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Preferred Citation: Janzen, John M. Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, c1992 1992. http:ark.cdli!.or"ark:1#$#$ft#%%9n&vf

Ngoma

Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa

John M. Janzen

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley · Los Angeles · Oxford

© 1992 The Regen! o" he Un#$e%!#& o" Ca'#"o%n#a

Preferred Citation: Janzen, John M. Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, c1992 1992. http:ark.cdli!.or"ark:1#$#$ft#%%9n&vf

P%e"a(e'isco(rse is central to the constr(ction of kno)led"e a!o(t *isfort(ne and healin". +n Central ando(thern -frica, disco(rses of healin" take a n(*!er of for*s: the evocation of distress and hope !efore others prayers to /od, ancestors, and spirits son"s !oth o(t of the c(lt(ral stock at hand as )ellas ori"inal co*positions fro* the )ellsprin"s of individ(al e*otion hi"hly codified dressinstr(*ental acco*pani*ent and dance the creation and (se of *ateria *edica. -ll co*e to"ether inthe 0doin" of n"o*a0 that is the s(!ect of this !ook. 'isco(rse is the descriptive ter* of choice for thisaction 0doin"0 !eca(se at iss(e is the *(t(al epression of feelin"s and ideas and the *arshalin" ofkno)led"e and social net)orks re3(ired to !rin" a!o(t an accepta!le sol(tion to the ran"e of illsaddressed !y n"o*a4type *ove*ents and instit(tions.

5he s(!ect has !een *(ch ea*ined in Central and o(thern -frica !y *any a(thors (nder r(!rics asdiverse as divination, healin", health care, reli"ion, epide*ics, *a"ic, rit(al, c(lt activity, dance, son",folklore, and *ore. 5his !ook eplores for the first ti*e the possi!ility that so*e of this activity *ay infact !e a (ni3(e historical instit(tion. (ch a proposition is s(""ested a!ove all !y the presence, over avast re"ion, of si*ilar )ords, na*es, proced(res, and types of !ehaviors6disco(rses, in short6aro(ndthe interpretation of *isfort(ne and the treat*ent of affliction. 7or so*e ti*e the (se of lan"(a"ehistory has !een a tantalizin" vehicle for the st(dy of the history of c(lt(ral do4



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*ains. here the co*pilation of leica and "ra**ars has pro"ressed far eno("h, it is possi!le tosin"le o(t for special st(dy ter*s and str(ct(res in lan"(a"e aro(nd partic(lar do*ains. +n the presents(rvey )ork this analysis is applied in a relatively si*ple *anner to so*e co"nate ter*s of health andhealin" that are )idely (sed in n"o*a. 5he ri"oro(s analysis needed a)aits f(rther collection ofdetailed local voca!(laries and the identification of practices this has not !een done very )idely.

o)ever, as this !ook "oes to press, the horizon of ne) research that )ill s(persede it is alreadyapparent. /reat strides have !een *ade )ith the (se of lin"(istic history as applied to the history ofselected c(lt(ral do*ains. 5he para"on of s(ch )ork is J. ;ansina<s recent Paths in the Rainforest =199$>, on the evol(tion of political instit(tions in the rainforests of estern ?3(atorial -frica.

@e) research on n"o*a is already in pro"ress, incl(din" field)ork of n"o*a in 5anzania, thedoc(*entation of revivalist n"o*a in the after*ath of the civil )ar in Ai*!a!)e, and the *appin" ofthe instit(tion in ter*s of layers of historical lan"(a"e for*ation. 5he res(lt of this )ork )ill take its place )ithin a "ro)in" !ody of self4conscio(s literat(re on the s(!ect. 5he present proect is the firstco*prehensive st(dy of the disco(rse on *isfort(ne and healin" in Central and o(thern -frica inconnection )ith the instit(tion @"o*a.

+ *(st ackno)led"e *any and varied individ(als and a"encies )ho *ade possi!le, and facilitated, this proect. 5he University of ansas sa!!atical f(nd per*itted *e to take a leave fro* teachin" forresearch travel in -frica. - senior research fello)ship fro* the C+?47(l!ri"ht Pro"ra* *ade it possi!le for *e to travel to the fo(r cities that the research plan s(""ested )o(ld !e opport(ne. 5heUniversity of Cape 5o)n invited *e to its distin"(ished professor series, )hich opened doors and*ade contacts possi!le that + other)ise )o(ld not have !een per*itted.

esearch in Aaire, 5anzania, and )aziland )as "reatly facilitated !y C+? sponsorship. +n inshasa,this incl(ded s(ch necessary privile"es as !ein" picked (p fro* and taken to the @ili +nternational-irport and !ein" helped in a variety of other )ays !y the people of the C(lt(ral -ffairs Dffice at theU.. ?*!assy, -ctin" Dfficer Phyllis Dakley and @s(*!( @don"a!i Masa*!a. @siala Miaka

Maken"o of the @ational esearch Dffice, and Ma!iala Mandela of the Centre de MEdecine des/(Erisse(rs "ranted *e *(ch hospitality, ti*e, and attention, as did 7ather Joseph Cornet and Fe*a/(ete of the @ational

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M(se(* of Aaire. + a* also inde!ted to a*anda a Cin"(*!a and @zi*!i @sadisi for theirfriendship and assistance.

+n 5anzania, ?**an(el Mshi( and 'r. +. -. J. e*ali of the 5raditional Medicine esearch Unit atM(hi*!ili ospital )ere *y for*al sponsors. 5he @ational esearch Co(ncil a(thorized the proect,for )hich + a* "ratef(l. ?. . Makala, of the M(sic 'ivision of the Ministry of C(lt(re, and hiscollea"(e Gesia F(ther in" assisted "reatly in *akin" a n(*!er of contacts and !y sharin" their(nderstandin" of the research topic. Professor ?rnest a*!a and 7idelis Mtatifikolo of the Universityof 'ar es alaa* )ere friends to *e )hile + )as in 'ar.

+n )aziland + had an ecellent introd(ction and acco*pani*ent to *y stay fro* 5ed /reen, )ho )asat the ti*e )orkin" )ith the Ministry of ealth and colla!oratin" )ith Fydia Makh(!( of the(niversity in research on indi"eno(s health4care reso(rces, incl(din" tangoma =pl(ral for sangoma :0healer0>. arriet @"(!ane, a o(th -frican anthropolo"ist )ho has )orked )ith A(l( diviner4healersin @atal, introd(ced *e in a *arvelo(s )ay to *any individ(als in M!a!ane and provided etensive



interpretative help for *y research. + a* deeply inde!ted to these t)o friends.

7or *y s(rvey research on n"o*a in the estern Cape + a* inde!ted to *any people, incl(din"Professor Martin est, head of the 'epart*ent of ocial -nthropolo"y of the University of Cape5o)n, and the *e*!ers of the (niversity ad*inistration )ho helped *e d(rin" *y ti*e in Cape 5o)nas a visitin" distin"(ished professor Janet Mills, )hose ac3(aintances )ith n(*ero(s amagqira helped*e to *ake 3(ick contact -delheid @dika, igqira =igqira is 0healer0 amagqira , 0healers0 in Hhosa>,

)ho "racio(sly invited *e to the nthlombe =feast> sessions of her cell, enco(ra"ed *e to photo"raphand record the events, and eplained )hat )as occ(rrin".

7ollo)in" a policy !e"(n in earlier )ritin", + have (sed the na*es of healers and other p(!lic fi"(resassociated )ith the rit(als and s(!ects of this )ork, insofar as they "ranted per*ission for this.o)ever, altho("h the therapy sessions descri!ed are often open to the p(!lic, and in that sense verydifferent fro* the confidential character of estern healin", + have (sed pse(dony*s for the s(fferer4novices of the n"o*a therapies. Beca(se they )ere sick or deeply tro(!led at the ti*e of *y enco(nter)ith the*, they )ere often not in a condition to consider the 3(estion of per*ission.

Parts of this )ork, or perspectives for)arded in it, have had the !enefit of reaction fro* a variety ofscholarly p(!lics. 5he section

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0Feicon of a Classical (!4aharan 5herape(tics0 in chapter 2 )as first p(t for)ard in a paper prepared for the a*!(r", /er*any, conference on 0?thno*edicine and Medical istory,0 May, 19&$,or"anized !y Joachi* terly and ans Mor"enthaeler, and s(!se3(ently p(!lished as 05o)ards aistorical Perspective on -frican Medicine and ealth0 in Ethnomedizin und edizingeschichte =19&#>. 5he present interpretation of the Bant( leical data !enefits fro* an additional decade ofi*portant ne) analysis. 5he perspectives presented in the section of chapter 2 called 0ocial andPolitical ;aria!les of a Co*ple +nstit(tion0 )ere presented in t)o papers. 5he *andate to sharpen theontolo"ical identification of n"o*a ca*e fro* tan Goder<s disc(ssion of *y paper 0C(lts of

-ffliction: eal Pheno*enon or cholarly Chi*eraI0 in 5o* Blakeley<s conference on -fricaneli"ion at Bri"ha* Go(n" University, Dcto!er 2#, 19&. -nother perspective in that section )as airedin a paper entitled 0o) Fe*!a orked, or, the 5rickster<s 5ransfor*ation0 at the -frican t(dies-ssociation, @e) Drleans, @ove*!er, 19&K. +deas fro* this paper also appear in chapter K, 0o) @"o*a orks: Df Codes and Conscio(sness.0 o*e of the *aterial in chapter L, 0'oin" @"o*a: 5he5et(re of Personal 5ransfor*ation0 )as first "iven on 7e!r(ary 9, 19&%, !efore the 'epart*ent of-nthropolo"y at the University of Chica"o, in a Monday collo3(i(* entitled 0ords, Beats, 5(nes:5he 7a!ric of Personal 5ransfor*ation in @"o*a it(al 5herapy.0 5he relationship !et)een kin, orlinea"e4!ased, and etra4kin strate"ies of health seekin" )ere eplored in a presentation to the ealth5ransitions conference or"anized !y the ockefeller 7o(ndation and the ealth 5ransitions Centre at-(stralian @ational University in May, 19&9.

5he n(cle(s for the !ook )as set forth in a set of (np(!lished papers called 0+ndicators and Conceptsof ealth in -nthropolo"y: 5he Case for a <ocial eprod(ction< -nalysis of ealth0 and 0Dn theCo*parative t(dy of Medical yste*s: @"o*a, a Collective 5herapy Mode in Central and o(thern-frica.0 5hese )ere circ(lated in vario(s )ays as 05)o Papers on Medical -nthropolo"y.0 Chapter "re) o(t of the first of these papers, and f(rther colla!orative )ritin" and thinkin" on the s(!ect of the !asis of health )ith teven 7eier*an in preparation for an edited vol(*e, !he Social "asis of Health

and Healing in Africa . 5he reader )ill find echoes of the perspective p(t forth here in several p(!lished articles, incl(din": 0Chan"in" Concepts of -frican 5herape(tics: -n istorical Perspective,0



in African Healing Strategies , edited !y Brian M. d( 5oit and +s*ail . -!dalla, 19&K 0C(lts of -f4

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fliction in -frican eli"ion,0 !he Enc#clo$edia of Religion , edited !y Mircea ?liade, 19& 0ealth,eli"ion and Medicine in Central and o(thern -frican 5raditions,0 in Caring and Curing: Health and

edicine in %orld Religious !raditions , edited !y Farry (llivan, 19&9 0trate"ies of ealth4eekin"and tr(ct(res of ocial (pport in Central and o(thern -frica,0 in %hat %e &no' about Health

!ransition: !he Cultural( Social and "eha)ioural Determinants of Health , edited !y John C. Cald)ell,et al., 199$.

+ re*ain inde!ted to n(*ero(s others )ho have listened to *y ar"(*ents or pointed o(t i*portantiss(es as this )ork has pro"ressed. pecial thanks "o to @els Johnson, )ho re*inded *e of Mary'o("las<s (se of Bernstein<s analysis as it appears in chapter # 5he*!inkosi 'yeyi of ?ast Fondon,o(th -frica, )ho interpreted the intricacies of the 0doin" n"o*a0 session presented in chapter L andtranslated its tet into ?n"lish tan Goder, ichard er!ner, 5erence an"er, enny Blokland, andseveral other anony*o(s readers )ho offered constr(ctive criticis*s (e ch(essler, )ho disc(ssedn"o*a in *any conversations, and )hose o)n )ork on this s(!ect has helped *e (nderstand so*e ofthe iss(es in the literat(re /esine Janzen, )ho dre) the *aps and fi"(res and Finda Benefield, )hocopyedited the *an(script.

7inally, + a*, as al)ays, inde!ted to einhild for her critical enco(ra"e*ent of *y research and)ritin", and to Bernd, /esine, and Marike for their end(rin" interest in their father<s see*in"ly endless proect on -frican health and healin".

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In%o)*(#on5hat )hich )as a stitch of pain,has !eco*e the path to the priesthood.Fe*!a son" tet,on"o society, 191$

-n i*portant feat(re of (!4aharan -frican reli"ion and healin", historically and in the t)entiethcent(ry, has !een the interpretation of adversity, parado, and chan"e )ithin the fra*e)ork ofspecialized co**(nities, cells, and net)orks. +n Central -frica these co**(nities have co*e to !ecalled rit(als or c(lts of affliction, defined !y ;ictor 5(rner, a *aor a(thor on the s(!ect, as 0the

interpretation of *isfort(ne in ter*s of do*ination !y a specific non4h(*an a"ent and the atte*pt toco*e to ter*s )ith the *isfort(ne !y havin" the afflicted individ(al, (nder the "(idance of a <doctor< ofthat *ode, oin the c(lt association veneratin" that specific a"ent0 =5(rner 19&:1K1>. +n so*e circlesthese co**(nities are called 0dr(*s of affliction,0 reflectin" the si"nificance of their (se of dr(**in"and rhyth*ic son"4dancin", and the collo3(ial desi"nation in *any societies of the re"ion of the )hole"a*(t of epressive di*ensions !y the ter* ngoma =dr(*>. 5he dr(**in" is considered to !e thevoice or infl(ence of the ancestral shades or other spirits that visit the s(fferer and offer the treat*ent.

5his )ork is concerned )ith instit(tions carryin" the desi"nation ngoma and related ter*s. By enterin"-frican reli"io(s and therape(tic epression thro("h its o)n lan"(a"e, )e are identifyin" so*e



i*portant (nderlyin", and possi!ly historic, co**onalities and connections. e can also esta!lish the !asis for variants and transfor*ations *ore intelli"i!ly.

- n(*!er of *odern scholars have looked at this instit(tion in Cen4

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tral and o(thern -frica, altho("h not al)ays thro("h the indi"eno(sly la!eled cate"ories. 7orea*ple, ans Cory, in the thirties, st(died the constellation of n"o*a "ro(ps a*on" the (k(*a incolonial )estern 5an"anyika and on the +sla*ized coast. is )ork for the British colonial "overn*ent)as concerned )ith the potential of these "ro(ps for social (nrest. 5his )ork today provides a (sef(lcross section of ethno"raphic and historic interest at one *o*ent in ti*e =Cory 19#>.

5he reference point of scholarship on -frican rit(als or 0dr(*s of affliction0 contin(es to !e ;ictor5(rner<s )ork a*on" the @de*!( of northern Aa*!ia in the fifties he introd(ced the ter* as atranslation for the indi"eno(s )ord and concept ngoma =5(rner 19&, 19%K>. 5(rner<s in4depth st(dieson several of the t)enty4three @de*!( c(lts of affliction sho)ed their inner )orkin"s and socialcontets, intricate rit(al sy*!olis*s, therape(tic *otivations, and societal s(pport syste*s. -t the sa*e

ti*e, altho("h he p(t forth the @de*!( as (niversal persons )ith !elieva!le aches, pains, andepressions, )e no) see that his acco(nt of the* )as lar"ely ahistorical, localized in its covera"e tothe villa"es in )hich he did field)ork, and presented in a lar"ely static analysis characteristic of the prevailin" str(ct(ral4f(nctionalist paradi"* of the ti*e. +t )as not clear in his )ork ho) )idespreadthis "enre of instit(tion *i"ht !e, nor )hether it )as partic(lar to the @de*!( of Aa*!ia on theo(thern avanna.

- variety of a(thors, researchin" and )ritin" a!o(t the central and so(thern re"ions of the continent,descri!ed si*ilar feat(res in connection )ith the ver!al co"nate ngoma , !(t they (s(ally did not *akethe connection !et)een their o)n )ork and that of other scholars in other re"ions. +n the era ofstr(ct(ral4f(nctionalis* and colonial do*ination, the local 0tri!e0 )as the (nit of st(dy. arely )ereco*parisons, or concerns for historical directions, artic(lated. o)ever, (sef(l )ork )as acc(*(latin"

)hich )o(ld *ake the task of historical co*parison possi!le later on.

J. Clyde Mitchell =19K>, a collea"(e of 5(rner<s, follo)ed the Beni4@"o*a *ove*ent into the *i"rantla!or ca*ps of the copper!elt. 5erence an"er fo(nd, in coastal and historic trade4ro(te 5anzania, thatthe revivalist and dance di*ensions of n"o*a had follo)ed the trade ro(tes and pop(lation *ove*ents !et)een early colonial settle*ents =an"er 19%K>. Maria Fisa )antz =19%$, 19%, 19%%a , 19%%b ,19%9> and Floyd )antz =19%L> st(died n"o*a and related rit(al heatin" on the )ahili coast inconnection )ith social chan"e and develop*ent. i*. ;an Bins!er"en, /)yn Prins, and -nita prin"

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st(died n"o*a in Aa*!ia. prin"<s )ork added co*parative ethno"raphic data fro* the 0n"o*a *ode0of healin" a*on" F(vale )o*en =19%&, 19&K>. Prins and ;an Bins!er"en contri!(ted to the history of)estern Aa*!ian n"o*a, the first to the co"nitive fra*e)ork of n"o*alike therape(tic rit(al =Prins19%9>, the second to the linka"e !et)een n(*ero(s c(lts in the history of a re"ion as an epression ofdifferin" *odes of prod(ction and forces of historical chan"e =;an Bins!er"en 19%%, 19&1>. Monicailson =19#>, arriet @"(!ane =19&1>, and others st(died the therape(tic n"o*a settin"s in o(thern-frica, )here it )as perceived as havin" lar"ely to do )ith divination =especially a*on" the @"(ni4speakin" societies>.

