D U K E S ; PRIESTS. BISHOPS. 15

A L G I R D A S (Olgierd) , Grand Duke of Lithuania (1345-77), son o f \Gedin\inas, father o f \]ogaUa and '[^vitrigaila. He shared power w i t h his brother Kfstutis: Vi ln ius and the eastern part o f the country was Algirdas' domain, and Kfstutis reigned in Trakai, Samogitia and other western regions. Thus Algirdas was more concerned about relations with Russian duchies, while Kfstutis dealt w i t h the Teutonic Order. Having lived an adventurous life, Kfstut is , a zealous supporter o f pagan Lithuania, called "a heathen knight", enjoyed greater populari ty than his brother. However, Algirdas was a more outstanding poli t ician, thus i n Algirdas' l ifetime Kfstutis occupied only second place i n the state.

I t is k n o w n that i n the year o f Gediminas' death, Algirdas ru led Vitebsk and Krevo. His two wives - princess Mar ia o f Vitebsk and p r i n ­cess \luUanua o f Tver - were Russian Or thodox . The majori ty o f his children adhered to the Russian Or thodox faith, but those who were born in Vi ln ius remained pagan, like their father.

Algirdas annexed Kiev and many other Eastern Slavonic regions to Lithuania, waged war against the Grand Duke of Moscow D m i t r y Donskoi and marched as far as the K r e m l i n . He founded an independ­ent Lithuanian Or thodox metropoly w i t h the centre i n Kiev. He defeated the Tartars at the Battle o f Blue Waters (1363), participated in the strug­gle against the Teutonic knights w i t h a demand to cede to Lithuania almost all o f the ancient Prussian lands along w i t h Konigsberg and a large part o f Livonia . I n Algirdas ' times Lithuania became the largest and most likely strongest Central Eastern European power.

Vilnius grew noticeably. The city became mul t ina t ional and boasted three castles: the Higher, the Lower and the Crooked. The Teutonic army advanced on Vi ln ius twice, but both times the castles remained under Algirdas' control .

Algirdas' epoch is associated w i t h the legends about the Franciscan niartyrs, on whose bur ia l place on Barren H i l l ( H i l l o f Three Crosses) three crosses were erected, and the Russian Or thodox martyrs ]Anthony, John and Eustachius, whose remains are held i n the Russian Or thodox Church o f the Holy Spirit. Stil l , historians emphasize that Algirdas was "oted for his religious tolerance. I n his times Vi ln ius had a Russian Orthodox church serving the needs o f his wife lul iani ia and her retinue, 3s well as several Catholic churches. Nevertheless, he and Kfstutis were

last Li thuanian rulers whose remains were burned according to pagan rites.

Q I: CtAlO

Grand Duke Algirdas of Lilhuania. Artist J. Ozifblowski

Battle ot" Blue Waters medal, l-rom the scries Victorious Lithuanian Arms. Artist P. Repsys, 1989

16 T H E M I D D L E AGE:,

Bishop Andrew. Unknown Lith. artist, I7th C,

Three Vilnius Martyrs icon, Russian Orthodox Church of the Holy Spirit. Latter half of 20th C,

'<'Y-'.X//'l^^r.^J'r^;^...., x/.„„

Grand Duke Gediminas of 1-ithuania. Artist A, Bozza

I n Li thuania and Poland, the male name Algirdas {Olgierd} equals Vytautas in popular i ty and is more frequent than Gediminas, K^stuti'^^ and Mindaugas. There is a street in the Naujamiestis distr ict o f Vi lniu; , named in his honour.

