Notes

Preface 1 "East Asian countries and regions" here means South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong,

Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, other ASEAN parties, and China. 2 Taiwan and Singapore were not that seriously affected and barely managed to maintain

positive growth. For information on the basic trends in Asian economies during this time span, see Institute of Developing Economies, Ajia Doukou Nenpou (Yearbook of Asian Mfairs), June 2000 (in Japanese).

3 See Table 2, "Basic Economic Indicators,"on p. 125 of the fIrst English-language ver-sion.

4 The Economist, January 18, 1998. 5 See p. 77 in the fIrst English-language version. 6 For details see Teranishi Shun'ichi, "Asia's Crisis and Japan's Challenge," Gakushi

Kaihou, no. 820, July 1998, and "Economic Growth and Environmental Problems in Asia: Japan Should Support the Shift to Green Economies," Nihon Keizai Kenkyuu Sentaa Kaihou, no. 827, July 1999 (both in Japanese).

7 A government effort in this area is the Environmental Congress for Asia and the PacifIc (BCO ASIA), which has been held by Japan's Environment Ministry (at that time, Agency) annually since 1992. The agenda of the ninth meeting, held in Fukuoka Prefecture, Ja­pan, in September 2000, included regional cooperation for the success of Rio+ 10, and initiatives for the success of COP 6.

8 See Teranishi Shun'ichi, "Working Toward an Asian Environmental Information Net­work," and Kojima Michikazu, "Why We Need a Guide to Asian Environmental Infor­mation," Research on Environmental Disruption, vol. 30, no. 1, July 2000 (in Japanese).

Part I

Chapter 1 1 OECDIIEA, World Energy Outlook 1998 Edition, Paris: Head of Publication Service,

OECD, pp. 461-463. 2 Ibid., p. 438. 3 Hasegawa Koichi, The Post-Nuclear Society Option, Shinyosha, 1996, pp. 256-257 \in

Japanese). 4 IAEA, Report on the preliminary fact finding mission following the accident at the nuclear

fuel processing facility in Tokaimura, Japan, IAEA, 1999. 5 http://www.jca.ax.apc.org/Cnic/news/tokai_CritiCallindeX.htmI 6 Yan Won-Young, Nuclear Energy and Anti-Nuclear movements in Korea, presented at

the 20th Japan Environmental Conference in Matsue, March 29-31, 2002.

331

332

7 Suzuki Tatsujiro, "Nuclear Power Around the World: Current State and Future Chal­lenges," Nuclear Power Eye, July 1999, pp. 15-20 (in Japanese).

8 Oshima Ken'ichi and Uezono Masatake, "Possibilities for Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Japan," in Japan Scientists Association, Pollution and Environmental Prob­lems Editorial Committee, ed., Environmental Outlook 1999-2000, Jikkyo Shuppan, pp. 35-57 (in Japanese).

9 Ibid. See also CASA, A proposal for a CO2 Emission Reduction Strategy, 1997 (in Japa­nese).

10 http://www.wpm.co.nzlwindicat.htm. 11 New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, New Energy News

from Abroad, April-June 1998,p.151 (in Japanese). 12 N. H. Ravindranath and D. O. Hall, Biomass, Energy and Environment: A Developing

Country Perspective from India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 31.

Chapter 2 1 With additions and changes, this chapter is based on: Hata Akio and Uezono Masatake,

"Environmental Degradation from Non-ferrous Metal Mining and Smelters in East Asia," The Business Review, vol. 50, no. 1-2, July 1999, Yuhikaku, Osaka, Japan, pp. 121-141 (in Japanese).

2 SeePartID-15. 3 4

5 6

U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries 1999. Warhurst, A. Environmental Degradationfrom Mining and Mineral Proceeding in De­veloping Countries: Corporate Responses and National Policies, Paris, OECD, 1994. See pp. 166-174. See pp. 42-45.

Chapter 3 1 State Environmental Protection Commission. "Research on Preventing and Remedying

'White Pollution' ," in Selected Documents on Environmental Protection, 1997 (in Chi­nese).

2 Ministry of International Trade and Industry. Statistical Yearbook of Plastic Products, various years (in Japanese).

3 Lampiran: Pidato Kenegaraan Presiden Republic Indonesia, 1998 (in Indonesian). 4 Due to space limitations this chapter defers to Chapter 1 on the issue of radioactive

wastes, and Essay 2 at the end of this chapter covers ship dismantling. Two of the issues this book was not able to cover were hazardous wastes generated by households and medical wastes.

5 Definitions of waste differ from country to country. "Municipal solid wastes" in this section refers to wastes that are generated primarily by homes and offices, and collected and managed mainly by local goverments.

6 Other factors are that collectors recover items of value as they work, and that the low social status of collectors gives them no incentive to improve efficiency.

7 http://www.bestpractices.org. 8 Cointreau-Levine, Sandra. Private Sector Participation in Municipal Solid Waste Ser­

vices in Developing Countries, Urban Management Programme, World Bank, 1994. Lee, Yok-Sheu E, "The Privatization of Solid Waste Infrastructure and Services in Asia," Third World Political Review, vol. 19, no. 2, 1997.

9 The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration was formally created as a special local gov­ernment under the 1975 Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Administrative Organi­zation Law. The current governing law is the 1985 Bangkok Metropolitan Administra-

Notes 333

tion Administrative Organization Law. There are 50 districts under BMA, and each has its own assembly.

10 See Essay 1 at the end of this chapter on how South Korea is addressing dioxins. 11 Based on: Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department. Monitoring of Solid Waste

in Hong Kong, 1997, and an interview conducted at the department. 12 Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration. "Refuse Incinerator Construction to

Move Forward as Scheduled," Environmental Policy Monthly, vol. IT, no. 7, January 1999.

13 The Times of India, October 23,1998. 14 China News, June 3, 1997. 15 The Korea Herald, November 14, 1997. 16 Niijima, Hiroshi, "Many Birth Defects among Trash Dump Children: Living in the Phil-

ippines' Smokey Valley," Shukan Kinyobi, no. 251, Jan 22,1999 (in Japanese). 17 The counts as of July 19,2000. 18 See Part IT, chapter 4 (Malaysia) for a typical example. 19 Bangkok Post, March 22, 1999. 20 Cooperatives also build and operate incineration and recycling facilities. 21 "The Strategy for Waste Minimization through Re-use and Recycling: A Study on Pre­

vention and Identification of Solutions to Problems of Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste," Pollution Control Department, MOSTE, Thailand, 1998.

22 According to a March 1999 interview with BMA employees. 23 New Straits Times, November 9, 1995. 24 The Jakarta Post, May 29, 1996. 25 Report on the State of Pollution 1996, Thai Pollution Control Bureau, 1998 (in Thai). 26 China Daily, October 7,1998. 27 The Times of India, July 6, 1999. 28 The figures used below are based on foreign trade statistics of importing countries and

regions, which are those covered in Part IT, excluding Vietnam and including Singapore and Hong Kong. Statistics are those for 1997, except for Malaysia (1996) and India (May 1997 to March 1998).

29 Hong Kong's reexports were subtracted from total imports by China and Hong Kong. 30 Environesia, vol. 7, no. 2, 1993, p. 10. 31 Ueta Kazuhiro, The Economics of Wastes and Recycling, Yuhikaku, 1992, pp. 198-199

(in Japanese). 32 On Indonesia, see: Kitade Yukikazu, "Transfrontier Movement of Hazardous Waste: The

Real Story," Environment, February 1993, pp. 13-15 (in Japanese); on Thailand, see: Green World Foundation, State of the Thai Environment 1996,1997.

33 Greenpeace. Heavy Burden: A Case Study on Lead Waste Imports into India, 1997.

Chapter 4 1 Costanza, R., et al., "The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital,"

Science 387, 1997. However, adjustment of carbon dioxide concentration by the oceans is not included because of insufficient data.

2 Unless otherwise specified, the chief sources for this section are as follows: Oceano­graphic Society of Japan, ed., Considering the Marine Environment: Changes in and Challenges of Marine Environmental Problems, Koseisha Koseikaku, 1994 (in Japa­nese); Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and Asian Development Bank (ADB), State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific 1995, United NatioI!s, New York, 1995; Johnston, P., et aI., Report on the Worlds Oceans, Greenpeace Research Laboratories Report, 1998; Brown, Lester R. ed., State of the World 1999-

334

2000, Japanese translation by Hamanaka Hironori, et al. Diamond Publishing, 1999, chap.5.

3 Chansang, H., "Coastal Tin Mining and Marine Pollution in Thailand," Ambia 18 (3), 1988.

4 Harada Masazumi, et al., "Heavy Metal Pollution in Jakarta Bay," Research on Environ­mental Disruption, vol. 14, no. 2, 1984 (in Japanese); Harada Masazumi, A Journey to Learn From Minamata Disease, Nihon Hyoronsha, 1985, pp. 259-265 (in Japanese); Gomez, E. D., "Overview of Environmental Problems in the East Asian Seas Region," Ambia, 17 (3), 1988, p. 168; Hungspreugs, M., "Heavy Metals and Other Non-Oil Pol­lutants in Southeast Asia," Ambia, 17 (3), 1988; Harada Masazumi, The World Through the Lens of Minamata, Nihon Hyoronsha, 1989, p. 257-268 (in Japanese); Sakumoto Naoyuki, "Indonesia: Minamata Disease in Jakarta Bay," in Fujizaki Shigeaki, ed., Envi­ronmental Problems in Developing Countries (Revised and Enlarged Edition), (Research Report 14), Institute of Developing Economies, 1992, pp. 144-152 (in Japanese); Inoue Makoto and Michikazu Kojima, "Indonesia," in Japan Environmental Council and Ajia Kankyo Hakusho Editorial Committee, ed., Ajia Kankyo Hakusho 1997-1998, Toyo Keizai Inc., pp. 188-189 (in Japanese). The corresponding English-language passage for this last reference is on p. 86 of The State of the Environment in Asia 1999-2000, Springer­Verlag Tokyo, 2000.

5 Sao Kazuko, et al., ed., The"Sea of Plastics: Marine Life Threatened and Endangered, Ocean Engineering Research Inc. Publishing Division, 1995, pp. 62-64 (in Japanese).

6 World Resources Institute, World Resources 1988-1989, Worldwatch Japan, 1990, p. 149 (Japanese-language version). "East Asian waters" here means the marine area under UNEP's East Asia Regional Seas Programme, which is the Southeast Asian marine area around countries including Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thai­land.

7 ITOPF, Response to Marine Oil Spills, ITOPF, London, 1987, pp. 1.3-1.4. Japanese trans­lation by Petroleum Association of Japan, 1997, pp.I.3-1.5.