'espite the val(e of these a(thors< )ritin"s on the s(!ect of the c(lt of affliction, none has looked at



scholarly task of the present *o*ent, therefore, is to sit(ate this )ork in )ider re"ional, societal, ands(!continental contet, and in the process to ask ho) )idespread this instit(tion *i"ht !e, )hether its*any *anifestations are transfor*ations of an (nderlyin" co**on instit(tion, )hy partic(lar for*s ofit rise and decline, and ho) it relates in a dyna*ic relationship to other feat(res of society and reli"ion.- *aor lac(na in st(dyin" the )ider pheno*e4

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non of the c(lt or dr(* of affliction across its appearance in Central and o(thern -frica has !een thea!sence of a set of co*para!le st(dies. cholars have either done local ethno"raphic st(dies )ithcaref(l attention to the str(ct(re of c(sto*s and lan"(a"es and have done little to seek !roader"eneralizations, or they have atte*pted !roader "eneralizations )itho(t caref(l attention to the c(lt(ral partic(lars.

+n 19&2&# + (ndertook to re*edy this sit(ation for *yself )ith an etensive field s(rvey of n"o*a*anifestations in fo(r settin"s of (!4aharan -frica )here the literat(re s(""ested it occ(rred. + )asespecially interested in ho) n"o*a i*p(lses and or"anizations )ere represented in *aor (r!ansettin"s. 5he sites + visited in this )ork )ere inshasa, a h(! of estern Bant( societies, incl(din"on"o, in the Aairian national capital 'ar es alaa*, )here ?astern Bant( and national 5anzanianc(lt(res co*e to"ether, )ith a stron" +sla*ic presence the M!a!ane4Manzini corridor in )aziland, atthe northern end of @"(ni4speakin" societies, in a stron" traditional kin"do* and Cape 5o)n, in)hose !lack to)nships all o(thern -frican traditions *er"e in the (nderside of a society torn !yapartheid.

hy )ere (r!an settin"s selected, )hich tended to feat(re i**i"rants to cities and transplanted practitioners fro* ho*e areas in the co(ntrysideI 7irst, the (r!an capitals st(died offered *(ch *oreaccessi!ility to re"ional traditions than sin"le r(ral areas. +ndeed, one co(ld find all re"ional traditionsrepresented in these cities. 7(rther, it )as easy to identify on"oin" local scholarship on these traditionsand to converse )ith scholars and practitioners a!o(t the (nfoldin" direction of the therapies. Dn"oin"

practice in the (r!an settin" )o(ld de*onstrate contin(in" life, altho("h chan"in", of the instit(tion.7inally, it )as virt(ally i*possi!le for *e to do (stice to the s(!continental s(rvey short of visitin" aselective set of points on the *ap, s(ch as inshasa, 'ar es alaa*, M!a!ane4Manzini, and Cape5o)n. Df co(rse, other capitals co(ld have served e3(ally )ell, incl(din" arare in Ai*!a!)e orF(saka in Aa*!ia.

5he co*parative s(rvey e*phasized ei"ht points re"ardin" the therape(tic di*ension of c(lts ofaffliction: =1> the na*es of principle rites, their re"ions of ori"in, and ter*inolo"ies =2> *odes ofaffliction =follo)in" 5(rner: sy*pto*atolo"ical si"ns> and etiolo"ies =spirits, social forces> =#> thecharacteristic therapy of a rite =L> the social scale of the affliction =)hether individ(al, "ro(p, orco*!ination> =K> the socio4c(lt(ral contet6class and stat(s, ethnic "ro(p, "ender6of the afflictedand of the healer => characteristic devices and *(sical instr(4

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*ents, dances, and son"s of the rites =%> profile of individ(al=s> in char"e of the therape(tic rite6 fa*ily, diviner, other specialists, association *e*!ers =&> percepti!le chan"es in the last decade. 5hese3(eries provided the (nderlyin" thr(st of the investi"ation and )ere ans)ered in each of the fo(rre"ions, insofar as possi!le.

-ltho("h this )ork )ill address a partic(lar type of instit(tion in concrete historical settin"s and is in



*any )ays si*ply a strai"htfor)ard atte*pt to (nderstand and to portray this instit(tion, thefra*e)ork of the in3(iry is intended to !e (niversally applica!le. +n other )ords, there is a theoreticals(!a"enda to this )ork, for )hich n"o*a is the case st(dy. + present this a"enda in the for* of threeiss(es6health, healin", and efficacy. 5hey *(st !e approached, theoretically, in this order. 5his order*ay see* reversed to so*e ho)ever, it ste*s fro* a "ro)in" concern in *edical anthropolo"y thatthis field is not effectively applied to health iss(es =ar)ood 19&%:L>. + contend this is the case !eca(se

of a lack of concern for the )ays in )hich healin", or *edicine, affects health, that is, the s(!ect ofefficacy, or ho) the therapy 0)orks.0

+ncreasin"ly, in social science and *edical )ritin", definitions of health provide the point of depart(refor the analysis and action of specific interventions. 5his "ets (s s3(arely into the de!ate onconceptions of health, )hich a(thors approach fro* a variety of vie)points. Most of the ti*e )e (sethe ne"ative 0a!sence of disease0 definition of health, or the de*o"rapher<s profile of *ortality,natality, and *or!idity. o)ever, definitions of health *ay also !e philosophical =e."., Boorse 19%%>,ecolo"ical ='(!os 19&>, political econo*ic ='oyal 19%9 ava"e 19%9 Morsy 19&1>, sociolo"icalnor*ativist =Parsons 19K1 7reidson 19%1 Aola 19>, or rit(alistic, disc(rsive, and interpretative.?ploration of definitions of health s(ita!le for the analysis of -frican n"o*a therapy )ill !eaddressed in so*e len"th in the final chapters of this )ork.

5he application of a concept of 0social reprod(ction0 see*s partic(larly s(ita!le here. /iven the)idespread net)ork relationship !(ildin" that "oes on in n"o*a, 0health0 *ay !e seen as a society orsocial (nit<s a!ility to re"enerate itself =i.e., socially reprod(ce>. 5his approach is inspired !y the )orkin o(thern -frica of Colin M(rray on la!or *i"ration in Fesotho and the o(tflo) of la!or capital,res(ltin" in a crisis of social reprod(ction =19%9, 19&1>. Dther a(thors )ho have developed a socialreprod(ction analysis incl(de Pierre Bo(rdie( =19%%>. 5his approach overco*es the chronic pro!le* inclassical *edical anthropol4

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o"y and other disciplines of not !ein" a!le to co*pletely eplain the deterioration of health in a societyor a sector of society and the )ay in )hich *e*!ers of society cope )ith this sit(ation. 5he perspective of health as social reprod(ction )ill set the sta"e for an analysis of the collective therapiesof Central and o(thern -frica.

?sta!lishin" the character of the conscio(s therape(tic intervention as the !asis for the co*parativest(dy of *edical syste*s and traditions is the second *aor theoretical iss(e in this )ork. hat )ill !ethe fra*e)ork )ith )hich to analyze, in co**on ter*s, varied pheno*enaI hat are the criteria ofthe 0co**on,0 the 0co*para!le0I -re they that )hich is la!eled in indi"eno(s practice and parlanceIDr do they have to do )ith !ehaviorsI +n the case of Central and o(thern -frica, do the co**onco"nates of Bant( lan"(a"es play a *aor role in deter*inin" )hat is the core of the historic andconte*porary therape(tic syste*I 5hen there are the 0instit(tional0 3(estions, havin" to do )ith the

pri*acy of the individ(al vers(s the collective, or societal. Central and o(thern -frican therapies s(chas n"o*a are so different, and differ in so *any )ays, fro* estern therapy, that )e *(st first askho) the !o(ndaries of researcha!le reality are to !e dra)n to identify this as *edicine, or as healin", inorder for it to have anythin" in co**on )ith the instit(tions the estern ind(strial )orld identifies !ythese ter*s.

Criteria of efficacy in therapy )ill need to !e for*(lated, !oth in ter*s of specific therapies andinterventions fo(nd in n"o*a and in ter*s of the *ore "eneral 3(estion of )hether, and ho), they *aycontri!(te to health. Both individ(al =psycholo"ical, sy*!olic, phar*acolo"ical, *(sical> as )ell as



social *echanis*s =enterin" and etendin" a net)ork, creatin" s(pport "ro(ps and redistri!(tivechains, social co*petence> need to !e st(died as therape(tic *echanis*s that *ay have "eneraliza!le3(alities. Many of these *eas(res enhance the a!ility of individ(als and societies to contain tra(*a andto deal appropriately )ith diffic(lties, there!y contri!(tin" to social reprod(ction in the *ar"inalized,alienated, or stressed sectors of a society, )hich n"o*a therape(tics appears to address.

+n order to acco*plish the !asic ethno"raphic4historical task of presentin" n"o*a and to open the

theoretical disc(ssions raised a!ove, this !ook has the follo)in" str(ct(re. Chapter 1, 0ettin"s anda*ples,0 is a strai"htfor)ard co*parative st(dy of fo(r re"ional settin"s: estern Bant(, as fo(nd ininshasa, Aaire eastern -frica, as fo(nd in 'ar es alaa*, 5anzania so(thern -frica, foc(sin" onM!a!ane in )azi4

8 & 8

land, )hich is one of the @orth @"(ni4speakin" societies and the to)nships of Cape 5o)n, o(th-frica, predo*inately Hhosa, or o(th @"(ni, !(t also a cos*opolitan synthesis of all of o(thern-frica. 5his s(rvey is lar"ely a presentation of *y field research of 19&2&#, and th(s it has all thestren"ths and )eaknesses of a sin"le scholar<s )ork: li*itin", in that it is only one individ(al travelin"vast distances enhancin", in that a trained eye can see *(ch and *ake connections that a cas(alo!server *isses. +n the )estern settin" =inshasa, Aaire> + concentrate on the partic(lar c(lts ofaffliction called Fe*!a and @kita, of Fo)er Con"o ori"in Ae!ola, of the ?3(ator ori"in and Bil(*!(,of F(!a, or asai ori"in. Most of these are co(ched )ithin the linea"e settin" or are desi"ned to !(ttress the linea"e. +n ?ast -frica ='ar es alaa*, 5anzania>, !eca(se of the early )ork of ans Coryon historic (k(*a rit(al or"anizations, it is possi!le to offer a profile of !oth )estern 5anzaniann"o*a and coastal )ahili, +sla*ized society, and n"o*a epressions. 7ro* o(thern -frica=M!a!ane, )aziland, and Cape 5o)n, o(th -frica> co*e so*e of *y !est f(ll acco(nts of n"o*a, partly !eca(se of field)ork l(ck and also !eca(se the instit(tion *ay !e less specialized there and *ayrepresent a *ore "eneric *anifestation.

Chapter 2, 0+dentifyin" @"o*a: istorical and Co*parative Perspectives,0 raises the possi!ility thatn"o*a is indeed a classical *anifestation of Central and o(thern -frican rit(al. 5his chapter sit(atesthe !ook<s s(!ect in the contet of research on the ori"ins and dispersions of Bant( lan"(a"es andc(lt(res and the distri!(tions of co"nate leica for n"o*a and other -frican therape(tic4reli"io(sinstit(tions. hat is the evidence for c(lt(rally ho*o"eneo(s do*ains !eyond the lin"(istic ta"sI o)do )e acco(nt for the i**ense variations aro(nd the lin"(istic co**onalities in this vasts(!continental re"ionI

Chapter #, 0Core 7eat(res in @"o*a 5herapy,0 develops a description of the *ain characteristics inn"o*a therapy (nderlyin" the *yriad *anifestations of the instit(tion thro("ho(t the re"ion. 5hesefeat(res incl(de a phased rite of passa"e in )hich the s(fferer, follo)in" identification of a sponsorin"healer, *oves "rad(ally thro("h the therape(tic initiation to *e*!ership in the order a si*ilar pattern

of definin" and interpretin" *isfort(ne thro("h the invocation of, and possession !y, ancestor shades,nat(re spirits, and other spirits a co**on sy*!olis* definin" the stat(s of the s(fferer4novice *ovin"thro("h 0the )hite,0 the rit(al stat(s of !ein" 0in process0 the role of sacrifice and echan"e and thee*po)er*ent of the novice thro("h the transfor*ation of the self and the co*position and (se of*edicinal s(!stances.

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Perhaps the *ost i*portant core feat(re, ho)ever, is the s(!ect to )hich the net chapter is devoted.

Chapter L, 0'oin" @"o*a: 5he 5et(re of Personal 5ransfor*ation,0 *oves !eyond the !ehavioral andsy*!olic feat(res of therape(tic initiation to the conscio(s, ver!al di*ension fo(nd in the n"o*asessions. - sin"le session is descri!ed and analyzed in depth. +t provides the !asis for a )iderco*parison )ith other ea*ples. 5he centrality of son" to n"o*a !eco*es apparent here. 5hevariations in co**(nicative str(ct(re of n"o*a provide i*portant cl(es to the (nderstandin" of the

instit(tion.

Chapter K, 0o) @"o*a orks: Df Codes and Conscio(sness,0 proceeds )ith a presentation of theindi"eno(s theory of this for* of healin". 7ro* there it *oves to the application of several acade*icanalytic eval(ations of n"o*a, incl(din" the role of *etaphor shapin", of consens(s, and of the ran"eof *anip(lations that shape affect of s(fferer and therapists alike.

Chapter , 05he ocial eprod(ction of ealth,0 looks at n"o*a fro* the standpoint of its contri!(tionto society<s fa!ric, atte*ptin" to ans)er the 3(estion of n"o*a<s contri!(tion to health as (nderstood intoday<s )orld. 5his chapter, of necessity, opens )ith a disc(ssion of vario(s health definitions, todeter*ine )hich set *i"ht !e appropriate for an (nderstandin" of n"o*a<s contri!(tion to health in aconte*porary contet.

- proect s(ch as this is at once a(dacio(s and precario(s. +t is an atte*pt to de*onstrate so*ethin"that has not heretofore !een kno)n, essentially a *appin" o(t of the core feat(re of a classiccivilizational healin" syste* in Central and o(thern -frica, or at least a *aor feat(re of it. +t is precario(s !eca(se the ass(*ptions that *(st !e *ade in atte*ptin" this are not )ell validated.orkin" )ith lin"(istic reconstr(ctions and variations aro(nd core !ehaviors often leads tointerpretations of local evidence collected !y others. Dne scholar, lookin" 0over the sho(lders0 ofothers, is !o(nd to !e )ron" so*e of the ti*e in others< ethno"raphic !ackyards. 5o *ake *atters *oreco*plicated, *y ethno"raphic 0ho*e territory,0 Fo)er Aaire, in the estern Bant(speakin" re"ion, fitsthe "eneralizations on n"o*a least )ell, in so*e respects.

o)ever, it )ill have !een )orth the risk if the end res(lt, if only thro("h criticis*, provides the

sti*(lation of ne) ideas and !etter research, especially that )hich "oes !eyond the confines of tri!eand territory in -frica.

8 1$ 8

1

Se#ng! an) Sam+'e! #n A"%#(an C*'! o" A""'#(#on

'o yo( intend to spend yo(r sa!!atical in airport )aitin" roo*sI- skeptical collea"(e

Fa"os airport, a)aitin" ni"ht fli"ht to inshasa: +t<s #L ho(rs since +<ve slept. + )onder ifthere are any kola n(ts to !e had. o) )o(ld one find a kola n(t in Fa"os airportI +s thisstill @i"eria, or -fricaI +n the so(venir sales area + approach a "ro(p of "athered *en andtell the* +<ve !een travelin" a lon" ti*e and need to stay a)ake6any kolaI everal reachinto their ro!es and p(ll o(t kola n(ts. Dne shares )ith *e, !itin" off the end of a n(t andhandin" it to *e. 5hey are deli"hted + feel at ho*e, officially, in -frica.7ield Jo(rnal, J(ly 2, 19&2



-t a 0)ashin" of !eads0 in a Cape 5o)n to)nship: - cross section of !lack Cape 5o)n,sho)in" "reat kindness and hospitality to)ard (s. +ndeed, it see*ed they )ere seekin"approval of the o(tside )orld. e heard (n(s(al state*ents s(ch as 0)e<re not canni!als,dr(nkards, and (ncivilized people0 as the "overn*ent )o(ld have everyone !elieve. 5hey(r"ed (s not to !e afraid of the*. e ass(red the* )e )eren<t, other)ise )e )o(ld not

have co*e. 5hey kept askin" (s if )e )ere happy, and offered (s chairs, drinks, food to)elco*e (s ... the *en so("ht constant physical contact, to to(ch, hold or shake hands, as ifto indicate their h(*anity thro("h vicario(s reco"nition.7ield Jo(rnal, @ove*!er 1L, 19&2

5his ethno"raphic s(rvey is intended to sketch an i*pressionistic pict(re of c(lts of affliction inCentral and o(thern -frica, partic(larly in the conte*porary (r!an settin"s of inshasa, Aaire 'ar esalaa*, 5anzania M!a!ane4Manzini, )aziland and Cape 5o)n, o(th -frica. 5hese nationalcapitals represent the (r!an syntheses of fo(r *aor re"ions of -frica respectively: the Con"o !asin, partic(larly estern Bant(4speakin" societies ?ast -frica, partic(larly the )ahili4speakin" settin"

the northern @"(ni4speakin" settin" and societies infl(enced !y @"(ni, otho45s)ana, and hoisanand !y o(th -frican (r!an

8 11 8

societies of the estern Cape. +n each settin" so*e attention )ill !e "iven to the historical !ackdrop ofc(lt4of4affliction ori"ins in these re"ions.

5he i*pressions asse*!led here can hardly !e epected to !e syste*atic. o)ever, they are firsthanda(thentic portrayals of the s(!ect of the !ook. 5hro("h the conversations )ith healers and patients,officials and scholars, they reflect so*e of the thinkin" on the role of Central -frica<s affliction c(lts in

!earin" the load of the carin" vocations.

The ,-%an)! R#e!, O" #n!ha!a

inshasa, -frica<s lar"est city !elo) the ?3(ator, )ith a!o(t #.K *illion inha!itants, covers over t)oh(ndred s3(are kilo*eters on the !anks of the Aaire iver. Focal scholarship speaks of 0les "randsrites,0 representin" n(*ero(s re"ional and ethnic traditions fro* aro(nd the Con"o !asin.