A N D R E W (Andriejus, Andr ius) (?-1398), the first bishop of Vi ln ius Born in Poland Minor , he was a Franciscan m o n k and a famous preach er. I t is guessed that i n \Algirdas' times he carried out missionary worL in Li thuania and Vi ln ius and learned some Lithuanian. He was a confes sor to the Queen of Hungary Elisabeth, the first bishop o f Serei (Moldova) , and in ca. 1376-86 - a suffragan of Gniezno. He belonged i r the group of Jadwiga's counsellors and probably solicited for her mar riage to jogaila. I n 1388 he was appointed Bishop of Vi ln ius and wa.s held i n h igh esteem by both logaila and ^Vytautas, w h o m he probabh crowned as Grand Duke in 1392. He contr ibuted to the bu i ld ing o f th( Vi ln ius Cathedral and St. Martin's Chapel i n the Higher Castle and the establishment o f the cathedra! school. I t is thought that he was bur ied it the Royal Chapel o f the Cathedral.

A N T H O N Y , J O H N A N D E U S T A C H I U S , Russian Or thodox martyrs Legend has i t that they were ]Algirdas' noblemen Nezhila, Kruglets anc Kumets, converted to Chris t iani ty by Nestor, a priest o f his first wife Maria . The pagans purpor tedly became aware o f their conversion wher they began to grow long hair and beards. A t the request o f pagan priesl> all three were impr isoned and i n 1347 hanged on the site o f the later Basilian monastery on the H i l l o f the Holy Trini ty. A wooden memoria ' church was bui l t on that site. I n 1826-51 a special crypt was created in the Russian Or thodox Church o f the Holy Spirit for the remains of Anthony, l o h n and Eustachius. I n 1852 the remains were moved to the general reliquary, where they are presently held ( in 1915 they were taken to Russia, to be returned i n 1946). Their calendar hohday is A p r i l 27th, and the holiday o f the transfer o f the rehcs is June 26th. D u r i n g special services the reliquary is opened: the relics are believed to have heahng power. The saints are recognised and honoured by Russian Or thodox as wel l as Uniate believers.

Some historians are inchned to th ink that there was no religious perse cut ion i n Algirdas' times, and the story o f three Russian Orthodox martyr.'-is a legend created for religious purposes in Moscow in the 15th centui-y.

G E D I M I N A S (Giedymin) , Grand Duke o f Lithuania (1316-41), fathei' o f ]Algirdas and Kfstutis, grandfather o f ]]ogaila and ]Vytautas, thi. founder o f the G e d i m i n i d dynasty (Jagiefton i n the Polish t r a d i t i o n ) . H t was one o f the most remarkable rulers o f early Lithuania, whose myth i cal prestige may be equalled only by Vytautas. Gediminas derives hi: fame f rom a legend that turned h i m into the founder o f Vi ln ius , ani-l hence - a symbol o f the city and the Li thuanian state i tself

Acco rd ing to the chronicles and early Li thuanian historian.'-Gediminas or ig inal ly was the ruler o f Kernave; later he founded Trakai

jUKES. D P I F . S T S . BISHOPS. . 17

Gediminas erecting Vilnius castle. Artist iVI. E. AndriollL 1882

j^ade it his capital, and then laid the foundations for the city o f ^ " l • s "Close to Sventaragis valley [ . . . ] the ruler k i l l ed a forest ox (we

11 it a bul l ) w i t h his spear on the top o f a h i l i . Exhausted after a long r nt and happy about his quarry, he put up at the valley; having plunged

" deep sleep he saw a huge w o l f standing on the top o f the same h i l l ^here he had ki l led the beast, w h i c h seemed to be either total ly i r o n or

clad and inside this w o l f a hundred other wolves produced a great howl that resounded i n the surrounding fields and forests," writes IWojciech Kojalowicz-Wijuk. The prophetic dream was explained to Gediminas by pagan priest '\Lizdeika, w h o impelled h i m to found a castle and a city there. "The ruler obeyed the priest, supposing that he had explained the w i l l o f gods correctly. After pe r forming the rites, he assigned the place for the castle on the top o f the h igh h i l l where he had killed a bull." Here m y t h merges w i t h history: in the centre o f Vi ln ius , on the Gediminas H i l l s t i l l stands the first edifice o f the city, the emblem of Lithuania - a stone castle named after Gediminas. However, its walls apparently date back to a later per iod.