8 Some explanation is needed about why Asia's share of total oil spills is lower than its share of total marine trade. It is often the case that a considerable proportion of the annual oil spill amount is from a small number of unusually large spills. For instance, the 1991 Gulf War spill alone accounted for over 70% of that year's total. Thus Asia's share of total spills is comparatively small because there have been no unusually large spills, but the Nakhodka and Evoikos accidents were not exactly small. It is worth noting that in fact the Asia-Pacific proportion of total oil spills has been increasing.

9 ITOPF, An Assessment of the Risk of Oil Spills and the State of Preparedness in 13 UNEP Regional Seas Areas, ITOPF, London, 1996.

10 For further information on this accident, see the following sources. Awano Masao and Takahashi Makiko, The Nakhodka Fuel Oil Spill: Citizens and Volunteers in Mikuni, Fukui Prefecture, Shakai Hyoronsha, 1997 (in Japanese); Oshima Ken' ichi and Yokemoto Masafumi, "Coastal Damage caused by the Nakhodka Accident and Oil Spill Clean up Problems in Japan," Research on Environmental Disruption, vol. 28, no. 1, 1998 (in Japanese); Ocean Engineering Research Inc. Publishing Division, ed., Pollution by Fuel Oil: Can the Nakhodka Change Japan?, Ocean Engineering Research Inc. Publishing Division, 1998 (in Japanese); International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds, Annual Report 1998, IOPC Funds, London, n.d., pp. 81-88.

11 Shimane, Tottori, Hyogo, Kyoto, Fukui, Ishikawa, Niigata, Yamagata, and Akita prefec­tures. Oil was recovered in Toyama Bay, but it did not reach the coast of Toyama Prefec­ture.

Notes 335

12 Environment Agency, "Environmental Impacts of the Nakhodka Oil Spill," May 1997 (in Japanese).

13 Press kit from the Water Pollution Control Division of the Environment Agency's Water Quality Bureau, August 19, 1997 (in Japanese).

14 Fukui Shimbun, February 4, 1997 (in Japanese). 15 A corporation established pursuant to the Law Relating to the Prevention of Marine

Pollution and Maritime Disaster. Its work includes taking measures to alleviate damage after oil spills in accordance with directives from the Maritime Safety Agency director­general or commissions by ship owners.

16 About 80% of the difference was paid to local governments by the Ministry of Transport's "Nakhodka Oil Spill Emergency Remedial Measure Subsidy" (1996 only; after compen­sation was paid by the shipowner and the IOPC Funds, the subsidy had to be returned to the national government) and from the Ministry of Home Affair's special local alloca­tion tax. The authors calculated the difference backward from these government pay­ments.

17 IOPC Funds, Claims Manual, 5th ed., IOPC Funds, London, 1996; Tanigawa, Hisashi, "The Scope of Reparations and Compensation for Oil Pollution," in Komuro Naoto, et al., eds., Corporations and the Law: Collected Papers in Honor of the Late Nishihara Kan'ichi, Part II," Yuhikaku, 1995 (in Japanese).

18 In 1996 the average age oftankers plying the Sea of Japan was 10.7 years, while that of Russian-flagged tankers was 17.1 years. See: Ikegarni Takeo, "State of Ships Sailing the Sea of Japan," TECHNO MARINE (Journal of the Society of Naval Architects of Japan), no. 818, 1997, p. 570, Table 6 (in Japanese).

19 N agatsuka Seiji, "Tanker Oil Spills, Abandonment of Grounded Ships, and Other Disas­ters at Sea by Foreign Vessels in Sea of Japan Coastal Shipping," Merchant Shipping, March 1997, p. 46 (in Japanese); -, "Oil Spill Accidents by the Nakhodka and Diamond Grace: Problems and Future Remedial Strategies," Bulletin of the Japan Maritime Re­search Institute, no. 377, 1997, p. 26 (in Japanese).

20 Ibid., pp. 46-49, and pp. 32-33, respectively. 21 For details see: Oshima Ken'ichi and Yokemoto Masafumi, op. cit., note 10. 22 Based on the following sources: IOPC Funds, op. cit., pp. 102-104; Dicks, B., et aI.,

"The Evoikos and Pontoon 300 Incidents: The Technical Advisor's Perspective," paper presented at the Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ) Oil Spill Symposium, Tokyo, 7-8 October 1998; articles from The Straits Times (Singapore) and New Straits Times (Ma­laysia); press releases from the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore.

23 Tan, K. S., et al., "An Assessment of the Impact of the Evoikos Oil Spill on the Marine Environment in Singapore," paper presented at the Seminar on Port and Maritime R&D, Singapore, October 15, 1998.

24 However, the shipowner and the owner's insurer company indicate they think at least some of the cleanup costs might be eligible for compensation under the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation of Oil Pol­lution Damage. Whether the liability limitation is exceeded depends also on how the IOPC Funds assess this view (lOPC Funds, op. cit., pp. 103, 104).

25 Spalding, M. and A. M. Greenfell, "New Estimates of Global and Regional Coral Reef Areas," Coral Reefs 16, 1997, pp. 225-230.

26 The following source summarizes the present state of the world's coral reefs: Wilkinson, C. R., ed., Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 1998, Australian Institute of Marine Sci­ence, Townsville, 1998. For overviews of various regions, see these sources, Proceed­ings o/the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium I, 1996: Chou, L. M., "The Status of

336

Southeast Asian Coral Reefs," ibid., pp. 317-322; Maragos, J. E. and C. Payri, "The Status of Coral Reef Habitats in the Insular South and East Pacific," ibid., pp. 317-322; "Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia, Indian Ocean and the Middle East Seas (Red Sea and Persian Gulf), ibid., pp. 301-306.

27 Kelleher, G., et al., A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995.

28 Chou, L. M., "Importance of Southeast Asian Marine Ecosystems in Biodiversity Main­tenance," in Turner, I. M., et al., eds., Biodiversity and the Dynamics of Ecosystems, DIWPASeries, vol. 1, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 1996, pp. 227-235.

29 Vernon, J. E. N., Corals in Space and Time: The Biogeography and Evolution of the Scleractinaia, UNSW Press, Sydney, 1995.

30 See, for example: UNEP and mCN, Coral Reefs of the World, vol. 2, UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies, mCN, Gland and Cambridge, U.K. and UNEP, Nairobi, 1988.

31 Alcala, A C., ed., Proceedings of the regional symposium on living resources in coastal areas, Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, 1991; Chou, L. M. and Wilkinson, C. R., eds., Third ASEAN Science and Technology Week Conference Pro­ceedings, vol. 6, Marine science: living coastal resources, Department of Zoology, Na­tional University of Singapore, and National Science and Technology Board, Singapore, 1992; Sudara, S., et al., eds., Proceedings of the Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources, vol. 2, Research Papers, Department of Marine Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand, 1994; Wilkinson, C. R., et al., eds., Proceedings, ThirdASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living Coastal Resources, vol. 1, Status Reviews, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia, 1994.

32 See these sources on the current status of these coral reefs: Maragos, J., et al., "Status of Coral Reefs in the Northwest Pacific Ocean: Micronesia and East Asia," Wilkinson, ed., op. cit., note 26, pp. 109-122.

33 Maragos, J., "Status of Coral Reefs of the Southwest and East Pacific: Melanesia and Polynesia," Wilkinson, ed., op. cit., note 26, pp. 89-107; Maragos, J. E. and C. Payri, op cit., note 26.

34 White, et al., op. cit., note 26; Rajasuriya, A and A White, "Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia," Wilkinson, ed., op. cit., note 26, pp. 47-52.

35 Fouda, M., "Status of Coral Reefs in the Middle East," Wilkinson, ed., op. cit., note 26, pp.39-46.

36 Wilkinson, C. R., "Coral Reefs of the World Are Facing Widespread Devastation: Can We Prevent This Through Sustainable Management Practices?", Proceedings of the 7th International Coral Reef Symposium 1, 1992, pp. 11-21; Wilkinson, C. R., et aI., "Status of Coral Reefs in Southeast Asia: Threats and Responses," Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health Hazards and History, Case Studies for Colloquium and Forum, Miami 1993, University of Miami, 1993.

37 Bryant, D., et al., Reefs at Risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the Worlds Coral Reefs, World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., 1998.

38 Wilkinson, ed., op. cit., note 26. 39 Ibid. 40 Norse, E. A, ed., Global Marine Biological Diversity: A Strategy for Building Conser­

vation into Decision Making, Island Press, Washington, D. C. and Covelo, California, 1993, Chapter 8; ESCAP and ADB, op. cit., note 2, pp. 128-132.

41 Environment Agency Planning and Coordination Bureau, Planning and Coordination Office, ed., Quality of the Environment in Japan 1999 (Discussion by Category), Minis­try of Finance Printing Bureau, 1999, pp. 357-358 (in Japanese).

Notes 337

42 For a comprehensive work on this topic, see: Cicin-Sain, B. and R. W. Knecht, Inte­grated Coastal and Ocean Management: Concepts and Practices, Island Press, Wash­ington D.C. and Covelo, 1998.

43 These countries and regions are, in Asia: Bangladesh, Brunei, China, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Maldives, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Thailand; in Oceania: American Samoa, Australia, Micronesia, Guam, Hawaii, New Zealand, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Ibid., pp. 33-35, Table 1.5 (partly corrected).

44 White, A. T., et al., eds., Collaborative and Community-Based Management of Coral Reefs: Lessonsfrom Experience, Kumarian Press, Connecticut, 1994.

45 Kelleher, et al., op. cit., note 27. 46 Wilkinson, C. and B. Salvat, "Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network: Role in Conser­

vation of the World's Reefs," Wilkinson, c., ed., op. cit., note 26, pp. 169-173. 47 Hodgson, G., "Reef Check and Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs," Wilkinson,

c., ed., op. cit., note 26, pp. 165-168.

Chapter 5 1 Four other reasons are as follows. First, the education level, as indicated by the literacy

rate and school enrollment rate, is lower than developed countries. For example, the average illiteracy rate of adults in middle-lower income South Asian countries was over 50% in 1990 (World Bank, World Development Report 1994, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 162-163, Table 1). This high illiteracy rate hampers the improvement of gov­ernment administrative capability and the development of democratic movements among the citizens. The inability of citizens to write the names of candidates on voting ballots, or to read the newsletters and bulletins prepared by administrative authorities and citi­zens' groups is commonplace. This reduces the effectiveness of environmental policy.

Second, because unemployment, malnutrition, and the other afflictions of poverty are rife, they mask harm done by pollution. Further, even if people know that health damage was caused by pollution, they cannot criticize or expose the polluting companies because those businesses employ the citizens as day laborers.