5he local society of inshasa, and approi*ately half of its inha!itants, are of the on"o4speakin" =orikon"o> society, of Fo)er Con"o, or Aaire. 7ro* its !e"innin" as the villa"e of inshasa, then as thecapital of the Bel"ian Con"o, and after independence in 19$, as the capital of Aaire, inshasa hasdra)n residents fro* the entire re"ion. 5he civil )ars of the postindependence era and the deterioration

of r(ral infrastr(ct(re and standard of livin", to"ether )ith the l(re of the city, have led to the *i"rationof *any people to the city to seek their livelihood. Pop(lation epansion far !eyond the a!ility of thecity to provide an infrastr(ct(re of electricity, se)era"e, and even )ater, has "iven rise to enor*o(ss(!(r!an villa"elike settle*ents. 5hese pop(lation *ove*ents into the capital have !ro("ht )ith the*the reli"io(s, therape(tic, and social for*s of the re"ional c(lt(res. 7ro* the F(!a area of the asaire"ion, one finds Bil(*!( fro* the (priver Mai4@do*!e re"ion of Band(nd(, Bad( and Mpo*!ofro* (priver in ?3(ate(r Province aro(nd M!andaka, Ae!ola and ?li*a =or Bili*a> fro* the UpperAaire and iv(, Mikanda4Mikanda fro* Bas4Aaire and Band(nd( provinces, @kita and fro* ?ast-frica and iv(, Miz(ka.



/*%e!!#ng The L#neage In 0e!e%n /an* So(#e&

Df the *aor c(lts of affliction represented in inshasa, the *ost characteristic of estern Bant(society6coastal on"o, east)ard into

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Band(nd(6is (ndo(!tedly @kita. @ot only is the foc(s of its therape(tic rit(al, the linea"e, at the coreof the society, !(t it is ancient. +t is *entioned in early historical doc(*entation on the Con"o coast, as)ell as in acco(nts fro* aiti, )here it has !eco*e an ele*ent in the loa syste*. @kita is associated)ith bisimbi nat(re spirits, and, as a linea"e c(lt, is often involved in the re"eneration and *aintenanceof linea"e "overn*ent. 5he bisimbi invest, or validate, linea"e a(thority, )hich in *any re"ions ise*!odied in po)erf(l *edicinal and reli"io(s co*positions, the min*isi . @kita concentrates on thedyna*ics of the *atrilinea"e and the individ(al affliction !elieved to ori"inate fro* linea"e pro!le*s.5he c(lt cell is )ithin the linea"e itself, fre3(ently ori"inatin" in the crises of se"*entation and theneed to rene) leadership =Bi!ea( et al. 19%% Janzen 19%& Fe*a 19%& @siala 19%9, 19&2 'evisch19&L>.

5he history of linea"e and p(!lic c(lts of affliction is si"nificant in coastal and estern Bant( society./iven the pro*inence of fairly fied settle*ents, landed a"rarian linea"es, and of *arkets and trade,and of6especially coastal and o(thern avanna6chiefdo*s, this is not s(rprisin". o)ever, fe) ofthe early instit(tional for*s have !een ade3(ately st(died. 5he close artic(lation of e*!le*s ofa(thority, social rene)al, and healin" is co**on. My )ork on the historic Fe*!a c(lt that e*er"ed inthe seventeenth cent(ry in the contet of the "reat coastal trade !ears this o(t =Janzen 19&2>. Fe*!arepresented a rit(alized concern for several di*ensions of society6the *aintenance and protection ofalliances !et)een landed and pro*inent linea"es protection of the *ercantile elite fro* the threat ofenvy !y their s(!ordinates d(e to their acc(*(lation of )ealth the *aintenance of trade ro(tesoverland !et)een the -tlantic coast and the !i" *arkets of the interior finally, the resol(tion ofcontradictions that res(lted fro* the social (pheavals ca(sed !y the "reat trade. 5here )ill !e occasion

to ret(rn to Fe*!a as an ea*ple of a p(!lic c(lt of affliction later in this !ook.

-s in *any c(lts of affliction, n*ita is at once the na*e of the illness, the spirit !ehind it, and thetherape(tic rite. 5he si"n of affliction in @kita is fre3(ently epressed in diff(se psycholo"ical distress,drea*s, and fevers, or threat to the contin(ity of the linea"e in the for* of children<s illnesses or deaths,the !arrenness of )o*en or co(ples, or lin"erin" sickness of *ale leaders. 5hese pro!le*s are oftenassociated )ith the s(spicion of inade3(ate leadership, or at any rate a loss of contact )ith the bisimbi or n*ita spirits in )hich linea"e a(thority is vested. -n individ(alized version of @kita therapyconcentrates on partic(lar

8 1# 8

cases that, if c(*(lative and serio(s, *ay tri""er a collective therapy that seeks to rene) leadershipthro("h the resol(tion of conflicts and the reesta!lish*ent of har*onio(s relationships )ith ancestorsand nat(re spirits.

5he @kita rite, follo)in" the identification of the individ(al or collective dia"nosis of the ca(se of the*isfort(ne, re3(ires the 03(est for n*ita spirits0 in a river at the o(tset of the secl(sion of the s(fferer.5hese spirit forces are (s(ally represented in s*ooth stones or l(*ps of coral resin fo(nd in appropriatestrea*!eds, and they !eco*e the foc(s of the identification of the s(fferer )ith the spirits. 5hesecl(sion of the s(fferer4novice and instr(ction in the esoteric learnin" of @kita is the first sta"e of



teachin" !y the @kita leader. 5he site or do*ain of this secl(sion, a co**on feat(re of all n"o*ainitiations, is in ikon"o called )'ela and refers to the forest clearin" or the enclos(re of pal* !ranches, set apart and sacralized for this p(rpose.

Beca(se of the linea"e foc(s of @kita and simbi spirit *ediation, the rites attendant to @kita have aclose connection to, or arc done conc(rrently )ith, other rites that perpet(ate collective linea"esy*!ols, s(ch as shrines !earin" ancestors< *ortal re*ains =nails, hair, !its of !one>, leopard skins,

chiefly staffs, sa!ers, or other si"ns considered to !ear the spirit and office of past leaders. +n so*e ofthese parallel rites, cere*onial co(ples, s(ch as the F(sansa *ale and fe*ale priests, provide the personification of the contin(o(s spirit(al line. +nstances of sickness or infertility in linea"es associated)ith these rites *ay precipitate the no*ination of ne) priestly co(ples.

+n (r!an inshasa, accordin" to psycholo"ist @siala Miaka Maken"o, )ho s(rveyed @kita etensivelyin the *id419%$s =19%9, 19&2>, there are an esti*ated forty to fifty 0p(re0 @kita practitioners, a fi"(rethat does not, ho)ever, incl(de those )hose practice is li*ited to their o)n linea"es. 5he f(ll rites,done )ith a f(ll4fled"ed nganga N*ita are epensive and co*ple, th(s !eyond the reach of *anyfa*ilies. Cost and availa!ility of dr(**ers, *(sicians, s(pportin" personnel, transport to the site, andcoordinatin" the )hole rit(al have !eco*e pro!le*atic. 5h(s, @kita practitioners have tended to !eco*e "eneralized therapists for on"o and non4on"o people, in )hich non4kin oin the seances,and the rit(als !eco*e "eneralized for a ran"e of conditions. @siala fo(nd that these @kita healersreceive on avera"e five cases per day that re3(ire hospitalization, either in their co*po(nds or anotherhospital, and (p to a dozen cases that can !e treated and released =19%9:11>. Df these, L$ percent )ere*ale, $ percent fe*ale. 5hey

8 1L 8

ca*e in all a"es, distri!(ted as follo)s: Children fro* !irth to five years =1K percent>, yo(ths (p tositeen years =K$ percent> ad(lts =#K percent>. 'espite the apparent trend for the @kita healers to !eco*e "eneric (r!an healers, their )ork contin(es to reflect the d(al levels of the individ(al and the

collectivity. -ltho("h the *aority of cases are individ(als, (ni3(e fa*ily or linea"e therapies haveevolved in the (r!an settin". 5hese incl(de *(t(al confessions, the "ro(p confessin" to the s(fferer,liftin" the potential har* of *alefic *edicines, and holdin" verita!le 0psychopalavers0 to vent thea""ressions that eist )ithin the "ro(p. 5hese *echanis*s of "ro(p rene)al are fre3(ently interspersed)ith divination to seek f(rther (nderstandin" as to the internal "ro(p reasons for *isfort(nes.

-o) Je!*! The An(e!o%! An) Jane In L*a 3#$#na#on

Bil(*!(, of F(!a4asai ori"in, reflects the sa*e e*phasis on the core points of the social str(ct(re, inthis case the patrilinea"e. Fike @kita, it has eperienced si"nificant chan"es )ith the (r!anization of itsclientele. 5he *ilumbu =sin"(lar of bilumbu > is a *edi(* of the spirits )ho interprets the *isfort(nes

of others. Bil(*!( *edi(*s enter this role after havin" their o)n possession or dist(r!ances, andhavin" !een told !y diviners that they have bulumbu , that is, the "ift of prophecy or divination. 5he !il(*!(, as )ell as the chiefs =balo$'e > in F(!a society, are the individ(als )ho le"iti*ately interpretbu)id#e , the 3(ality associated )ith ba)id#e , the fo(ndin" spirits of the F(!a nation =Booth 19%%:Ko!erts 19&&>.

D!servation of a Maken"a variant60to )ork for those )ho need it06of the Bil(*!( rite in inshasain 19&2, ho)ever, *akes very plain that the (r!an rite, at least this one, has chan"ed si"nificantly fro*)hat it )as earlier. -fter *any "enerations of *ale *edi(*s in a partic(lar patrilinea"e, a )o*an had !eco*e the central *edi(* of this partic(lar cell. 5he 0"eneralization0 of divination and therape(tics,



)hich has already !een *entioned in connection )ith @kita healers, )as also evident in this instance ofBil(*!(.

ishi @ze*!ela, a )o*an of a!o(t sity years, *other of ei"ht, "rand*other of t)enty4t)o, carried onher linea"e<s F(!a divinatory and therape(tic tradition. Aairian psycholo"ist Ma!iala *a @dela, )hoacco*panied *e on this visit, had kno)n @ze*!ela for so*e ti*e and re"arded her )ork as so*e)hatatypical )ithin this tradition.

8 1K 8

@ze*!ela 0o)ned0 or 0*ana"ed0 the spirit of her deceased da("hter Janet, altho("h all bu)id#e holders )ithin the @ze*!ela line of *edi(*s and spirits had !een *ales for at least fo(r "enerations !efore her.

@ze*!ela prefaced o(r disc(ssion of her ancestors, and her da("hter Janet, )ith e*phatic affir*ationsthat she )as a devo(t Catholic and !elieved in /od and Jes(s, and that these *(st !e na*ed !efore anyancestors in an invocation. 5he )alls of her s*all chapel feat(red t)o painted portraits, one of theChristian 5rinity, the other of her da("hter Janet.

@ze*!ela<s entry into this )ork had !e"(n in 19K, ei"ht years after the death of her da("hter Janet ata"e ei"hteen. Janet, a cripple, had !een a talented, dyna*ic person and a leader, havin" !een elected tohead a "ro(p of handicapped children. he )as also a "ifted sin"er and had )anted to p(rs(e a careeras a sin"er. he had !een possessed !y spirits and clai*ed the "ift of spirit(al healin", as )ell. -tei"hteen, in the co(rse of a pre"nancy that see*ed to the fa*ily to "o on inter*ina!ly, she died ofco*plications. 5he fa*ily had also at that ti*e had tro(!le )ith the police at the *arket.

Janet<s spirit visited the fa*ily in 19K, )hen her !rother, a soldier in trainin" in 7rance, )as possessedfollo)in" a sickness he co(ld not overco*e )ith help in hospitals. +n his drea*s, Janet instr(cted thefa*ily to "ive her a proper !(rial, to constr(ct a !ea(tif(l to*!. er !rother did not )ish to !eco*e a*edi(*, so @ze*!ela, the *other, offered to do it for hi*. +n a fa*ily cele!ration, a !ea(tif(l to*!

)as dedicated =in the b#ombela rite )ith the n"o*a dr(*>, and a feast )as held follo)in" the sacrificeof a "oat and fo(r chickens. avin" done this, ishi @ze*!ela received a vision in )hich her *other,Madila, told her there )as no conflict !et)een the )ork of Janet and *e*!ership in the Catholicch(rch. he )as instr(cted to contin(e attendin" ch(rch, altho("h on hearin" of her possession, thech(rch threatened her )ith eco**(nication. he )ent to the priest )ith her dile**a. -fter her presentation of her visions, and the priest<s affir*ation of ho) !ea(tif(l they had !een, she received his !lessin". +f her )ork )as evil, it )o(ld destroy her if it )as "ood, she )o(ld !e !lessed.N1O

he has contin(ed )orkin" )ith the spirit of Janet and has had *any *ostly F(!a clients fro* )ithinand o(tside the fa*ily, incl(din" a fe) )hites. @ze*!ela does not divine and heal on (ndays, thedays she prays and )orships. eekdays, she is very !(sy. o*e clients enter into trance 3(ickly, othersneed $emba , )hite po)der, sprinkled on the* to achieve it. @ze*!ela offered that her o)n !ehavior

*ay affect the

8 1 8

de"ree to )hich Janet )ill co*e to clients. +f, for ea*ple, she has done )ron", Janet )ill hesitate.o*eti*es Janet o(rneys to ?(rope to visit her si!lin"s, in )hich case she )ill not respond to sin"in"and chantin" in @ze*!ela<s seances.

-s )e arrived to visit @ze*!ela, she )as sin"in" and shakin" t)o rattles. 7ive other persons )ere



8 1& 8

!e"an th(*pin" on the child, holdin" it !et)een her le"s, rollin" aro(nd, )hile the child screa*ed.0Janet0 said the child had a !ad spirit of death in it. 5he child<s *other =in trance> )as evil, and thechild )as in terri!le shape. + feared that this o(t!(rst of self4ne"ation !y the yo(n" )o*an )o(ld h(rtor even kill her infant. o)ever, this did not happen.

7(rther cases )ere *ore *(ndane. 5here )as the )o*an )ho )anted to find o(t )hy her h(s!and<sMercedes had crashed. e had seen !ad spirits, said @ze*!ela. - )o*an )hose h(s!and )as roa*in"aro(nd (nfaithf(lly, 0Janet0 acc(sed of )ron" actions to)ard her h(s!and.

5he voice of 0Janet0 lapsed and @ze*!ela, as herself, !e"an listenin", occasionally offerin" advice, tothe 3(iet yo(n" *an )ho had !een sittin" in the corner thro("ho(t all this. he *oved close to hi*, 0intherapy0 no), and spoke softly to hi*, prohi!itin" hi* fro* thinkin" of s(icide. he enco(ra"ed hi*to pray, to take )hite po)der, and to ret(rn net day for cleansin". 5he others present also receivedsi*ilar co(nsel and attention fro* @ze*!ela.

he also told of a case of a )hite *an<s fa*ily that had co*e to her for the presentation of their pro!le*: his failin" !(siness and a *arria"e that )as !reakin" (p. '(rin" the divinin" and therapysession the fa*ily<s da("hter )ent into trance and revealed that her h(s!and, a Fatin or +talian, )as

fro* a people )ho had so*ethin" a"ainst her o)n people, the 7le*ish. er ancestors )ere a"ainst her*arria"e to hi*. -fter so*e confessions and the revelation of other pro!le*s, this fa*ily )as helped toresolve their differences.

-part fro* the yo(n" apprentice )ho had entered possession several ti*es, it )as (nclear ho) *anyof these clients )o(ld event(ally !e dra)n into a net)ork of si*ilar Bil(*!( *edi(*4healers. 5hesession ended )hen all the clients had !een dealt )ith for the *ornin".

U%an Change! In C*'! O" A""'#(#on

5his !rief acco(nt of t)o (r!an c(lts of affliction fro* the estern Bant( settin", !oth e*phasizin"linea"e or fa*ily *ediation, does not eha(st the ran"e of types and re"ions represented in inshasa. +thints of so*e of the chan"es that c(lts of affliction (nder"o )ith (r!anization.

Ae!ola, )hich ori"inated in the (priver ?3(ator re"ion, *anifests itself in physiolo"ical and psycholo"ical sicknesses of individ(al *en and )o*en. +n its historic r(ral contet, Ae!ola affliction is(s(ally traced

8 19 8

!ack to possession !y nat(re spirits. - re"i*en of secl(sion, co(nselin", and rit(al therapy !rin"s theclients, *ostly fe*ale, !ack to health thro("h therape(tic initiation in the Ae!ola order. +n its (r!ansettin", especially inshasa, Ae!ola possession is fre3(ently dia"nosed in cases of )o*en )ho are patholo"ically affected !y isolation fro* their peers or fa*ilies in their (r!an ho(seholds. Beco*in" aAe!ola s(fferer and neophyte p(ts the individ(al into per*anent association )ith a peer "ro(p offello) s(fferers, and thro("h therape(tic initiation, event(ally "ives the individ(al a leadership role inthe )ider Ae!ola co**(nity and net)ork.

?llen Corin<s penetratin" st(dy of Ae!ola =19%9>, !oth in ?3(ate(r Province and in inshasa,de*onstrates that the )o*en and =a fe)> *en )ho enter Ae!ola are increasin"ly fro* a variety ofc(lt(ral !ack"ro(nds !eyond the (priver ?3(ator re"ion. he notes that the therape(tic initiation, )hichlasts for *onths or years, !rin"s the isolated individ(al into close !ondin" )ith others, and fro*



o!sc(rity to a reco"niza!le rit(al position in the society. 5rancelike !ehavior inspired !y Ae!ola spiritsis less *arked in the city than in the co(ntryside.

Mpo*!o and Bad( =Baz(> ori"inate fro* the Mai4@do*!e re"ion a fe) h(ndred kilo*eters (priver.Aairian psycholo"ist Ma!iala, )ho is st(dyin" these c(lts, notes that a variety of ill4defined si"ns andsy*pto*s are the *odes of affliction here, incl(din" dizziness, headache, lack of *ental presence, skinrash, lack of appetite, diffic(lty in !reathin", heart!(rn )ith aniety, rapid or arhyth*ic heart!eat, fever

)ith shivers, se(al i*potence, drea*s of str(""les, or !ein" follo)ed !y threatenin" ani*als )ei"htloss or ecessive )ei"ht, especially if acco*panied !y spirit visitations and a variety of "ynecolo"icaland o!stetrical diffic(lties. 5herape(tic initiation also characterizes the entry into the c(lt of theafflicted.