Not much is k n o w n about the historic Gediminas. I t is thought that his grandfather Skalmantas and his father Butvydas (Putavyras) already were grand dukes o f Lithuania. Gediminas mounted the throne after the death o f his elder brother Vytenis. He had more brothers: one o f them according to some historians, was Margins , who w o n fame by his heroic defence o f the Pilenai castle. Gediminas was distinguished not so much as a mi l i t a ry leader, but as a diplomat. Nikolay Gogol called h i m "the great pagan" and respectfully wrote, "This savage pol i t ic ian, w h o was illiterate and bowed to the pagan god, d i d not change the customs and the o ld system of government o f any o f the nations that he had conquered: he left everything the way it had been, conf i rmed all p r i v i ­leges, commanded respect for human rights and d i d not leave any traces of destruction on his way. The pettiness o f the neighbouring nations and historical figures grants h i m giant dimensions." Gediminas annexed Vitebsk, Minsk , Volyn and Hal ich to Lithuania, and Great Novgorod and Kiev fell under his influence. Having t i t led h imsel f "the k ing o f all Lithuanians and many Russians", he most certainly spoke not only Lithuanian, but also Eastern Slavonic - Ruthenian, and had some knowledge o f German and Lat in . He mar r ied his daughter Aldona to the Polish prince Casimir (Kazimierz) , king-to-be Casimir the Great, and as part o f her d o w r y released many Polish captives. The greater part o f Lithuania's borders w i t h the Teutonic Order and the Knights o f the Sword (now the Kal in ingrad region and Latvia), w h i c h have survived t i l l '^lir days, were set i n his times. Gediminas' commander Dav id o f "Grodno advanced as far as Ber l in on his campaigns to the West.

Having fended off a number o f attacks o f the Teutonic Knights, •Gediminas wrote letters in Lat in to Pope John X X I I to Avignon , w i t h promises to adopt Chris t iani ty and assertions that i t was only the ^rder's predatory polhics that hindered Lithuania's Christianisation. I n hese letters he invited craftsmen, merchants, farmers and knights from

West to come to Lithuania. The plan o f Christ ianisation failed, but

Copy of letters by Gediminas, May 26,1323

!8 T H E M I D D L E AGI:

tiedi111iiiils monumciil. Sculpt. V. KaSuba. 1996

Ghillebert de Lannoy

Gediminas' letters made a considerable impression on Europe and con solidated the status o f the Li thuanian state.

These letters, the earliest k n o w n texts wr i t t en in Vi ln ius , are the fir,', historical rather than mythological testimonies o f the Lithuanian capi tal. The first letter (dated January 25, 1323) bears a note saying thai i was wr i t t en " i n our t o w n Vilnius". This date is considered the bi r thdai o f Vi lnius , though an impor tant settlement had definitely existed thcr before Gediminas. I n his letters i t was also ment ioned that there wcr two Catholic churches - Franciscan and Domin ican - in the paga , Vi lnius . There most probably have been Russian Or thodox churches toi i ( two o f Gediminas' brothers were Russian Or thodox - one o f thei ru led Polotsk, whi le the other ruled Kiev) .

It is t radi t ional ly thought that Gediminas was k i l l ed by a Teutonic Knight's shot at Veliuona. His burial place is thought to be either i i Veliuona, or on the so-called H i l l o f Gediminas' Grave in Vi lnius . Soii i . ' are incl ined to t h i n k that he may have been poisoned by plotters. Sevfii o f his sons are k n o w n to us: Manvydas, Narimantas, ^Algirdas, K^stut Karijotas, Liubartas and yaunutis. Not only do grand dukes o f L i thua i i , , and Polish kings descend f rom the Gediminids , but also many Russian aristocratic families (the Golitsyns and others).

