november 29, 2004ai: chapter 24: perception1 artificial intelligence chapter 24: perception michael...
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 1
Artificial IntelligenceChapter 24: Perception
Michael SchergerDepartment of Computer
ScienceKent State University
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 2
Contents
• Perception• Image Formation• Image Processing• Computer Vision• Representation and
Description• Object Recognition
• Note…some of these images are from Digital Image Processing 2nd edition by Gonzalez and Woods
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 3
Perception
• Perception provides an agent with information about the world they inhabit– Provided by sensors
• Anything that can record some aspect of the environment and pass it as input to a program
– Simple 1 bit sensors…Complex human retina
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 4
Perception
• There are basically two approaches for perception– Feature Extraction
• Detect some small number of features in sensory input and pass them to their agent program
• Agent program will combine features with other information
• “bottom up”
– Model Based• Sensory stimulus is used to reconstruct a model of the
world• Start with a function that maps from a state of the
world to a stimulus• “top down”
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 5
Perception• S = g(W)
– Generating S from g and a real or imaginary world W is accomplished by computer graphics
• W = g-1(S)– Computer vision is in
some sense the inverse of computer graphics
• But not a proper inverse…
– We cannot see around corners and thus we cannot recover all aspects of the world from a stimulus
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 6
Perception
• In reality, both feature extraction and model-based approaches are needed– Not well understood how to combine
these approaches– Knowledge representation of the model
is the problem
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 7
A Roadmap of Computer Vision
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 8
Computer Vision Systems
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 9
Image Formation
• An image is a rectangular grid of data of light values– Commonly known as pixels
• Pixel values can be…– Binary– Gray scale– Color– Multimodal
• Many different wavelengths (IR, UV, SAR, etc)
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 10
Image Formation
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 11
Image Formation
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 12
Image Formation
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 13
Image Formation
• I(x,y,t) is the intensity at (x,y) at time t
• CCD camera has approximately 1,000,000 pixels
• Human eyes have approximately 240,000,000 “pixels”– i.e. 0.25 terabits / second
• Read pages 865-869 in textbook “lightly”
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 14
Image Formation
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 15
Image Processing
• Image processing operations often apply a function to an image and the result is another image– “Enhance the image” in some fashion– Smoothing– Histogram equalization– Edge detection
• Image processing operations can be done in either the spatial domain or the frequency domain
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 16
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 17
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 18
Image Processing
• Image data can be represented in a spatial domain or a frequency domain
• The transformation from the spatial domain to the frequency domain is accomplished by the Fourier Transform
• By transforming image data to the frequency domain, it is often less computationally demanding to perform image processing operations
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 19
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 20
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 21
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 22
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 23
Image Processing
• Low Pass Filter– Allows low frequencies to pass
• High Pass Filter– Allows high frequencies to pass
• Band Pass Filter– Allows frequencies in a given range to pass
• Notch Filter– Suppresses frequencies in a range
(attenuate)
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 24
Image Processing
• High frequencies are more noisy– Similar to the “salt and pepper” fleck on
a TV– Use a low pass filter to remove the high
frequencies from an image– Convert image back to spatial domain– Result is a “smoothed image”
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 25
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 26
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 27
Image Processing
• Image enhancement can be done with high pass filters and amplifying the filter function– Sharper edges
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 28
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 29
Image Processing
• Transforming images to the frequency domain was (and is still) done to improve computational efficiency– Filters were just like addition and
subtraction
• Now computers are so fast that filter functions can be done in the spatial domain– Convolution
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 30
Image Processing
• Convolution is the spatial equivalent to filtering in the frequency domain– More computation involved
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 31
Image Processing
0 -1 0
-1 4 -1
0 -1 050 50 15
0
50 50 150
50 150
150
-22.2
-50 – 50 + 200 – 150 – 150 = -200/9 = -22.2
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 32
Image Processing
• By changing the size and the values in the convolution window different filter functions can be obtained
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
-1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
-1 -1 -1
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 33
Image Processing
• After performing image enhancement, the next step is usually to detect edges in the image– Edge Detection– Use the convolution algorithm with edge
detection filters to find vertical and horizontal edges
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 34
Computer Vision
• Once edges are detected, we can use them to do stereoscopic processing, detect motion, or recognize objects
• Segmentation is the process of breaking an image into groups, based on similarities of the pixels
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 35
Image Processing
-1 -1 -1
0 0 0
1 1 1
-1 0 1
-1 0 1
-1 0 1
-1 -2 -1
0 0 0
1 2 1
-1 0 1
-2 0 2
-1 0 1
Prewitt
Sobel
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 36
Computer Vision
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 37
Computer Vision
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 38
Image Processing
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 39
Computer Vision
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 40
Computer Vision
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 41
Representation and Description
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 42
Representation and Description
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 43
Computer Vision
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 44
Computer Vision
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 45
Representation and Description
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 46
Computer Vision
• Contour Tracing• Connected Component Analysis
– When can we say that 2 pixels are neighbors?– In general, a connected component is a set of
black pixels, P, such that for every pair of pixels pi and pj in P, there exists a sequence of pixels pi, ..., pj such that:
• all pixels in the sequence are in the set P i.e. are black, and
• every 2 pixels that are adjacent in the sequence are "neighbors"
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 47
Computer Vision
4-connectedregions
8-connectedregion
not 8-connectedregion
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 48
Representation and Description
• Topological descriptors– “Rubber sheet distortion”
• Donut and coffee cup
– Number of holes– Number of connected components
– Euler Number• E = C - H
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Representation and Description
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 50
Representation and Description
• Euler FormulaW – Q + F = C – H
• W is number of vertices
• Q is number of edges• F is number of faces• C is number of
components• H is number of holes
7 – 11 + 2 = 1 – 3 = -2
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 51
Object Recognition
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 52
Object Recognition• L-Junction
– A vertex defined by only two lines…the endpoints touch
• Y-Junction– A three line vertex where
the angle between each of the lines and the others is less than 180o
• W-Junction– A three line vertex where
one of the angles between adjacent line pairs is greater than 180o
• T-Junction– A three line vertex where
one of the angles is exactly 180o
• An occluding edge is marked with an arrow, – hides part from view
• A convex edge is marked with a plus, +– pointing towards viewer
• A concave edge is marked with a minus, -– pointing away from the
viewer
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 53
Object Recognition
L W
WL
WY
L
L
LL
W
T
b
b
b
b
b
bb
f
f
f
f
ff
-+
+
+
++
b
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 54
Object RecognitionObject Base
# of Surfaces
Generating Plane
rectangularparallelpiped
ParameterFormulas
1
2 106
curvedflat
triangle rectangle
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 55
Object Recognition
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 56
Object Recognition
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 57
Object Recognition
• Shape context matching– Basic idea: convert shape (a relational
concept) into a fixed set of attributes using the spatial context of each of a fixed set of points on the surface of the shape.
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 58
Object Recognition
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 59
Object Recognition
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 60
Object Recognition
• Each point is described by its local context histogram– (number of points falling into each log-
polar grid bin)
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 61
Object Recognition
• Determine total distance between shapes by sum of distances for corresponding points under best matching
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 62
Object Recognition
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November 29, 2004 AI: Chapter 24: Perception 63
Summary
• Computer vision is hard!!!– noise, ambiguity, complexity
• Prior knowledge is essential to constrain the problem
• Need to combine multiple cues: motion, contour, shading, texture, stereo
• “Library" object representation: shape vs. aspects
• Image/object matching: features, lines, regions, etc.