Miz(ka in inshasa is a c(lt of affliction !ro("ht to the city and represented lar"ely in the )ahili4speakin" co**(nity. Men and )o*en are initiated follo)in" psychic crises, hall(cinations,nervo(sness, )ei"ht loss, )eakness, dizziness, and !ad l(ck =Bi!ea( et al. 19%9>. Dther c(lts ofaffliction in inshasa incl(de @zondo, @k(ndo or ?li*a of northern py"*y infl(ence, Mikanda4Mikanda, and 5e*!(.

Ma!iala =19&2> has s(**arized the recent trends in inshasa c(lts of affliction in !oth ne"ative and

positive ter*s. 5he hi"h cost of livin" in the city has driven *any people to !eco*e healers to earn aninco*e. Many of these individ(als are not )ell trained and have pro*oted )idespread charlatanis*. +nthe villa"e, )here *ost people kne) one another and )here a(thority )as *ore intact, this )as not soco**on.

8 2$ 8

Many people, seekin" sol(tions to their pro!le*s, fall victi* to the charlatans )ho hide theirinco*petence !ehind a *ask of anony*ity and fakery, clai*in" to !e co*petent in )hatever theirclientele see*s to need. 5his )illin"ness to !roaden the co*petence of the therape(tic foc(s forincreased !(siness, Ma!iala and others call 0ecessive "eneralis*.0 5his, ho)ever, also reflects the

contin(ed adapta!ility of traditional *edicine in the face of a chan"in" variety of pro!le*s, incl(din"the !road and va"(e conditions that *ay lie !ehind specific or"anic sy*pto*s. 5he i*portation of atherape(tic tradition into an (r!an settin" far fro* )here it has !een learned or ori"inated *ay lead, incertain circ(*stances, to a "reater de"ree of a!straction of the principles involved in the selection andco*!ination of *edicines and techni3(es. +f specific plants or *aterials called for in the recipe are notavaila!le in the city, s(!stit(tes *ay !e selected !ased on the dictates of (nderlyin" principles. - final,ne"ative develop*ent Ma!iala sees is the trend of -frican healers to *i*ic estern *edicine. 5hey*ay *odify their practice )ith technical ite*s s(ch as stethoscopes, *icroscopes, syrin"es, and ofco(rse the )hite coat and the 0doctor0 title.

Dn the positive side, Ma!iala notes the pro"ressive detri!alization of therape(tic rites. Clients<

)illin"ness to cons(lt healers of lan"(a"e and c(lt(ral traditions other than their o)n per*its a "reateradapta!ility to (r!an conditions and circ(*stances. 5he echan"es of therape(tic kno)led"e that res(ltfro* healers the*selves receivin" treat*ent in c(lt(ral contets other than their o)n, or !ein" in0isolation0 )ith another tradition<s care, has the effect of spreadin" and enrichin" the kno)led"e !aseavaila!le for all. -t the sa*e ti*e, there tends to !e a reection of those techni3(es that see* irrelevantor o!solete. - very positive develop*ent in -frican therape(tics is the addition, to this therape(tic !ase, of ideas of hy"iene ac3(ired !y readin", fro* *ass *edia, or thro("h *ore foc(sed pro"ra*s !ya"encies pro*otin" p(!lic health. 5he enco(ra"e*ent of healers< or"anizations !y the "overn*ent andthe for*ation of a variety of s(ch "ro(ps has also !een a positive develop*ent, "ivin" "reater visi!ility



to healers and !rin"in" reco"nition !y scientists and health4care a"encies.

Ngoma On The S4ah#'# Coa!

Dne of the fore*ost co**on characteristics of the c(lts of affliction of inshasa and 'ar es alaa* isthat they are rit(als i*ported !y i**i"rants fro* all re"ions of the nation. +n 5anzania these c(lts ofafflic4

8 21 8

tion fro* the coast and the interior are differentiated aro(nd partic(lar the*es and iss(es they are alsoethnically diversified. +n the (r!an settin", their practitioners contin(e the partic(lar e*phasis of theclassic rite. B(t they also are sensitive to the chan"in" epectations (pon healers in the (r!an settin"and *ay shift their e*phasis to ne) iss(es.

'espite the diversity of c(lts fro* across 5anzania and the tendency for the* to !eco*e "eneralized tothe (r!an settin", there is a sense in )hich c(lts of affliction are *ore ho*o"eneo(s in 'ar es alaa*than in inshasa. 5he ter* ngoma is )idely reco"nized as connotin" perfor*ance, dr(**in", dancin",

cele!ration, and rit(al therapy. 5his (nderstandin" of n"o*a *eans that the perfor*ances areindependent of the healin" f(nctions, leadin" to a distinction !et)een n"o*a of entertain*ent and ofhealin" =ngoma za *utibu >.

5he do*inant co**(nity of n"o*a therapies in 'ar is that of the coastal Aara*o and Ai"(a peoples.-n i*portant )ork devoted to the s(!ect !y 7innish ethno"rapher Mara4Fisa )antz =19%9> identifiesthe *aor indi"eno(s n"o*a as (n"(, Mado"oli, illin"e, and (hani. Many other distinctive n"o*arites have !een identified a*on" i**i"rants to 'ar fro* coastal cities and the islands. - il)a healer practices n"o*a Manian"a and M!(n"i. -nother n"o*a cell "ro(p of healers practices Msa"hiro and @<an"a. +n addition to these n"o*a of coastal societies, one also finds n"o*a of inland "ro(ps in 'ar.5he B(C)ezi c(lt of the lake re"ion is fo(nd in the city, as are those of other estern 5anzanian

societies s(ch as the @ya*)ezi, the (k(*a, and even so*e @ilotic "ro(ps s(ch as the Maasai. 5heetensive )ritin" on n"o*a in (k(*a society near Fake ;ictoria *ay !e s(**arized !riefly for itsecellent portrayal of a !ackdrop to so*e of the national activities that occ(r in n"o*a today.

A C'a!!#( P%o"#'e O" Ngoma In S*5*ma'an) 0e!e%n Tanzan#a

5he (k(*a people, st(died etensively !y ans Cory earlier in this cent(ry, offer a rich and ela!oratearray of historic n"o*a co*para!le to that descri!ed a*on" the @de*!( !y ;ictor 5(rner. Cory, an-(strian ethnolo"ist )ho )orked for the British colonial "overn*ent, left !oth etensive p(!lished and(np(!lished archival notes, no) ho(sed in the -frican t(dies Center Fi!rary of the University of 'ares alaa*. 5hese doc(*ents ill(strate varied approaches to classify and (nderstand the n"o*aassociations.

8 22 8

-ccordin" to Cory, so*e n"o*a )ere devoted to ancestor )orship and divination: Uf(*(, on the paternal side U*an"a, on the *aternal side Ul(n"( and F()a*!o specifically !elon"ed to partic(larclans. 5hese n"o*a Cory called 0non4sectarian ch(rches,0 since individ(als co(ld !elon" to several atonce, and they )ere never intolerant of one another. Ma!asa )as oined !y parents of t)ins and )asconcerned )ith the cere*onial cleansin" of t)in children. Dther n"o*a Cory sa) as "(ilds for the



st(dy and practice of partic(lar arts and occ(pations. 5hey for*ed stron", disciplined fraternities,involved in *(t(al assistance and the protection or perpet(ation of professional and technical secretsand o!li"ations. 5hese incl(ded: Uye"e, for !o)4and4arro) h(nters of elephants, )hich had evolvedinto a fraternity and dance society Utand(, a type of "(ild for rifle h(nters of elephants Uyeye andU"oyan"i, for snake handlin" and treatin" of snake !ites Un(n"(li, for porc(pine h(nters Ukonikoni,a "(ild of *edicine *en devoted to )itch findin" and Usa*!o, a thievin" or thief4catchin" society.

U"(*ha =or U"ar(> and U"ika )ere n"o*a societies )itho(t discerni!le f(nction other than perfor*ance in dance co*petitions. alen"e )as a *(t(al aid and dance society into )hich only theleader )as f(lly initiated. Uz)ezi =or B(c)ezi>, )hich had co*e to the (k(*a fro* Us(*!ara, andMi"a!o, )hich had co*e fro* the )ahili coast, had, after !ein" concerned )ith the ancestor )orshipof certain clans, evolved into "eneralized dance societies =Cory 19#&>.

Cory, the colonial ethnolo"ist, tho("ht that the n"o*a orders a*on" the (k(*a had a positive role !eca(se they did not *eddle in politics. +n the a!sence of other (k(*a initiations, they instr(cted theyo(th in respect for elders, provided social solidarity, and instilled fear of the conse3(ences ofne"lected social o!li"ations. 5h(s they contri!(ted to social sta!ility. 5hey also offered o(tlets forartistic and histrionic epression. 5he dance co*petitions he sa) as "enerally positive, altho("h theytook *(ch ti*e a)ay fro* the peoples< )ork in the fields.

Ngoma O" The Lan) Ngoma O" The Coa!

5he partic(laris* of na*in" in the (k(*a n"o*a settin" s(""ests that there is *(ch innovation andadaptation in the overall idio*. +n n"o*a of the 'ar es alaa* )ahili coast, the proliferation oforders arises at least as *(ch fro* specific spirit classes as fro* partic(lar f(nctional specializations.hereas the n"o*a association na*es appear to offer a partic(larized vie) of n"o*a, spirit classesdia"nosed

8 2# 8

to possess afflicted individ(als are "eneralized into t)o or three "ro(ps. -*on" the coastal +sla*ized peoples, spirits are called *asheitani or *aini, !oth -ra!ic4)ahili )ords. 5he distinction !et)een thet)o is not as i*portant, apparently, as that distin"(ishin" spirits of the )ater fro* those of the land,)ith so*e occasionally identified )ith the !each or coast. 5h(s, Msa"hiro is an n"o*a for s(fferers ofchronic and severe headache ca(sed !y a co*!ination of Mar(hani, (!izani, and Mz(ka spirits, allcoastal or !each spirits. ?ach of these classes is s(!divided. 5he (!izani, of )ho* there are ten, are !each or rock spirits so*e are *ale, so*e fe*ale, )ho have to do )ith children, !oth *akin" the* illand helpin" to raise the* to health. @<an"a n"o*a is a *anifestation of ar(n"( spirits of the land,hills, !ao!a! trees, and *o(ntains their *ode of affliction is chronic severe headaches. 7re3(entlyeach spirit type )ill !e 0played0 in an n"o*a rit(al !y a partic(lar type of instr(*ent. @ot s(rprisin"ly,it is the *aor inland spirits that are (s(ally represented !y the classic sin"le *e*!rane n"o*a dr(*s.

?**an(el Mshi( and +. -. J. e*ali of the 5raditional Medicine esearch Unit had arran"ed for *e tosee Botoli Faie, a healer they kne) fro* their s(rveys, to )ork )ith n"o*a. Botoli )as a M(t(*!efro* coastal il)a )ho lived in the Manzese locality of so(th)est 'ar es alaa*, not far fro* the*ain road !(t !ack in the villa"elike area filled )ith ho(ses s(rro(nded !y !anana and pal* trees andl(sh "ardens. Botoli )as ho*e, )ith his t)o )ives and children, and yes, he )o(ld "ladly talk. -ndyes, he did )ork )ith n"o*a: Manian"a and M!(n"i. is ho(se )as lar"e for the area, )ith a raisedco(rtyard s(ita!le for n"o*a perfor*ances and a mazimu ancestor shrine in one corner =see fi". 2>.

Botoli had !eco*e an mganga =healer> in 19K2 and had o!tained the n"o*a di*ension of his )ork



apparently )itho(t sickness havin" dra)n hi* into it. + asked hi* )hether he had s(ffered prior to hisinitiation. 0@o,0 he said, he hadn<t !een sick, !(t he )as called to do n"o*a Manian"a and M!(n"iafter he )as in practice. e resisted it, !(t then )ent ahead any)ay.

Botoli )as a vi"oro(s *an )ho talked in an a(thoritative voice. e )illin"ly ans)ered *y 3(estions,ready to sho) *e the !asic lines of his )ork )ith n"o*a. e )as a f(ll4ti*e healer, esta!lished )ith a)ell4!(ilt ho(se, e(din" a cohesive a*!ience. is children and t)o )ives listened attentively to o(r

conversation.

0@"o*a Manian"a,0 he said, is (sed to deal )ith spirits of the interior of the co(ntry, that is, fro*5a!ora and other re"ions across

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7i"(re 2.Co*po(nd of Botoli Faie in 'ar es alaa* =a> ho(se =!> n"o*a

dr(*s kept here =c> n"o*a perfor*ance area =d> *azi*( ancestralshrine =e> to*! =f> cons(ltation and *edicine roo* ="> strea* lined )ith !anana trees.

5anzania and ?ast -frica. 5hese *asheitani are ten in n(*!er: Mako"ila, -li Faka, -kia*(,-kolokoto, -ki*!(n"a, -*iyaka, -kiten"a, -nanditi, Chipila, and @d)e!e. hen people are affected)ith these *asheitani, they have !odily )eakness, loss of )ei"ht, or "eneral !odily s)ellin" they "etshakin" of the !ody, headache, and loss of appetite. 5hey need then to !e treated, to !e taken thro("hthe co(rse of treat*ent incl(din" specific *ateria *edica fro* the m*obe =*edicine !asket>, as )ell asdancin".

7or his )ork )ith n"o*a Manian"a, Botoli (ses a si*ple cost(*e consistin" of a red !lo(se and

*atchin" skirt, )ith desi"ns se)n on the !lo(se =see plate %>. is paraphernalia incl(de a s*all n"o*adr(* =musondo , also (sed in p(!erty rites> so*eti*es a s*aller do(!le *e*!rane dr(*, and a!o(t tensets of "o(rd shakers. 5here )ere also sets of cloths in red, !lack, and other colors, associated )ithvario(s spirits. 5he strin"s Botoli )ore aro(nd his sho(lders had red, )hite, and !lack !a"s se)n ontothe*, )hich sy*!olically artic(lated cos*olo"ical oppositions s(ch as the do*estic vers(s the )ildand land vers(s )ater. ?ach of his n"o*a incl(ded a *edicine !asket =m*obe >, in )hich he

8 2K 8

kept a collection of a dozen or so s*all ars and tins of *edicines specific to the n"o*a. =5his set ofrit(al ite*s is stron"ly re*iniscent of the n*obe of )estern on"o.>

@"o*a M!(n"i has *(ch the sa*e paraphernalia: dr(*s, shakers, and m*obe . 5he five n"o*a dr(*sof M!(n"i represent five (p4co(ntry *asheitani: Mchola, Mati*!(na, M!on"oloni, Chenel(, andi*!an"al("o*i, each of )hich is ro(sed and *anip(lated !y its o)n dr(*. 5he instr(*entation alsoincl(des t)o )ooden do(!le "on"s, )hich Botoli de*onstrated. 5he rese*!lance !et)een this n"o*akit and those of the o(thern avanna4to4on"o re"ion is strikin" and raises 3(estions a!o(t theirco**on history. 7(rther research is needed to esta!lish the approi*ate historical connection in thespread of these rit(als across the *id4continent. ere they prod(cts of the coast =il)a>45a!ora4i"o*a trade ro(te in the nineteenth cent(ry and earlierI Dr )ere they the prod(ct of an even earlier



co**on fra*e)orkI

Botoli said he )orks )ith five to seven other 'aganga =healers> in the n"o*a rites )hen the perfor*ance is at his ho(se and he is the leader else)here the host for that event is the leader. enoted that he has had *any novices and )as still in to(ch )ith the* thro("h n"o*a events, altho("hhe co(ld not "ive their precise n(*!er.

-ltho("h Botoli o)ns the instr(*ents that are part of the paraphernalia of each n"o*a of )hich he ishealer, he is not the epert dr(**er in the rites. 7or *aor rites he hires dr(**ers )ho are noted fortheir skill they need not !e novices or patients. 5he perfor*ers )ho do therape(tic n"o*a are th(s thesa*e as those doin" sec(lar n"o*a, or n"o*a for circ(*cision, or any other festival or cere*ony. +t isthe contet and content of the son"s, then, that identifies n"o*a as therape(tic.

Ngoma 3#!+en!a%#e! Fee6Fo%6Se%$#(e R#*a'

7(rther insi"ht into the or"anization of n"o*a in 'ar es alaa* )as afforded !y a visit in 5e*eke'istrict of 'ar es alaa* )ith the assan !rothers, )ho are pro*inent in the hirika la Mada)a yaiasili, a coastal or"anization of healers. + )as acco*panied !y ?. . Makala of the Ministry ofC(lt(re, )hose *(sic and dance section not only sponsors n"o*a dance co*petitions aro(nd the

co(ntry !(t also is cond(ctin" research on the son"4dance aspects of therape(tic n"o*a.

Mzee D*ari assan<s ho(se is also his clinic. 5he *ain hall and sev4

8 2 8

eral side roo*s and the !ack co(rt )ere loosely filled )ith sick people and D*ari<s fa*ily. +n thisfa*ily all three )ives helped care for the sick, as )ell as the t)o sons. 5he )ives )ere introd(ced atone point, then disappeared the sons )ere allo)ed to participate in the talks and even asked 3(estionslater. D*ari<s !rother +sa, )ho is also a healer, ca*e !y at one point to say hello.

5his partic(lar tradition had !een trans*itted fro* one "eneration to the net in the patriline for a lon"ti*e, )ell !efore the ti*e fo(r "enerations a"o )hen the fa*ily had converted to +sla*. D*ari andfa*ily are of the azi"(a tri!e, of the Ba"a*oyo 'istrict. e had *oved to 'ar in the 19L$s.

D*ari assan spoke of the )ay he had learned the teachin"s of healin" fro* his father. is father, likehi*self, had involved his children in the )ork. 5he children )o(ld "o alon" )ith hi* to search for*edicines in the forest, and he )o(ld eplain details to the*. i*ilarly, D*ari involved his fa*ily thechildren play the n"o*a dr(*s in the rites.