The main street o f Vi ln ius is called Ged imino Avenue (earlier it boic the names o f St. George, Adam Mickiewicz , in the Soviet per iod - Stalin and Lenin) . Having ehminated the name o f Gediminas Avenue given I independent Lithuania's government, the Soviets preserved the grai i duke's name on the city map by conferring it to the Cathedral Square The or ig inal names o f the avenue and the square were restored i n 19f<''. I n 1996, a monument to Gediminas was erected in Cathedral Square (by sculptor Vytautas KaSuba).

G H I L L E B E R T D E L A N N O Y (1386-1462), Flemish knight , travcli r and diplomat, counsellor to the Dukes o f Burgundy. He participated 111 the Hundred Years' War and travelled around almost all o f Euroj ' • including England, Germany, Livonia, Pskov, Novgorod, Poland, al' ' Turkey and the Near East. I n 1413-14 he visited the Teutonic Knigl i -and Lithuania, travell ing f rom Konigsberg through the Curonian Spit ' Klaipeda and Liepaja, and finally to Vilnius , Trakai and Kaunas, t k' made his second visit to Lithuania i n 1421 as an envoy o f the King ' ' I England and France H e n r y V, campaigning for the war for the liberali* ' o f Jerusalem against the Turks, and discussed this matter w i t h T/o^'f"''' and 1 Vytautas. I n his travel wr i t ings he described Lithuanian castles ai"^' other places o f interest, nationalities and customs.

Ghil lebert de Lannoy left the first, more extensive description Vi ln ius . According to h i m , Vi ln ius ' "castle is bui l t on a very h igh san h i l l and fort i f ied w i t h stone, earth and brick. Inside i t is all furnisl ' w i t h wood. The castle premises slope down on two sides o f the high I " " to its foot. Encircled w i t h a br ick wal l , they contain many buildings. 1 aforementioned Duke Vytautas, the ruler o f Lithuania, usually stay> '„ the castle and its courtyard. He has his court and establishment thd'--

^^^p<__PKlE5rS. BISHOPS.. . 19

town extended southwest in the direct ion o f the Franciscan church froni the castle. I t was all bu lk o f wood , w i t h the exception o f several tone churches. The cathedral looked similar to the Frauenburg (now

prombork, Poland) Cathedral in Prussia.

f j A l ^ U L . Vi ln ius citizen who assisted ]Jogaila i n de throning and arrest­ing Kfstutis. He may have been the elder o f the German c o m m u n i t y (also called Hanul o f Riga). I n 1382, whi le K?stufis was away, Vi ln ius citizen'' led by Hanul seized the Vi ln ius castle and handed it over to Jogaila (German merchants strongly supported Jogaila, who promised peace w i t h the Teutonic Order, w h i c h meant the f lour ishing o f free trade). Afterwards Hanul became a close counsellor to Jogaila and took part in his negotiations w i t h the Teutonic Knights. As the elder o f Vilnius, he went to Krakow and Hungary to solicit for the marriage o f Jogaila and Jadwiga. After '\Vytautas took power i n Vi ln ius , Hanul moved to Krakow. He died before 1421.

According to ^Vladas Drema, Hanu! bui l t St. Nicholas' Church in

Vilnius.

H E N R Y I V , K ing o f England (1399-1413). Grandson o f K i n g Edward I I I , he was born i n 1367 in Bolingbroke Castle, hence his name H e n r y Bolingbroke. In 1390, he led a force o f 300 Englishmen on the march to Vilnius together w i t h ] Vytautas. According to h i m , at that t ime the city was wooden and d i d not have a defensive wall , but boasted a stone cas­tle. The attackers burned the city and the Crooked Castle, but failed to seize the Higher Castle. In 1392 Henry visited the Teutonic Knights again, and then went to Venice and Jerusalem. I n 1399 w i t h the help o f his supporters he dethroned King Richard I I and was hailed as k ing by the parliament. Henry was the founder o f the Lancaster dynasty (the so-called Red Rose dynasty, which waged war w i t h the Whi te Rose, which was the York dynasty). He died in London. Shakespeare depicted his rule in one o f his best historical chronicles Henry / V (1596-98).

l U L l A N l l A (? - ]392) , Princess o f Tver, wife o f Ulgirdas, mother o f yogaila and ^Svitrigaiia. Having marr ied Algirdas in 1350, she raised seven sons and three daughters: the sons remained pagan, though hj'ianiia herself was a Russian Or thodox. I t is thought that after Algirdas' ^ she st i l l had considerable influence, but after Jogaila's Catholic

^ptism she retreated f rom public life and moved to Vitebsk. Legend has ^ tha t lul iani ia endowed the Church o f the Ho ly Mother o f God at the

' '"'a and was buried there.