Third, freedom of speech is lacking. There are especially few journalists and lawyers working for human rights, or conservationist scientists and researchers. For many years military regimes have restricted the activities of even the few which do exist. This frus­trates efforts to search out and uncover unknown pollution sonrces and have experts determine their causes.

Fourth, there is a fundamental difference in the substance of infrastructure, which is evident in the administration of roads. Road management in developed countries takes in not only roads themselves, but all their ancillary facilities, such as sidewalks, lighting, guard rails, traffic signals, road signs, and pavement markings. Japanese roads, for ex­ample, have 2 million signs. In developing countries just building a road completes the project, so there are insufficient facilities to ensure safe traffic management. Such insub­stantial road facilities are full of conspicuous externalities that assault roadside residents and road users.

2 Ro, Yung hui, "Local Self-Government in South Korea: Review and Outlook," Osaka Local Government Issues Research Institute, ed., Local Self-Government in East Asia, Bunrikaku, 1999, p. 13 (in Japanese).

3 Ibid. 4 Sugenami Tamotsu. "Lessons of the Land Reclamation Fiasco in the SiwhaArea," Shukan

Kinyobi, No. 261, April 2, 1999 (in Japanese). 5 Op. cit., pp. 34--35.

338

6 For details see: Benjamart Ruangamnart, "11 Thailand," Country Reportfor the Group Training Course in Local Government II, Japan International Cooperation Agency (nCA), 1999. This is the chapter on Thailand submitted for a three-month training program held in Japan for local administrators in Asian countries. The author is an official in the Comp­troller General's Department of Thailand's Ministry of Finance.

7 See: Pitch Pongsawat, "Thai Local Government in Transition" (http://www.chula.ac.th1 studycenter/pesclNewsletterILOCAL.html). The author is a lecturer in the Department of Government, Faculty of Political Science at Chulalongkorn University.

8 For a study of Thailand's rural administrative organizations, see: Shigetomi Shin'ichi, "Thai Rural Communities: An Exploration from the Functional Aspect of Organizing Local Citizens," Ajia Keizai (Asian Economies), vol. 37, no. 5, May 1996 (in Japanese).

9 Ibid., p. 9. 10 Mori Akihisa, Local Environmental Capacity Building in Thailand: A Japanese View,

Working Paper No. 58, Faculty of Economics, Shiga University, April 1999. 11 A brief rundown of central government environmental policy is as follows. Thailand's

Factory Law was passed in 1969, and its National Law on Preserving and Improving Environmental Quality (ordinarily known as the Basic Environment Law) was estab­lished in 1975. The National Environmental Board was also founded in 1975, but it merely advises and is endowed with no enforcement authority. In 1992 the Basic Envi­ronment Law was revised into the New Basic Environment Law, and at about the same time the government established the Seventh National Economic and Social Develop­ment Plan (1992-1997), which accorded top priority to the environment. The Pollution Control Section, Environmental Policy and Planning Bureau, and Environmental Qual­ity Preservation Section were created as enforcement agencies. Subsequently the Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001) was established.

12 Matsumoto Reishi, "Research on Economic Growth and Urban Waste Problems in De­veloping Countries: The Case of Bangkok's Municipal Solid Waste," Japan Society for International Development, Journal of International Development Studies, vol. 5, 1996 (in Japanese).

13 Ibid., p. 56. 14 See: Kidokoro Tetsuo, Shoji Hitoshi, and Togawa Michinari, "Current State and Chal­

lenges of Urban Public Rail Transit Construction in Bangkok: Policy Measures for Se­curing Funds," Journal of Development Assistance, vol. 4, no. 3, 1997 (in Japanese).

15 Based on information from: Japan International Cooperation Agency, Country Study Report for Japan's Official Development Assistance: Philippines, March 1999, pp. 194-196.

16 Hiraishi Masami, "Decentralization in Developing Countries: with a focus on Decen­tralization in the Philippines," The Toshi-Mondai Kenkyu (Research on Municipal Prob­lems), vol. 46, no. 1, January 1994, p. 133 (in Japanese).

17 Katayama Yutaka, "Crimes by Police Officers: The Central-Local Government Rela­tionship as Seen in the Philippines' Police System," Journal of International Coopera­tion Studies, vol. 2, no. 1, June 1994 (in Japanese).

18 See: Santa Maria, Mathew M., "Transformation of Personal Registration Administration in the Philippines: A Trend in Decentralization," The Toshi-Mondai Kenkyu (Research on Municipal Problems), vol. 48, no. 7, July 1996 (in Japanese). .

19 See: Hiraishi, op. cit., p. 135, and Yamada Yasutoshi, "Functional Relationship Between Local Authorities and Central Government Agencies in Regional Development: An Ex­ploratign at the Conclusion of Transition to the 'Local Government Code of 1991,'" Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu, vol. 14, no. 1, April 1998, p. 22 (in Japanese).

Notes 339

Part II

Chapter 1 Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 4, 1999.

2 Philippine Daily Inquirer, June 24,1999. 3 Tielens, Claire and Howie G. Severino, "Toxic Cities," p.161 in Cecile C. A. Galgos, ed.,

Saving the Earth - The Philippine Experience, Philippine Center for Investigative Jour­nalism, 1997.

4 Philippine Daily Inquirer, June 9, 1999. 5 In 1999, the OECF merged with the former Export-Import Bank of Japan to form the

Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC). 6 The Philippines' general system of laws consists of, fIrst, the 1987 Constitution; second,

Statutes or Republic Acts issued by Congress, Presidential Proclamations, Presidential Decrees issued by former President Ferdinand Marcos during the martial law period, and Executive Orders issued by former President Corazon Aquino under the freedom consti­tution. Third are ordinances passed by councils of local government units, and fInally come the administrative orders or implementing rules and regulations issued by the imple­menting executive agencies.

7 In the Oposa vs. Factoran case the court handed down a landmark decision that children have plaintiff competency as representatives of their own and future generations. In this lawsuit 19 children were represented by their parents against DENR Minister Factoran in a demand for the cancellation of TLAs to protect the interests of future generations. Although a lower court had denied the children's plaintiff competency, the Supreme Court overturned that decision. This lawsuit clearly sets an interesting precedent on plain­tiff competency and environmental rights.

8 A Torrens certifIcate is issued by the government for land that may be transferred or disposed. All land must be registered under this system.

9 Local government units in the Philippines comprise provinces, municipalities, and barangays (or villages). There are also "leagues" which straddle multiple municipalities and barangays.

10 It is fortunate that despite this situation the Philippine Fisheries Code now protects man­grove forests and prohibits their logging and destruction.

Chapter 3 1 Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project: Forest Resources of Tropical Asia, Food

and Agriculture Organization and United Nations Environment Programme, Rome, 1981. Tropical Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Tropical Countries, FAO Forestry Paper 112, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1990.

2 Nomura Yoshihiro. "India's Environmental Laws," in Environmental Laws Around the World, Japan Center for International and Comparative Environmental Law Center, 1996, p. 372 (in Japanese).

3 Centre for Science and Environment. State of India s Environment: The Citizens' Report (Part 2: Statistical Database), 1999, p. 214.

4 Centre for Science and Environment. State of India s Environment: The Citizens' Report (Part 1: National Overview), 1999, pp. 361-362.

5 Akiyama Toshiko. "Book Review of State oflndias Environment 1982: A Citizens' Re­port," Research on Environmental Disruption, Iwanarni shoten, 1983, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 54-59 (in Japanese).

6 Kanazawa Kentaro. "Environmental Crises and Responses in the Himalayan Region: Philosophical and Organizational Continuity of the Chipko Movement," National Mu-

340

seum of Ethnology, Japan Center for Area Studies, JCAS Area Studies Research Report No.3, Preservation and Utilization of Biodiversity in Tropical Forests, 2000, pp. 123-136 (in Japanese).

7 Kumar, L. "Civil Strife and Civil Society in India," Society for Participatory Research in Asia, Institutional Development, vol. 5, no. 2, 1998, pp. 37-50.

8 Ibid., note 4, p. 440.

Chapter 4 Japan 1 Subsequent developments are Japan's ratification of the Kyoto Protocol (June 4, 2002),

amendment of the Law Concerning the Promotion of Measures to Cope with Global Warming (May 31, 2002), and revision of the Guideline of Measures to Prevent Global Warming (March 19,2002).

2 pp.45-46.

Republic of Korea 1 For example, in response to the relaxation of land use regulations in conjunction with

"restricted development zone system" reform (see section 3-3, below), there is a spate of local development project proposals from local governments.

2 A September 1999 government auditing document of the Parliament's Environment and Labor Committee states, "The Rural Development Agency, the Korean Water Resources Corporation, and other public institutions, along with nine local governments, are work­ing on 20 land reclamation projects, and the combined length of their sea walls is 106.3 km ... In the process of building a 33-km sea wall, the Semangum reclamation project has already extracted 19,470,000 cubic meters of earth, corresponding to 1.3 million IS-ton truckloads." There are concerns about the severe environmental damage resulting from the extraction of such large amounts of earth. The Korea Times, September 29, 1999 (in Korean).

3 For example, Korea University researcher Kwak Seung-Jun assessed the value of the Ton River watershed environment using the contingent valuation method and determined its annual value to be 111.8 billion won. By contrast, the Yongwol dam if built would provide a social benefit of only about 600 million won per year.

4 South Korea's Law on Support for Dam Construction and Surrounding Areas requires nearby local governments to assume a variety of fiscal burdens.

5 Ministry of Construction & Transportation, "Ideas on Improving the Development Re­striction Zone System," explanatory materials, July 1999.

Kingdom of Thailand 1 Throughout East Asia the private sector is now involved in building not only power

plants, but also turnpikes, elevated railways, public water supplies, and sewerage. Al­though contract conditions vary with the country and operation, in Thailand's electric power enterprises the government undertakes little risk, while private concerns assume comparatively large risk including the selection and purchase of plant sites. For details see: Mori Akihisa, "The Government Fiscal Burden in Privately Built Infrastructure," Hikone Ronsou, Shiga University, no. 314, pp. 113-136, 1998 (in Japanese), and "Impli­cation of Private Infrastructure in the Economic Development Process," International Public Economy Studies, vol. 8, pp. 103-110, 1998 (in Japanese).

2 Bangkok Post, November 11,1999. 3 Bangkok Post, May 10, 2000. 4 See Tlie State of the Environment in Asia 199912000, p. 66.

Notes 341

5 Citizens also did not trust, and tried to stop, public hearings on the Thai-Malaysian gas pipeline project that was to supply natural gas from the Gulf of Thailand to southern Thailand and northern Malaysia.

6 For a description of Thai coastal prawn farming and its environmental impacts, see: Ampon, Kaewnoo, "Thai Prawn Farming and Its Environmental Impacts," Research on Environmental Disruption, vol. 21, no. 4, 1992, pp. 10--18 (in Japanese).