-s in the case of Botoli, D*ari<s n"o*a techni3(es had !een picked (p as part of his occ(pation, ratherthan in connection )ith an ordeal of sickness and possession. e specifically denied havin" !een sick)ith the diseases that )ere treated thro("h the n"o*a he kne). -ll si had !een learned fro* hisfather, and )ere very old: Msa"hiro, for persons s(fferin" chronic headache, if no other c(re isforthco*in" =s*all dr(*s rese*!lin" to(rist dr(*s are (sed> Mado"oli, for treatin" *entaldist(r!ances in persons )ith a hi"h state of a"itation @<"an"a =or @<an"a> for incessant, severe,*i"rainelike headaches Manian"a, for persons )ith n(*! or paralyzed li*!s, especially on one side ofthe !ody =shakers are the instr(*ent here> Fichindika, for lo)er4!ack pains, )hen persistent andinya*(kera, for those s(fferin" fro* an affliction )hose si"ns incl(de partial loss of eyesi"ht andt)isted *o(th or face. hen asked ho) *any n"o*a he had perfor*ed the previo(s )eek, D*ariindicated that it had !een a!o(t fifteen, that is, several per day. 5his occ(rred in the contet of (p tofifty patients per day fre3(entin" his clinic.



5his pict(re of n"o*a differed fro* the one + had enco(ntered earlier. ather than a s(fferer4novice !ein" initiated to a cell or net)ork, this style of treat*ent rese*!led a clinic )ith a doctor and *any p(!lic clients. as this the res(lt of (r!an co*ple society, or of professionalization, in )hich therit(als are taken over !y a specialist and dispensed to patientsI

8 2% 8D*ari treats a variety of cases )ith her!s and *ineral *edicines. hen asked )hat his *ost fre3(entcases are, he *entioned cancer, dia!etes, asth*a, "onorrhea, he*orrhoids, headaches, !ackaches,*ental dist(r!ances6in other )ords, he tries his hand at a!o(t anythin". Makala told of ho) D*ariassan had treated a !oy )ith a distended eye!all, after this child had !een to the tate ospital atM(hi*!ili and they co(ld not do anythin" for hi*. - pict(re taken !y 'r. ?**an(el Mshi( had !eenin the ne)spaper )ith a )rite4(p of traditional *edicine as a reso(rce. 5he eye had !een p(t !ack, orhad retreated !ack into its socket, follo)in" D*ari<s treat*ent. hen asked )hat cases he )o(ld referto hospitals, he said, 0ordinary sickness0 !(t not sheitani =spirit> sicknesses.

+ tried to deter*ine ho) D*ari related his )ork as *"an"a n"o*a to +sla*. e had st(died in oranicschool, as had so*e of his sons. hen asked )hich order he !elon"ed to, he said 0M(ha**adiyya,0(n)illin" to co**it hi*self on )hether he )as (nni, hi<ia, or (fi. hen asked a!o(t thoseM(sli*s )ho !elieve their +sla*ic !elief )ill not per*it the* to practice n"o*a rit(als, he said that)as an indication of their not !ein" )ell trained. 5hey do not kno) a!o(t n"o*a. - co*petent M(sli*doctor has to (se n"o*a, if one is confronted )ith sheitani 4ca(sed illnesses. @"o*a, he said, helps the patients to epress their anieties and to perceive treat*ent *ethods fro* the sheitani as they speakthro("h the s(fferers.

D*ari<s "(idance for his therape(tic )ork ca*e fro* another so(rce, an -ra!ic tet. e sho)ed *e athick !ook, 0fro* ?"ypt,0 )itho(t title or a(thor =it had !een re!o(nd and started on pa"e 1K>. e alsokept note!ooks in )hich he recorded so*e of his o)n techni3(es and interpreted the* for his sons. esaid that he had not added to the very old n"o*a his father had ta("ht hi*, !(t that he had i*proved on

so*e of the *ethods. e also sho)ed *e note!ooks =)ahili in -ra!ic script> in )hich he copied andinterpreted *edical practices fro* the !ook, as )ell as his findin"s a!o(t plants and n"o*a techni3(es.5his "ave evidence of the active codification of -frican her!al and rit(al therapy in interpretative)ritin", alon"side )hatever version of +sla*ic *edicine this !ook offered.

D*ari<s involve*ent in the Dr"anization of 5raditional Medicine, hirika la Mada)a ya iasili, *eantthat he co(ld practice in an a(thorized n"o*a dispensary. 5he or"anization, )ith !ranches in 'ar,Ba"a*oyo, and Moro"oro, (tilized these dispensaries for their *eetin"s and their therape(tic sessions.D*ari sho)ed *e a file of corre4

8 2& 8

spondence )ith the "overn*ent, dealin" )ith the hirika<s or"anization and )ith "overn*enta(thorization. Dne letter a(thorized hi* to practice on condition his place !e checked ann(ally !yso*eone fro* the Ministry of ealth.

'(rin" another visit + )as )itness to perfor*ances of n"o*a Msa"hiro and @<an"a. e received thesa*e )elco*e as !efore little children ca*e to *eet (s and took o(r !a"s fro* (s for the last part ofthe )alk. e a"ain received Pepsis. D*ari ca*e in and )elco*ed (s, altho("h he dashed off a"ain to*ake preparations for Msa"hiro and @<an"a. e sat for a ti*e, and Makala of the *(sic section of theMinistry of C(lt(re chatted )ith an Ms(k(*a fello) and )ith another *an, dressed in a s(it and dark



"lasses, )ho said he represented the political party in po)er. -nother individ(al )as a patient, and asecond said he, too, )as a patient, !(t he also t(rned o(t to !e involved in a healers< or"anization )iththe assan !rothers.

Presently )e )ere (shered several ho(ses a)ay )here a!o(t t)enty4five to thirty *en and )o*en and*any children )ere seated or stood aro(nd the open co(rtyard that led to the roofed and partiallyenclosed n"o*a dispensary. Dne part of this area )as a dance or perfor*ance area. Beyond this,

accessi!le !y a door fro* the perfor*ance area, )as a *edicine roo* on )hose door )as posted thedoctor<s hand4painted shin"le =see fi". #>.

hen Makala and + entered the co(rtyard )e shook hands )ith nearly everyone, a*idst *(ch ecited p(shin" and positionin". 5hen they !e"an Msa"hiro, an n"o*a for s(fferers of chronic and severeheadache ca(sed !y a co*!ination of Mar(hani, (!iyani, and Mzika spirits, all coastal or !each sheitani . 5he (!iyani, of )ho* there are ten, are 0!each0 or 0rock0 spirits. 5hey are *ale and fe*ale,and have to do )ith children, !oth )ith *akin" the* ill and helpin" to raise the* to health. +f a *alespirit appears, the healer treats the ri"ht side of the !ody if fe*ale, the left side.

5he fe*ale patient of this session )as told to sit on a s*all stool, !efore )hich )ere placed three s*all"o(rd *edicine containers covered )ith strands of red, )hite, !l(e, and yello) !eads. D*ari<s !rother

+sa took one of these and spread the *edicine, )ith a for* of s)a! or t(!e, atop her head, and atseveral sy**etrical points on her face, and do)n her li*!s, and on front and !ack, th(s 0o(tlinin"0 her person. -s the sin"in" contin(ed, )ith five s*all do(!le *e*!rane dr(*s and a rattle, the *en and)o*en danced and san" in p(lsatin" *ove*ent to)ard and a)ay fro* the patient =see fi". #>. 5hen +sa !ro("ht o(t a

8 29 8

7i"(re #. @"o*a dispensary in 'ar es alaa*, as (sed !y +sa and D*ariassan of the healers< or"anization hirika la Mada)a =a> street entrance=!> open co(rtyard =c> ho(sehold roo*s =d> roofed n"o*a perfor*ancesta"e =e> *edicine roo*. ta"e sho)s locations of perfor*ers in session)itnessed !y a(thor and descri!ed in tet.

!i" antelope4horn container, and circled it aro(nd the patient several ti*es co(nterclock)ise =lookin"do)n>.

7ollo)in" Msa"hiro, they anno(nced they )o(ld do a traditional "reetin" of the visitor, first one ofthe* !ein" the s(!ect of attention, to sho) ho) it )ent, then it )o(ld !e *e. 5he "reetin" pattern,si*ilar to the therape(tic rit(al, )as that all ad(lts present )o(ld dance4sh(ffle to)ard *e, first a ro)of *en, then )o*en, and thr(st the*selves close to *e, then !ack off in the sa*e sh(ffle. -fter an(*!er of these "ro(p advances, each one in the ro) shook *y hand three ti*es. +t *ade *e feel + had !eco*e the event<s center, that they )ere affir*in" *e. + felt stren"thened and foc(sed !y theirattention. (rely there )as iconic po)er in the healin" dances aro(nd a s(fferer, altho("h it )asdiffic(lt to analyze the co*ponents or even the so(rce of this po)er.

5hen ca*e the @<"an"a =prono(nced 0n<an"a0> dance, a"ain for chronic severe headache, a*anifestation of ar(n"( sheitani , spirits



8 #$ 8

of the land, hills, !ao!a! trees, and the *o(ntains. 5he instr(*entation )as li*ited to shakers thisti*e. in"in" )as led !y +sa, in a call4and4response *anner. 5he patient )as the foc(s of the dance.5he short 0fee for service0 dance )as a hi"hly eliptical version of n"o*a co*pared to )hat + had seenin o(thern -frica, or in the historic estern ?3(atorial -frican ea*ples. +t )as closest in co*parisonto one n"o*a (nit + o!served in the estern Cape =see chapter L>. 5he patient did not enter trance,

altho("h this had pro!a!ly !een done previo(sly.

?vidently each of the n"o*a sessions follo)s a divination that identifies the spirit (tterance and thatthen leads into the therape(tic response. M. F. )antz speaks of the healin" rite in the coastal n"o*a as0eorcis*.0 5his *ay )ell fit the sit(ation in )hich there is no initiatory follo)4thro("h. 5his *ay !erelated to the very lo) rate of persons treated =eorcised> "oin" on to !e trained as )a"an"a, )hich,accordin" to +sa assan, is only three to fo(r per h(ndred, a rate confir*ed !y Floyd )antz =19%L>.5he i*plications of this pattern for professional control of the reso(rce, as )ell as of the *odel oftherapy, are taken (p a"ain in chapter .

Ngoma An) I!'am

@ot far a)ay in Manzese4)adon"o lives *"an"a Maha*o(d in"iri4n"iri, a (fi M(sli* of theMat(*!e people fro* il)a. Unlike *"an"a Botoli, descri!ed earlier in this chapter, Maha*o(d)orks )ith &itabu =the !ook>, magi =)ater>, and nzizi =roots>, and )ith (hani and Maini spirits of thesea. Unlike *"an"a D*ari assan, )ho is M(sli* and (ses n"o*a, as does non4M(sli* Botoli,Maha*o(d does not (se or relate to n"o*a, on "ro(nds of his adherence to (fis*. 5he *atrices ofBant(4-frican and M(sli* c(lt(re, and the (se and non(se of n"o*a !y )a"an"a, are clearlyill(strated !y these three healers.

Maha*o(d has a )ell4!(ilt ho(se near a strea*, )ith !anana and pal* trees s(rro(ndin" it. 5he t)o4story ho(se contains his st(dy, )here he has his !ooks it also feat(res a cons(ltation !ench, a place of prayer, a p(rification4!athin" roo*, and an o(tdoor treatin" area.

hen + visited hi* )ith a "(ide fro* the 5raditional Medicine esearch Unit, several of his fo(r )ives)ere seated in the hall)ay, )ith children on their laps. Maha*o(d has had fifteen children, t)elve of)ho* s(rvive. e i*pressed *e as an a*!itio(s, intelli"ent, reli"io(s *an, )ho took his )orkserio(sly and cared for his fa*ily. hen asked )hether he had !een to Mecca on a pil"ri*a"e, he saidno, he co(ld

8 #1 8

not leave his )ives and children that lon", they needed hi* any)ay, he did not have the *oney.

ith his several interrelated treat*ents, Maha*o(d )orks )ith afflictions as diverse as polio =for

)hich he has a co*po(nd of t)enty4one *edicines, to !e taken )ith )ater over three days>, ecessiveor irre"(lar *enstr(ation =+ o!served hi* treatin" one s(ch patient he read to her fro* a !ook>,conv(lsive fevers, diarrhea and vo*itin", and the preparation of aphrodisiacs for the i*potent. e also)orks )ith Maini =of )hich seven are "ood and help treat, and five are !ad and !rin" disease>, andMar(hani =all seven of )hich are "ood and help treat>. 5hese spirits all stay in the ocean, !(t they co*eo(t or are fo(nd in other places the Mar(hani at clean places, the Maini at dirty places like latrines.hen he treats, he !e"ins )ith the na*e and other aspects of the life of the patient !ased on the !irthdate. 7ollo)in" a readin" of his -ra!ic ="eo*ancyI> tets, he "oes to sacred places, starts to pray, andthe spirits co*e for)ard, tellin" hi* )hat to do )ith the patient.



rep(ta!le activity. +t )as preceded !y a panto*i*e of t)o h(nters stalkin" "a*e, shootin", c(ttin" (pthe *eat, findin" honey. 5hen they )ere oined !y tro(pes of *en and )o*en )ith !o)s and arro)sand !askets.

-fter an interl(de of acro!atics, the "ro(p perfor*ed n"o*a indi*!a fro* the Makonde re"ion ofcoastal 5anzania and Moza*!i3(e. indi*!a is done )hen the yo(th ret(rn fro* initiation ca*ps,havin" "rad(ated into ad(lthood. +t is a lively dance )ith se(ally s(""estive *ove*ent.

5his )as follo)ed !y Chit(*!o, Fin")ele, and @"on"oti *asked stilt dancin". 5hen ca*eB("o!o"o!o, a 0social realis*0 n"o*a in )hich the dancers (sed hoes and !askets, shields and "(ns,as props. +t )as a ri"idly choreo"raphed depiction of )ork )ith these tools that took the n"o*a )ork4son" idio* and applied it to national conscio(sness. ?veryone *(st take (p ar*s and !e vi"ilant, (stas far*ers )ork to"ether )ith hoes. 5he u+amaa cooperative spirit that has al)ays !een evident in prod(ctive )ork is pointedly applied in this dance. 5he !i" n"o*a dr(* (sed here is an ori"inalinstr(*ent (sed as pacer in co**(nal far*in" a*on" the (k(*a, even today.

7inally, at the close, ca*e the snake4handlin" dance, M(n"ano, after )hich the tro(pe had !een na*ed.+t )as preceded !y skillf(l acro!atics !y *e*!ers of the 'irectorate of C(lt(re. -s the dr(*s !eat theirspecial M(n"ano rhyth*, a lar"e chest )as opened in the p(!lic circle. 5)o pythons )ere taken o(t !y

the dancers and released to slither aro(nd and fri"hten the cro)d. ;ol(nteers )ere so("ht to letthe*selves !e !itten !y the snakes. - *an and a !oy ca*e for)ard, and )hen the lethar"ic pythonfinally did strike the !oy in the !(ttocks, the

8 #K 8

cro)d roared. Chen"a, the director, told *e later that these snakes are very ta*e and have short teeth,and are not, of co(rse, poisono(s. 5he principle !ein" de*onstrated )as, ho)ever, a very serio(s one.+n )estern 5anzania, )here there are poisono(s vipers, this eercise is intended to ed(cate the p(!lica!o(t snakes, and to teach the* not to fear snakes. ithin M(n"ano, *e*!ers of the n"o*a havekno)led"e of antidotes and are the*selves i**(nized )ith the veno*s they allo) the*selves to !e

!itten d(rin" the perfor*ances.

5he 0folklorization0 of n"o*a, as seen here, reflects the process of !rin"in" to"ether ethnically andre"ionally diverse dances that are perfor*ed in a rather different contet than ori"inally intended. 5his process is to so*e etent "(ided !y the "overn*ental (nits. Co*petitions are or"anized, (st as inearlier ti*es son"4dance is so*eti*es (tilized, as in the B("o!o"o!o, for nationalistic e*phasis. o*eof these sa*e dances )ere perfor*ed !y Bara"(*a6act(ally the teachin" staff of a secondary school 6at the ni"ht cl(!, )here the a(dience had paid at the door to see the sho). 5herape(tic n"o*a areth(s, in 'ar es alaa*, a s*all part of all n"o*a, !(t a very central and for*ative part.

Sangoma8 3#$#n#ng The S%e!!e! O" Ra+#) In)*!%#a'#za#on In No%h Ng*n# So(#e&

7ar to the so(th, the 'rakens!er" ran"e divides the interior platea(s fro* the coastal flatlands, in )hatis no) o(th -frica, )aziland, and Fesotho. 5he *o(ntains also separate t)o *aor c(lt(ral historical"ro(pin"s: the @"(ni4speakers of the )etter, *ore tropical settin" the otho45s)ana on the drier,hi"hland interior. Maor socioc(lt(ral distinctions separate these "ro(pin"s in a )ay that infl(ences o(rs(!ect. 5he @"(ni4speakers, thro("h the ei"hteenth cent(ry, lived in decentralized s*all ho*esteadsettle*ents of c(ltivators )ho also kept livestock. 5heir social and political or"anization )as linea"e4 !ased. 5he otho45s)ana, !y contrast, had lar"er to)n settle*ents, )ith stron" centralized chiefdo*s.5heir cattle re*ained at o(tposts in the and re"ions to the )est their fields )ere arran"ed aro(nd theto)ns and c(ltivated seasonally. ocial life and *ost p(!lic affairs )ere cond(cted in the to)ns,



partic(larly in the chief<s co(rt, the *gotla .

-t the !e"innin" of the nineteenth cent(ry social and political (p4heavals6kno)n as the Mfecane6 a*on" the @"(ni "ave rise to the centralized states of the A(l(, )azi, @de!ele, and Pedi, and those of

8 # 8

the diaspora "ro(ps to the north in Ai*!a!)e, Aa*!ia, Mala)i, and 5anzania. 5hese states )ere not sodeep4rooted as to offer the sta!le, co(rtlike contet and type of p(!lic life that had evolved "rad(allya*on" the otho45s)ana. 5herefore, a*on" the @"(ni, n"o*a as it is !ein" st(died in this !ook )asthe *aor )ay of dealin" )ith adversity, *isfort(ne, and sickness. +t is lar"ely a*on" the @"(ni4speakin" societies of so(thern -frica that this story *ay !e fo(nd.

o)ever, the settin" of n"o*a in o(thern -frica re3(ires f(ller contet(alization than si*ply acontrastin" of @"(ni )ith otho45s)ana. 5he Mfecane )as follo)ed shortly !y the inc(rsion of-frikaaner )a"on trains into )hat is no) the Dran"e 7ree tate and the 5ransvaal. 5he societies thathad ne)ly for*ed as states )ere en"a"ed in !attle and defeated their pro(d citizens )ere red(ced toservants of the -frikaaners on their o)n lands. 5his )as follo)ed, late in the nineteenth cent(ry, !y the

discovery of "old and dia*onds and the e*er"ence of the *aor la!or *i"ration pattern that en"(lfedthe entire s(!continent. -fricans, deprived of their land, needed to )ork in the *ines and far*s of the)hite *an to *ake a livin".