J-A.UNUTIS, Grand Duke o f Lithuania (1341-45), son o f ^Gediminas, sr o f ]Algirdas and Kfstutis . Though he was neither the eldest nor

y^^^ '*^ ' gifted son (his name w o u l d suggest that he migh t have been the hist succeeded to the throne after his father's death. Some

*8ain '^"^ suspect that he might have taken part i n the conspiracy Gediminas. D u r i n g his reign Lithuania's relations w i t h Russian

Facade of St. Nichol. Church

King Henry IV of England

Hu.ssiaii Orthodox Church of the Blessed Mother of God. Pre-1810

D I C K I S A A C M E Y E R (1814-93), Jewish writer, one o f the loui | , | o f secular Jewish literature. He was b o r n and died i n Vi ln ius . Initj-.i!, , ' wrote in Hebrew, then in Yiddish , and spread the ideas o f the HaNi,,,|', (Enlightenment) . In 1864 he signed a contract w i t h the R o m m puhli/^ | ing house b ind ing h i m to produce a 48-page short story each m,)„ J These short stories were very popular, their total p r i n t r u n re.i^i^^ 100,000copies, and the majori ty d i d not survive because they ha,| ]•, . _^ w o r n out by constant use. Ca. 300 copies o f Dick's works - belles l-r^^-^'^ and sketches - have survived. These are typical "popular readings'; leaH ism is m ixed w i t h sentimentalism, their adventure and melodrarnatJ plots display the influence o f folklore. D ick wrote the histtny ol. Jerusalem and published some Jewish fo lk wr i t ings . His work^ ivere published in New York in 1954.

D M A C H O U S K I V I K E N C U (Dmochowsk i Wincenty) (1807-f\V,

ist. Born i n Belorussia, he studied at Vi ln ius Universi ty under ]ja„ Rustem (1826-29). He participated i n the upris ing o f 1831, aftei v iitis

emigrated and returned to Vi ln ius i n 1837. There he opened a painting

studio. He painted several panoramas of the city; one o f them was

included i n the Wilno Album compiled by Ijan Kazimierz Wik , fnki. Dmachouski also painted other iconographicaliy precise views of

Vi ln ius , i l lustrated the poem Pan Tadeusz (Master Thaddeus) by ]Adm Mickiewicz, created set designs for the Vi ln ius theatre, among {\\-m lor

the premiere o f Halka by ^Stanislaw Moniuszko. His w o r k bcknigs to

the trend o f Romanticism.

D O S T O Y E V S K Y F Y O D O R (1821-1881), Russian writer. He was boin

i n Moscow and studied at the School o f Engineering in St. Petershmi;.

His first short story Poor Folk (1845) was applauded by crifics, ' I ' f l "

several o f his later more innovatory works d i d not w i n similar a i L l a i m

From 1847 Dostoyevsky belonged to the secret socialistically

Petrashevsky Circle, in 1849 was arrested and sentenced to dealt' ' "i*-

last moment the death sentence was commuted to exile w i t h hard laK'"''

and the wri ter spent ten years in Siberia and Kazakhstan. 1 ' ^

re turn he published several novels (Crime and Punishment, 18( : •'

1868; Brothers Karamazov, 1879-80, etc.), noted for their deep i'^'''^'''^,

and metaphysical problematics, the author's abil i ty to reveal h u n i " ^ ^ ^

tionality, and an innovatory relation o f the author and his cli.i

Dostoyevsky's w o r k made a tremendous influence on the literaH'i^ >

philosophy of Russia and other countries. , . j^j

O n A p r i l 15-16 (27-28) , 1867, on his way abroad Dostoyevsky ' - i j ' ^ ^ ^