7 The ban was limited to freshwater areas because the potential impact is greater in such areas, and because monitoring is relatively easy.

Malaysia 1 Malaysia is a federation of 13 states. Government administration comprises the three

tiers of the federal, state, and local governments, with the local governments being under state government control.

27th Malaysia Plan, Economic Planning Unit, 1996. 3 The regions are: north (perak, Kedah, Penang, Perlis), central (Selangor, Kuala Lumpur,

Pahang, Terengganu, Kelantan), south (Negari Sembilan, Malacca, Johor), and Sabah and Sarawak.

4 Kumazaki Minoru, "Plundered Tropical Forests," Sekai, no. 629, December 1996 (in Japanese).

5 Malaysian Agricultural Directory & Index 199912000, Agriquest Sdn Dhd, 2000. 6 New Straits Times, July 9, 1999.

Indonesia 1 Overall, this chapter makes use of these books:

Guharidja, Edi, Mansur Fatawi, Maman Sutisna, Mori Tokunori, and Ohta Seiichi, eds. Rainforest Ecosystems of East Kalimantan: EI Nino, Drought, Fire, and Human Im­pacts, Springer-Verlag Tokyo, 2000. Vayda, Andrew P., Finding Causes of the 1997-98 Indonesian Forest Fires: Problems and Possibilities, WWF Indonesia, 1999.

2 This section is based primarily on: Inoue Makoto, "Large Forest Fires in Indonesia," Research on Environmental Disruption, vol. 27, no. 4, April 1998, pp. 65-66, and Inoue Makoto, "Fire Causes and an Estimate of Burned Area," Report on the Results of 1997 Ministry of Education Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (International Scientific Re­search): Environmental Sciences Study on Smoke Damage by Forest Fires in Indonesia, October 1998, pp. 128-144 (both in Japanese).

3 Hafield, Emmy, "Konglomerat, Penyebab Kebakaran Hutan," UMMAT, No. 12,5, Octo­ber 1997 (in Indonesian).

4 Siegert, F. and A. A. Hoffmann, "Evaluation of the forest fires in 1998 in East Kalimantan using multitemporal ERS-2SAR images and NOAA-AVHRR data," International con­ference on data management and modelling using remote sensing and GIS for tropical forest land inventory, Jakarta, Indonesia, 26-29 October 1998.

5 Manuntung Kaltim Post, March 30, 1999 (in Indonesian). 6 Schweithelm, James, "The Fire This Time," An Overview of Indonesia s Forest Fires in

1997198 (WWF Indonesia Programme), May 1998. 7 GTZ-SFMP, "Forestry Highlights from the Indonesian Press," AprillMay 1998.

Taiwan Municipal solid waste disposal is: 24.6% incinerated, 64.1 % landfilled, 6% dumped in the open, and 5.4% managed under contracts.

2 Qiu Hua-mei, "Formosa: Island of Waste," CommonWealth, no. 213, pp. 180-183. CommonWealth Magazine Co., February 1999 (in Chinese).

342

3 Six months are needed to survey one contaminated site, prepare a budget, and perform other administrative tasks, and remediation takes between six months and a year. As of 1999, only one site has been remediated.

4 Diao Man-peng, "Public Power Victorious over Environmental Villains," Common Wealth, no. 218, pp. 244-288, CommonWealth Magazine Co., July 1999 (in Chinese).

5 The Foreign Business Center (Chiayi County) was conceived to carry out direct trade with the Chinese mainland.

6 Meinung Township is made up totally of Hakka villages where the inhabitants preserve their distinctive traditional culture, but construction of the dam would increase the diffi­culty of preserving and developing Hakka culture.

7 Xie, Shufen, "Spring in the Besieged City - The Green Revolution in Southern Tai­wan," Sinorama, vol. 22, no. 7, pp. 78-87, Sinorama Magazine, July 1997 (in Chinese).

Part III

5. The Late Starter s Advantage and Detrimental Legacies 1 Akamatsu, Kaname. Discourse on Economic Policy, Seirin Shoin, 1966 (in Japanese).

Akamatsu describes the process briefly in this manner: "When developing countries embark on economic development through industrialization, they begin by domestically producing imported industrial products, which in time becomes an export industry. The process by which countries move up from the consumer goods to the capital goods in­dustry while passing through the steps of importing, domestic production, and exporting is called the flying geese pattern of industrial development" (p. 156).

6. Biodiversity and Genetic Resourcesfor Food and Agriculture 1 UN Food and Agriculture Organization, The State of the World's Plant Genetic Resources

for Food and Agriculture, 1996. 2 Mooney, Pat Roy, "The Law of the Seed: Another Development and Plant Genetic Re­

sources," Development Dialogue, nos. 1-2, 1983; "The Parts of Life: Agricultural Biodiversity, Indigenous Knowledge, and the Role of the Third System," Development Dialogue, special issue, 1997.

3 "The International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources," FAO Resolution 8/83, 1983.

4 At the third session of the CPGR in 1989 the concept of farmers' rights was introduced, and delegates clearly defined the rights to genetic resources of traditional farmers, who have played a major role in creating plant diversity, but the concept has not been wel­comed by the industrialized countries, which regard patents and new plant variety pro­tection systems as the foundation of intellectual property rights.

5 FAO, Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic Resources in East Asia; - in Southeast Asia; - in South Asia, all 1995.

6 Japan Bioindustry Association, Bioscience and Industry, vol. 57, no. 2, 1999 (in Japa­nese). Note, however, that many projects in Asia are aimed at the prospecting, collection, and management of tropical biological resources that can be used in pharmaceuticals.

7. Wood Protection and Trade 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, State of the World's Forests

1999, Rome 1999.

B. The State of Forest Resources 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, State of the Worlds Forests

1999, Rome 1999.

Notes 343

2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, State of the Worlds Forests 1997, Rome 1997.

9. Fishing Effort Increase and Marine Fisheries Resources I By-catch of unintended species including dolphins, sea turtles, and birds, is often dis­

carded when of little economic value. This practice has harmful consequences for the marine ecosystem and is a waste of food resources. Although FAO catch statistics do not include the amounts of discarded fish, the FAO has recently estimated that 20 million tons offish are discarded worldwide each year (FAO Fisheries Department, The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 1998, FAO, Rome, 1999, p. 51).

2 Fishing effort means the amount of fishing taking place, which is considered to be pro­portional to the intensity of culling from stocks. Units used in fishing effort are, for example, trawling time when using a dragnet, or the number of hooks used in longlining.

3 FAO Fisheries Department, The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture, FAO, Rome, 1995, p. 8. See also: Grainer, R. J. R. and S. M. Garcia, Chronicles of Marine Fishery Landings (1950-1994): Trend Analysis and Fisheries Potential, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 359, FAO, Rome, 1996; FAO Marine Resource Service, Fishery Resources Division, Review of the State of World Fishery Resources: Marine Resources, FAO Fisheries Circular No. 920, FAO, Rome, 1997; FAO Fisheries Department, The State of World Fisheries and Agriculture 1996, FAO, Rome, 1997, pp. 31-48. However, there are criticai examinations of "maximum sustainable yield," which the FAO uses as a criterion to assess fisheries stocks. See, for example: Kawasaki Tsuyoshi, "Is the Stagnation of World Fishing Production Due to Overexploitation? Problems in the FAO Report Submitted at the 1995 Kyoto International Conference," Gyogyo Keizai Kenkyu, vol. 41, no. 2, 1996; Kawasaki, Tsuyoshi, "A Comment on the Basic Perception of the FAO on World Marine Stocks," Gyogyo Keizai Kenkyu, vol. 41, no. 2, 1996; Yamamoto, Tadashi and Shindo Shigeaki, The World Fisheries Industry, Vol. I, Interna­tional-Level Fisheries Industry Trends, Overseas Fisheries Cooperation Foundation, 1998, pp. 108-131 (all in Japanese).

4 See FAO Marine Resource Service, Fishery Resources Division, op. cit., note 3 on the extent of these marine areas and the state of their stocks.

5 CPUE is calculated by dividing the catch by the fishing effort made to obtain it. The CPUE in the fishery of the stock sought serves as an index of stock density in that fishery when fishing there. If the fishery's area is constant, CPUE is a relative indicator of the stock.

6 The age at which marine organisms of commercial importance are big enough to join stocks that may be taken.

7 Brown, Lester R., State of the World 1995-96 (Japanese-language version, pp. 42-45). 8 Fitzpatrick, J. and C. Newton, "Assessment of the World's Fishing Fleet 1991-1997,"

submitted to Greenpeace International, 1998, http://www.greenpeace.orgl-oceans/reports/ flotta.html, viewed on 8 August 1999.

9 FAO, "Future of Fish for Food Depends on Better Management of the Oceans," Press Release 98/31, 19 May 1998.

10 Fitzpatrick and Newton, op. cit., note 8.

10. Protected Areas 1 FAO, State of the Worlds Forests, 1997. 2 WCMC and mCN, 1997 United Nations List of Protected Areas, 1998. 3 WRI, UNEP, and UNDP, World Resources 1998-99. The mCN defines the following

protected areas. I. Strict Nature ReserveIWilderness Area (protected area for ecosystem

344

protection and research). II. National Park (protected area for ecosystem protection and for research, education, and recreation). III. Natural Monument (protected area for con­servation of rare natural and cultural qualities). IV. Habitat/Species Management Area (protected area for protection and management of flora and fauna). V. Protected Land­scape/Seascape (protected area for protecting landscape/seascape with ecological and cultural value). VI. Managed Resource Protected Area (protected area for the sustainable use of ecosystems).

13. Rapid Urbanization I United Nations, World Population Monitoring 1996, 1998, p. 12. 2 The UN defines a megacity as a city of over 10 million population. 3 United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1996 Revision, 1998, p. 25.

16. Municipal and Hazardous Wastes I See part ill-18, p. 164, of The State of the Environment in Asia 199912000.

17. Paper Recycling: The North-South Connection I Information on the U.S. and Germany are based on "A Comparative Study of Recycling

in Several Societies and Research on the Possibilities of Intemational Cooperation," a study conducted under a Ministry of Education Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research. Information on Taiwan comes from a study conducted with a grant from The Nomura Foundation (both in Japanese).

2 Sharma, et aI., "Environmental and economic policy analysis of waste paper trade and recycling in India," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 21 (1997), pp. 55-70.

References

Part I

Chapter 2 1. World Resources Institute, et al. World Resources 1998-99, Chuo Hoki, 1998 (Japanese­

language version). 2. Natural Resources and Energy Agency Director-General's Office, Mining Section, ed.