5h(s the story of n"o*a in o(thern -frica also needs to !e sit(ated in the contet of a divided society,of !roken ho*es, of la!or ca*ps and *ines, and in the t)entieth cent(ry, of the (r!an settle*ents andthe to)nships. 7or these reasons the t)o @"(ni4related sites that ca*e to !e of partic(lar interest in thiss(rvey )ere the Manzini4M!a!ane corridor in )aziland, an ind(strializin", (r!anizin" settin" in anindependent co(ntry, and the to)nships s(rro(ndin" Cape 5o)n, )here the vario(s c(lt(ral threads ofo(th -frican society co*e to"ether in the contet of apartheid r(le. 5hese t)o settin"s allo) forco*parison !et)een several contrastin" sit(ations, !oth across the *iddle of the continent and in there"ion of o(thern -frica.

@"o*a in o(thern -frica is far *ore (nitary in its instit(tional or"anization than )hat )e have seen ininshasa and 'ar es alaa*. +t is not or"anized into several dozen f(nctionally specific n"o*a ordersas a*on" the @de*!( or the (k(*a. @or is it as fre3(ently, nor as etensively, (sed forentertain*ent. 5he (nitary str(ct(re of n"o*a in o(thern -frica co*!ines !oth divination andtherape(tic net)ork !(ildin".

5he M!a!ane4Manzini and Cape 5o)n co*parison per*its (s to see contrasts !et)een a settin"o(tside o(th -frica and one inside o(th -frica6)ithin the fra*e)ork of a sin"le c(lt(ral4lin"(istic"ro(pin",

8 #% 8

the @"(ni4speakin" societies: han"ani, 5hon"a, @de!ele, )azi, A(l(, Hhosa, and Pedi. Dne of the*ost startlin" contrasts in n"o*a epression across this re"ion is the shift, fro* so(th to north, ofincreasin"ly ela!orate techni3(e and de*onstrative trance in divinin"4healin". -*on" the Hhosa,(ndra*atic *editative and co(nselin" techni3(es are (sed !et)een healers and their clients. 5he spirits)ho are called on are (s(ally ancestors, or va"(e evil or nat(re spirits. -*on" A(l( diviners,*echanistic !one4thro)in" techni3(es prevail. 5he )azi, ho)ever, altho("h the sa*e holds tr(e for a part of their )ork, have reco(rse re"(larly to far *ore de*onstrative possession trance !ehavior as theyare visited !y a series of increasin"ly po)erf(l and distant nat(re and alien spirits. 5he reasons for this



*arked contrast in n"o*a )ithin a sin"le c(lt(ral4lin"(istic re"ion )ill !e addressed later in thischapter after the introd(ction of ethno"raphic *aterial.

A S4az# Co''ege Fo% 3#$#ne%67ea'e%!

My *aor epos(re to n"o*a activities and instit(tions in the @orth @"(ni settin" ca*e thro("hseveral etended visits to the n"o*a trainin" colle"e and clinic of +da Ma!(za of Betani, *id)ay !et)een the ind(strial center of Manzini and the capital of M!a!ane.

+da Ma!(za had trained in the 5shopo area of Moza*!i3(e. he enoyed royal patrona"e fro* in"o!h(za ++ to follo) thro("h on her therape(tic initiation. hen she eperienced *'etf'asa , the callfro* the ancestors to enter a life of n"o*a, she )as ill for five years !efore !e"innin" her trainin",s(fferin" fro* !ack pains and diffic(lty in )alkin", as )ell as other serio(s pro!le*s that incl(dedvo*itin" !lood. -s her illness pro"ressed, she !eca*e solitary, hostile, and )ithdra)n. he had *anydrea*s of people )ith san"o*a4type hairdos. er condition )orsened, leadin" event(ally to dayti*evisions, so that others and she herself feared she )o(ld !eco*e totally *ad. hen her condition !eca*e (n!eara!le, her h(s!and took necessary steps for her to !e healed. -s she !e"an to train, thespirit literally 0ca*e o(t0 in her dancin" a son" )as "iven to her !y the spirit. er fa*ily and healer

realized she )as possessed !y a 5hon"a spirit indeed the spirit had anno(nced itself. +n d(e co(rse she,a )azi, !eca*e the channel of 5hon"a, A(l(, and han"ani spirits. 5hese spirits drive yo( a!o(t, shesaid, they possess = femba > yo(, speak thro("h yo(, partic(larly the Manza)e spirits. 5he Ben"(nispirits are the *ain ones !ehind the div4

8 #& 8

ination )ith !ones they are *ainly A(l( =victi*s of )azi )ars>, altho("h so*e are 5hon"a. Dthers"ive insi"ht as )ell, incl(din" 5hon"a and han"ani spirits.

5he *ain points here see* to !e that these shades that aid in divinin" and heatin" are alien @"(ni

ancestors, and that they speak directly thro("h the *edicines and diviners. 5his is in contrast to *ostA(l( =and other> tan"o*a, )ho )ork )ith or in po)er of their o)n shades, and see*in"ly the Hhosa,)ho )ork si*ilarly. arriet i!isi, )ho )as )ith *e and interpreted the intervie), pointed o(t thatA(l( tan"o*a )o(ld try to "et rid of an alien spirit and try to !rin" in a person<s o)n shade to inspiredivination )ork. 5hey )o(ld not )ork ecl(sively )ith alien spirits.

5he contrasts !et)een A(l( tan"o*a and Ma!(za<s approach see*ed s(fficiently prono(nced that)hen + asked a!o(t the *eanin"s of the ter* ngoma she noted that, altho("h they accept theappellation san"o*a, technically they call the*selves ta*oza *edi(*s, distin"(isha!le !y their redochred and oiled dreadlocks, )hereas tan"o*a )ear their hair !lack )ith !eads )oven in the*.-ccordin" to Ma!(za, the takoza have spirits speak directly thro("h the*, )hereas the tan"o*a listento spirits =or so*eti*es their ancestors or deceased "randparents> and (se their o)n (d"*ent. 5h(s the

difference is in *ethodolo"y. 5he takoza<s spirit sees ri"ht into the ca(se of illness for ea*ple, one*ay !e li*pin" today, !(t the ca(se is an ancient childhood in(ry. 5an"o*a are *ore skilled atreadin" the present, or they tend to restrict their )ork to present4day iss(es. 5he takoza, !eca(se theyare *edi(*s, "et *(ch *ore ecited, said Ma!(za, )ho sat there !efore (s )ith "reat co*pos(re,lookin" very professorial thro("h her "lasses. 5he takoza co*!ine *edi(*ship =u*ufemba > )ith !one4thro)in", or inspire their !one4thro)in" )ith *edi(*ship fro* spirits directly. 5he tan"o*a learndivination fro* other tan"o*a. 5he tan"o*a fi"(re o(t the pro!le* and refer *ore readily to othertypes of practitioners.

Dne of Ma!(za<s t)enty apprentices eplained her o)n trainin" and her introd(ction to the hierarchy of



spirits. @ovices learn *any son"s, !oth those ta("ht !y their teacher Ma!(za, as )ell as their o)n,)hich they receive in visions and drea*s fro* the amadloti =ancestor shades>, the Manza)e spirits,and the Ben"(ni 0victi*s0 of )ars, killed !y one<s paternal fore!ears. 5hese several spirit or shadecate"ories )ere represented !y the !ead strin"s across the novices< sho(lders =see fi". L>. hite !eadsrepresented the Ben"(ni a(tochthono(s victi*s the red, the -*anza)e =nat(re spirits> the *(d4colored, the amadloti =lineal

8 #9 8

7i"(re L.Body and neck strin"s as (sed in n"o*a to represent cate"ories of spirits. 5his ea*ple is fro* )azi takoza *edi(*s: =a> a*adloti =linealancestor shades>, *(d4colored !eads =!> -*anza)e =nat(re spirits>, red !eads =c> a(tochthono(s Ben"(ni victi*s of )azi )ars, )hite !eads=d> 5inz(nz( victi*s of dro)nin", )hite !eads.

ancestor shades> another )hite strin", 5inz(nz( =victi*s of dro)nin">. he had other necklaces and !eads that had !een donned at points in her trainin". 5he f(ller !ead !racelets and anklets indicated herco*pletion of trainin".

5eachin" and practice in this tradition, )hich co*!ined the san"o*a and takoza, appeared to consist ofthe t)o standard co*ponents, divinin" and sin"in" rit(als. 5he for*er *ainly consisted of 0thro)in" !ones0 = $engula >, the latter the sin"in"4prono(ncin" of the affliction or anno(nce*ent of spirits=u*ufemba > in )hich dr(*s )ere (sed. Ma Ma!(za had t)elve tigomene dr(*s for these u*ufemba sessions =see plate >, altho("h not all )ere (sed at any one ti*e. 5he dr(*s, *ade of co)hide*e*!ranes on oil !arrels, )ere h("e and sonoro(s, recallin" the sacred royal dr(*s of the north otho,;enda, and F(vedo, or the

8 L$ 8

F(vedo tigomene initiation dr(*s. +da Ma!(za<s o)n patron spirit )as a *ale iloti , )hich )as )hy)henever a re3(est )as *ade, the apprentice )ho )as o(r "(ide had to "o ask 0hi*0 =thro("h Ma*aMa!(za> for per*ission.

Ma!(za, )hen asked a!o(t the prevalence of types of cases !ro("ht to her, noted that daily she hasa!o(t ten clients. ?ven tho("h she does not keep records, she noted the follo)in" types of iss(es !ro("ht to her in order of fre3(ency. 5here are !oth 0-frican0 and 0non4-frican0 pro!le*s. he has !oth -frican and )hite clients. 5he *ost co**on -frican pro!le* is va"(e pains and anieties,

eplained !y umbelelo or mego , har* or sorcery res(ltin" fro* interpersonal tensions. 5he net *ost prevalent illness is ama*ubalo , res(ltin" fro* !roken social or *oral precepts, s(ch as illicit se )ith a protected *arried )o*an. 5he first type of pro!le* !rin"s !oth *en and )o*en, the second *ostly*en. 7(rther, there are *any yo(n" people )ho co*e to her )ishin" to learn of their fates, seekin""ood fort(ne in o! applications, ea*s, and love.

hites< *ain concern, she said, is fear of poverty6that is, their ina!ility to hold on to their *oney and property. 5hey also co*e for help in pro*otions and other )ork4related *atters. 5hey co*e )ithillnesses not properly dia"nosed in the hospital or not effectively treated, s(ch as especially hi"h !lood press(re, )hose root ca(se fre3(ently can !e traced to tensions or conflicts )ith do*estic )orkers or



s(!ordinates )ho, they fear, have retaliated a"ainst the*.

Ma!(za told (s of a case she had recently done that ill(strates her approach. - )hite )o*an ca*e in,acco*panyin" so*eone else. Ma!(za divined for her that she )as involved in a str(""le )ith herfa*ily. 5he )o*an did not !elieve it. 5)o )eeks later she ret(rned, ackno)led"in" that, indeed, intheir p(rchase of a far*, pay*ents had !een e*!ezzled !y another fa*ily *e*!er, and they had !eendo(!ly char"ed.

Dne day as )e arrived )e sa) another car parked !elo) the co*po(nd. +t !elon"ed to a )ell4dressed)azi co(ple )ho had (st e*er"ed fro* one of the divination roo*s and a cons(ltation )ith Ma!(zaor an apprentice. Fater, as )e )ere )aitin" on a *at o(tside the roo*s, another car drove (p )ith a"rand*otherly )azi )o*an at the )heel. he had co*e for a cons(ltation, either for herself oranother fa*ily *e*!er. he )aited on a *at !eside (s )hile one of the staff prepared to see her.Clients )ho do not have their o)n vehicles, or )ho cannot

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)alk or take p(!lic transportation, *ay call Betani !y phone and !e picked (p in one of the center<s

vehicles. ince Betani is *id)ay !et)een the ind(strial center of Manzini and the capital, M!a!ane,and not far fro* the royal )azi capital, Ma!(za<s )ork is tied into the vi!rant p(lses at the center of)azi society.

5he narro) line !et)een conventional clients and those )ho event(ally !eco*e apprentices isartic(lated !y the etiolo"ical cate"ory *'etf'asa , to !e called !y a spirit to enter the life of thesan"o*a. -ltho("h she co**only dia"noses cases to !e of this type, it is an article of e*phasis inn"o*a circles that the *aster4novice relationship *(st !e entered vol(ntarily. 5he diviner4healer )ho*akes the dia"nosis is not necessarily the one )ith )ho* yo( apprentice. Clients are 3(ite free to "oelse)here, )ith )ho*ever they feel co*forta!le. 5hose )ho do co*e to Ma!(za stay in residence fiveto si years for the first fo(r they are co(nseled and participate in the sessions. 5hen they !eco*einvolved in intensive trainin". '(rin" this ti*e she dele"ates responsi!ility in pen"(la !one4thro)in"

divination and in the femba *edi(*ship. -nyone )ho is availa!le "ets an opport(nity to learn thro("h practice. +f one<s spirit cannot read a case, another helps o(t or takes over.

5he novices *(st !e se(ally a!stinent thro("ho(t their stay )ith her. 5hey do not shake hands )ithothers they are rit(ally apart. Ma!(za )as s(rprised at the pict(res of the Cape 5o)n novices )ho held)a"e4la!or o!s, )onderin" ho) apprentices co(ld !e part4ti*e or inter*ittently in isolation.

5he presence of clients )ho stay in residence overni"ht or for lon"er periods =in addition to )ho*there are (p to t)enty apprentice diviner4heaters> s(""ests that Ma!(za<s esta!lish*ent at Betani isvery *(ch an instit(tion, )ith any)here fro* thirty to fifty people 0in residence0 at a "iven ti*e. 5heinstit(tional di*ension of n"o*a at this place )as apparent to (s one day )hen, drivin" (p the steeproad to Betani, )e ca*e (pon t)o yo(n" apprentices )orkin" to "et the 'ats(n tr(ck, heavily laden

)ith "roceries for the colle"e, (p the hill. 5hey had to (nload so*e of the flo(r sacks so the vehicleco(ld drive (p a partic(larly steep eroded passa"e. Fater, + sa) the* (nload thirty dozen e""s, a fiftykilo"ra* !a" of *ealie flo(r, !a"s of )heat flo(r, cartons of canned condensed *ilk, s("ar, and thelike6food for t)enty novices and their fa*ilies, as )ell as the inpatients. i ti*es a *onth they sendto to)n for s(ch a load of "roceries. +t )as reported that the tazoka

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novices, conspic(o(s in their red ochre and sand hair4dos and loin4cloths, are fre3(ently seen in the



!ank in M!a!ane dra)in" *oney fro* the Betani acco(nt for their shoppin".

Peng*'a8 3#$#na#on /& ,Th%o4#ng The /one!,

5hro("ho(t northern @"(ni society and a*on" hona and otho45s)ana society, the *ost co**on*ethod of divination is called 0thro)in" the !ones.0 5he diviner sits opposite the client, )ith a *at !et)een the* =plate 9>. +n a s*all !a" the diviner has a set of !ones, (s(ally verte!rae of an ani*al,)hich are thro)n o(t (pon the *at. 5he constellation of !ones, their relationships and profiles, are0read0 in a *anner si*ilar to divination *ethods of the o(thern avanna @"o*!o !asket in"redients,or the +fa oracle<s shells )hen cast. Constellations identify areas of social life, personal pro!le*s, andc(lt(ral e*phases. -ccordin"ly, in Betani, divination 0!ones,0 )hich incl(de do*inoes, dice, coins,shells, stones, as )ell as the standard verte!rae, are interpreted to incl(de not only l(ck ="ood ifdo*inoes t(rn dots (p, !ad if do)n> and vario(s interpersonal relational profiles and !e)itch*ent=verte!rae in vario(s positions>, !(t also the presence of t(!erc(losis, dia!etes, and other conditions.Dne constellation of !ones refers people to the hospital. -nother constellation tells the diviner that theclient has co*e in !ad faith.

- third individ(al, in addition to the diviner and client, is often present in sessions of !one4thro)in" as

a type of interpreter or *ediator. 5his individ(al *ay !e part of the divination staff, as )as tr(e in an(*!er of cases at Betani, or *ay !e a friend of the client or a fa*ily *e*!er. 5he *ediator<s role is tokno) the case, to have "otten ac3(ainted )ith it, (st as the epectation (pon the diviner is thatclairvoyance )ill !e (sed to 0see0 the tr(th of the case )ith the help of the !ones or the spirits. -s the !ones are thro)n and the diviner !e"ins to interpret, (sin" a for*at like 0t)enty 3(estions,0 the*ediator responds )ith 0+ a"ree0 = si #a )uma > or 0+ disa"ree.0 (ch se3(ences of 3(estionin" reveal)hether the iss(e is in the paternal or *aternal fa*ily, )hether it is a fa*ily4 or )ork4related iss(e, or)hether it has to do )ith the client<s o)n responsi!ility or )ith another<s involve*ent. +f theconstellation does not see* appropriate, and the diviner reaches a dead4end in the incantation of3(estions, another thro) *ay reveal a ne) constellation )ith another se3(ence of 3(estions.

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Clients )ho co*e to Betani for "ood fort(ne stay overni"ht to take e*etics, )hich Ma Ma!(za teachesthe* ho) to ad*inister it the*selves. ?*etics and p(rification are i*portant for people )ho havetaken in contrary *edicines =)hat on"o call intoification>. 5he *edicine 0releases the*0 the spiritsallo) the* to chan"e. 5hose )ho stay overni"ht receive free *eals prepared !y the apprentices orother staff. 5he overni"ht fee is fifteen emlangeni =Q12, in 19&2>, )hether the client is -frican or )hite.Pen"(la divination has "rades of ela!orateness, !e"innin" )ith the si*ple !one thro) for t)oe*lan"eni for a !asic o(tline of the iss(e, )hich tells )hether one can co(nt on chance or has nochance =as in a co(rt case>. o*eti*es len"thy co(nsel apart fro* the !one thro) *ay increase therate. 5he *ai*(* fee for pen"(la, an overni"ht stay )ith a *eal, and an etended femba possession

session !y the entire hierarchy of spirits is thirty4five e*lan"eni. - diviner as skilled as Ma Ma!(za canearn a "ood livin" at these rates.

