occupational health & safety principles 31.01.14

Occupational Health & Safety

Delegate Workbook

Occupational Health and Safety Principles

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Unit 1: Introduction

1. IntroductionOccupational Health is the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations by preventing departures from health, controlling risks and the adaptation of work to people, and people to their jobs (ILO/ WHO, 1950). OHS involves the identification and control of the risks arising from physical, chemical, and other workplace hazards in order to establish and maintain a safe and healthy working environment. According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the main focus in occupational health is on three different objectives:

to maintain and promote workers’ health and working capacity; to improve the working environment and work to become conducive to safety and

health; and to develop work organizations and working cultures in a direction which supports

health and safety at work and in doing so also promotes a positive social climate and smooth operation and may enhance productivity of the undertakings.

Occupational Safety is the maintenance of a work environment that is relatively free from actual or potential hazards that can injure employees (IAPA, 2007). Safety is therefore the condition of being free from harm, risk, or injury; workplace safety aims at the protection of employees in their specific jobs from adverse health effects or injury caused by their working conditions. To ensure the safety and health of workers in a work environment, health and safety programmes should be developed which ensure:

management commitment; accountability; safety programs, policies, and plans; safety inspections for workplace hazards; hazard identification and control; safety committees to promote employee involvement; as well as safety education and training.

Occupational health and safety (OHS) is generally defined as the science of the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could impair the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the surrounding communities and the general environment (Alli, 2008). Occupational health and safety encompasses a large number of disciplines and numerous workplace and environmental hazards. A wide range of structures, skills, knowledge and analytical capacities are needed to coordinate and implement all of the “building blocks” that make up national OHS systems so that protection is extended to both workers and the environment.

Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many specialised fields. In its broadest sense, it should aim at:

the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations;

the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their working conditions;

the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health;




the placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment adapted to physical and mental needs;

the adaptation of work to humans.

The high prevalence of accidents, occupational diseases and injuries in most workplaces requires the implementation of preventive and protective measures that assure the safety and health of workers. These unfortunate occurrences also threaten the lives of other workers and their dependents, and in addition to the pain, suffering or death endured by the victims, they also lead to loss of experienced labour (skilled and unskilled), material loss (machinery and equipment as well as nonconforming products) and collateral damage (costs of medical care, compensation costs, repair or replacement of damaged machinery or equipment).

The measures for the prevention and control of hazards should be founded on a clearly defined policy at the level of the enterprise. The occupational health and safety (OHS) policy should be concise, easily understood, approved by the highest level of management and communicated to everyone in the organisation. A policy is a statement of intent, and a commitment to plan for coordinated management action; a policy should provide a clear indication of a company’s health and safety objectives, which in turn, provides direction for the OHS program (IAPA, 2007).Successful occupational health and safety practice requires the collaboration and participation of both employers and workers in health and safety programmes, and involves the consideration of issues relating to occupational medicine, industrial hygiene, toxicology, education, engineering safety, ergonomics, psychology, etc.

1.1 Occupational Health and Safety ManagementOrganisations that are successful in managing health and safety recognise the relationship between the control of risks, general health and the very core of the business itself (HSE, 2008). Occupational health and safety policies are aligned with other human resource management policies designed to secure commitment and involvement and to promote the well-being of employees. These initiatives can take the form of job restructuring – to reduce monotony and increase flexibility, or health promotion campaigns. Organisations that want to behave ethically and responsibly:

recognise the benefits of a fit, enthusiastic, competent and committed workforce; realise that progressive human resource management policies can be undermined by

weak health and safety policies; and show that they are concerned not simply with preventing accidents and ill health (as

required by health and safety legislation) but also with positive health promotion.

The ultimate goal of OHS management in any organisation is thus to improve its health and safety performance, so that accidents and ill health are eliminated to the mutual benefit of both the employee and the organisation. This integrated approach extends outside the organisation in policies for the control of off-site risks, environmental pollution and product safety.

The benefits of good health and safety standards include (Conigilo, 2010): health, happy and motivated work teams; reduction in sick leave; good reputation; increased performance and profitability;




orderly working environment and procedures; confidence in health and safety standards; increased job security.

The costs of poor health and safety standards include (Conigilo, 2010): accidents, illness and stress; fatalities; increased sick leave; loss of earnings and increased personnel costs; bad publicity; reduced company performance; prosecution, fines and imprisonment; high staff turnover; prohibition and closure; compensation claims; increased insurance costs;

1.2 Role of Occupational Health and SafetyWorkersare exposed to occupational accidents and work-related accidents/ hazards that are inherent at the individual workplaces, hence there is need to implement preventive and control measures by all the stakeholders, that is, the employer, managers and employees (Alli, 2008). The measures for the prevention and control of occupational hazards should be founded on clearly defined and formulated policies. The policy should be documented, and cover all the requisite arrangements for ensuring health and safety, and will particularly include the following:

allocation of responsibilities for OHS within the organisation; communicate information on policies to all stakeholders; determine the organisation of OHS services; and determine measures for the surveillance of the work environment and employee

health.

Health and safety at work describes the measures designed to protect employees, visitors and members of the public who may be affected by the work activities (Conigilo, 2010). Injuries are most commonly caused by:

lifting, carrying or handling activities; slipping, tripping or falling; being struck by a moving object or vehicle; contact with moving machinery; contact with harmful substances such as chemicals, or making contact with electricity; extremes of temperature; explosions; drowning or asphyxiation.

Occupational illnesses (those linked with work activities) include diseases and conditions such as:

vibrating injuries; hearing damage; asthma; dermatitis;




musculoskeletal disorders; stress, depression, and anxiety; chemical exposure.

1.3 The Role of SupervisorsThe roles played by supervisors in OHS management can be summarised as (Stranks, 2006):

introduction – get to know employees in his charge and be known to them; instruction – clearly pass information and theory regarding safe systems of work,

personal protective equipment, accident and hazard reporting procedures, among others;

demonstration – practical demonstrations of safe task completion; practice – give room to workers to become proficient in tasks including the requisite

safety precautions; monitoring performance – observe and employees’ competence including compliance

to safety procedures/ practices; reporting – evaluate employees’ performance including compliance to safety

procedures; correcting and encouraging – with regards to safe systems of work.

It is therefore critical that all the above factors are taken into consideration in the training of a supervisor, especially the duties and responsibility necessary for sound health and safety performance levels in each section.

1.4 Costs of Occupational Injures/ Diseases Work-related accidents or diseases can be very costly and result in direct and indirect effects on the lives of workers and their families (ILO, 1996). For workers some of the direct costs of an injury or illness are:

the pain and suffering of the injury or illness; the loss of income; the possible loss of a job; health-care costs.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that the indirect costs of an accident or illness can be as high as four to ten times greater than the direct costs. The human suffering caused to workers' familiesis one of the most prevalent indirect costs of workplace accidents or diseases. Some of the direct costs for employersare:

payment of wages for sick/ injured workers; medical and compensation payments; repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment; reduction or a temporary halt in production; increased training expenses and administration costs; possible reduction in the quality of work; negative effect on morale in other workers.

The indirect costs for employers include: a new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust; it takes time for the new worker to reach the productivity level of the original worker; time-consuming root cause analysis/ obligatory investigations, to the writing of

reports and filling out of forms;




accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence labour relations in a negative way;

poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in poor public relations.

Thecosts of most work-related accidents or illnesses to workers and their families and to employers are very high. On a national scale, the estimated costs of occupational accidents and illnesses can account for as high as three to four per cent of a country's gross national product. In reality, the total costs of work-related accidents or diseases are unknown because of the multitude of indirect costs which are difficult to measure besides the more obvious direct costs.

1.5 Occupational Health and Safety Legislation Appropriate legislation and regulations, together with adequate means of enforcement, are essential for the protection of workers’ health and safety (Alli, 2008). The ILO contends that legislation is the very foundation of social order and justice; and its absence and lack of enforcement opens the room for various forms of abuse. The law directly regulates specific components of working conditions and the work environment that includes hours of work and areas affecting occupational health and safety. The major challenge worldwide with regards to OHS legislation is its application and practice; thus governments have put in place the necessary measures in the form of labour inspection systems that ensure that certain statutory requirements and obligations are met. The other major OHS problem relates to dealing with new hazards, more so with the high speed of technology change being experienced.

The OHS Legislation is meant to help industry to achieve compliance with regulations and accepted good practice. Legislation provides guidance that assist in the uniformity and consistency in enforcement and the application of regulatory controls and to provide the industry with a clear, open indication of what should be expected. The main objective of OHS law is thus to protect the health and safety of the worker, which health and safety is assured through the implementation of OHS systems that ensure the involvement and active participation of all the relevant stakeholders.

Unit 2: Personal Protective Equipment

2. IntroductionThere are inherent hazards in the workplace that workers are exposed to on a daily basis, and it is the responsibility of management to ensure that appropriate measures are put in place to




protect the health and safety of workers. In order to ensure the safety and health of workers in a work environment, there is need to develop health and safety programmes that ensure management commitment, accountability, safety programs, policies and plans, safety inspections for workplace hazards, hazard identification and control, safety committees to promote employee involvement, as well as safety education and training. The Factories Act places a responsibility on employers to provide employees with suitable protective clothing in any process involving excessive exposure to wet or to any injurious or offensive substance.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to all equipment (including clothing affording protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn or held by a person at work which protects them against one or more risks to their health and safety (Gardiner, et al, 2005).PPE is widely used, primarily because it is perceived to be effective and relatively inexpensive protection, whereas alternative techniques such as substitution, segregation or other controls either cannot be applied or are perceived to be expensive. Employees provided with PPErequire adequate information, instruction and/or training on its use. The extent of information, instruction and/or training will vary with the complexity and performance of the kit. Refreshertraining may be required from time to time, in addition to initial training on the proper use and maintenance of PPE. The routine checks done by supervisors on the use of PPE may help to determine when refresher training is required.

2.1 Types of PPEIt is the responsibility of the employer to provide PPE as necessary to protect employees from workplace hazards (Woodside, et al, 1997). The types of PPE include protective equipment for the head, eyes, face and extremities; protective clothing, respiratory devices and protective shields and barriers. The hazards that warrant such protective equipment include process hazards, chemical hazards, radiological hazards and mechanical irritants that could cause injury through absorption, inhalation, or physical contact. Where employees provide their own PPE, the employer must ensure that it is adequate, properly maintained and sanitary. The employer must also:

assess the hazards present or likely to be present in the workplace that necessitate the use of PPE and prepare reports of the assessment;

select the appropriate PPE for the identified hazards; communicate the selection decisions to employees; ensure proper use of the PPE by employees; ensure proper fit of PPE for each employee; provide training to employees, including when PPE is necessary, what PPE is

necessary, proper wearing of PPE, limitations of PPE, care and maintenance of PPE, and the useful life and disposal of PPE;

ensure employees understand the training before they are allowed to carry out work requiring PPE;

maintain records of employee training on PPE.