Vi ln ius . He d i d not find the city close to his heart, as i t embinli' ' ^^ ^^

spirit o f Catholicism and resistance to the Tsarist regime, '^^'''"^ ^ ii>

writer denied hi the second hal f o f his life. Let us let the diary *>i '

A n n a Snitkina-Dostoyevskaya (1846-1918) speak for itself. ^^^^f Having arrived in Vi ln ius at two i n the afternoon, the Dosti>' ^ ^^^ jf

put up at Han's Hotel on Didz io j i Street A t the hotel gate they ' i ^ ' -

A K T I S T S , W R I T E R S .

jaintance Yelpidifor Barsov, a resident o f Vi ln ius , who offered to be

157

heir g i i i ' l ^ - "We had lunch and went sightseeing", A n n a Dostoyevskaya ' ites. "The city is quite big, the streets are narrow, the roofs are t i led. Ipday i-** Saturday, thus the c i ty is in mo t ion . There are par t icu-l^ly many Jews, walk ing together w i t h their Jewesses wearing yellow

J red shawls and head decorations. Coaches are very cheap here. As ' g vsrere walk ing around the c i ty we grew very t i red and took a coach, iiid the coachman gave us a ride around the city for ten kopecks. [...] j-jtliolic churches are ful l o f believers. We dropped by the Russian Qrthodox Church o f St. Nicholas, unfinished, on D idz io j i Street, to pay respect to the image o f Christ's shroud. Then we dropped by a Catholic -hurch on Ivanovskaya [Sv Jono] street. Then we saw a fortress, and the V'ilija [Neris] river. It is a very swift river, not very wide, but the view iroffl the bank to the distant hil ls , the fortress and a cemetery is very heautifiil- [...] We saw a bridge, then a chapel on George [V. Kudirkos] Square, bui l t i n memory o f the suppression o f the Poles [ . . . ] . We returned home at about seven, 1,,.] I t occurred to Fyodor M i k h a i l o v i c h that we would be robbed in the morn ing , when all the servants went to ihe Mass. Thus he blocked up all the doors w i t h suitcases and tables. A t night, at a quarter to two, he was struck by a very violent attack [of epilepsy], wh ich lasted for 15 minutes."

The Russian Or thodox Church o f St. Nicholas, in w h i c h Dostoyevsky prayed, was the Church o f St. Casimir: at that t ime ^Nikolay Chagin was converting it in to a Russian Or thodox church. The w o r d "fortress" (kre-past) in Dostoyevskaya's manuscript can be also interpreted as "cross" [krest), but most probably she had i n m i n d Gediminas Castle rather than the Three Crosses, st i l l wooden at that t ime.

FINN S A M U E L J O S E P H ( I 8 I 8 - 9 O ) , Jewish writer. He was born , l ived

''I'd died in Vi ln ius . He owned a br ickyard and a sawmil l on the r ight

bank of the Neris at the Zaliasis (Green) Bridge. F inn taught the Bible,

ebrew language and history at the Vi ln ius Rabbinical School and was

l-fV^^'^^^ of the city's Jewish communi ty . He established and edited a

ebrew weekly, which later became a monthly, Ha-Karmel (1860-81),

ushed dictionaries and historical books. Particularly valuable is his

Vi ln ius Jews A Faithful City (Kiryah Neemanah, I860); F inn

^^^'^ the material for this book even f rom tombstone inscriptions,

'tied^'^ "^^"y languages and was a distinguished translator. He com-

''^f ^^^^^ o f Enlightenment and the t rad i t ion o f Judaism. F inn was

p. Seskines Cemetery.