U5*"ema8 3#$#na#on /& Me)#*m!h#+

e had !een told that in Ma!(za<s school, divination !y *edi(*ship =u*ufemba > )as held a!o(t everyother day. 5he eact ti*in", ho)ever, depended on the spirits. Dne evenin" )e arrived at Betani(nanno(nced at a!o(t five o<clock. 5he resident novices )ere eatin" and drinkin" in front of Ma!(za<sho(se. Dne of the* ca*e to (s and )elco*ed (s and spoke )ith (s, and another !ro("ht (s a )ell4



in"s for (s. he had had a nervo(s !reakdo)n shortly after the ter* !e"an. 5he hospital doctors haddia"nosed her persistent headache, nose!leedin", vo*itin", and na(sea as d(e to 0nerves0 and 0heartfail(re,0 altho("h a f(rther cons(ltation )ith another doctor had revealed 0nothin" )ron".0 he ca*e toMa!(za feelin" *isera!le. -fter divination and treat*ent in residence she !e"an to feel *(ch !etter,sayin" she )as no) fine, altho("h she contin(ed stayin" at the center.

5he sick infant )as the final case of the evenin", after several cases that kept the* !(sy (ntil a!o(t

ei"ht o<clock. 5hen the floor )as covered )ith *attin" and the dr(*s )ere !ro("ht in fro* theco(rtyard )here they had !een ti"htenin" in the s(nli"ht. Children ca*e in and sat do)n alon" the )allopposite the door. - press(re la*p had !een !ro("ht in to ill(*inate the roo*. hile another femba session )as contin(in" in the other ho(se, the *other, infant, and "rand*other entered )ith their !a""a"e and sat do)n. - yo(n" *ale takoza fro* Moza*!i3(e !ro("ht in the stra) !asket of*edicines )ith )hich he )o(ld femba the case =fi". K>. -ltho("h the !ook definition of femba is that oftrance or possession to identify the spirit ca(se of an illness, the !e"innin" process here see*ed *orelike positive *edicine to prepare the patient.

-t first the infant )as held on the "rand*other<s lap the *other sat aside a"ainst the )all, lookin" on.5he diviner4healer !e"an !y kneelin" !efore the !asket of *edicines. hile prayin", he took off his !ody !eads and donned another set of necklace !eads he donned a ne) cloth and over all this p(t on a)aist!and of si co)rie shells, as )ell as a head!and of t)o ro)s of co)rie shells. 5hen he tookseveral s*all *edicine containers o(t of the !asket. 7ro* one he took a "rease or oint*ent and r(!!edhis face )ith it. @ear!y he had a pottery shard )ith coals of fire thro("h )hich he passed so*e of the*edicine. 5hen he )ashed his face in a !o)l of )ater. 5hro("ho(t the net sta"es he re"(larly partookof a sn(fflike s(!stance that *ay have !een hall(cino"enic.

5he diviner4healer then )ent to stand !efore the "rand*other, his !ack to the door. e "est(red )ithhis hands to the child, then at one point r(!!ed *edicine on vario(s parts of the child<s !ody soles ofthe feet, top of the head, te*ples, chest and !ack, )rists and ankles. e p(lled the child<s li*!s o(t ta(t.e repeated so*e of this for the "rand*other. 5hro("ho(t this se"*ent of the session a yo(n" fe*aleassistant !ro("ht hi* the oint*ent and helped hi* take the sn(ff s(!stance. 5hen he see*ed to "o into

a se*itrance and "ave the follo)in" epla4

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7i"(re K.5he arran"e*ent of participants in the (k(fe*!a divination ses4sion at Betani, descri!ed in tet. Feft dia"ra*: =a> participants incl(din"novices, fa*ily, and "(ests =!> active trance perfor*ers, )ho enter and

leave as spirits =c> ti"o*ene =dr(*s> in perfor*ance. i"ht dia"ra*, insa*e space: =d> healer kneelin" !efore *edicines d(rin" case of sick child=e> "rand*other )ith "randchild =f> *other of child.

nation of the ca(ses of the illness, as translated to (s !y an ?n"lish4speakin" patient.

5he first ca(se )as p(t in the for* of an ee"esis of fa*ily history. 5he fa*ily cattle had strayed ontothe fields of others, and those others had taken reven"e on the child. ;en"ef(l ancestors )ere )orkin"thro("h livin" persons, )ho )ere tryin" to h(rt the child and its *other. 5he falsetto voice in )hich the*edi(* spoke, possessed !y the spirit, )as said to i*personate the one )ho )as !ehind the in(rio(s)ork. 5he clients )o(ld kno) fro* the so(nd of the voice )ho it )as the person co(ld not !e



*entioned !y na*e. - f(rther ca(se )as the ven"eance of a )ar victi* killed !y a fa*ily *e*!er.5hird, there )as the *atter of the (n*arried *other and displeas(re !y spirits over this. 5he ven"ef(lforces had already stolen the child<s 0so(l,0 and (nless the forces )ere ne(tralized the child )o(ld soondie. 5here follo)ed the !lessin" of the child<s effects, first piece !y piece, then a )hole !a" f(ll, andfinally the !ottle of diaper softener. 5he child )as no) *oved to the *other<s lap, and )as "iven so*ee*etic fl(id to drink, as )ell as a !it of the sn(ff in its nose. -t one point there )as also a !rief

eorcis* near the door, )ith the co**ent that the spirits )ere not all )ill4

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in" to leave !(t )anted to hide in the roo*. 5hen for a )hile there see*ed to !e a cal*.

- Manza)e spirit str(ck in the !ack corner of the roo* )ith a po)erf(l cry thro("h another yo(n"*edi(*, )ho r(shed (p to )here the *other )as seated )ith the child. everal other novices ando!servers took dr(*s in hand and 3(ickly provided rhyth*ic acco*pani*ent to the spirit<s son". 5his)as a 0)hite0 Manza)e, evidenced !y the possessed *edi(*<s controlled "est(re of donnin" a )hitecloth fro* the )ooden cross !ea* a!ove hi*, )here all the cloths )ere draped.

-fter dancin" a!o(t for a )hile in his characteristic *anner, this 0spirit0 )ent o(t and ca*e in severalti*es. 5hen he ca*e !efore the *other of the sick child and haran"(ed her for several *in(tes, in aheavy, intense voice, a!o(t her case: he had so("ht help in vain fro* other places, incl(din" thehospital and 0ch(rch0 she )as the victi* of dissatisfied spirits !eca(se of the fa*ily affair and thecattle there )as a victi* of the fa*ily<s involve*ent in past )ars. e appeared to repeat so*e of theearlier findin"s. Perspiration po(red do)n his face and !ody it )as a *ost i*pressive effort, for )hichanother t)o or five e*lan"eni note )as prod(ced. 5hen this )hite Manza)e spirit left the roo* and the*edi(* ret(rned, co*posed.

everal other *ale diviners took (p the )ork, donnin" this ti*e red cloths over their sho(lders. 5hese)ere a"ain Manza)e spirits, *ore !izarre and stran"e than the earlier ones. 5hey voiced very stran"e,inco*prehensi!le, ani*allike "r(nts. 5heir 0dance0 )as as odd as their appearance they 0stood0 on all

fo(rs !efore the door, tossin" their heads a!o(t )ildly, their lon" red clay dreadlocks thro)n this )ayand that. 5hese spirits left as they had co*e, thro("h the open door. ?ach ti*e a spirit4*edi(* )o(ldenter the door, the dr(**in" )o(ld !e"in ane) each ti*e it left, there )o(ld !e silence. o*eonesaid the dr(**in" )as needed to 0!rin" o(t the spirit.0

7inally, the t)o *edi(*s )ho had perfor*ed the 0red0 and the 0)hite0 Manza)e *oved on to host @z(nz( spirits of those )ho had dro)ned. 5his ti*e they danced (pri"ht, !(t their voices )ere sostran"e that o(r interpreter said, 0if yo( don<t kno) the )ords of the spirits yo( can<t (nderstand this.0-fter a ti*e the dr(**in" ca*e to an end, and all present dispersed.

+ fo(nd interestin" the decreasin" involve*ent of the *edi(*s )ith the case at hand, as if the latterspirits *ade their appearance si*ply to artic(late their niches in the spirit cos*olo"y. +t )as a kind of

8 L& 8

0"loria0 to the farthest4o(t spirit )orld. -t an earlier point, the first Manza)e spirits had done !attle)ith the lin"erin" evil forces aro(nd the child. 5he final spirits proclai*ed an (ncontested victory overthe*.



Me)#*m#!#( T%an(e Ve%!*! Me(han#!#( Te(hn#*e

-s noted at the !e"innin" of this section on @orth @"(ni, this ealtation of the spirits and the e*phasison a hierarchy of ancestral, alien, and nat(re spirits stands in sharp contrast to the a!sence of thesefeat(res in o(th @"(ni settin"s )ithin o(th -frica, that is, A(l(, Hhosa, and Pondo. + )ill notdevelop this iss(e in any "reat depth here, !(t )ill eplore several hypotheses that )ill !e taken (pa"ain in s(!se3(ent chapters.

Dne of the eternal factors that *ay infl(ence divination and healin" !ears on the contrast !et)eeno(th -frican and )azi society, fro* the perspective of -fricans. +n the ep(!lic of o(th -frica,la)s are clear4c(t, ri"id, and oppressive. o(th -frican pass la)s, )ork restrictions, and hardship havenot s(cceeded in erodin" the !asic )orldvie) of people in -frican society it has rather hardened it, soto speak. +n )aziland, on the other hand, )hich has an intri"(in" *it(re of sociopoliticalor"anization co*!inin" an ancient kin"do* )ith *odern !(rea(cracy, and a per capita inco*e that isnear the hi"hest in !lack -frica, there has !een a *iddle4class revol(tion of risin" epectations andrealizations. 5he *iddle4class )ork force of !oth *en and )o*en is in an (p)ardly *o!ile c(rrentthat has shaken fa*ily and reli"io(s val(es to their core. 5he !o(ndaries or li*its of society and)orldvie) have !een eploded open. 'ivination re"ardin" )ork opport(nities, social crises res(ltin"fro* individ(al decisions, and *arital or non4*arital arran"e*ents all lead to an enor*o(s clientele forthe san"o*a =or the takoza, as they call the*selves>. 5his is the settin" in )hich n"o*a roles andactivities are associated al*ost ecl(sively )ith divinin". Fydia Mak!(!( =19%&>, )ho has !een ast(dent of )azi healin", e*phasizes that several decades a"o neither the san"o*a nor the takoza (seddr(*s at all, and that there )as no possession or trance in connection )ith divination. 5he pro"ressionfro* the pen"(la =!one4thro)in">, to the femba 0s*ellin" o(t0 *edi(*istic eercise provides ahierarchy of resort fro* dealin" )ith the kno)n, controlled )orld of the linea"e, to dealin" )ith the(nkno)n and (nclear real*s !eyond the fa*ily.

8 L9 8

5he ne) divinin" did not, ho)ever, appear fro* no)here. Dral reports and references fro* 5anzania,Moza*!i3(e, and )aziland trace the takoza *edi(*istic divinin", as )ell as the @<an"a n"o*a in5anzania, to the 5hon"a in Moza*!i3(e, *ore specifically the ;anda(, a "ro(p that )as a part of the @"oni diaspora follo)in" the early nineteenth4cent(ry Mfecane. arriet @"(!ane, a A(l( o(th-frican anthropolo"ist )ho has lived and )orked in )azi society, s(""ests that the distinctions !et)een the san"o*a, )ho practice only pen"(la, and the takoza, )ho practice pen"(la and u*ufemba =*edi(*ship>, are the si"ns of an ideolo"ical e*phasis in )azi divination rather than the res(lt ofdistinctive str(ct(ral characteristics in society and c(lt(re. -ltho("h *edi(*ship is e*phasized !y thetakoza, like all @"(ni diviners their trainin" period is etensive6five to si years. Clearly the !one4thro)in" and pen"(la 3(estionin" techni3(es are learned and re3(ire disciplined practice. -ccordin" to @"(!ane, this *edi(*istic divination and the e*phasis on the spirit )orld reflects an ideolo"ical

e*phasis or predisposition in )azi tho("ht. eliance on alien spirits in divination6alien @"(nispirits6is in character )ith )azi reserve, )ith their pacific character, accordin" to @"(!ane. J(st asthey have historically acco**odated stran"ers and are etre*ely charita!le to)ard stran"ers, so in thespirit )orld there is a very considerate *e*ory of those they killed in for*er )ars =Ben"(ni> and those)ho dro)ned or )ere not properly !(ried =@z(nz(>. 5he spirits are the c(ttin" ed"e of a sensitive)orldvie) that incl(des collective "(ilt to)ard )arfare<s victi*s and care for stran"ers a*on" the*.5his vie) contrasts to that of the A(l(, )ho have a history of *(ch *ore !loodshed !(t )ho in theirspirit )orldvie) try to replace alien spirits )ith their o)n, and in divination rely on their o)n spirits.

7(rther evidence of an ideolo"ical e*phasis in the )azi takoza approach to divinin" lies in the point



Ma!(za *ade a!o(t her o)n patron spirit. hen she !e"an her trainin", and her teacher !e"an to hidethin"s for her to find, the spirit4shade )ho took over for her )as that of an in#anga diviner, very *(cha partic(lar ancestor. Medi(*ship is th(s for her an added ele*ent of her trainin" as a "eneral healerand diviner, not the pri*ary core of her practice.

5h(s, altho("h direct *edi(*ship is e*phasized in c(rrent )azi divination, there is plenty ofevidence of str(ct(ral co*para!ility )ith A(l( and Hhosa divinin"4healin". 5his str(ct(ral

co*para!ility !rid"es the apparent distinction !et)een spirit possession, on the one hand, and thelearned skills of an apprenticeship, on the other hand. Ma!(za and

8 K$ 8

other takoza of )aziland are e3(ally adept in disco(rse on eotic spirits and on types of cases, caseload, *ethods of analysis, and other e*pirical iss(es. Dne has the i*pression, in visitin" n"o*a in)aziland, of an ancient instit(tion in the co(rse of constant evol(tion, very *(ch tied into national lifeand in t(ne )ith the stresses and strains of individ(als.

The Amag#%a8 S*%$#$#ng The To4n!h#+! O" So*h A"%#(a+n the to)nships of Cape 5o)n6/("(leto, Fan"a, @yan"a, Crossroads6are the scene of *(ch civildisorder and police and ar*y repression in recent years. 5he )ork of the a*a"3ira4san"o*a is to a far"reater etent than in the other (r!an settin"s that of providin" solace and enco(ra"e*ent and socialnet)ork s(pport to the *any )ho co*e to the*. -frican society of the to)nships has very little"en(ine a(thority. - s(rvey taken in /("(leto fo(nd one in fo(r ho(seholds )as involved in one )ayor another )ith an n"o*a net)ork: as s(fferer4novice, *id4co(rse4novice, or "rad(ated and practicin"healer4diviner =i"3ira4san"o*a>. +n addition to the ch(rches, trade (nions, le"al or ille"al political"ro(ps, and the *istr(sted to)nship co**ittees, the n"o*a str(ct(re is one of the *ost pervasivedi*ensions of the social fa!ric.

-s already noted, the instit(tional str(ct(re of n"o*a in Cape 5o)n is (nitary, that is, )itho(tdisparate, na*ed n"o*a orders, as in inshasa or 'ar es alaa*, despite the varied ethnic !ack"ro(ndsof the Hhosa, A(l(, otho, or 5s)ana participants, and )itho(t the hierarchy of *odes of divinin" and possession, as in )aziland. 'ivination is done )itho(t any discerni!le paraphernalia, *ore as aestern social )orker intervie)s clients. 5he third party )ho 0a"rees0 or 0disa"rees0 )ith thedivination is, ho)ever, on hand.

5he participants of n"o*a in Cape 5o)n, )hen intervie)ed a!o(t their o)n histories, reveal the (s(alacco(nts of headaches, )eakness, disorientation, and other afflictions of drea*s of ancestors or ofhealer4dancers )ith f(rred and !eaded cost(*es. 5here are *any novices, !(t not all *ake it thro("hthe therape(tic initiation to !eco*e !(ilders of personal net)orks. Get those )ho do *ake it thro("hthe initiation, the 0co(rse thro("h the )hite,0 far fro* fittin" the classic i*a"e of the psychotic healer,

strike one as very stron" individ(als )ho have overco*e psycholo"ical and social contradictions to acto(t their callin" and to !e pillars of society.

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5he follo)in" case ill(strates so*e of the characteristic stresses of life for !lacks in the estern Cape,)here there is chronic aniety related to o!s, in vie) of the pass la)s and a L2 percent ille"al )orker presence. 5here is etensive t(!erc(losis in the !lack pop(lation fre3(ently an o(t!reak of 5Bacco*panies o!lessness and *aln(trition. 5he incidence of !roken or fra"*ented fa*ilies is very



hi"h, as is the rate of sin"le *others and )orkin" )o*en livin" alone.

A Ca!e S*)& In In##a#on To Ngoma

5his )as @tete<s second initiation4therapy (ndertaken after a t)o4year lapse and *(ch s(fferin" sincethe first atte*pt to co*e to ter*s )ith his t'asa =call> and affliction. e had "one to the north othoho*eland )a3)a to 0accept his illness0 =in)uma *ufa > and to take over his "rand*other<s !eads =i.e.,the fa*ily line as healer>. e had done the initial steps, the "oat sacrifice, !(t he contin(ed feelin" !adit had not )orked o(t. o he had ret(rned to Cape 5o)n, to his )ife and children, and his o! )ith astainless4steel pots4and4pans co*pany, and6accordin"ly6a ho(se per*it. B(t sickness had follo)edhi* he co(ld not contin(e the instr(ctions and therapies. eadaches, nose4!leedin", and *ost recently)hat he had feared )as a heart attack had !ro("ht hi* into the hospital.