2.1.1 Eye and Face Protection




Eye and face protection is required when employees are exposed to potential hazards such as flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acid or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapours, or potentially injurious light radiation (Woodside, et al, 1997). The injuries from these hazards often result in severe pain and discomfort, in many cases, long-term visual impairment. Eye protection takes the form of spectacles, goggles or face shields; and suitability for the hazard and comfort must be the over-riding factors in choosing the particular device, as the users must have complete confidence in the protection it provides and must not be forced to remove it to relieve discomfort during the operation for which protection is required (Harrington, et al, 2007).

Each harmful agent will require a form of particular of protection, which may be unsuitable for another agent. In other instances, the protection may extend to cover the face; whatever hazard(s) exist, the device must be carefully chosen to suit the specific hazard(s). Eye protection takes the form of spectacles, goggles or face shields:

Safety spectacles: are only suitable for low energy hazards but are available in a wide range of sizes to suit the face. The different types include clear, clip on, prescription, tinted (anti-flash);

Goggles: are suitable for a wide range of hazards but limited in fittings from any one manufacturer. The different types include chemical, dust, gas, gas welding, general purpose, molten metal;

Shields: are suitable to protect the eyes or the whole face, can be attached to a helmet or a head band but may be hand-held. The different types include eye, face, furnace viewing, welding.

2.1.2 Respiratory Protection Employers must use engineering controls to prevent atmospheric contamination from dusts, fogs, fumes, mists, gases, smokes, sprays or vapours, where feasible (Hughes, et al, 2011). The preferred method of reducing worker exposure to respiratory hazards is to minimize the quantity of contaminants in the air through elimination, substitution or engineering controls. Where engineering controls are not feasible, employers must provide employees with respirators which must be applicable and suitable for the intended purpose.Respiratory protective equipment can be divided into two categories – respirators (or face masks) which filter and clean the air, and breathing apparatus which supply breathable air. The most common forms of respirators are:

filtering half mask– often disposable respirator made of the filtering material; covers the nose and mouth and filters respirable size dust particles;

half mask respirator – manufactured from rubber or plastic and designed to cover the nose and mouth, have a replaceable filter cartridge. With the appropriate cartridge fitted, they are suitable for dust, gas or vapour;

full-face mask respirator– similar to a half mask type but covers the eyes with a visor;

powered respirator– a battery-powered fan supplies air through a filter to the face mask, hood, helmet or visor.

Breathing apparatus are used in one of three forms: self-contained breathing apparatus – the air is supplied from compressed air in a

cylinder and forms a completely sealed system;




fresh air hose apparatus – fresh air is delivered to a sealed face mask through a hose from an uncontaminated source;

compressed air line apparatus – fresh air is delivered through a hose from a compressed air line, either in continuous flow or on demand.

2.1.3 Head Protection Injuries to the head are generally the result of blows caused by the impact of angular objects falling from a height, whereas in other cases, workers may strike their heads in a fall or suffer a collision between some fixed object and their heads (Woodside, et al, 1997). A safety helmet primarily serves to protect the head of the wearer against hazards, mechanical, thermal and electrical shocks. A safety helmet should satisfy the following requirements in order to minimise the effects of shocks to the head (Balty, et al, 1998):

minimise the shock applied to the skull by spreading the load over the largest possible surface by providing a large harness that matches various skull shapes, together with a shell hard enough to prevent direct contact of the head with falling objects or should the head hit a hard surface, thus the shell must be able to resist deformation and perforation;

have a smoothly rounded shape to deflect falling objects; protruding ridges tend to arrest falling objects and thus retain slightly more kinetic energy than perfectly smooth helmets;

dissipate and disperse the energy that may be transmitted to it in such a way that the energy is not passed totally to the head and neck by means of the harness, securely fixed to the hard shell to absorb a shock without being detached from the shell. The harness must be flexible enough to undergo deformation under impact without touching the inside surface of the shell. This deformation, which absorbs most of the energy of a shock, is limited by the minimum amount of clearance between the hard shell and the skull and by the maximum elongation of the harness before it breaks.

Figure 2.1: Example of Essential Elements of Safety Helmet

2.1.4 Skin ProtectionThe general categories of hazards for which protective clothing can provide protection include chemical, physical and biological (Hughes, et al, 2011). The examples of the dermal hazard categories are shown in Table2.1 below:




Hazard ExampleChemical Dermal toxins

Systemic toxinsCorrosivesAllergens

Physical Thermal hazards (hot/ cold)VibrationRadiationTrauma producing

Biological Human pathogensAnimal pathogensEnvironmental pathogens

Table 2.1: Examples of Dermal Hazard Categories

Skin protection includes guarding hands, feet and body against: damage from dermatitis or corrosive agents absorption into the body via the skin. radiant heat cold ionizing and non-ionizing radiation physical damage.

The material used for gloves, apron or garment must be suited to the purpose and must be chosen carefully.

2.1.5 Hearing Protection Noise is produced in a range of frequencies, and therefore the choice of hearing (not ear) protection must be based upon the measured spectrum of the noise to be attenuated (Hughes, et al, 2011). Hearing protectors are either ear-muffs, which cover the ears, or ear plugs that are inserted into the ear canals. It is recommended that hearing protection should be used if the workplace noise levels cannot be reduced to below 82db (A). The degree of protection provided should be such that the level at the workers ears is below 82db (A).

i. Ear-muffsThese consist of a cup-shaped cover over each ear, held in place by a spring-loaded headband, which are edged with a cushion filled with liquid or foam to ensure a good seal around the ear. The degree of attenuation is affected by material of the cup and its lining and the success of the device depends upon the quality of the seal around the ear. Servicing and replacement facilities must be provided for ear-muffs because they will deteriorate with time, in particular at the seals, which become distorted and harden with age.

ii. Ear plugsAn ear plug is a device worn in the external ear canal, with pre-moulded available in a range of sizes to fit into the ear canals of most people. These are designed to be inserted into the ear canal, and can be of a variety of materials:




Disposable plugs Reusable plugs

Glass down Paste-filled rubberPlastic-coated glass down Paste-filled plasticWax-impregnated cotton wool Permanent moulded plastic Polyurethane foam

Table 2.2: Materials for Ear Plugs

The reusable plugs require washing after use and a sterile place for storage, while the disposable plugs are available in wall-mounted dispensers or in cartons containing several days’ supply.

2.1.6 Foot and Leg ProtectionFoot and leg injuries result mostly from the dropping of a heavy object particularly to the toes, and are more prevalent among workers in the heavier industries such as mining, metal manufacture, engineering and building and construction work (Hughes, et al, 2011). Moltenmetals sparks or corrosive chemicals occur frequently in foundries, iron- and steelworks, chemical plants can cause burns of the lower limbs. Acidic and alkaline agents can cause dermatitis or eczema. Physicalinjury to the foot can be caused by striking it against an object or by stepping on sharp protrusions such as can occur in the construction industry. Improvements in the work environment have made the simple puncturing and laceration of the worker’s foot by protruding floor nails and other sharp hazards less common, but accidents from working on damp or wet floors still occur, particularly when wearing unsuitable foot wear.

The type of foot and leg protection required is related to the risk involved; where in some light industries, it may be sufficient for workers to wear well-made ordinary shoes. Foot protection takes the form of safety boots/ shoes and gum boots.

2.2 Maintenance and Storage of PPEPPE requires an effective maintenance system to ensure that the equipment continues to provide the degree of protection for which it is designed (NHS, 2012). The maintenance of PPE should follow the manufacturer’s instructions, which includes maintenance schedule, recommended replacement periods and shelf lives. The maintenance of PPE may include cleaning, examination, replacement, repair and testing. The wearer may be able carry out simple maintenance like cleaning, but more intricate repairs can only be performed by competent personnel. All PPE must be examined before use, while any loss or obvious defect must be immediately reported to the supervisor. Employees must take reasonable care for any PPE provided to them and not carry out any maintenance unless trained and authorised.

Adequate storage facilities must be provided for when PPE is not in use, unless where the employees may take PPE away from the workplace. Accommodation may be simple (e.g. pegs for waterproof clothing or safety helmets) and it need not be fixed (e.g. a case for safety glasses or a container in a vehicle). Storage should be adequate to protect the PPE from contamination, loss, damage, damp or sunlight. PPE that may become contaminated during use should be stored separately from any storage provided for ordinary clothing.




2.3 Provision and Replacement of PPEThe responsibility for ensuring the provision of the correct PPE lies with management regardless of the arrangements for supply. The arrangements for providing replacement PPE must take into consideration the fact that unless a task requiring PPE can be stopped, avoided or delayed until new PPE is obtained, replacement PPE must always be readily available. Some organisations and departments operate central stores that deal with the provision of PPE. In most cases, individual units/service areas are responsible for arranging the supply of required PPE to staff.

2.4 Types of PPE SignageSafety signs and colour are useful tools to help protect the health and safety of employees and workplace visitors (IAPA, 2007). Safety signs act as a visual reminder to reinforce training and compliance with safety policies and procedures. Safety signs are used to:

draw attention to health and safety hazards; point out hazards that may not be obvious; provide general information and directions; remind employees where personal protectiveequipment must be

worn; show where emergency equipment is located; and indicate where certain actions are prohibited.

It is a legal requirement that employers make a determination if there is need for PPE to be used to protect their workers from any hazards present in the workplace. WherePPE is required/ used, a PPE programme should be implemented, which addresses the following:

hazards present; selection, maintenance, and use of PPE; training of employees; and monitoring of the program to ensure its ongoing effectiveness.

