconstituencies to dismiss the
functionaries who had not executedit according to its spirit. Such, in itsgeneral conception, is the central
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 656/661
general conception, is the centralsuperintendence which the Poor Law Board is intended to exerciseover the administrators of the Poor Rate throughout the country.
Whatever powers the Boardexercises beyond this limit, wereright and necessary in that peculiar
case, for the cure of rooted habits omaladministration in matters deeply
affecting not the localities merely, but the whole community; since no
locality has a moral right to makeitself by mismanagement a nest opauperism, necessarily overflowin
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 657/661
pauperism, necessarily overflowininto other localities, and impairinthe moral and physical condition othe whole labouring community.The powers of administrative
coercion and subordinatelegislation possessed by the Poor Law Board (but which, owing to the
state of opinion on the subject, arevery scantily exercised by them),
though perfectly justifiable in a caseof first-rate national interest, would
be wholly out of place in thesuperintendence of interests purelylocal. But a central organ o
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 658/661
ginformation and instruction for allthe localities, would be equallyvaluable in all departments oadministration. A government
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 659/661
run, is the worth of the individualscomposing it; and a State whic
postpones the interests of their
mental expansion and elevation, to alittle more of administrative skill,
or of that semblance of it whic practice gives, in the details o
business; a State which dwarfs itsmen, in order that they may be moredocile instruments in its hands eve
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 660/661
for beneficial purposes, will findthat with small men no great thincan really be accomplished; andthat the perfection of machinery to
which it has sacrificed everything,will in the end avail it nothing, for want of the vital power which, i
order that the machine might wor more smoothly, it has preferred to
banish.
8/12/2019 On Liberty - Mill, John Stuart
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/on-liberty-mill-john-stuart 661/661