Mining Industry Handbook 2000, Trade and Industry Commission, 2000 (in Japanese). 3. Metal Mining Agency of Japan, Mineral Resource Information Center. "Mining Infor­

mation on Various Countries: Asia-Pacific Countries," http://www.mmaj.go.jp (as of March 31, 2000; in Japanese).

4. Japan Metal Economics Research Institute. Current State and Future Outlook on China s Copper Industry (Part 2), 1998 (in Japanese).

5. HataAkio. Technology and Pollution of the Metal Industry, AGNE Technology Center, 1997 (in Japanese).

6. Akimoto Yasuo. Chinese Zinc Supply and Demand, Japan Metal Economics Research Institute, 1997 (in Japanese).

7. International Association for Mineral Resource Development Cooperation. 1995 Report on Selected Projects for Basic Studies on Resource Development Cooperation: India, 1996 (in Japanese).

8. Suzuki Tetsuo.lndonesia s Resource Development Circumstances, Metal Mining Agency of Japan, Mineral Resource Information Center, 1996 (in Japanese).

9. Suzuki Tetsuo. The Philippines' Resource Development Circumstances, Metal Mining Agency of Japan, Mineral Resource Information Center, 1997 (in Japanese).

to. Shimode Masayoshi. Thailands Resource Development Circumstances, Metal Mining Agency of Japan, Mineral Resource Information Center, 1993 (in Japanese).

11. Sato Hideaki. Short-Term Forecast of Copper Ingot Production and Consumption in Japan and Other Asian Countries, Japan Metal Economics Research Institute, 1997 (in Japanese).

12. Metal Mining Agency of Japan, Mineral Resource Information Center. Myanmar's Re­source Development Circumstances, 1993 (in Japanese).

13. Park, Cham Hoon. "Recent Situation of Mineral Resources and Education Affair~ in South Korea," Suiyokwai-Shi (Kyoto University), vol. 22, no. 4, 1995 (in Japanese).

14. Watanabe Tsuyoshi. "Fifty Postwar Years of the Metal Mining and Smelting Industry, Parts 1-6," Mine, vol. 48, nos. 1-6, 1995 (in Japanese).

15. Kashiwazaki Masayo. Nonferrous Metal Industry: Current State and Challenges," Yamato Investment Data, Nov. 1994 (in Japanese).

345

346

16. Nakamura Isao. "Japan's Nonferrous Smelting Industry: Challenges and Outlook," In­dustrial Bank of Japan Study, no. 276,1997 (in Japanese).

17. Japan Mining Industry Association, "Fifty-Year History," Mine, vol. 51, no. 8, Oct 1998 (in Japanese).

18. International Association for Mineral Resource Development Cooperation. "1992 Inte­grated Development Plan Survey, Report on Environmental Protection Measures in De­veloping Countries, Environmental Survey of Mines and Smelteries, People's Republic of China," 1993 (in Japanese).

19. Jin, T. and G. Nordberg. "Renal Dysfunction Caused by Cadmium Pollution from Smelt­ing in China," Advances in the Prevention of Environmental Cadmium Pollution and Countermeasures, Kanazawa, Japan, 1999, Eiko Laboratory.

20. Kurita Hideyuki. "The Dark Side of New Mining Methods in the Philippines," Overseas Mining Information, vol. 27, no. 3, Sept. 1997 (in Japanese).

2l. Kiryu Yasuo and Suzu Yuzo. "Seminar on Disseminating Knowledge about the Minamata Disease Experience in Japan and the Philippines, and International Workshop on the Health Impacts of Mercury from Gold Mining," Environment, Feb. 1998 (in Japanese).

22. Warhurst, A. Environmental Degradation from Mining and Mineral Proceeding in De­veloping Countries: Corporate Responses and National Policies, Paris, OECD, 1994.

23. Mayo-Anda, G. "NGO Pathways Towards Sustainable Development: The Philippine Ex­perience," Proceedings of the 4th Asia-Pacific NGO Environmental Conference, Singapore, pp. 26-27,1998.

24. Wada Takeshi. Introduction to Global Environmental Problems, Jikkyo Shuppan, 1994 (in Japanese).

25. Leong Yueh Kwong. "Environmental Impacts of Japanese Economic Activities in South­east Asia," in Miyamoto Ken'ichi, ed., Asian Environmental Problems and Japan s Re­sponsibility, Kamogawa Shuppan, 1992 (in Japanese).

26. Washimi Kazuo. The World Bank, Yuhikaku, 1994 (in Japanese). 27. Kompas Online, "Lorentz National Park Closed for Mining," http://www.kompas.coml

kompas-cetakl9807/31ENGLISHIlore.htm (Jan. 21,1999). 28. Meadows, D. H., Meadows D. L., and Randers J., Beyond the Limits, Chelsea Green

Publishing, 1992. 29. Sato Naoki. "Indonesia," Overseas Mining Information, vol. 28, no. 1, 1998 (in Japa­

nese). 30. Burton, B. "Landowners Tour Leads Companies to Talk," Mining Monitor, vol. 3, no. 1,

Apr. 1994. 3l. Hirano Hideo. "Arsenic and Ecological Impacts," in Minato Hideo, ed., Environmental

Problems Involving Arsenic, Tokai University Publishing, 1998 (in Japanese). 32. Chansang, H. "Coastal Tin Mining and Marine Pollution in Thailand," AMBIO (A Jour­

nal of the Human Environment), vol. 17, no. 3,1988. 33. "Executive Summary Asia Thailand," Eco-Law Journal, vol. 3, no. 5,1998. 34. International Association for Mineral Resource Development Cooperation. "1995 Inte­

grated Development Plan Survey, Report on Environmental Protection Measures in De­veloping Countries, Environmental Survey of Mines and Smelteries, People's Republic of China and Kingdom of Thailand," 1996 (in Japanese).

35. Miyauchi Toyo, "Effects of SX-EW on Copper Resource Exploration," Overseas Min­ing Information, vol. 28, no. 2, 1998 (in Japanese).

36. Nishiyama Takashi. An Advocation of Resource Economics, Chuo Koronsha, 1993 (in Japanese).

37. Schniidt -Bleek, F. Wieviel Umwelt Braucht der Mensch?, Berlin, Basel, Birkhauser Verlag,

References' 347

1994 (in German). Japanese translation by Sasaki Ken, Kusuda Tsugunori, and Hata Akio: Factor 10, Springer Verlag Tokyo, 1997.

38. Ozawa, Tokutaro. Humans Will Still Be Animals in the 21st Century," Shinhyoron, 1996 (in Japanese).

39. Karl-Henrik, Robert. Det Notvandiga Steget, Stockholm, Ekerlids F6rlag, 1992 (in Swed­ish). Japanese translation by Ichikawa Toshio: Natural Step, Shinhyoron, 1996.

Part II

Chapter 2 1 Monthly Report on Southeast Asia, Southeast Asia Research Organization, 1996-2000

(in Japanese). 2 Nhan Dan, official newspaper of the Vietnamese Communist Party (in Vietnamese). 3 Vietnam Investment Review, Nov. 2-8,1998. 4 Vietnamese Studies, no. 3-1998 (129), The Gioi Publishers, Ha Noi. 5 Tap Chi Cong San (theoretical journal of the Vietnamese Communist Party, 1999-2000

(in Vietnamese). 6 Vietnam 1998/1999, The Gioi Publishers, Ha Noi, 1999. 7

8

Socialist Republic of Vietnam General Statistical Office, Statistical Yearbook 1997, Sta­tistical Publishing House, Ha Noi, 1998. Charle Robequain, ed. Paul Hartmann, L' evolution economique de I' Indochine jr(JJlr;aise, Paris, 1939 (in French).

9 Itsumi, Shigeo, Research on French Indochina, Nihon Hyoronsha, 1941 (in Japanese). 10 Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Vietnam s Biological Diversity Action

Plan, Ha Hoi, 1995 (in Vietnamese). 11 Communist Party of Vietnam, Directives on Strengthening Environmental Protection

Initiatives in the Era of Industrializing and Modernizing the Nation, Dang Cong san Viet Nam, Ha Noi, 1998 (in Vietnamese).

12 Le Manh Hung, ed., Vietnam SoCio-economy: The Period 1996-1998 and Forecastfor the Year 2000, Statistical Publishing House, Ha Noi, 1999.

13 Sikor, Thomas and Apel Ulrich, Asia Forest Network Working Paper Series; The Possi­bilities for Community Forestry in Vietnam, May 1998.

14 UNDP, Incorporating Environmental Considerations into Investment Decision-making in Vietnam: A Special Report for the Government of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, December 1995.

15 World Bank, Viet Nam: Environmental Program and Policy Priorities for a Socialist Economy in Transition, The World Bank Agriculture and Environment Operations Divi­sion Country Department 1, East Asia and Pacific Region, June 1995.

16 Government Direction on Agriculture and Rural Development: Government Report for Consultative Group Meeting, Paris, 7-8 December 1998.

17 Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Environment-Related Laws, Vol. 1, Nha Xuat ban Chinh tri Quoc gia, Ha Noi, 1995 (in Vietnamese).

18 Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Environment-Related Laws, Vol. 2, Nha Xuat ban Chinh tri Quoc gia, Ha Noi, 1997 (in Vietnamese).

19 State Political Publication Bureau, ed., Laws Related to Protection of the Environment and Resources, Nha Xuat ban Chinh tri Quoc gia, Ha Noi, 1998 (in Vietnamese).

20 State Political Publication Bureau, ed., Law on Environmental Protection, Nha Xuat ban Chinh tri Quoc gia, Ha Noi, 1999 (in Vietnamese).

21 State Pglitical Publication Bureau, ed., Guidance on the Forest Law, Development Law, and their Enforcement, Nha Xuat ban Chinh tri Quoc gia, Ha Noi, 1998 (in Vietnamese).

348

Chapter 4 Japan 1. "Special Section: New Developments in Environmental Law," Research on Environ­

mental Disruption, vol. 29, no. 3, Iwanami Shoten, January 2000 (in Japanese). 2. "Feature Section: Reforming the Legal System for a Cyclical Society," Jurist, no. 1184,

Yuhikaku, September 1,2000 (in Japanese). 3. Amagasaki Association for Pollution Patients and Their Families, et al., ed., A Blue Sky

and Clean Air for Our Children and Grandchildren: A Record of the Amagasaki Air Pollution Lawsuit and the Kobe District Court Decision (January 31,2000),2000 (in Japanese).

Translator's Afterword

Is Asia the Key?

Asia has been called the key to saving our planet, and indeed Maurice Strong has been quoted as saying, "The battle for sustainable development will be won or lost in Asia." What is it about Asia that could be so decisive?

To begin with, the region is blessed with great biodiversity, but that diversity faces grave threats including the wildlife trade, habitat degradation, and the relent­less encroachment of humanity.