Examples of some commonly used PPE signs are illustrated below:



http://www.clarionsafety.com/S10356-PPE


Figure 2.2: Types of PPE Signs

2.5 Importance of Wearing PPEThe main function of PPEis to act as barriers between a person and a hazard, thus preventing injuries by protecting the wearer from exposure to hazards on the job. An employee is responsible for the maintenance and care of all PPE’s assigned to him or her. Employers should know the hazards their workers face on the job, and then provide the proper equipment to protect against those hazards. It’s important that workers be trained on how to use and care for the equipment so it will provide maximum protection. The function and purpose of the various forms of personal protection are outlined below:

i. Head Protection Hardhats are designed to absorb a high degree of shock from a blow or impact and protect the head, and also provide protection from penetration, side pressure, flames and electric current. These must be worn in areas where there is danger from falling objects and bumping hazards.

ii. Eye and Face ProtectionProtective devices for the eyes and the face such as goggles, spectacles and face shields must be worn when performing jobs that may cause hard, sharp or small objects to fly or corrosive liquids or chemicals to splash. Eye injuries can occur at anytime so constant awareness is required to identify when eye protection is necessary.

iii. Hand Protection Hands and fingers are susceptible to injuries like amputations, lacerations, burns, fracture. The major source of hazards include workplace materials, equipment and processes especially moving machine parts, chemicals, materials handling, pointed objects and rough materials. Hands and fingers should be treated with care to prevent injuries, following the



http://www.clarionsafety.com/S10347-PPE


safe procedure when using tools and machines and handling chemicals and other contaminating substance, on and off the job. Lockouts, tag outs and company issued and approved working gloves must be worn when performing work hazardous to hands and fingers.

iv. Respiratory ProtectionWorkingwith hazardous substances that produce dusts and other particulates, mist, vapours, gases or fumes requires protection to be worn in the form of respirators, foam and surgical masks. The high risk of exposure (through inhalation) can cause possible health effects which may affect the mental and physical well-being of the worker.

v. Hearing protectionNoise hurts and sometimes inflicts permanent damage, which effects can be mitigated by wearing ear protection in areas where decibel readings are high especially those with machineries and equipment producing loud and strong noise.

vi. Body protection Jobs that pose a risk of damaging the body from exposure to on-the-job physical and health hazards require the wearing of clothing that resists the hazards involved like coveralls or partial body protective equipment such as aprons, gloves or boots.

vii. Fall protectionWorking in elevated and hazardous locations presents a risk of falling, thus safety belts must be worn and attached to a nearby solid support, except where especially built and railed scaffolds are provided.

Unit 3: General Safety Rules

3. IntroductionThe ultimate goal of any health and safety management system is to prevent injury and ill health in the workplace (HSE, 2008). Adequate workplace precautions have to be provided and maintained to prevent harm to people at the point of risk, which risks are created in the business process as resources and information are used to create products and services. Each




stage of business activity in the workplace will require the necessary precautions to match the hazards and risks that are inherent in the workplace.

Some of the practices commonly used in the workplace to achieve job safety and which are necessary for disruption-free process flow include, but are not limited to the following:

workers and supervisors must have an awareness of the dangers and potential hazards (e.g., through education);

workers must be motivated to function safely (behaviour modification); workers must be able to function safely; this can be achieved through certification

procedures, training and education; the personal working environment should be safe and healthy through the use of

administrative or engineering controls, substitution of less hazardous materials or conditions, or by the use of personal protective equipment;

equipment, machinery and objects must function safely for their intended use, with operating controls designed to human capabilities;

provisions should be made for appropriate emergency response in order to limit the consequences of accidents, incidents and injuries.

General safety rules provide a framework ensuring positive standards of behaviour for all staff in the organisation (IAPA, 2008). The responsibilities for safety in the workplace can be summarised as:

employees – must adhere to the general safety rules at all times in the organization; supervisors – mustensure that all employees within their departments have been

trained and are working in compliance with the general safety rules; Health and safety coordinators – develop and maintain current general safety rules

in consultation with the joint health and safety committees; Management – review and approve all general safety rules, in consultation with the

joint health and safety committee and the health and safety coordinator, prior to implementation.

3.1 IntoxicationIntoxication is a condition that follows the administration of a psychoactive substance and results in the disturbance of consciousness, cognition, perception, judgement, affect or behaviour, or other psychological functions and responses (ILO, 1995). A psychoactive drug or substance is a substance that when ingested affects mental processes. Employees affected by drug and alcohol use can cause injury to themselves and others, and damage their physical and mental health. Workmates of a drug or alcohol user are faced with an increased risk of injury and disputes, covering for colleagues’ poor work. The consequences which employers are faced with include late coming and absenteeism, lost time and reduced production and work quality as a result of incidents and injuries. Losses associated with inefficiency and damage to plant, equipment and other property can also be incurred.

3.1.1 Alcohol and Other Drug UseProblems relating to alcohol and drug use may arise from personal, family or social factors or from certain work situations or from a combination of these elements (ILO, 1995). Such




problems do not only have adverse effects on the health and well-being of workers, but may also cause difficulties at work including deterioration in job performance. Given that there are multiple causes of alcohol and drug related problems, there are consequently multiple approaches to prevention, assistance, treatment and rehabilitation.

Some indicators that can suggest the presence of alcohol and other drug misuse include: ‘near miss’ incidents; violence; habitual lateness; frequent absences; neglect of personal grooming; interpersonal problems; employee experiencing poor coordination, poor concentration and/or visual

disturbance.

3.1.2 Developing an Alcohol and Drugs PolicyThe employer, in consultation with employees and their representatives should develop a written policy on alcohol and drugs in the workplace (ILO, 1995). The development of such a policy should be conducted in cooperation with medical personnel and other experts with specialized knowledge on alcohol or drug related problems. Comprehensive workplace alcohol and other drug policies apply to all workers in the workplace and include prevention, education, counseling and rehabilitation arrangements. As a minimum, a policy on alcohol and drugs in the workplace should contain information and procedures on:

measures to reduce alcohol or drugs related problems in the workplace through proper management of personnel, good employment practices, improved working conditions, proper arrangement of work, consultation between management, employees and their representatives;

measures to prohibit or restrict the availability of alcohol and drugs in the workplace; prevention of alcohol or drugs related problems through information, education,

training, and any other relevant programmes; identification, assessment and referral of those with alcohol or drugs related

problems; measures relating to intervention, treatment and rehabilitation of individuals with

alcohol or drugs related problems; rules governing conduct in the workplace relating to alcohol and drugs, the violation

of which could result in invoking disciplinary procedures up to and including dismissal;

equal opportunities for persons who have, or who have previously had alcohol or drugs related problems in accordance with national laws and regulations.

3.1.3 Drug and Alcohol AwarenessThe promotion of a drug and alcohol free a workplace is of paramount importance, and employers can encourage this culture by providing the necessary information and education to all employees. Information should be well publicised within the workplace and included in




induction and ongoing training. Employees should be aware of the issues associated with the misuse of drugs and alcohol, and its serious consequences for workplace health and safety.

3.1.4 Employee Support ServicesEmployees should be informed about avenues for counseling and support services, which can be accessed through their GP, the local community health centre or an employee assistance program (EAP) where available. EAPs may add to the effectiveness of a workplace alcohol and other drugs policy. Employees who are identified by supervisors or themselves as having an alcohol or drug problem could be assisted through recognised treatment or an EAP where available. A workplace alcohol and other drugs policy should not rely solely upon an EAP.

3.1.5 AssessmentEmployers and workers and their representatives should jointly assess the effects of alcohol and drug use in the workplace. The following indicators should provide useful information for identifying and assessing the nature and size of the problem:

national and local surveys surveys from similar enterprises; absenteeism (incidences of unauthorised leave and late-coming); use of sick leave; staff turnover; alcohol consumption in the canteen, cafeteria or dining area; opinions of supervisors, managers, and workers and their representatives and

occupational health and safety personnel.

3.1.6 Alcohol and Other Drugs TestingThe application of drug testing, as a means of managing alcohol and other drug related risks, has a number of significant limitations:

• a positive test for alcohol and other drugs is not in itself evidence of impairment of ability to perform or intoxication. This is particularly so in relation to the presence of a drug (other than alcohol) where there is much less international consensus on the relationship between the measured level of a drug (or its metabolite) and levels of impairment;

• if a worker refuses to be tested it cannot be presumed that they are intoxicated;• workers have a legal right to refuse to be tested, unless specific legislation, contracts

or employment agreements provide otherwise;• the reliability of testing can be subject to legal challenge due to varying accuracy

rates.

Consultations need to be made with employees, OHS representatives and union representatives before the decision to use alcohol and other drug testing. Agreement may be sought where a risk assessment has identified that there are risks involved in undertaking certain activities whilst under the influence of alcohol and other drugs. Privacy, confidentiality and the legal position of employees and management also need to be considered. Workplace alcohol and other drug testing should be introduced if there are




existing legislative provisions, such as those relating to rail safety workers, passenger transport workers and heavy vehicle drivers. There is also legislation prohibiting employees from working while intoxicated in the mining and aviation industries. Employees should be informed about drug and alcohol testing expectations before commencing employment.

3.2 Authorised Entry in Work AreasHighrisk areas in the workplace should be designated as restricted work areas, with entry limited to authorised personnel(Spellman, et al, 2005); wherein "authorised personnel" are workers who are qualified to perform the work, have been designated by the employer as being permitted to do so, and are required to be present within the designated work area(s). Standard operating procedures (SOPs) should be developed and implemented in relation to access controlled (restricted) areas, which should be communicated to all members of staff.

3.2.1 Permit to Work SystemThe ‘Permit to Work’ system provides a level of control to ensure risks associated with certain work types and areas are eliminated or minimised to prevent incidents occurring in the workplace(Spellman, et al, 2005).An entry supervisor (qualified and competent person) must authorise entry, prepare and sign written permits, order corrective measures if necessary and cancel permits when work is completed. The permit system is a formalised process to control work and access to identified areas designed to prevent incidents in the workplace. The written system is used to control certain types of work or work areas that are potentially hazardous and contains a permit to work document which specifies the work to be done and the precautions to be taken. This process authorises work only after safe procedures have been defined and they provide a clear record that all foreseeable hazards have been considered.

3.2.2 General Requirements

i. Identification of access controlled areas – aprocess is undertaken for the identification of workplaces or work locations requiring controlled access arrangements for all potential high risk areas within the establishment.

ii. Risk assessment – to identify the hazards in the workplace; this will be used to make a determination as to the type of access control to be implemented. Consideration will be given to the following: • the skill level or specific qualification requirements of those required to enter the

location; • the effectiveness of current control measures if any exist; • the potential for injury to employees and others without access arrangements

being implemented.

iii. Communication – may bethrough site maps or site plans which identify specific areas requiring access control. Alternative arrangements for the identification of specific areas requiring access control must be defined in standard operating




procedures. Adequate warning signs must also be displayed at or near any identified accessing control areas.

3.2.3 Permit IssueAll thework activities that require a permit to be approved by authorised persons for the work to commencemust be clearly identified, which may include:

• energy isolation including working with electrical installations; • fire alarm isolation; • confined space entry;• excavation work;• hot work; • roof access; • removal of asbestos;• demolition work.

Therequirements and details of the work activity are discussed between the permit issuer and the permit receiver. Work that extends over multiple permits issued requires communication and a handover of the relevant information pertaining to the job.

3.2.4 Permit AuthorisationThe work to be done may only commence after the appropriate permit has been approved, and the employer must ensure that a list of permit issuers who may issue and cancel permits is approved by management, and prominently communicated to all staff. The permit must include the methods to be used and precautions to be taken by parties beforehand. The signature authorising the permit confirms that the required isolations have been made and precautions taken, except where these can only be taken during the work.