Se^^^ "^" l e was given to a street i n ^nipiskes already before the

Wor ld War, Odd ly enough, i t was not renamed i n the pe r iod o f

'^'^'^upation, but in the Soviet t imes i t was called Skersine. azi

1o?^7*^^ J A K O B ( I 8 2 7 - 9 7 ) , rebel and memoiris t . He was b o r n to ig. ainily near Kaunas, studied in Kedainiai and Vi ln ius , later in

^acuity o f St. Petersburg University, w h i c h he d i d not finish. I n

Church ofSt, Casimir traiiwlbrnietl inlo a Russian Orlhiidox church. Photo. J, Czechowicz

Samuel hiiin

Jokob Gieysztor, i'hoto. A. Korzon. 1863

T O T A L I T A R I A N I S M AND FRHlU),

Worked al the Viltis (Hope) newspaper i n Vi lnius . Spent the First \ V ( ) , | j

War in Voronezh; taught at Kaunas University, and edited the Diction..,,-of the Lithuanian Language. After the Second W o r l d War he was a j fessor at Vi ln ius University (1944-60), director o f the Institute (,(

Lithuanian Language (1944-52), and an academic (1946). Though

missed by the Soviets as editor o f the Dictionary of the Lithuu-.,^,!^ Language (1954), he remained its inspirat ion and greatest supports , |

collected folklore, studied place names i n the Vi ln ius environs, ai j translated a grammar wr i t ten by his friend IJan Otrfbski into Lithiuici,!,^

(unpublished). Apicul ture and the study o f apiary terminology, wcro hjj

favourite pastimes. He lived in the House o f Scientists near Lukj .^ij Square, d ied i n Vilnius , and was bur ied i n Erisldai.

K n o w n for his independent stance dur ing the Soviet per iod, Balcikon js used his income to support families o f deportees. His strong sense ni i^g

l iv ing language helped to maintain and consolidate its standards

diff icul t occupational conditions. Some of his recommendations w^-^

considered too o d d and were therefore only partially accepted, -i

rejected: e.g., he denounced the familiar words gandras, jaunuoli myn (offered guzas, jaunikaitis, priekin instead), and would not aiijcpi neologisms such as atostogos, bezdzione, karininkas i n lieu o f the In; jLin words vakacijos, malpa, aficierius. Nevertheless, his influence on stu­dents and other linguists was such that Baicikonis was, and still is, um-

sidered the greatest advocate o f the Li thuanian language o f his Hnie, Several generations o f chi ldren learned the rules o f the language iiuiii

his translations and editions o f stories by Hans Chris t ian Andersen, the Brothers G r i m m , and others.

B A R A V Y K A S G E D I M I N A S (1940-95), architect. Born in l'.ls^,^lvs. Graduate o f the Li thuanian Institute o f A r t (1964). He and his gci iii-on were the first to overcome the dogmas o f socialist realism. I)i.s.i,iH'il

the C i v i l Marriage Bureau on K. Kahnausko St. i n Vi ln ius (1974); l"^^''" her w i t h others, the National Gallery on Konstitucijos Ave. (1980: ,iiid the Church o f Jurgis Matulait is The Blessed on Laisves Ave. (I"^'''!)' Designed the architectural po r t ion o f the Salomeja Neris monum*' ' '

Vilniaus St, (1974, sculpt. Vladas Vildziunas). Designed trade

merce centres, and was chief city architect (1990-94). Energe

lively, Baravykas was popular w i t h his colleagues and the Vilnius

i n general.

nii-

J B A U B L Y S P E T R A S (1914-73), physician. B o r n in Lida. Gradua'^^^

Vytautas IVIagnus University i n Kaunas (1936). Under his d''"' ' ' | | '^[,

many Jewish children were saved in the "Lopselis" (Cradle)

ter du r ing the t ime o f the Nazi occupation. Baublys taught at ^ ' '^^

Universi ty f rom 1944. He was the city's most popular paediatricia"'

w i t h others wrote books about children's development and '"'"""i^g,

D i e d in a plane accident near Moscow (a catastrophe that was i up by Soviet censors).