Second, Asia has a huge population, and at least 1 billion Asians, perhaps as many as 2 billion, can be counted among the world's poor. Lifting those people out of poverty while at the same time protecting the environment and achieving sustain­able development presents a challenge of enormous proportions.

Solving the myriad problems standing in the way of sustainable development and conservation in Asia could be the test of all our efforts to solve these problems around the globe, if for no other reason than the sheer magnitude of the challenge. In addition to its huge population, Asia is geographically extensive, and culturally and linguistically diverse. Asia could be the breakthrough, or it could be the straw that breaks the camel's back.

As noted in the Foreword to this English-language version, network-building has become an matter of paramount importance in Asia, and the younger generation is rising to the challenge with the new tools afforded by computers and the Internet. Although the extent to which they can overcome linguistic and other barriers re­mains to be seen, there are hopes that their efforts will bring Asians closer together through improved communication, and facilitate cooperation in the environmental arena.

As with the first volume, this book is not a word-for-word translation of the original. Although I have translated many parts more or less verbatim, in others I have rearranged the content, and some sections I have considerably cut and supple­mented with other material generously supplied by the writers despite their busy schedules. I wish to thank the writers for their patience and understanding in re­sponding to my questions and to my requests for new information and rewrites.

Special thanks are also due to the people who prepared the figures, tables, and index, and dealt with the never-ending stream of administrative tasks. In particular,

349

350

I wish to thank Professor Teranishi for facilitating communication with the writers, and for helping me keep track of the progress on the large number of individual chapters that make up the book. Without the help of these people, publication would never have been possible.

Rick Davis Ashigawa, Japan

September 25, 2002

Index

Numerals 1857 Oriental Gas Company Act 159 1869 Madras Town Nuisance Act 159 1970 Environmental Pollution Disputes

Settlement Act (Japan) 306 1972 Wildlife Protection Act (India) 161 1981 Air Prevention and Control of

Pollution Act (India) 159, 160 1991 Local Government Code 116 1992 Enhancement and Conservation of

National Environmental Quarity Act 187

A absolute poverty 215,218 Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in

East Asia 200 acid rain 201,202,316 Act on Biological Resources and the

Ecosystem (Indonesia) 306 Act Relating to Promotion of Resources

Saving and Reutilization (South Korea) 306

activities implemented jointly (AU) 301, 302

afforestation 107, 127, 128, 139,246, 247,302

air pollution 9, 12,59,97,98, 108, 133, 141, 158-161, 167, 168, 170, 175, 176,178,183,199,201,202,210, 211,234,274,329

airborne particulates 108, 133, 158 aluminum 26,30,32,41,42,59,279 Amagasaki 174, 175 Area License Scheme (ALS) 274 arsenic 35, 38, 42, 53, 109 asbestos 59, 66, 67 ASEAN 26,104,232,300,325,328 ASEAN Agreement on the Conservation

ofN1!.ture and Natural Resources 325

Ashio 25,41-43 Asia-Pacific NGO Environmental

Conference VI, XIII Asian conference of the International

Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) 209

Asian currency and financial crisis IX Asian Development Bank (ADB) 108,

187,232,324 Asian Rare Earth (ARE) incident XII,

37 asthma 158 Atmosphere Action Network in East

Asia (AANEA) 316 Atmosphere and Water Quality Manage­

ment Center (Vietnam) 138 Australia 58, 279, 328 automobile 94, 133,211

B Bakun dam 192, 193 Bangkok 51,53,54,97,274,275 Bangkok Metropolitan Administration

(BMA) 51,53,54,95-97 Bangladesh XIII, 9, 66, 222, 265, 305 Basel Convention on the Transboundary

Movements of Hazardous Wates and their Disposal 59,67,324

Basic Environmental Policy Law (South Korea) 178

Basic Law for Establishing a Recycling-based Society (Japan) 173

Beijing 169,199,275,329 benzene 108 Besshi 41-43 Bhopal XII, 40, 149, 159, 165, 161, 167 Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster Ordinance

(India) 166 Bhutan 246 Binnan Industrial District 209 biodiversity 69, 132, 138, 196,235,240,

255,259,261,263-266

351

352

biological oxygen demand (BOD) 134, 151

Bohol 104-106,111,112,114,115 Brunei 81, 246 bubble economy X build-operate-transfer (BOT) 52, 183 bureaucratism 134, 135, 142

c cadmium 35,36,42,43,109,279 Cambodia 58,67,68, 127, 129,204,

205,224,246,328 Canada 58,239,241,244,279,298,328 capital participation 33-35, 279 carbon dioxide (C02) 12,20-23,70,

108,171,210,300,302,316 carbon monoxide 158, 274 Cebu 66,67,104-106,111-115 Cebu Integrated Area Master Develop­

ment Plan (CIAMDP) 112 Center for Environment and Resource

Law Research Services (Legal Assistance for Pollution Victims) 200

Center for Science and Environment (CSE) 22,23,150,151,158,316

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) 158, 167

certificate of land ownership titles (CLTs) 112

Chaishan Natural Park Promotion Society (Taiwan) 208

chemical substance 171,173,174 Chernobyl 14 Chiang Mai 48, 53 China IX,Xl,)OJ,3,5,6,8, 12-14, 18,

26,27,29,32,34-36,40,48,49, 55,58,64,72,79,82,84,86,87, 90,91,192,198-203,215,219, 229,230,234,241,244,246,247, 255,258,261,262,264,266,270, 279,284,290,297,298,300,305, 316,317,324,325,328,329

Chipko movement 150, 162-164 cholera 51 citizen participation 90,93,94, 143,

151,179, 182

Citizens' Alliance for Saving the Atmosphere and the Earth (CASA) 20,316

Clark Air Base 57 Clean Air Act (Philippines) 52,108 clean development mechanism (CDM)

22,301 Climate Action Network (CAN) 316 climate (climatic) change 4, 12, 118,

316 coal 9,12,13,28,30,109,110,125,

126, 183, 197 coastal erosion 185 Community Forest Management

Agreement (CFMA) 107 construction and demolition (C&D)

wastes 284 Convention on Biological Diversity

(CBD, Biodiversity Convention) 86,210,238,239,325

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) 86,261,262,266, 324

Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Damage 299

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Water­fowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) 266,324

Convention to Combat Desertification 325

COP 3 22,23, 171,210 COP4 22,210 copper 26-40,42,58,109-112,279 coral reef 69,81,83,85,86,264,265 cost of remediation (COR) 232, 234 currency crisis 26, 50, 297 cyanide 27,36,109,279 cyclical society 64, 306

D Dafa Industrial Park 205 dam 39, 105, 106, 125, 132, 134, 150,

151,162,181,188,192,206,207, 294

DDT 72

Index

decentralization 94, 115, 170, 224 defoliant 66, 128, 143, 144 deforestation 104-107,110,123,128,

130, 132, 134, 139, 151, 191,235, 241,246,247,255

Delhi 158,161,167 democratization 91,92, 104, 115, 124,

135, 179,208,209 dengue fever 51 Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR) 107, 111, 116, 119

deposit 305 deregulation 31, 104 desertification 325 development restriction zone 182 diesel fuel 211 diesel particulates filter 176 diesel-powered 108 dioxin 48,52,56,65,66,143-145,167,

173,205,284 disposal site 16, 18, 36,48,50,51,53,

56,98,279 doi moi 124, 129, 130, 133, 135,234 domestic organic waste 134 drainage water 35, 36 drinking water shortages 158 drought IX, 106, 194

E Earth Summit 238,305,316 East China Sea 86, 87, 250, 251 EC 192,274 eco-labeling 306 ecological deterioration 158 ecology 36, 116, 162 economic crisis 129, 219, 290 economic growth 50,91, 104, 107, 108,

142,229,234,241,300,316 ecosystem 23,73,81, 105, 109, 132,

135,137,151,164,173,180,187, 198,207,208,255,265,294,325

effluent 27,35, 37, 39, 48, 134 electric power 104, 109, 125, 126, 142,

151 Electricity Generating Authority of

Thailand (EGAT) 183-185

353

emancipation patents (EPs) 112 emission allowance trading system 305 emission control 161, 176 end-of-pipe solutions 20 end-of-stack controls 12 energy conservation 44, 171, 172, 301,

302 energy consumption 4-6,8, 12, 13, 19,

21 Enhancement and Conservation of

National Environmental Quality Act (Thailand) 183, 186

Environment Vision 21 178 environmental awareness 134, 142 environmental clearance certificates

(ECC) 114 environmental conservation V, VIII,

XIII, 19,90,91,115,121,162,163, 170, 178, 179

environmental convention 324 environmental cooperation V, VII-

IX, XIII, 325, 328, 329 environmental costs 232 environmental crime 198, 305 environmental damage VII, IX-XII, 25,

26,38,41,94,104,123,124,130, 134, 135, 137, 142, 150, 162, 163, 187,199,232,234,235,294

environmental degradation 104, 135 environmental destruction VIII, HI environmental diamond (ED) 232, 234 environmental education 93, 138, 161,

199,200,208 environmental elasticity (EE) 232, 234 environmental group 38, 186 environmental impact 17,28,35,36,59,

76, 114, 136,291,305 environmental impact assessment (EIA)

76,90,137,138,181,184,185, 187,206,209,210,280,306,328

environmental industry 202, 203 environmental infonnation XIII, 43, 44,

124,142,161 Environmental Infonnation Network for

the Asia-Pacific (EINAP) XIII environmental law 84,90,120, 121,

159,165,305,306

354

Environmental Law Advising Center (philippines) 120

environmental management 55, 138, 184,187,201,232

Environmental Management Act (Indo­nesia) 306

environmental policy 20, 22,49, 56, 90, 93,94,96-99,139,142,165

environmental problem vn, XI, xm, 4, 8,12,19,26,40,50,51,90,92,94, 97,98,103,104,124,134,135, 150,177,178,180,189,191,201-203,228,232,234,316,317,328

environmental protection 115, 120, 121, 124, 130, 135-137, 139, 141, 147, 199,200,222,244,247,279,305, 324,325,328,329

Environmental Protection Act (India) 159, 160

Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) 52,204,205,210

Environmental Protection Center (Vietnam) 138

environmental quality standard 137, 138, 160, 173, 175

Environmental Research, Education and Development Center (Vietnam) 138

environmental restoration 143 environmental rights 90, 305 environmental risk 171, 173, 174,

305, 306 environmental security system 201 environmental space 22 environmental standards 137,173,279,328 environmental taxes and surcharges

175, 177 environmentalists 106 equitable entitlements 22, 23 EU 42, 88, 239, 261, 274, 298 Evoikos 79, 80 exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 86,87 Executive Order on Prospecting of