3.2.5 Preparation of Work Area In order to eliminate or minimize the risk of incident such as potential for fire, explosion, or exposure of persons to a hazardous substance, the work area must be prepared accordingly. Precautionary measures may include the following, as appropriate:

• identification of equipment to be worked on;• energy isolation of the equipment; • removal of hazardous substances in the work area that may be impacted by the work; • preparation of piping such as sewers, drain that may have the presence of hazardous

or flammable substances; • provision of appropriate rescue or fire-protection equipment;• where required, atmospheric testing of the work environment for the flammable or

hazardous vapours and oxygen content.

3.2.6 Permits Receipti. Acceptance – the permit receiver should sign on the permit to confirm that they

understanding the work to be done, hazards involved and precautions required.




ii. Communication – the permit receiver is required to communicate the requirements specified on the permit to any workers involved in the work described in the permit. If at any time conditions in the workplace change, the permit receiver must stop work and communicate this to the permit issuer.

3.2.7 Arrival at Site Theemployee/contractor must notify the appropriate person within the building/area of their arrival to perform specified work upon arrival at the work area.

3.2.7.1 Work commencement Theemployee/ contractor must ensure that the site is controlled as per the requirements identified on the permit before any work can commence. The employee/contractor must complete the work only as detailed in the permit and their contract/ job specifications. Access to restricted areas will be granted for the duration of the permit via key access procedures, if appropriate. In the event that the work extends beyond the timeframe of the permit, the permit holder must communicate this to the permit issuer, and ensure that a new permit is received before for the existing permit expires for continuation of the job.

3.2.7.2 Duration As conditions in the work environment may change permits are valid only for a specific period of time. Work permits shall be valid until the specified date on the work permit. Hot work permits are valid for eight hours.

3.2.7.3 Gas test Gas testing, which is required for hot work and confined space entry permits shall be conducted by a person who is competent in the gas test operations and the use of the relevant equipment. The test instrument shall have current calibration, which shall be displayed on the unit. The instrument type, serial number and date of calibration due shall be recorded on the permit. Testing for the presence of any flammable gas or vapours shall take place as late as practical before the commencement of hot works but no longer than two hours before.

3.2.7.4 Hot Work The concentration of any flammable gas or vapours shall not be more than 5 percent of its lower explosion limit (LEL).

3.2.7.5 Confined Space As a minimum a permit to enter a confined space, following conditions must be met(Spellman, et al, 2005):

• the confined space contains an oxygen level of 21%; • the concentration of flammable contaminant in the atmosphere is below 5% of its

LEL; • the atmospheric contaminants in the confined space are reduced to below the relevant

exposure standards;




• where the oxygen level is below 21% or atmospheric contaminants cannot be reduced below relevant exposure levels, entry may only occur with suitable PPE including supplied air;

• entry shall not occur to a confined space when flammable contaminants are greater than or equal to 5% LEL or where oxygen exceeds 23.5%;

• where a concentration of flammable contaminant is found to be more than 5% and less than 10% of its LEL, all persons leave the confined space unless a continuous monitoring, suitably calibrated flammable contaminant detector is used in the confined space at all times while persons are present in it;

• where a concentration of flammable contaminant in the atmosphere of a confined space is found to be 10% of its LEL or more, all persons leave the confined space.

NB. If work stops for a period of more than one hour a new gas test will be required.

3.2.8 Work Completion and Commissioning A final inspection of the workplace must be conducted to ensure no hazards remain on work completion. The person responsible for the work area must be notified before personnel can leave the site, after which the permit is returned to the issuer. The permit can only be signed off, once the issuer is satisfied that the work has been completed to job specifications and safety requirements. The permit receiver should sign the permit stating that the work area is now ready to be returned to the issuer. On the completion of work and before the work area or plant is returned to service, a check shall be conducted to ensure:

• the work has been completed; • any temporary arrangements/ installation such as temporary barricades, excavation

holes, etc have been removed; • all personnel and equipment are accounted for; • the work permit has been cancelled or signed-off as being completed, and • all related equipment and facilities and fire systems are operational and have been

inspected and tested appropriately.

3.3 Motorised and Mobile EquipmentMany employees are injured lift trucks are inadvertently driven off loading docks, fall between docks and an unsecured trailer, are struck by a lift truck, or fall while on elevated pallets (Spellman, et al, 2011). PITs are used for manual handling of materials when the loads are too heavy or bulky to be handled manually. The main types of PITs include:

lift trucks such as forklifts; crane trucks; tractors and trailers; motorised hand trucks; automated guided vehicles (AGVs).

While they are more efficient than manually handling materials, industrial trucks pose physical hazards like any other vehicle. To use this equipment safely, the company must:

evaluate and establish a safe work environment where the truck will be used – design the plant to accommodate moving vehicles;




select the proper vehicle for the job and ensure that it meets or exceeds safety requirements;

screen and train the drivers; set up an inspection and maintenance programme for the trucks; review the safety programmes, accidents and trends.

Fork-lift trucks represent a special type of mobile machine which has become commonplace in factories, warehouses and large shops. Fork-lift trucks are designed to lift relatively heavy loads, most commonly, at the front of the vehicle, although there are some side-loading trucks. If the load is too heavy, then the truck can be tipped over. Also if the truck is unevenly loaded or driven on sloping or uneven ground or cornered at excessive speed, then the stability of the vehicle can be affected, resulting in either shedding of the load, or turning over if the load is raised to a high level, as the centre of gravity of the vehicle is raised. Operators, SHE representative and inspectors should be familiar with the information that is required to be displayed on fork-lift trucks as follows:

the manufacturer’s name; the type of truck; the serial number; the unladen weight the lifting capacity; the load centre distance; the maximum lift height.

The details should be recorded when investigating any accident or dangerous occurrence involving fork-lift trucks.

3.3.1 Safe Work EnvironmentWhen making a decision to use powered trucks in a plant, warehouse or store, the following questions must be answered (Spellman, et al, 2011):

will it be used outside in inclement weather, ice, snow, rain, and so on? are there flammable liquids, vapours, or explosive dusts to consider? are the areas where it is going to be driven equipped with guardrails, ramps, adequate

clearances, smooth pavements or crushed stone? is there adequate ventilation for fuel fumes if used indoors? are driving areas equipped with warning signs, alarms, corner mirrors, traffic signals,

or other control devices? is there adequate lighting around the trick operating area for the driver and other

employees to see the truck’s movements?

3.3.2 Selecting a Safe Powered TruckThe most commonly used powered trucks are forklifts or platform style lift trucks, where the operator stands on the vehicle, sits on the vehicle, or walks alongside the vehicle. The power source, operator position, or means of engaging the load will determined the type of truck




purchased. The factors to consider when purchasing powered trucks may include (Spellman, et al, 2011):

worksite constraints (eg. narrow aisles); operator comfort; safety features, such as back-up alarms, safety belts, belly switches, overhead

protection cages, and wraparound seats.

3.3.3 Selecting and Training DriversDrivers of PITs should be medically certified as to being fit to safely handle the truck, and the screening process should include evaluation of their vision, depth perception and hearing (Spellman, et al, 2011). Any training programmes developed should be based on company policies, operating conditions, and types of trucks used. Operators of industrial trucks should use the same defensive techniques as they use on highways to prevent accidents. The operators are responsible for the care and should never leave a truck unattended, parked in an aisle or doorway, idle engines for too long, or ignore mechanical problems. The training provided by the employer to its employees should be largely practical in nature, and should be provided ‘off-the-job’, so that trainees and instructors are not diverted by other by other considerations. Testing of trainees should be carried out by continuous assessment as well as a test or tests of truck operation. The employer should keep records of each employee who has completed the basic training and testing procedure. The availability of this type of record in the case of an accident could be helpful to the outcome of investigation.

3.3.4 Inspection and MaintenanceOperators of industrial trucks are required to use preoperational checklists prior to operating a PIT, and damaged vehicles should be tagged out of operation until repaired and inspected for safe operation (Spellman, et al, 2011). PITs come with a manufacturer’s maintenance schedule and a list of preventive, periodic checks for each type of truck. All repair and maintenance records must be maintained on file, and these can be very useful when reviewing accidents or analysing safety trends. The operators responsible for such tasks changing tanks, refuelling, or changing or charging batteries must be trained on the precautions and be provided with the necessary PPE.

3.3.5 Machine GuardingIdeally, guards should be designed with the machine and not added on as an afterthought. Fixed guards must be robust, to withstand severe treatment, adjustable and safe to use. They should also be capable to protect operators or people in the vicinity against injury. This may mean that as well as forming a physical barrier, the guard may have additional functions, such as assisting the removal of toxic fumes or reducing noise to a safe level. Many different guards are available but, in general, there is an order of preference which is as follows:

3.4 Lock Out Procedures




“Lockout” means to physically neutralise all energies in a piece of equipment before beginning any maintenance or repair work (IAPA, 2008). Lockouts generally involve:

stopping all energy flows (for example turning off switches, or valves on supply lines);

locking switches and valves; securing the machine, device, or power transmission line in a de-energised state (for

example applying blocks or blanks, or bleeding pressure from lines).

Employers must develop and implement procedures that render inoperative any source containing hazardous energy (Tweedy, 2013). Sources of hazardous energy include electrical systems, pumps, pipelines, valves, and tanks, for which there should be written standard operating procedures are required for tagout/ lockout. In addition, the employer is required to:

• conduct employee training;• ensure accountability of engaged employees;• develop appropriate administrative controls;• maintain a list of authorised tagout/ lockout personnel and specify any restrictions;• develop procedures for machines that contain more than one source of energy;• train authorised personnel on all procedures;• evaluate procedures and retrain annually.

A lockout should be performed to prevent the harm of uncontrolled energies that could cause: electrocution (contact with live circuits); cuts, bruises, crushing, amputations, death, resulting from:

o entanglement with belts, chains, conveyors, rollers, shafts, impellers;

o entrapment by bulk materials from bins silos or hoppers;

o drowning in liquids in vats or tanks;

o burns (contact with hot parts, materials, or equipment such as furnaces);

o fires and explosions;

o chemical exposures (gases or liquids released from pipelines)

An operator is required to: review the condition of that equipment to ensure that all guards are in place and that

the equipment is ready to begin operations, before using an equipment/ machine that had been locked out for any reason;

where the equipment is unsafe, the condition should be reported to the supervisor. The equipment should be locked with the operator lock and tag before leaving, if the equipment is to be left unattended to make this report and there is a possibility of someone else operating it.

The person installing lock must: recognise that lock out is needed, and if in doubt, the supervisor should be consulted.