^01 LAIi'^''l''^''ORS, C U L T U R A L A C T I V I S T S , RESISTANTS

p O B U T A K A Z Y S (1905-65), Li thuanian writer . Born in Kulokai n e a r j^g,-ijampoIe, Attended school in Mari jampole; studied literature, histo-

philosophy in Kaunas, Vienna, Berl in, Politically a radical lef t-wing-

rneniber o f the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, he opposed the

authoritarian government o f ^Antanas Smetona, and the Nazi and

goviet regimes; a pol i t ical emigrant (1927-31). Participated in the left-

v/ing magazine Trecias frontas {Third Front), but maintained an inde­

pendent posi t ion. Imprisoned (1933-35), later granted amnesty.

After it was reclaimed by Lithuania, Boruta lived in Vilnius , where he

^as head o f the Literature Museum (1941; 1945-46). D u r i n g the Second

World War he helped to rescue Jewish people, d i d his best to preserve

Lithuanian manuscripts, worked on an anthology o f 1000 Li thuanian

poets. He often wrote about Vi lnius : And we - the homeless - / at home Ifi Vilnius, / like nowhere I else in the world... Arrested by the Soviets in

1946; sentenced to 5 years i n pr ison i n the Uonas Noreika case because

he knew of, but d i d not report the activities o f the resistance. Granted

amnesty in 1949, he could no publish his works for a long t ime; signed

translations (mostly classics from the West) under assumed names.

Returned to the Writers ' U n i o n in 1957. Mar r i ed briefly to Uadvyga Ciurlionyte. D ied in Vi ln ius , and was bur ied in Rasif Cemetery.

In his lifetime Boruta t r ied to establish the image o f an authentic per­

sonality, the unaccommodating romantic, A non-conformist who paid

dearly for his beliefs, he influenced his contemporaries and younger intel­

lectuals mainly through his personal example. His earher poems were

translated into Polish i n 1933-36 b y ^Czeslaw Mibsz, who had the fo l ­

lowing to say about Boruta: "The freshness and independence o f his

works raise h i m to the level o f Europe's best poets." He is better known for his prose, especially the folklore novel The Milt of Ballaragis (Baltaragio malQnas, 1945), which was immediately confiscated and banned by the

Soviet censors. Later translated into many languages ( including Icelandic),

the novel was adapted into a theatre product ion, ballet, and film.

B R O D S K I J J O S I F (Joseph Brodsky) (1940-96), Russian poet, Nobel

Prize laureate (1987), Born in St, Petersburg (then Leningrad). Left

Secondary school, worked i n a factory and on geological expeditions;

'ndependently acquired a broad education. His earlier poems were gre-

^t'y esteemed by lAnna Akhmatova. He was arrested and exiled by the

oviet authorities to the Arkhangelsk region in 1964, after becoming

'Jssia's most popular self-pubhshed poet; released at the end o f 1965

^ ^ o w i n g universal protest. Forced to emigrate in 1972; taught at

erican universities, and soon became one o f the country's most pro-

^nt l i terary figures. Also wrote i n English. He died in New York, and

""^^ buried in Venice.

. / ' ^ ^ ^ ^ created a unique style o f poetry characterised by an exceptio-

t jg^"^^^^^r fu l , usually tradit ional form, intellectual irony, and existen-

tjj. ^'^^ "^^taphysical themes. He w a s also an essayist and literary c r i -

287

Kazys lioruta

Josif Brodskij

C O N T E N T S

Preface 19

T H E M I D D L E A G E S /13

R E N A I S S A N C E 129

B A R O Q U E 157

T H E Y E A R S O F D E C L I N E A N D R E F O R M S /87

R O M A N T I C I S M /109

T H E T I M E S OF T S A R I S T O P P R E S I O N /149

O N T H E T H R E S H O L D OF I N D E P E N D E N C E /187

C O N T R O V E R S Y O V E R T H E C A P I T A L /229

T O T A L I T A R I A N I S M A N D F R E E D O M /283

Index /335 ,