Biological and Genetic Resorces, Their By-Products and derivatives, for Scientific Purposes, and Other Purposes (Philippines) 306

export of pollution XII

F

Factories Act (India) 159 fair trade 88 fertility rate 228, 229 Filipino 115, 116 Fisheries Resources Protection and

Development Law (Vietnam) 137 fishery (fishery resource) 70,76,86,87,

250-253 fishing effort 250 flood U(, 105, 106, 125, 132, 137, 140,

181,185,197,198,294 Flood and Typhoon Law 137 flood control 132, 181,294 flooding 45, 105, 111, 123, 132, 134,

198,294 food safety standards 173 forest conservation 139, 161 forest fire U(, 127, 129, 131, 139, 151,

194-197 forest protection 142, 162 Forest Protection and Development Law

(Vietnam) 137 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 245 Forestry Law (Vietnam) 128 Formosa Plastic Corporation (Taiwan)

204 fossil fuel 12, 19, 20, 42 Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) 316 France 14, 126, 297, 298, 328 Friends of Nature 199, 200 fuel-gas desulfurization (FGD) 184, 185 fuelwood 139, 241

G

Ganga Action Plan (GAP) 150,151 Ganges River 150, 151, 161 gasoline 108, 211 gender 229, 230 genetic resource 235, 238-240, 255 Germany 58, 65, 290, 298, 302 Germany's Deutsche Gesellschaft flir

Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 195

Index

Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) 86

global environment 170,218,269,305 Global Village (of Beijing) 199,200 global warming 20,21,83,90,171,172,

201,297,300,301,317 gold 27,28,30-32,34,36-38,40,42-

45,110,111,197,259,279 green belt system 182 green revolution VII, 207-209 green space 208 greenhouse gas 12, 19, 21,22, 171, 172,

201,218,300,301,316,325 Greenpeace 40,58,64,67,108,204,316 gross domestic product (GDP) X, 5, 6,

26,30,104,130,167,232,234 groundwater 38-40, 53, 55, 105, 109,

190,207,296 groundwater contamination 52,53, 110,

158,296

H habitat/species management areas 258 Hanoi 132-134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 146,

147,275, 305 hazardous waste XII, 49, 56-59, 64, 65,

284,296,306,324,328 health damage IX, 66, 67, 184, 190,228 Hitachi 41-43 HIV / AIDS 230 Ho Chi Minh 132-134, 138, 141,305 Hong Kong 5,7,8,52,54,56,58,68,

72,76,112,266,274,284,317 Huai River 198, 199 human development index (HDI) 232 human health 44, 53, 173-175 human rights 104, 115, 121, 294 hydro 9, 12, 13, 20 hydrocarbon 158, 274 hydroelectric 151,211 hydropower 9,12,13,132,136,294 hygienic problems 129

illegal dumping 36,56-58,64,97,205, 279,284

illegal export XII

355

incineration 51, 52, 64, 65, 284 Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) 189,190 India VII, IX, XII, XIII, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12,

13,17,20,22,26-28,30,34,40, 48,51,55,58,59,66,67,82,91, 150, 151, 158, 159, 161, 162, 164-168,192,215,219,229,230,241, 244,245-247,255,258,264,279, 297-299,305,306,316,324,325

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) 166

Indian Water Konsortium (IWK) 190 Indonesia IX, X, 5, 9, 19,26-28,30,31,

33,34,40,47-49,56,58,59,64, 73,80-83,85,191,192,194,196, 197,201,224,229,232,239,241, 244-247,255,258,261,262,264-266,270,274,279,284,290,298, 300,305,306,324

Indonesia Forum for the Environment (WALHI) 64, 195

industrial afforestation 194, 195, 197 industrial and municipal waste 50 industrial effluent 108, 134 industrial health problems 133 industrial waste 20, 48, 49, 53, 55-59,

64,67,109,172,204-206,284 industrial waste management 205,206 industrial water 106, 296 industrialization X, XI, 26, 50, 104, 108,

109, 112, 113, 115, 124, 130, 134, 136,142,167,208,232,234,235, 296

Industries Development and Regulation Act (India) 159

informal sector 51, 54, 291 Integrated Environmental Database in

Asia (IEDA) XIII International Atomic Energy Agency

(IAEA) 13, 16 International Center for Living Aquatic

Resources Management (ICLARM) 86

International Coral Reef Initiative (lCR!) 86 International Energy Agency's (lEA) 4, 12 International Labour Organization (ILO)

222

356

International Medical Commission on Bhopal (IMCB) 166

International Monetary Fund (IMF) X, 94, 104, 187

International Oil Pollution Compensa­tion (IOPC) Funds 78

International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) 73, 75

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 23

iron 26, 28, 30-32, 37, 42, 125 irrigation 110, 294 ISO 14000 series 306 itai-itai disease 36,37,40,41,43,44

J Jakarta 47,54,73,239,274,275,284 Japan IX, Xl,)OJ, XIII, 4-9, 13, 14, 16, 18,

19,21,22,26,28-37,39,41-44,48-53,56,58,59,65-67,73,76,79,82, 84,86-88,90-92,94,99,107,108, 110,144,147,170-173,175,179, 191,200-202,207,210,215,218, 230-232,239,241,244-246,250-252,258,261,262,265,270,271, 279,284,290,291,296-298,300-302,305,306,317,324,328,329

Japan Environmental Council (JEC) V Japan International Cooperation Agency 112 Japan International Labor Foundation 222 Japan-China Model City Plan (Model

City Plan) 200,201 JCO 14, 16

K Kalimantan 38, 194-197 Kamioka 39, 41, 43 Kaohsiung VI, XI, 207-209, 274 Katmandu 210, 211 Kawasaki 174 Kolkata (Calcutta) 158, 159,271 Korea Climate and Energy Network

(KCEN) 317 Korea Ocean Research & Development

Institute 202 Kosaka 41-43 Kuala Lumpur 50, 270, 274, 275

Kurashiki 174 Kyoto mechanism 171 Kyoto Protocol 21,22,171,172,210,

300,301,325

L Lake Baikal 40 Land Law 137 land use 269, 274 land-use management 182 landmine damage prevention center

(Vietnam) 129 Laos 129,224,234,239,246,294,305,328 late-starter's benefit 41, 142 Law Concerning the Promotion of Mea­

sures to Cope with Global Wanning (Global Wanning Law) 171, 172

Law Concerning the Promotion of the Separation, Collection and Recy­cling of Containers and Packaging (Container and Packaging Waste Recycle Law) 172, 173

Law Concerning the Rational Use of Energy (Energy Conservation Law) 171, 172

Law for Export, Import and Others of Specified Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes (Japan) 59

Law for Recycling of Specified Con­sumer Electrical Appliances (Appliance Recycling Law) 172

Law for the Preservation of Wetlands (South Korea) 306

Law for the Promotion of Utilization of Recycled Resources (Recycling Law) 172

Law on Cost Allocation for Environmen­tal Improvement (South Korea) 178

Law on Environmental Protection (Vietnam) 137, 140

Law on Forest Protection and Preserva­tion (Vietnam) 137

Law on Improving the Tracking and Management of the Amounts of Certain Chemical Substances Released into the Environment (PRTR Law) 173

Index

Law on Minerals (Vietnam) 137 Law on People's Health (Vietnam) 137 Law on Support for People with Sus-

pected Defoliant (South Korea) 66 Law to Establish the Ministry of the

Environment (Japan) 170 lead 26,28-30,32-37,39,40,42,43,

58,59, 108,279 least less-developed countries (LLDCs)

224 Levee Construction Law (Vietnam) 137 Leyte 31, 34, 109, 114 liberalization X, 33, 104 Local Environment Plan 21 (Korea) 179 local government 29,37,51-53,57,76,

78,91,92,94-96,98,99,274,305 Local Government Code of 1991

(Philippines) 120 local self-government 89-92, 98, 99 logging 105-107, 127, 128, 139, 142,

162,241,247,259,265,302 Long-term Comprehensive Plan for

Environmental Conservation (South Korea) 178

Love Canal 143 LPG 211

M

Malaysia IX, XII, XIII, 5, 9, 26-28, 31, 33,37,40,50,54,56,58,72,79, 80,81,189-192,196,201,218, 219,229,239,241,244,245-258, 264,265,270,274,279,298,325

Mamut copper mine 31, 33, 37 mangrove forest 81,87, 88,98, 119,

127,185,264,265 Manila 48,53,108,109,111,271,275 marginal pollution reduction cost 176 marine conservation 84 marine pollution 70, 81, 132, 141 marine protected area (MPAs) 85,86 marine resource 85, 87, 125 marine water pollution 38 market economy 79, 124, 130, 132, 136,

137,218,234 mass consumption XI, 26, 124, 134

mass disposal XI, 124 mass production 124

357

medical and other hazardous wastes 58 medical waste 59, 133, 147 Medium Term Philippine Development

Plan 104 megacity 269, 270 megadiversity country 265 Mekong Delta 125, 128, 132, 138 MekongRiver 140,328 mercury 27,28,35,36,42,44,45,58,

67,109,204,279 mercury contamination 37, 45 mercury pollution 44 methane 171, 300 methyl isocyanate (MIC) 165, 166 methylmercury 37, 67 Metro Cebu Development Project

(MCDP) 112-114 Miami Group 239 Mid-term Comprehensive Plan for

Improving the Environment (South Korea) 178

Minamata disease 37, 45, 67 Mindanao 37, 44, 105 MineAct 110 mine development 27, 34, 162 mine drainage 27, 35, 39 mine management 11 0, 111 mineral resource 28, 30, 31, 36, 38, 279 mining 25,28,30-33,36-38,42,43,

114,259,279,296 Mining and Geo-Sciences Bureau

(Philippines) 114 mining pollution 43, 279 Minister of Science, Technology and

Environment (MOSTE) (Vietnam) 134,135,137,183, 186

Ministry of Environment (MOE) 22, 65, 66,170,171,174,178-181,305

Ministry of Environment and Forests (India) 151, 161

Ministry of Fisheries (Vietnam) 138 Ministry of Forestry (Indonesia)

38, 195, 197 Ministry of Non-conventional Energy

Sources (MNES) 20

358

modernization XI, 41, 42, 124, 130, 142,211

~ongolia 28,32,40,201,222,234, 246,317,328

~onitoring Network 201 morbidity rate 228-230 motor vehicle 57,59,97,98,108,170,

174,175,211,274,275,284 motor vehicle emissions 134 motor vehicle pollution 167 motorbike 133 motorization 167, 274 multilateral environmental agreements

(MEAs) 324 ~umbai (Bombay) 158,271 municipal and hazardous wastes 284 municipal and industrial wastes 205, 206 municipal solid waste (~SW) 48, 50,