Ensure that all energy sources are locked out and that ram blocks, etc., are used;




attach the lock using the required attachments as appropriate. Test operating controls to see that the lockout has been effective;

attach a tag to the lock or to equipment as required; remove lock and tag when the work is finished

3.4.1 Develop ProceduresFor lockouts to be effective, a clear, well-defined lockout policy supported by administrative and control procedures and proper training, is essential (IAPA, 2008). A systematic approach would be to:

develop a lockout policy identify lockout situations develop procedures train workers enforce and update your policy

Written procedures should be communicated to all employees and departments. Administrative procedures for lockouts in general should include the following:

notification of lockouts to supervisors; use of work permits to authorise lockouts; lockout to stay in effect if work is not completed at the end of the shift; work permit sign-off on work completion; assign responsibility for lockouts; only authorised persons to perform lockouts; documented procedures for specific lockout situations; training on performing lockouts; verifying the effectiveness of such training; reviewing, updating, and enforcing the lockout policy.

3.4.2 Develop Lockout PolicyA written lockout policy should make reference to the company’s general occupational health and safety policy. It should clearly outline responsibilities, and refer to procedures to be followed. It should state your company’s intent to protect all employees by:

identifying all activities and machines, equipment, and processes which require lockouts (for example, repairs, maintenance, and cleaning of pipelines, tanks, and machines);

making the appropriate persons responsible for lockouts; ensuring that lockouts are performed by authorized persons only; developing procedures for each specific lockout situation; training those who will perform lockouts; verifying the effectiveness of such training; reviewing, updating, and enforcing the lockout policy.

3.4.3 Identify Lockout SituationsAn assessment is required to be carried out on all processes, machinery, energies, and work activities to identify where and when lockouts are needed. The major focus of lockouts will mostly be maintenance work; while major sources of information will include workplace




inspections, and recommendations from the health and safety committee or health and safety representative. A list of the machines, devices, or processes requiring lockout must be compiled, against which the energy forms involved are listed. Different energy forms will require different procedures, and a single machine or system may require more than one lockout.

3.4.4 Responsibilitiesi. Safety Coordinator

Train all staff in lock out procedures and maintain records of this training; Receive reports of locks being cut or removed because of lost keys, etc. and report to

management any recommendations as needed

ii. Supervisor Ensure that the implementation of lockout procedures as required; Co-ordinate work beyond shift with other supervisors as appropriate; Control procedures involve developing separate, detailed, written lockout procedures

for each identified machine, device or process that may require to be locked out at some time. The procedure should identify:o the person responsible for performing the lockout (for example, operator,

millwright, electrician);o the person responsible for ensuring that the lockout is properly performed (for

example, maintenance supervisor and/or site supervisor);o the energy sources to be controlled by the lockout;

o the location of control panels, power sources (including electrical power boxes),

switches, interlocks, valves, blocking points, relief valves and/or blanking and bleeding points (review schematics);

o special hazards (for example, a flywheel that spins for minutes after power is

removed, electrical capacitors);o the personal protective equipment that must be used or worn (for example, eye

protection, electrically insulated foot protection);o the step by step lockout procedure (that is, who does what, and when);

o the testing procedure to ensure that all energy sources are controlled;

o the step by step procedure for removing the lockout.

3.5 Safety SignageSafety signs and colour are valuable tools that play a vital role in protecting the health and safety of employees and visitors alike (IAPA, 2008). Safety signs are used to:

draw attention to health and safety hazards; point out hazards that may not be obvious; provide general information and directions; remind employees where personal protective equipment must be worn; show where emergency equipment is located; and indicate where certain actions are prohibited




3.5.1 Categories of Safety SignsSafety signs that are used in the workplace are classified into three sign categories, which are:

regulatory; warning; information.

Category Sub-category Colour1.1 Prohibition Red and black on white

forbids an action

1.2 Mandatory White on blackrequires an action

1. RegulatoryA circle indicates that an




order is in force

2.1 Caution Black on yellowindicates a potential hazard

2.2 Danger White on red indicates a

2. Warning definite hazardA triangle indicates cautionor danger.

3.1 Emergency White on greenindicates first aid,health, fire protection,fire fighting andemergency equipment

3.2 General Information White on blue3. Information indicates permission orA square indicates information public information

Figure 3.1: Categories of Safety Signs

3.5.2 Sign TypesThere are only three types of signs that should be used to communicate a message in the workplace:

symbol signs; symbol signs with text; text signs.

The examples of the different safety signs are illustrated below:

Symbol Sign Symbol sign Text Signwith text

1. Regulatory 1.1 Prohibition

1.2 Mandatory




2. Warning 2.1 Caution

2.2 Danger

3. Information 3.1 Emergency

3.2 General Information

Figure 3.2: Sign TypesUnit 4: Emergency Procedures

4. IntroductionAn emergency is defined as “an exceptional event that exceeds the capacity of normal resources and organisation to cope with” (Alexander, 2002). A workplace emergency is an unforeseen situation that threatens your employees, customers, or the public; disrupts or shuts down your operations; or causes physical or environmental damage.The main scope of emergency planning thus is to reduce the risk to life posed by actual and potential disasters.Emergency procedures are essential to protect the safety and health of employees and to minimize property damage; and thus food establishments must have comprehensive




plans of action in the event of an emergency. Personnel must be trained in procedures and the use of fire protection and emergency equipment. The emergency preparedness/ response plan of an establishment should have clearly defined roles and responsibilities of the key personnel involved in emergency evacuations.The types of emergencies which could occur may include:

• serious injury events;• medical emergencies such as heart attacks;• site or area evacuations;• fires and explosions;• hazardous substances and chemical spills;• explosions and bomb threats;• security emergencies, such as armed robbery, intruders and disturbed persons;• loss of power or structural collapse;• natural disasters such as floods, storms and bushfires;• traffic accidents;• landslides or wall collapses; and• confined space accidents.

It is vital to identify the actions required to limit impact on personnel, property and the environment. Properly resourced workplaces with a well-practiced emergency response, will limit the effect of damage or harm to people, property and the environment. As a basic rule, any emergency response procedure needs to minimise catastrophe to personnel, property and environment.

4.1 Escape Routes and Assembly PointsWhen preparing an emergency action plan, the employer must designate primary and secondary evacuation routes and exits. To the extent possible under the conditions, the evacuation routes and emergency exits meet the following conditions:

• Clearly marked and well lit; • Wide enough to accommodate the number of evacuating personnel; • Unobstructed and clear of debris at all times; and • Unlikely to expose evacuating personnel to additional hazards.

Where drawings are prepared that show evacuation routes and exits, these should post them prominently around the workplace for all employees to see.

One of the most critical tasks after an evacuation is to account for all employees and visitors. Emergency procedures should clearly identify the assembly points for all work areas which should be clearly labeled as such. Any confusion in the assembly areas can delay the rescuing of anyone that could still be trapped in the building, or unnecessary and dangerous search-and-rescue operations. To ensure the fastest, most accurate accountability of your employees, the emergency action plan must consider the following:

• designate assembly areas where employees should gather after evacuating; • take a head count after the evacuation. Identify the names and last known

locations of anyone not accounted for and pass them to the official in charge;




• establish a method for accounting for non-employees such as suppliers and customers; and

• establish procedures for further evacuation in case the incident expands. This may consist of sending employees home by normal means or providing them with transportation to an offsite location.

4.2 Emergency Communication ProceduresThe emergency communication plan must include a way to alert employees, including disabled workers, to evacuate or take other action, and how to report emergencies, as required. The steps that can be taken include the following:

Make sure alarms are distinctive and recognized by all employees as a signal to evacuate the work area or perform actions identified in your plan;

implement an emergency communications system to notify employees of the emergency and to contact local law enforcement, the fire department, and others;

stipulate that alarms must be able to be heard, seen, or otherwise perceived by everyone (an auxiliary power supply may be necessary in the event of a power cut);

tactile devices may also be used to alert employees who would not otherwise be able to recognize an audible or visual alarm; and

providing an updated list of key personnel such as the plant manager or physician, in order of priority, to notify in the event of an emergency during off-duty hours.

Based on the specific emergencies that may occur in the workplace, there is great need to ensure that supervisors are aware of all the workplace emergency procedures. It is very important that each person in the workplace knows exactly:

• where to find emergency instructions or procedures;• what to do in an emergency;• where to find any emergency equipment that may be needed;• how to operate the equipment;• how to communicate the emergency and to whom.

4.3 Emergency Preparedness PlanAn emergency plan is a “detailed set of procedures for responding to an emergency, such as a fire or explosion, a chemical spill, or an uncontrolled release of energy” (IAPA, 2007). An emergency plan is necessary to keep order, and minimise the effects of the disaster.An emergency action plan it is important to determine the following:

• conditions under which an evacuation would be necessary; • a clear chain of command and designation of the person in your business authorized

to order an evacuation or shutdown – designate an “evacuation officer” to assist others in an evacuation and to account for personnel;

• specific evacuation procedures, including routes and exits. Post these procedures where they are easily accessible to all employees;

• procedures for assisting people with disabilities or who do not speak your language; • designation of what, if any, employees will continue or shut down critical operations

during an evacuation, which people must be capable of recognizing when to abandon the operation and evacuate themselves; and

• a system for accounting for personnel following an evacuation.




As a minimum, the key components of an emergency action plan must include the following: emergency escape procedures and escape routes for employees to follow in the event

of an emergency. These procedures should include floor plans that indicate the appropriate evacuation routes and assembly points;

accounting for all employees following evacuation (work registers, assembly points); the preferred means of reporting fires and other emergencies; assigns responsibility for the emergency action plan; contains a communication plan element; provides adequate training in first aid and CPR; provides for an emergency response team which has received training and have

designated back-ups; ensures emergency evacuation, fire or other emergency procedures are regularly

inspected to ensure that they are prominently displayed; an up-to-date copy of the layout of the facility indicating where dangerous substances

are located and other information which will help in the event of a fire. This information should be updated when changes are made to operations and facilities;

emergency procedures should be tested periodically through fire drills and other emergency evacuation drills. Results of such drills should be reviewed with personnel;

first aid supplies and equipment should be available in areas of high risk

Employees and visitors to work sites must be aware of the emergency arrangements for the site – this is usually part of the induction. Subcontractors who work on site, particularly those who are not supervised, should also be made aware of the emergency arrangements. Emergency arrangements should be tested / practised periodically, and a record kept of the practise. Employees that have an emergency response role must be aware of their responsibility and provided with the necessary training to fulfil their role. The Emergency Response Plan must be displayed prominently throughout the workplace to promote awareness for all employees with respect to any emergency.

In an emergency everyone needs to know what their role is and where they should go. The workplace should have a very clear step by step list of actions that clearly identifies everyone’s role in an emergency. This emergency instruction should:

• exist for each type of emergency;• be easily seen and understood both by reading and by signs or pictorial diagrams;• be regularly practiced so that emergency responses are controlled and safe;

Some of the ways this information can be communicated throughout the workforce is via: • training (including mock emergency responses conducted on a regular basis);• inductions’• maps, signs and pictures; and • procedures and work instructions

4.4 Emergency Evacuation and Response




After the decision to evacuate the entire building has been made by the Fire Department, and the alarm system activated, the following procedures should be followed:

At the sound of the alarms, all Emergency Response Team (ERT) personnel should immediately take their emergency positions and prepare for a full building evacuation, beginning with the lower most floors. Emergency departments should be called. The contact numbers of these departments i.e. fire services, ambulance and other medical rescue operators should be kept in a conspicuous and accessible area within the workplace.

Occupants will immediately begin to evacuate the premises under the supervision and direction of Floor Wardens and Floor Monitors. Elevators are not to be used during a fire evacuation only stairwells are to be used when exiting the building. Additionally, inside each stairwell there is one fire extinguisher for use by ERT personnel only.

Floor Monitors are required to submit a list of individuals who have physical disabilities or special medical conditions to the ERT. Two co-workers should be assigned ahead of time to assist individuals with disabilities during an evacuation. However, Floor Monitors, Wardens, and the Fire Department may also be required to assist disabled individuals during an emergency evacuation.

Evacuated personnel shall congregate in the Emergency Evacuation Staging Area and remain there until a decision is reached to re-occupy the building or send people home. Floor Monitors will then account for all individuals on their assigned floors or specific areas of responsibility. If someone is missing, the Fire Department must be notified immediately of the possibility that someone is still in the building and their likely whereabouts.

If and when conditions become safe for occupants to return to the building, the Fire Department will provide the “all clear” announcement. At this time, building occupants will be allowed to return to their offices.

Medical emergencies (e.g. heart attacks, unconsciousness, etc.) during an evacuation must be immediately reported to the on-site Fire Department and/or paramedics of the incident.

Element 5: Housekeeping

5. IntroductionHousekeeping is not just cleanliness, it includes keeping work areas neat and orderly; maintaining halls and floors free of slip and trip hazards; and removing of waste materials (e.g., paper, cardboard) and other fire hazards from work areas. It also requires paying attention to important details such as the layout of the whole workplace, aisle marking, the adequacy of storage facilities, and maintenance (Stranks, 2006). Effective housekeeping can eliminate some workplace hazards and help get a job done safely and properly. Poor housekeeping can frequently contribute to accidents by hiding hazards that cause injuries. Good housekeeping is also a basic part of accident and fire prevention. Effective housekeeping is an ongoing operation: it is not a hit-and-miss clean-up done occasionally.




Periodic "panic" clean-ups are costly and ineffective in reducing accidents. Good housekeeping can result in:

• reduced handling to ease the flow of materials;• fewer tripping and slipping accidents in clutter-free and spill-free work areas;• decreased fire hazards;• lower worker exposures to hazardous substances (e.g. dusts, vapours);• better control of tools and materials, including inventory and supplies;• more efficient equipment clean up and maintenance;• better hygienic conditions leading to improved health;• more effective use of space;• reduced property damage by improving preventive maintenance;• less janitorial work;• improved morale;• improved productivity (tools and materials will be easy to find).

There are many signs of poor housekeeping the workplace which include:• cluttered and poorly arranged work areas;• untidy or dangerous storage of materials(e.g., materials stuffed in corners,

overcrowdedshelves, etc.);• dusty, dirty floors and work surfaces;• items that are in excess or no longer needed;• blocked or cluttered aisles and exits;• tools and equipment left in work areas insteadof being returned to roper

storage places;• broken containers and damaged materials;• overflowing waste bins and containers;• spills and leaks.

Poor housekeeping can be a cause of accidents, such as: tripping over loose objects on floors, stairs and platforms being hit by falling objects slipping on greasy, wet or dirty surfaces striking against projecting, poorly stacked items or misplaced material cutting, puncturing, or tearing the skin of hands or other parts of the body on

projecting nails, wire or steel strapping.

5.1 Elements of an Effective Housekeeping Program5.1.1 Dust and Dirt Removal In some jobs, enclosures and exhaust ventilation systems may fail to collect dust, dirt and chips adequately. Vacuum cleaners are suitable for removing light dust and dirt. Industrial models have special fittings for cleaning walls, ceilings, ledges, machinery, and other hard-to-reach places where dust and dirt may accumulate. Special-purpose vacuums are useful for removing hazardous substances. For example, vacuum cleaners fitted with HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filters may be used to capture fine particles of asbestos or fiberglass. Dampening (wetting) floors or using sweeping compounds before sweeping reduces the amount of airborne dust. The dust and grime that collect in places like shelves,




piping, conduits, light fixtures, reflectors, windows, cupboards and lockers may require manual cleaning. Compressed air should not be used for removing dust, dirt or chips from equipment or work surfaces.

5.1.2 Employee Facilities Employee facilities need to be adequate, clean and well maintained. Lockers are necessary for storing employees' personal belongings. Washroom facilities require cleaning once or more each shift. They also need to have a good supply of soap, towels plus disinfectants, if needed. If workers are using hazardous materials, employee facilities should provide special precautions such as showers, washing facilities and change rooms. Some facilities may require two locker rooms with showers between. Using such double locker rooms allows workers to shower off workplace contaminants and prevents them from contaminating their "street clothes" by keeping their work clothes separated from the clothing that they wear home. Smoking, eating or drinking in the work area should be prohibited where toxic materials are handled. The eating area should be separate from the work area and should be cleaned properly each shift.

5.1.3 SurfacesFloors: Poor floor conditions are a leading cause of accidents so cleaning up spilled oil and other liquids at once is important. Allowing chips, shavings and dust to accumulate can also cause accidents. Trapping chips, shavings and dust before they reach the floor or cleaning them up regularly can prevent their accumulation. Areas that cannot be cleaned continuously, such as entrance ways, should have anti-slip flooring. Keeping floors in good order also means replacing any worn, ripped, or damaged flooring that poses a tripping hazard. Walls: Light-coloured walls reflect light while dirty or dark-coloured walls absorb light. Contrasting colours warn of physical hazards and mark obstructions such as pillars. Paint can highlight railings, guards and other safety equipment, but should never be used as a substitute for guarding. The program should outline the regulations and standards for colours.

5.1.4 Maintain Light FixturesDirty light fixtures reduce essential light levels. Clean light fixtures can improve lighting efficiency significantly.

5.1.5 Aisles and StairwaysAisles should be wide enough to accommodate people and vehicles comfortably and safely. Aisle space allows for the movement of people, products and materials. Warning signs and mirrors can improve sight-lines in blind corners. Arranging aisles properly encourages people to use them so that they do not take shortcuts through hazardous areas. Keeping aisles and stairways clear is important. They should not be used for temporary "overflow" or "bottleneck" storage. Stairways and aisles also require adequate lighting.

5.1.6 Spill Control




The best way to control spills is to stop them before they happen. Regularly cleaning and maintaining machines and equipment is one way. Another is to use drip pans and guards where possible spills might occur. When spills do occur, it is important to clean them up immediately. Absorbent materials are useful for wiping up greasy, oily or other liquid spills. Used absorbents must be disposed of properly and safely.

5.1.7 Tools and EquipmentTools require suitable fixtures with marked locations to provide orderly arrangement, both in the tool room and near the work bench. Returning them promptly after use reduces the chance of being misplaced or lost. Workers should regularly inspect, clean and repair all tools and take any damaged or worn tools out of service.

5.1.8 MaintenanceThe maintenance of buildings and equipment may be the most important element of good housekeeping. Maintenance involves keeping buildings, equipment and machinery in safe, efficient working order and in good repair. This includes maintaining sanitary facilities and regularly painting and cleaning walls. Broken windows, damaged doors, defective plumbing and broken floor surfaces can make a workplace look neglected; these conditions can cause accidents and affect work practices. A good maintenance program provides for the inspection, maintenance, upkeep and repair of tools, equipment, machines and processes.

5.1.9 Waste DisposalThe regular collection, grading and sorting of scrap contribute to good housekeeping practices. It also makes it possible to separate materials that can be recycled from those going to waste disposal facilities. Allowing material to build up on the floor wastes time and energy since additional time is required for cleaning it up. Placing scrap containers near where the waste is produced encourages orderly waste disposal and makes collection easier. All waste receptacles should be clearly labelled (e.g., recyclable glass, plastic, scrap metal, etc.).

5.1.10 StorageGood organization of stored materials is essential for overcoming material storage problems whether on a temporary or permanent basis. There will also be fewer strain injuries if the amount of handling is reduced, especially if less manual materials handling is required. The location of the stockpiles should not interfere with work but they should still be readily available when required. Stored materials should allow at least one meter (or about three feet) of clear space under sprinkler heads. Stacking cartons and drums on a firm foundation and cross tying them, where necessary reduces the chance of their movement. Stored materials should not obstruct aisles, stairs, exits, fire equipment, emergency eyewash fountains, emergency showers, or first aid stations. All storage areas should be clearly marked. Flammable, combustible, toxic and other hazardous materials should be stored in approved containers in designated areas that are appropriate for the different hazards that they pose.




5.2 Stacking of MaterialsPoorly stacked materials in storage can createhazards for employees; and employers should ensure that workers aware of such factors as the materials' height and weight, how accessible the stored materials are to the user, and the condition of the containers where the materials are being stored when stacking and piling materials (Stranks, 2006). To prevent creating hazards when storing materials, employers must do the following:

keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that cause tripping, fires, or explosions, or that may contribute to the harbouring of rats and other pests;

place stored materials inside buildings that are under construction and at least 6 feet from hoist ways, or inside floor openings and at least 10 feet away from exterior walls;

separate non-compatible material; and equip employees who work on stored grain in silos, hoppers, or tanks, with lifelines

and safety belts.

In addition, workers should consider placing bound material on racks, and secure it by stacking, blocking, or interlocking to prevent it from sliding, falling, or collapsing.

5.2.1 Safeguards in Stacking MaterialsThe stacking of materials can be dangerous if workers do not follow safety guidelines, as falling materials and collapsing loads can crush or pin workers, causing injuries or death. To help prevent injuries when stacking materials, workers must do the following:

stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually, and no more than 20 feet if using a forklift;

remove all nails from used lumber before stacking; stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracing; ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting; do not store pipes and bars in racks that face main aisles to avoid creating a hazard to

passers-by when removing supplies; stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure; and stack bagged material by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least

every ten layers (to remove bags from the stack, start from the top row first).

During materials stacking activities, workers must also: store baled paper and rags inside a building no closer than 18 inches to the walls,

partitions, or sprinkler heads; band boxed materials or secure them with cross-ties or shrink plastic fiber; stack drums, barrels, and kegs symmetrically; block the bottom tiers of drums, barrels, and kegs to keep them from rolling if stored

on their sides; place planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between each tier of drums,

barrels, and kegs to make a firm, flat, stacking surface when stacking on end; chock the bottom tier of drums, barrels, and kegs on each side to prevent shifting in

either direction when stacking two or more tiers high; and




stack and block poles as well as structural steel, bar stock, and other cylindrical materials to prevent spreading or tilting unless they are in racks.