51, 53,65,97, 133 municipal waste 54, 55, 108, 109, 204,

284 ~yanmar 9,28,32,39,81,234,265

N Nagoya 175 Nakhodka Oil Spill Accident (Nakhodka)

76, 79 Narmada 325 National Integrated Protected Areas

System Act (Philippines) 114 national park 38, 111, 142, 161, 197,

258 National Plan for the Environment and

Sustainable Development (Viet­nam) 139

National River Conservation Plan (India) 150

nationalism 115 natural disaster 105 natural gas 70 natural resource 115 nature protection 210 Nepal XIII, 9, 211, 234, 294, 305 Netherlands 174, 302, 328 NGO Research Center 200 nickel 26-28,30,31,33,34,37,42,

111, i'!9

NlEs 5, 7, 66, 210 Nishiyodogawa 174 nitrogen oxide (NOx) 12, 108,110, 175 nitrous oxide 171, 300 noise pollution 159 non-government organization (NGO)

VII, VIII,XIII, 16,20,22,23,29, 37,40,43,45,50,54,64,67,84-86,99,104,107,109,111,116, 118, 120, 121, 129, 165, 181, 194, 197,199-201,245,259,305,316, 317

non-renewable resource 118 North Korea 17,297-299,328,329 NPO (non profit organization) 55,

56, 58, 64 nuclear accident 14 nuclear power 4,8, 12-14, 16-19,21,

22,297-299 nuclear power plant 136, 171 nuclear waste 16, 17, 204 nuclear weapon 17, 18, 297, 299

o occupational accident 219 ocean pollution 202 ODA (Official Development Assistance)

88, 130, 200, 231 OECD (Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development) 8, 19, 44

Office of Environmental Policy and Planning (OEPP) 184

oil 8, 9, 12, 13, 66, 70, 73, 76, 79, 80, 109,125,132,136,184,284

oil palm 192, 194-197,245, 247 oil pollution 73, 80, 83, 141 oil shock 13 oil spill 73, 78, 79 Onsan XI, 32, 40 open dumping 53 organic variety (methylmercury) 37 Osaka 174, 274 overlogging 126 Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund

(OECF) 65, 112, 114 ozone-depleting substance 324

Index

p

Pak Moon Dam 187 Pakistan 13,17,66,192,222,264,297-

299,305 paper consumption 49 park-and-ride programs 176 Participation-Oriented Safety Improve-

ments by Trade Union InitiatiVE (POSITIVE) 222

PCBs 72 people's organizations (POs) 118 people's revolution 104 PET bottle 49, 134, 146, 147, 305 Petroleum and Natural Gas Law (Viet-

nam) 137 Philippine Fisheries Law 120 Philippine Mining Act (Mining Act)

120,279 Philippines VII, IX, XII, XlII, 9, 26-28,

31,34,36,40,44,48,49,52,53, 56-59,66,72,73,81,82,85,91, 98,99, 103-107, 109, 110, 115, 119, 121, 191,200,201,219,222, 229,234,241,246,247,251,258, 262,264,265,279,300,305,306

Philippines 2000 112 Phuket 52 Plant Protection and Quarantine Law

(Vietnam) 137 plantation 194-197, 247, 296 plantation development 192 plastic bag 47, 49, 134, 158 pollutant emission standard 160 Pollutant Release and Transfer Register

(PRTR) 44,173,174,306 polluter pays principle (PPP) 90, 178 pollution abatement agreement 43 pollution abatement equipment 184 pollution abatement measure 43 pollution control 167, 168, 187,305,

306 pollution import 142 pollution victims 43, 174, 200 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 48, 55, 58 population growth 130, 158, 228, 229,

245,261,264,270,297,317

359

power purchase agreements (PPAs) 184 prawn farming 185-187 precautionary measure 168 privatization 51,53, 104, 189-191 protected area 255, 258, 259 protected landscape/seascape areas 258 Public Liability Insurance Act for

Helping Victims of Hazardous Chemical Accidents (India) 159

public participation 183

R Radioactive Substances Law 137 recycling 42, 44, 50, 52, 54, 59, 64, 90,

133,140,142,146,147,170,172, 244,284,290,306

Red River 125, 134, 136, 141 red tide 70, 72 reforestation 106, 107 renewable energy 19-21,90,301,302,

317 reproductive health/rights 229-231 Resource and Environment Center

(Vietnam) 138 resource management 121 reuse 39, 42, 140, 147, 173 River Board Act (India) 159 river pollution 130, 134 road pricing 175-177 Rural Concerns Network in Cebu 113 Russia 14,17,32,84,201,241,246,

251,252,298,317,328,329

S Sabah 191, 192, 244, 245 salt water intrusion 106 Sambhavna Trust Bhopal Peoples Health

and Documentation Clinic 166 San Antonio mine 36 sanitation 50, 51, 189, 191 Sarawak 31, 191, 192, 244, 245 sarin 167 Sea of Japan 76, 79, 84, 86 Second Mid-term Comprehensive Plan

for Improving the Environment 178

Semangum 180

360

Seoul 65,91,92,94,181,270,274,275 Seveso 143 sewage 83, 134, 138, 159, 189, 190,

191,199,296 sewerage 136,138,178,181,183,206 Sewerage Service Act (Malaysia) 189 Shanghai 36, 55, 270, 271, 275 shredder dust 57, 59 silver 28,30,32,36,38,42, 110, 112,

279 Singapore XIII, 5, 7, 52, 58, 68, 79-81,

90,112,196,232,262,274,275, 284,305

slum 51, 109,113, 114, 269-271 small and medium enterprises (SMEs)

222 smelter 25,27,29-32,34--36,39--41,43 smelter smoke 27, 35 S02 12, 35, 133, 184 social costs 114 social forestry project (Philippines) 107 soil and groundwater contamination 103 Soil and Groundwater Pollution Remedia-

tion Act (Taiwan) 306 soil contamination 41,43,58, 132, 186 soil erosion 105, 110, 195 solid and liquid wastes 108 solid waste 130, 133, 134, 138, 143,

172,204 South China Sea 75, 125 South Coastal Road Project (SCR) 114 South Korea IX-XI, XIII, 5, 7-9, 13,

14,16,18,26-28,32,35,40,48, 49,52,53,58,65-68,76,79,84, 86,87,90-92,94,104,108,112, 178-180,182,201,210,215,219, 229,230,232,234,239,241,244--246,250-252,258,265,270,274, 279,284,290,294,296-298,300, 301,305,306,317,324,328,329

South Reclamation Project (SRP) 114 Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free

Zone 328 Special Measures Law on Dioxin

Control (Dioxin Control Law) 173 special protection zone 209 Sri Lanka 82, 228, 246 State Environmental Protection Adminis­

tration (China) 198, 199

Subic Bay 103 Sukhomajri 164 sulfur 12, 108, 109, 185 sulfur oxides (SOx) 108, 110, 185 sustainable development 121, 138, 139,

232,328 sustainable use 250, 252, 263 swidden agriculture 98, 126, 128, 130,

139,151,192,247

T Taipei 207, 208,274, 275 Taiwan VII, XI, 5, 7-9, 13, 14, 16, 18,

48,52,53,57-59,66-68,82,104, 108,112,204--210,215,262,274, 284,290,297,298,305,306,317, 324

tambon administrative organization (TAO) 184

tanker accident 8, 75, 76, 79 technology transfer XI Teshima 57 Thailand IX, X, 5, 8, 26, 28, 32, 38, 39,

48,51-57,68,72,75,81,82,85, 91,95-97,183,185,187,201,218, 219,222,224,229,230,232,239, 245-247,251,255,258,261,262, 265,274,279,284,298,305,306, 328

thennal plant 12 thennal power 9, 12, 13 Three Gorges dam 325 Three Mile Island 14, 16 Tibet 28 timber license agreement (TLA) system

106, 107 tin 30-32, 35, 37,38, 66, 279 Tokaimura 14, 297 Tokyo 270, 274 Tokyo rules 175 tolerable daily intake (TDI) 173 Ton River 181 Tonkin 125-128 total pollutant load controls 173 toxic industrial wastes 109 Toxic Substances and Hazardous and

Nuclear Wastes Control Act (Philippines) 108

traffic congestion 93, 165, 176, 274

Index

traffic demand management (TDM) 176 tropical forest 44, 126 typhoon 82, 105, 125, 132, 140

u U.S. IX, 14, 16,38,44,58,59,88, 103,

105, 106, 128, 129, 166, 174, 195, 238, 239,241,244,246,252,261, 262,290,298,302,316,329

Ulan Bator 40 UlsanXI UN 228, 229, 301 UN Food and Agriculture Organization

(FAO) 151, 235,238-240,246, 247,250,253

UN International Conference on Popula-tion and Development 229

UNESCO 161 UNESCO's biosphere reserves' 266 Union Carbide 40, 149, 159, 165, 166 Union Power Development Corporation

183, 184 United Nations Centre for Human

Settlements (UNCHS) 51, 90 United Nations Conference on Environ­

ment and Development in Rio de Janeiro V

United Nations Conference on the Human Environment 235

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 84

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 138,139,222,324

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 58,84,158,324,329

urbanization XI, 4,26,51, 104, 109, 167,189,270,271,294,296

v vehicle emissions 211 Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for

Nuclear Damage 299 Vietnam VII, 19,26,28, 32,68, 75, 81,

82, 123-126, 128-133, 135, 136, 138-140,142-144,147,201,218, 219,222,229,232,234,239,245-247,258,298,305,324,328

w waste export 204 waste incineration 52

361

waste management 56,57,67,109,146, 147,178,189-191,204,205,284,296

waste reduction 50, 52, 54, 90, 140, 290 wastewater 39, 109, 134, 138, 140, 146,

150, 151, 161, 185, 187 Water Development and Protection Law

(Vietnam) 137 water pollution 37,39,53,108,109,159,

180,183,198,199,202,234,296 Water Prevention and Control of

Pollution Cess Act (India) 159 water quality 38,43, 138, 150, 151, 185,

198,199,296 Weiwuying Park Promotion Society

(Taiwan) 208 well water 166 wildlife protection 161, 209 wildlife sanctuary 38, 39, 161 wildlife trade 261, 262 Work Improvement in Neighbourhood

Development (WIND) 222 Work Improvement in Small Enterprises

(WISE) 222 World Bank 187, 188, 284, 324 World Health Organization (WHO) 67,

138, 158, 167, 173 World Heritage 39 World Natural Heritage 266 World Trade Organizaion (WTO)

187, 239 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)

195, 200, 316

y

Yamuna Action Plan (India) 150 Yellow River XII Yellow Sea 86, 202, 251 Yokkaichi XI Yongwol dam 181

z Zaibatsu (Konzern) 43 zinc 26,28-30,32-36,39,40,42,43,

58, 109, 199,279