In addition, workers should do the following: paint walls or posts with stripes to indicate maximum stacking heights for quick

reference; observe height limitations when stacking materials; consider the need for availability of the material; and stack loose bricks no more than 7 feet in height. (When these stacks reach a height of

4 feet, taper them back 2 inches for every foot of height above the 4-foot level. When masonry blocks are stacked higher than 6 feet, taper the stacks back one-half block for each tier above the 6-foot level.)

5.3 Demarcation and Colour CodingDemarcation is the act of creating a boundary around a place, plant/equipment and fragile materials for safety purposes. Colour coding is a system for displaying information by using different colours (IAPA, 2007).Colour can be used to indicate hazards or point out safety equipment. For example, colour can be applied on:

• indicator lights or buttons;• pipes;• separate work areas;• machinery;• vehicles;• aisles, floors and stairs.

5.3.1 Indicator Lights or ButtonsThe extensive use of colour in everyday life, allows for the association of certain colours with specific meanings. For example, red on a traffic light means stop. These associations should be taken advantage of in the workplace to help employees easily recognize the message associated with the colour and respond quickly, as in the case of indicator lights and control buttons:

Colour Indicator Light Button/ Control

Red Danger or alarm Stop/ off

Yellow Caution Caution or intervention needed

Green Safe condition Start/ on

5.3.2 Piping SystemsThere are many ways you can identify the contents of pipes. The law, however, requires you to train your workers on the identification system you use. A way of ensuring that your employees have a clear understanding of what a pipe contains is by:




• labeling the pipe with a tag that clearly identifies the material inside;• attaching the appropriate symbol, if the material is a controlled product;• painting the pipe with a safety colour.

Safety colours conventionally used for pipes in the workplace include:

Colour Classification Example

Red Fire quenching materials*never paint Water, foam, carbonsprinkler heads dioxide, halon, etc.

Green Liquids that are not hazardous by nature Liquids, liquid admixtures

Blue Gases that are not hazardous by nature Gas, gaseous admixtures

Yellow Materials that are hazardous by nature Materials that areflammable, or explosive; chemically active or toxic; radioactive; orunder extreme

temperatures

5.3.3 Other Applications for Safety ColoursSafety colours are also useful in work areas, and on equipment and machinery. The safety colours and their meanings are listed below:

Colour Meaning Examples

Red Danger or stop Containers of flammable liquids; emergency stop bars; stop buttons; fire protection equipment

Orange Warning Hazardous parts of machines which may cut, crush, or otherwise injure a worker; inside of movable guards or the inside of transmission guards for gears, pulleys, chains, etc.; exposed parts (edges only) of pulleys, gears, rollers, cutting devices, power jaws, etc.

Yellow Caution Physical hazards which might result in striking against, stumbling, falling, tripping or being caught in-between; storage cabinets for




flammable materials; containers for corrosive or unstable materials

Green First aid/ safety First aid kits, stations; stretchers; emergency equipment/ emergency showers; emergency exit routesegress

Blue Safety information Signs requiring use of personal protective equipment (PPE)

5.4 Environmental AwarenessEnvironmental awareness envisions the increasing of awareness and understanding of the environment so as to be aware of the fragility of the environment and of the interdependence between the environment and mankind.

5.4.1 Waste ManagementWaste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.

5.4.1.1 Waste Hierarchy and Waste Segregation The waste hierarchy

Identifies and ranks sustainable ways of dealing with waste Methods are ranked from ‘Least preferable’(Bottom) to ‘Most preferable’(Top) Done based on the method’s impact on the environment.

5.4.1.2 Source reduction (Waste avoidance and minimisation)

Most desirable and effective option Means reducing waste at the source




May include:◦ Toxicity Reduction◦ Redesigning of products◦ Bulk purchasing◦ Reduction in packaging

Source reduction is important and the most preferred because:◦ It saves natural resources◦ Conserves energy◦ Reduces pollution◦ Saves money

5.4.1.3 Waste reduction Reuse/recycle involves a series of activities that include:

◦ Collection of used, reused or unused items considered waste◦ Sorting and processing the recyclable products into raw materials◦ Re-manufacturing the raw materials into new products

Reuse/recycling ◦ Recycling prevents or lowers the emission of many pollutants◦ Saves energy◦ Supplies raw materials to industry◦ Creates jobs◦ Reduces the need for landfills◦ Introduces new technologies

5.4.1.4 Waste recovery (treatment) Waste that cannot be reduced at the source or recycled or minimized through

treatment Treatment methods must be in accordance with standards and regulations Examples of treatment methods include:

◦ Incineration◦ Steam sterilisation

5.4.1.5 Waste disposal Waste disposal involves the transfer of a pollutant to the environment. After treatment or recovery of waste, residues are disposed of and this must be done safely to minimize their potential for release into the environment.

Disposal methods include:◦ Landfills

5.4.1.6 Waste segregation Involves the separation of waste at the source based on its properties




Waste must first be classified into◦ Solid waste◦ Hazardous and non-hazardous waste◦ Dangerous waste◦ Toxic waste, etc

Non-hazardous waste can further be segregated into two categories◦ Recyclables: waste that can be recycled (e.g. glass, paper, plastic, metals)◦ Non-recyclables: Waste that cannot be recycled (e.g. fruit peelings, soiled

wipes, weeds, etc) Hazardous waste must be disposed of through services of approved waste carriers

5.4.2 Colour Coding of Waste Receptacles Waste containers are coloured and labelled appropriately to visually identify the waste

contained therein Waste receptacles containing recyclable waste are coloured green Waste receptacles containing non-recyclable waste are coloured orange Plastic waste bags can also be colour coded

◦ Red for medical waste (usually)◦ Orange for non-recyclable waste◦ Green or black for Recyclable waste

Not that these colours can be changed depending on availability of waste receptacles

5.4.3 Disposal of Segregated Waste All waste is disposed of at the same site (usually a landfill) Non-recyclable wastes are deposited at the landfill site for leveling Recyclable wastes are taken to sorting areas where they are sorted and taken to

recycling plants Leftover un-reusable wastes are deposited at the landfill site

5.4.4 Education and Training Training is an essential element in maintaining a healthy and safe workplace. The primary role of training is to promote action. It must therefore stimulate awareness, impart knowledge and help recipients to adapt to their own roles. Workers and employers must be aware of the importance and the means of establishing safe working procedures. Trainers must train in areas of special relevance to different industries, which have specific OHS concerns.Training should not be treated in isolation, it should feature as an integral part of job training and be incorporated into the daily work procedure.




Unit 6: Duties in Safety and Health

6. IntroductionThe occurrence of occupational accidents and work-related injuries to health occur at the individual workplace require that preventive and control measures within the enterprise be planned and initiated jointly by the employer, managers and workers concerned (Alli, 2008). The measures put in place for the prevention and control of occupational hazards in the workplace should be based upon a clear, implementable and well-defined policy at the enterprise level. This occupational safety and health policy represents the foundation from which occupational safety and health goals and objectives, performance measures and other system components are developed. It should be concise, easily understood, approved by the highest level of management and known by all employees in the organization. The policy should be in written form and should cover the organizational arrangements to ensure occupational safety and health. In particular, it should:

• allocate the various responsibilities for OSH within the enterprise;• bring policy information to the notice of every worker, supervisor and manager;• determine how occupational health services are to be organized; and• specify measures to be taken for the surveillance of the working environment and

workers’ health.

The policy may be expressed in terms of organizational mission and vision statements, as a document that reflects the enterprise’s occupational safety and health values. It should define the duties and responsibilities of the departmental head or the occupational safety and health team leader who will be the prime mover in the process of translating policy objectives into reality within the enterprise.




The most widely adopted practice for OHS programmes in the workplace is the appointment of joint health and safety committees (JHSC), which have been found to help promote the active involvement of workers in OHS (Reilly, et al, 1995). The delegates to these committees have proven to be effective in the monitoring of OHS matters on the shop floor operations level as well as initiating the appropriate corrective measures. The JHSCs provide a valuable platform for discussions aimed at improving safety and health in the workplace; they are required to meet regularly and period conduct safety inspections of the work environment to check for compliance to statutory and other requirements. The responsibilities and powers of joint committees include(IAPA, 2007):

obtaining information on workplace hazards; workplace hazards identification; and recommendations on making the workplace safer and healthier.

It is therefore critical that employers, workers and unions are committed to health and safety to ensure that (ILO, 1996):

workplace hazards are controlled – at the source whenever possible; records of any exposure are maintained for many years; health and safety risks in the workplace are communicated to both workers and

employers; there is an active and effective joint health and safety committee; worker health and safety efforts are ongoing.

6.1 Responsibilities of EmployersThe protection of workers from occupational accidents and diseases is primarily a management responsibility, on a par with other managerial tasks such as setting production targets, ensuring the quality of products or providing customer services (Alli, 2008). A safety and health policy should reflect the responsibility of employers toprovide a safe and healthy working environment. The measures that need to be taken will vary depending on the nature of economic activity and the type of work performed. In taking preventive and protective measures, the employer should assess the risk and deal with it in the following order of priority:

• eliminate the risk;• control the risk at source;• minimize the risk by means that include the design of safe work systems;• in so far as the risk remains, provide for the use of personal protective equipment.

Ingeneral, however, the responsibilities of employers include, but are not limited to:• provide and maintain workplaces, machinery and equipment, and use work methods,

which are as safe and without risk to health as is reasonably practicable;• ensure that, so far as reasonably practicable, chemical, physical and biological

substances and agents under their control are without risk tohealth when appropriate measures of protection are taken;

• give the necessary instructions and training to managers and staff, takingaccount of the functions and capacities of different categories of workers;

provide adequate supervision of work, of work practices, and of theapplication and use of occupational safety and health measures;

• institute organizational arrangements regarding OHS adapted to the sizeof the undertaking and the nature of its activities;




• provide adequate personal protective clothing and equipment withoutcost to the worker, when hazards cannot be otherwise prevented orcontrolled;

• ensure that work organization, particularly with respect to hours of workand rest breaks, does not adversely affect the safety and health of workers;

• take all reasonable and practicable measures to eliminate excessivephysical and mental fatigue;

• provide, where necessary, for measures to deal with emergencies andaccidents, including adequate first-aid arrangements;

• undertake studies and research or otherwise keep abreast of the scientificand technical knowledge necessary to comply with the obligations listedabove;

• cooperate with other employers in improving occupational safety andhealth.

6.2 Responsibilities of EmployeesThe cooperation of workers within the enterprise is vital for the prevention of occupational accidents and diseases. The enterprise’s safety and health policy should therefore encourage workers and their representatives to play this essential role: specifically, it should ensure that they are given adequate. In taking preventive and protective measures, the employer should assess the risk and deal with it in the following order of priority:

• eliminate the risk;• control the risk at source;• minimize the risk by means that include the design of safe work systems;• in so far as the risk remains, provide for the use of personal protective equipment.

Information on measures taken by the employer to secure occupational safety and health, appropriate training in occupational safety and health, and the opportunity to enquire into and be consulted by the employer on all aspects of occupational safety and health associated with their work. The policy should outline the duty of individual workers to cooperate in implementing the OSH policy within the enterprise. In particular, workers have a duty to:

• take reasonable care for their own safety and that of other persons who may be affected by their acts or omissions;

• comply with instructions given for their own safety and health, and those of others, and with safety and health procedures;

• use safety devices and protective equipment correctly (and not render them inoperative);

• report promptly to their immediate supervisor any situation which they have reason to believe could present a hazard and which they cannot themselves correct;

• report any accident or injury to health which arises in the course of or in connection with work.

Workers also have certain basic rights in respect of occupational safety and health, and these should be reflected in the enterprise’s policy. In particular, workers have the right to remove themselves from danger, and to refuse to carry out or continue work which they have reasonable justification to believe presents an imminent and serious threat to their life or health. They should be protected from unforeseen consequences of their actions. In addition, workers should be able to:

• request and obtain, where there is cause for concern on safety and health grounds, inspections and investigations to be conducted by the employer and the competent authority;

• know about workplace hazards that may affect their health or safety;




• obtain information relevant to their health or safety, held by the employer or the competent authority; and collectively select safety and health representatives.

Access to better information is a prime condition for significant, positive contributions by workers and their representatives to occupational hazard control. The enterprise policy should make sure that workers are able to obtain any necessary assistance in this regard from their trade union organizations, which have a legitimate claim to be involved in anything that concerns the protection of the life and health of their members.

6.3 Health and Safety RepresentationCooperation in the field of occupational safety and health betweenmanagementand workers or their representatives at the workplace is an essential element inmaintaining a healthy working environment. It may also contribute to theestablishment and maintenance of a good social climate and to the achievementof wider objectives. Depending on national practice, this cooperation could befacilitated by the appointment ofworkers’ safety delegates, orworkers’ safety andhealth committees, or joint safety and health committees composed equally ofworkers’ and employers’ representatives. Workers’ organizations play a veryimportant role in reducing the toll of accidents and ill health. Reilly, et al (1995) concluded that those establishments with joint consultative committees had far fewer workplace injuries and accidents than those in which the management alone determined health and safety arrangements. The most widely adopted practice for OHS programmes in the workplace is the appointment of joint health and safety committees (JHSC), which have been found to help promote the active involvement of workers in OHS (Alli, 2008). The delegates to these committees have proven to be effective in the monitoring of OHS matters on the shop floor operations level as well as initiating the appropriate corrective measures. The JHSCs provide a valuable platform for discussions aimed at improving safety and health in the workplace; they are required to meet regularly and period conduct safety inspections of the work environment to check for compliance to statutory and other requirements. The responsibilities and powers of joint committees include (IAPA, 2007):

obtaining information on workplace hazards; workplace hazards identification; and recommendations on making the workplace safer and healthier.

6.3.1 Health and Safety CommitteesThe most critical element in maintaining a healthy working environment is the cooperation between management and workers or their representatives in OHS matters (Alli, 2008). It is therefore critical that employers, workers and unions are committed to health and safety to ensure that:

workplace hazards are controlled – at the source whenever possible; records of any exposure are maintained for many years; health and safety risks in the workplace are communicated to both workers and

employers; there is an active and effective joint health and safety committee; worker health and safety efforts are ongoing (ILO, 1996).




The appointment of joint safety and health committees and of workers’ safety delegates is now common practice, and can help to promote workers’ active involvement in safety and health work. Furthermore, safety delegates are known to be effective in monitoring the safety and health aspects of shop floor operations and in introducing corrective measures where necessary. Joint safety and health committees provide a valuable framework for discussion and for concerted action to improve safety and health. They should meet regularly and should periodically inspect the workplace. Workers’ safety delegates, workers’ safety and health committees, and joint safety and health committees (or, as appropriate, other workers’ representatives) should be:

• given adequate information on safety and health matters;• enabled to examine factors affecting safety and health;• encouraged to propose safety and health measures;• consulted when major new safety and health measures are envisaged and before they

are carried out;• ready to seek the support of workers for safety and health measures;• consulted in planning alterations of work processes, work content or organization of

work which may have safety or health implications for workers;• given protection from dismissal and other measures prejudicial to them while

exercising their functions in the field of occupational safety and• health as workers’ representatives or as members of safety and health committees;• able to contribute to the decision-making process within the enterprise regarding

matters of safety and health;• allowed access to all parts of the workplace;• able to communicate with workers on safety and health matters during working hours

at the workplace;• free to contact labour inspectors;• able to contribute to negotiations within the enterprise on OSH matters;• granted reasonable time during paid working hours to exercise their safety and health

functions and to receive training related to these functions;• able to have recourse to specialists for advice on particular safety and health

problems.

6.4 Hazard ReportingHazards should be reported immediately to the supervisor; it is not in the best interests of workplace safety and health to wait for an inspection team to come and identify hazards (Crutchfield, 2008). OHS legislation as well as the Joint Safety and Health Committee concept requires employees to report hazards to their superiors immediately upon identification. The immediate hazard reporting process allows employees to report hazardous conditions or practices as they notice them, which allows for prompt and subsequent corrective action rather than waiting for the next regular inspection. Hazards can be reported verbally or by filling a simple form available at bulletin boards or other conspicuous places.

6.4.1 Hazard Identification A hazard is defined as the potential of any machine, equipment, process, material (including biological and chemical) or physical factor that may cause harm to people, or damage to property or the environment (IAPA, 2007). The workplace has its own inherent hazards that workers are exposed to on a daily basis. There is therefore need to have mechanisms which




must be designed and implemented that are able to identify these hazards to ensure that control measures can be found that eliminate the hazards or reduce the impact of these hazards. The modern regulations and standards for safety have moved from the prescriptive approach, which specifies how a safe workplace and work system can be achieved, to place responsibility on managers to identify hazards and to assess and control risks to health and safety (Bohle, et al, 2007). Risk management has become the way that safety is incorporated into mainstream management thinking; it is both a process to be followed and a philosophy and culture of an organisation. The risk management philosophies include:

consultation and teamwork – ensures a wide experience and expertise in identifying risks including ownership and participation in implementing controls;

a proactive approach – controls should be put in place to prevent losses, rather than react to what has happened;

a systematic approach – ensures that decisions on risk are based on a logical analysis of consequences and probabilities.

Hazard identification should involve a critical appraisal of all routine and non-routine business activities, as well as all the workers exposed as well as other stakeholders such as members of the public, contractors and users of the products and services. Employees and safety representatives need to be involved in this process as they can make a useful contribution in identifying hazards taking into account their vast knowledge and experience of the work processes and work environment.

6.4.2 Methods of Hazard IdentificationThe identification of hazards before they cause an accident is central to all accident prevention activities (Ridely, 2008). Hazard identification is a subjective activity where the measure of the hazard identified will vary from person to person depending on their experiences, attitude to risks, familiarity with the process, etc. The findings of each inspection should be recorded so they can be referred to when deciding remedial action needed and for comparison with previous inspections. There are a number of identification techniques from which to select the one that is likely to be most effective, which include:

• Safety surveys – also called safety inspections, involve a general inspection of the whole work area; less detailed than other techniques; and gives an overall picture of the state of accident prevention across the particular work area.

• Safety tours – restricted to a predetermined route which calls for thorough planning of subsequent routes to ensure complete coverage of work area.

• Safety sampling – only one aspect of health or safety is covered; concentrates the mind and identifies more detail; and there is need to plan a series of samplings to cover all aspects of health and safety.

• Safety audit – detailed inspection of the workplace that seeks to identify all types of hazard, which are recorded and can be developed to give a numerical score to measure the ‘safety health’ of the organisation.

• Environmental checks – based on measurements of concentrations of chemicals in the atmosphere; these can identify possible health hazards faced in workplace.

• Accident report – post accident recording in which all minor as well as lost time injuries are included; report should give indication of preventative action needed.




• Near-miss reports – reports of incidents that in slightly different circumstances could have caused an accident; require the right safety culture to be effective.

• Feedback from employees – can be formally through a safety committee or informally to supervisor; needs a ‘no-blame’ culture to encourage employees to report matters.

References1. Benjamin O Alli, 2008: Fundamentals of Occupational Health and Safety, 2nd Edition,

International Labour Organisation, Geneva.2. David E. Alexander, 2002: Principles of Emergency Planning and Management, Terra

Publishing, England.3. Frank R. Spellman and Nancy Whiting, 2005: Safety Engineering – Principles and

Practices, 2nd Edition, Government Institutions, UK.4. Frank R. Spellman and Revonna M. Bieber, 2011: Physical Hazard Control – Preventing

Injuries in the Workplace, Government Institutions, UK.5. Gayle Woodside and Dianna Kocurek, 1997: Environment, Health and Safety

Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, USA.6. Health and Safety Executive, 2008: Successful Health and Safety Management, 2nd

Edition, UK.7. Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 2007: Glossary of Occupational Health &

Safety Terms, Canada.8. Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 2007: Safety Signs and Colour at Work,

Canada.9. Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 2007: Safety Signs and Colour at Work,

Canada.10. Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 2008: A Health and Safety Guideline for your

Workplace, Canada.11. Industrial Accident Prevention Association, 2008: Lockout, Canada.12. International Labour Organisation, 1995: Management of Alcohol and Drug Related

Issues in the Workplace – An ILO Code of Practice, International Labour Office, Geneva.




13. International Labour Organisation, 1996: Your Health and Safety at Work – A Collection of Modules (Introduction to Occupational Health and Safety).

14. Isabelle Balty and Allain Mayer, 1998: Head Protection in Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th Edition, Volume 1, ILO, Geneva.

15. J. M Harrington, F. S Gill, T. C Aw and K Gardiner, 2007: Pocket Consultant – Occupational Health, 5th Edition, Blackwell Publishing.

16. James Tweedy, 2013: Introduction to Hazard Control Management, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, USA.

17. Jeremy Stranks, 2006: The Manager’s Guide to Health and Safety at Work, 8th Edition.18. John Conigilo, 2010: General Industry Safety Basics, Xlibris Corporation.19. John Ridley (2008): Health and Safety in Brief, 4th Edition, Elsevier.20. Phil Hughes and Ed Ferrett, 2011: Introduction to Health and Safety at Work,

Butterworth-Heinemann, UK.



occupational health & safety principles 31.01.14

Business

occupational safety

workers health

successful occupational

occupational health

general health

companys health

safety education

safety objectives