Get he contin(ed drea*in" of a partic(lar )o*an )ith !eads. -fter t)o years of this, he decided totake (p his case ane). e had "one to ?lsie, an i"3ira =healer>, )hose (d"*ent )as that the fi"(re inhis drea*s )as really i"3ira -delheid @dika. o he ca*e to her, and a )eek later they )ere holdin" the"oat sacrifice and the nthlombe cele!ration that ina("(rated his novitiate )ith her.

-delheid, his sponsorin" i"3ira, )as acco*panied !y several other f(lly 3(alified healers. +n

characteristic estern Cape *anner, they represented a cross section of o(thern -frican societies. Dfthe seven f(lly 3(alified healers present, fo(r )ere A(l(, three Hhosa. 5heir trainin" had !een )ith)azi, otho, Hhosa, and A(l( healers. @tete )as otho. Present also )ere the dozen or so novices ofthe head healer of this event they )o(ld participate in n"o*a therapy sessions and in the )elco*in" of @tete to their cell "ro(p. 5his event, like *ost n"o*a activity in o(th -frica, had to !e fitted into the)ork sched(les of the participants. hereas c(sto* called for those enterin" their apprenticeship to !ein contin(o(s secl(sion, this )as not possi!le in (r!an o(th -frica. 5h(s the fra"*entation of lifeetended to this area as )ell. it(al *at4

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ters had to !e dealt )ith on )eekends )hen others co(ld "et free fro* their o!s and )hen the principalfi"(res the*selves had the ti*e to deal )ith their personal conditions. Df the )o*en present, so*e)ere do*estic )orkers in )hites< ho*es, n(rses, and teachers. 5he *en )ere factory )orkers, drivers,or in one case, the o)ner of a fleet of vehicles.

5his initiation nthlombe )as held in one of those standard o(th -frican "overn*ent ho(ses for !lacks)ith fo(r cra*ped roo*s and a s*all !ackyard =see fi". >. 5his rectan"(lar space )as transfor*ed,accordin" to so*e infor*ants, into rit(al space correspondin" to the @"(ni ho*estead: the street !eca*e the co(rtyard, the front roo* the rondevaal ho(se, and the !ackyard the cattle kraal. 5he rit(alspaces also corresponded to Central and o(thern -frican cate"ories dividin" the h(*an or do*esticfro* the ancestral spaces. 5hro("ho(t the )eekend event, net4door nei"h!ors i"nored the nthlo*!e,

attended at ti*es !y (p to 1K$ people.

5he first sta"e of the event on at(rday *ornin", callin" on the ancestors and preparin" the novice for0enterin" the )hite,0 )as held in the 0livin" roo*0 )ith the presidin" i"3ira and t)o collea"(es.everal si"ns of )hiteness )ere prepared. @tete )as dressed in a )hite to"a over his )hite (ndershirt.is face )as s*eared )ith )hite kaolin. Medicine =ubulau > in a !(cket, *ade fro* several plants, )asstirred into a froth and s*eared on his face and !ody. 5his )as done d(rin" a series of son"s thatinvited the ancestors to co*e and !e )ith the initiate =plate 1>.

@o) thoro("hly 0)hite,0 the novice, led !y his sponsorin" i"3ira and his father, and follo)ed !y the



a*a"3ira and others present, proceeded to the !ackyard to constr(ct the cere*onial kraal o(t of old !oards and so*e t)i"s, !oth s(!stit(te *aterials, since the appropriate plants )ere not at hand. 5he"oat )as !ro("ht into the kraal !eside the kneelin" novice. 5he pails of *edicine and !eer )ere placed !efore the "oat. +t )as *ade to kneel and also drink fro* the li3(ids. 5he ani*al a!o(t to !e sacrificed)as takin" the sa*e s(!stance, takin" the s(fferer<s old person (pon itself, to die vicario(sly. -s the"oat )as held do)n it !ello)ed lo(dly, and the sin"in" increased in vol(*e and te*po. 5he "oat<s

!ello) )as a "ood si"n, indicatin" its consent to die for the novice<s life and health. 5he "oat<s ("(larvein )as c(t and the !lood spilled o(t onto the "ro(nd. hen the "oat )as still, the dr(**in" andsin"in" stopped, and the skinnin" of the carcass !e"an. - fire )as lit near!y )ithin the enclos(re. -strip of *eat )as c(t fro* the

8 K# 8

7i"(re .Plan of ho(se, co*po(nd, and street in Cape 5o)n to)nship settin")here @tete<s therape(tic initiation )as held, as descri!ed in tet: =a> livin"roo* and inter*ediate rit(al space )here all n"o*a sessions are held, as)ell as 0callin" do)n ancestors0 =!> kitchen =c> !edroo* =d> stora"eroo* =e> !ackyard and transfor*ed 0cattle kraal0 for *ost sacred site)here sacrifice is perfor*ed =f> sec(lar p(!lic space )here 0co*in" o(t0is held and )here darkness of poll(tion is 0thro)n a)ay.0

ri"ht side of the ani*al and roasted, representin" the umsh'amu , the last place to t)itch near the heart,indicatin" the life of the "oat. @tete ate !its of this *eat in a sole*n co**(nion )ith the sacrificedlife.

+ had to leave shortly after this !eca(se d(sk )as failin" and it )as ille"al for *e, a )hite person, to

re*ain in a !lack to)nship overni"ht. My hosts did not )ant an incident and (r"ed *e to drive to *yho*e )itho(t stoppin" or openin" *y car )indo) or door in the to)nship.

Fater the other novices )o(ld !e"in to 0do n"o*a0 to"ether, the short presentations follo)ed !ysin"in" in rapid se3(ences =disc(ssed at "reater len"th in chapter L>. hen + ret(rned late *ornin" ofthe follo)in" day, it )as apparent that they had "one on *ost of the ni"ht, for there )ere novicesasleep in chairs. Dne )as sl(*ped !ack )ith feet

8 KL 8

on the dr(* and head a"ainst the )all. +n the kitchen three pots of "oat *eat and potatoes and ca!!a"e

)ere cookin" over a "as fire, preparin" the sacrifice of yesterday for today<s feast.

-t noon the presentation of novices and the dancin" contin(ed for a ti*e, as others ca*e: fa*ily of thenovice, so*e nei"h!ors, other diviner4healers and their novices. @ovice @tete<s fa*ily spoke in"ratit(de and enco(ra"e*ent for the session. -"ain, the *edicine and !eer pails )ere p(t !efore thenovice, )ho )as still dressed in a )hite !lanket )ith )hite face, hands, and feet. 5he entire "ro(p*oved in procession to the 0kraal0 for the first donnin" of the novice<s !eads and !its of the "oat<s hair.e )o(ld also no) receive his ne) n"o*a na*e.

5he first strin" of )hite !eads )ent aro(nd his head. 5he "oat<s "all!ladder )as attached to the strin" at



the front of the forehead. J(st as the "all is !itter, so this !ladder )o(ld )ard off dan"er. - secondstrin" of !eads aro(nd the head )o(ld 0hold his head,0 for that is )here his sickness )as. - strin" of !eads and "oat hair aro(nd his neck represented his acceptance of his 0called0 =nt'asa > condition.Dther strin"s )ith "oat hair )ere p(t on his )rists and ankles. 5hese )ere the !e"innin"s of his i"3iracost(*e, )hich )o(ld "ro) and !eco*e ela!orate over ti*e as he drea*ed and developed his o)nidentity. is stark, plain )hite ro!e and !eads contrasted *arkedly )ith the colorf(l !ead)ork of the

f(ll a*a"3ira and their ela!orate )ild ani*al skin dresses.Mid4afternoon, (nday, the entire "ro(p *oved thro("h the ho(se onto the street to present the ne)novice to the p(!lic. 5he cro)d of onlookers "re) aro(nd the asse*!led f(ll a*a"3ira and novices,and the fa*ily and friends of @tete. +n a speakin" and son"4dance pattern re*iniscent of that (sed inearlier sessions !y the novices, here the f(ll a*a"3ira and san"o*a took their t(rns ehortin" @tete,then !reakin" into son"4dance, )hich )as oined !y everyone aro(nd =plate 1%>. -fter thirty *in(tesfor this presentation, novices "athered inside and contin(ed )ith self4presentation and son"4dancin".7or the first ti*e @tete oined the*, one of a dozen )hite4clad a*ak)etha =novices> (nder -delheid<ss(pervision.

5his event, typical of the n"o*a net)orkin" in the to)nships of the estern Cape, co*!ined severalkey feat(res of the n"o*a instit(tion: the entry of a tro(!led individ(al into a cell (nder the s(pervisionof a senior healer participation in )hat )e *i"ht call an n"o*a )orkin" session in )hich novices present their tho("hts, drea*s, and anieties

8 KK 8

and oin the other novices )ith sin"in" co**e*oratin" critical passa"es in this career of an n"o*a participant )ith a sacrifice and a co**(nal *eal. Mo*ents in these careers, and constellations in thenet)orks, !rin" to"ether f(lly 3(alified healers and their novices to listen, co(nsel, console, share, sin",dance, and co**(ne.

5he estern Cape etension of this )idespread -frican instit(tion offers !oth so*e apparently !asic

feat(res of the historic instit(tion, as )ell as so*e (nprecedented chan"es havin" to do )ith the(ni3(eness of the o(th -frican (r!an settin". Many of the n"o*a participants are 0ille"als0 others arele"al residents and can host events s(ch as this. 5he *i"ratory la!or sit(ation re3(ires )orkin"residents in the to)nships to collapse their rit(al stat(s into )eekend *o*ents in order to *eet theepectations of their o!s. 5he strains of pass la)s and residence restrictions in o(th -frica *ake thedo*inant distresses those of fa*ilies !reakin" (p, of !ein" paid *ea"er )a"es for diffic(lt )ork, ofchronic diseases s(ch as t(!erc(losis, and of !ein" told !y )hites and !y the syste* that they are)orthless. -"ainst this, the sodalities of n"o*a and the lon"in"s for fa*ily ancestors are a haven and acopin" reso(rce.

Con('*!#on5he fore"oin" cases and res(*es of pro!le*s typify those !ro("ht to n"o*a diviners and therapists.Most cases of this kind are dealt )ith on an individ(al or fa*ily !asis and are referred to a ran"e ofother therapists as )ell. Dnly a fe) of the cases are dia"nosed as appropriate for f(ll therape(ticinitiation !y n"o*a dance and son". +n !oth @"(ni and otho45s)ana societies the dia"nosis u*ut'asa characterizes these latter, *eanin" they have !een sin"led o(t !y the spirits or ancestors, and afflicted.-s in the Central -frican ea*ples cited a!ove, so the o(thern -frican 0t)asa0 cases de*onstratevery little sy*pto*4si"n specificity. 5he 3(estion of )ho is sin"led o(t or called in this *anner needsto !e ans)ered in connection )ith a *ore "eneral st(dy of contet(al iss(es. +t is not appropriate to



ass(*e that the t)asa dia"nosis, or call, corresponds to estern psychoanalytic or therape(tic la!els. +nfact, there *ay !e !etter reason to s(spect that this dia"nosis sin"les o(t individ(als for recr(it*ent torit(al leadership roles on the !asis of characteristics of "reater sensitivity, e"o stren"th, and c(lt(ralreceptivity in a ti*e or sit(ation of stress.

8 K 8-ffliction c(lts in Central and o(thern -frica have th(s epressed the classic the*e of identifyin" and(tilizin" *ar"inality, adversity, risk, or s(fferin" for the ever4necessary task of rene)in" society in theface of profo(nd econo*ic and social chan"e.

8 K% 8

2

I)en#"&#ng Ngoma

7#!o%#(a' an) Com+a%a#$e Pe%!+e(#$e!

5he conte*porary settin"s of n"o*a4type c(lts of affliction in Central and o(thern -frica, as seen inthe previo(s chapter, *ay no) !e oined !y historical and co*parative perspectives of the entire re"ion)ithin )hich these c(lts appear. ?vidence for n"o*a<s ori"in, spread, and distri!(tion can !e "leanedfro* a ran"e of types of so(rces: lin"(istic evidence fro* a co*parison of Bant( lan"(a"e co"natesevidence for the distri!(tion of *aterial c(lt(re artifacts of n"o*a, *ainly *(sical instr(*ents (tilizedin healin" rit(als evidence of political varia!les in the presence of distinctive alternative for*s taken !y n"o*a. 5his historical evidence, oined )ith the conte*porary profile, per*its (s to sketch the !asisof a (ni3(e instit(tional profile for n"o*a, one that has often !een *isrepresented !y scholars.

eaders ac3(ainted )ith -frican c(lt(re history )ill reco"nize the 0n"o*a0 re"ion as approi*atelythat of the distri!(tion of the Bant( lan"(a"es, that is, )ith the distri!(tion of the co"nate ntu )hich"ave the Bant( lan"(a"e fa*ily its na*e. By itself, the ter* ngoma and its distri!(tion do not tell (s*(ch a!o(t the co**on, and varyin", feat(res of the instit(tion. o)ever, )hen this ver!al co"nate isassociated )ith the cl(ster of other ter*s and feat(res that co**only acco*pany it over a )iderre"ion, )e !e"in to see the lar"er pict(re that relates lin"(istic evidence to reli"io(s, social, andtherape(tic, or health4related, c(lt(ral pheno*ena. 5his approach, to )hich is so*eti*es addedarchaeolo"ical research, has fo(nd increasin" application in (!4

8 K& 8

aharan -frican historical research of the history and nat(re of do*ains s(ch as livestock h(s!andry,a"ric(lt(re, iron )orkin", political syste*s, and titles.

(ch an approach to scholarship raises 3(estions a!o(t the for*al relationship of lan"(a"e to otherdo*ains of c(lt(re and society. 'o phonetic (nits, the co"nates, consistently carry co**on referents toconcept(al tho("ht, sy*!ols, and e*otionsI o) consistent are lin"(istic referents to !ehavior,techni3(es, and *aterial c(lt(reI o) consistent are rates of chan"e in the relationship !et)een0)ords0 and 0thin"s0I 5hese are practical research iss(es that *ay re3(ire specialized *ethodolo"iesin partic(lar do*ains. 5hey are also theoretical iss(es !earin" on the clai* that lan"(a"e does =or doesnot> convey *eanin", does =or does not> carry str(ct(res ho*olo"o(s )ith instit(tional or !ehavioral



patterns, or is =or is not> patterned !y physiolo"ical deter*inants.

-fter presentin" core therape(tic4related co"nates in Bant( lan"(a"es, and so*e of the iss(es pertainin" to the !asic research on Central -frican lin"(istic history, this chapter )ill consider si*ilarevidence a!o(t the constellation of *(sical instr(*ents (tilized in the rit(als of therapy, in an atte*ptto clarify, in a for*al sense, the relationship of the instr(*ent type na*ed ngoma to the other aspects ofthe rit(al and the )ider instit(tion. 5he chapter closes )ith an ecla*ation of social and c(lt(ral

varia!les that have shaped the instit(tion, and considers ho), as a distinctive instit(tion, it has !eenrepresented, or *isrepresented, in social research.

The /an* Con*n)%*m

ocieties across the *iddle of the continent, fro* F(anda and Fi!reville in the )est to 'ar es alaa*in the east, and fro* Ca*eroon to the 'rakens!er" ran"e and the Cape in the so(th, share *any )ordsand "ra**atical feat(res that have co*e to !e called the Bant( fa*ily of lan"(a"es. 'esi"nation ofthese lan"(a"es as 0Bant(0 is to so*e etent ar!itrary, the res(lt of nineteenth4cent(ry ?(ropeanlin"(istic research, )hich reco"nized lar"e re"ions in o(thern and Central -frica )hose lan"(a"esshared co"nates. 5he co"nate ntu , *eanin" 0person,0 =pl(ral, bantu , people> )as !(t one of h(ndreds

that co(ld have !een (tilized to descri!e the entire set. +n t)entieth4cent(ry lin"(istic andarchaeolo"ical research, the etent of co**onality and variation in this co**on lin"(istic !ase has !eco*e *(ch clearer.

8 K9 8

+n the t)entieth cent(ry the notion 0Bant(0 has also taken on a ran"e of connotations, positive in onesettin", ne"ative in another, and !oth in other settin"s, dependin" on )hose perspective is entertained.+t has co*e to stand for a *ode of tho("ht, or ethnophilosophy, pres(*a!ly !ased on indi"eno(s ideas,an approach to the st(dy of -frican tho("ht that is ro(ndly criticized !y so*e. +t has !eco*e a r(!ric of*aor historical research, especially in ?3(atorial -frica, )here the Centre +nternational des

Civilisations Banto(es of Fi!reville, /a!on, cond(cts cross4disciplinary )ork and p(!lishes the o(rnal untu . +n o(thern -frica, ho)ever, the notion 0Bant(0 has taken on a ne"ative connotation !eca(seof the o(th -frican "overn*ent<s reification of a st(ltified tri!al and i*posed interpretation of -fricanc(lt(re, partic(larly as carried o(t in ed(cation for !lacks. 5he si*(ltaneo(s positive search forcivilizational herita"e that one sees in ?3(atorial -frica (nder the r(!ric of 0Bant(,0 and the ne"ativetri!al connotation of 0Bant( ?d(cation0 in o(th -frica, contri!(te to the Bant( con(ndr(*.

7or present p(rposes it s(ffices to s(**arize the central findin"s of so*e of this historical research. - !ody of c(rrent scholarship =Bastin 19&# Bastin, Co(pez, and de alle( 19&1 Mee(ssen 19%, 19&$'eMaret 19&L eine 19&L Phillipson 19&K ;ansina 19&L y*an and ;oorhoeve 19&$ ?hret andPosnansky 19&2 and ;an @oten 19&1> esta!lishes the ori"in of Bant( lan"(a"es in the eastern

@i"erian and )estern Ca*eroonian area, in the early first, possi!ly the late second, *illenni(* B.C.Fin"(istic classifications, !ased on *ethods of 0least co**on0 and 0*ost co**on0 =or shared> leicaland "ra**atical feat(res, deter*ine that these lan"(a"es are "enetically related to est -fricanlan"(a"es.N1O 0Bant(0 is th(s defined as a narro) lan"(a"e "ro(p6tho("h spread across a vasts(!continent6in a )ider set of interrelated lan"(a"e fa*ilies that are so*eti*es referred to as0Bantoid0 =eine 19&L> in the *(ch *ore etensive 0@i"er4Con"o0 "ro(p =/reen!er" 19KK>.

5he sa*e *ethodolo"y6that is, "enetic classification of least co**on and *ost co**on co"nates orfeat(res in sets of lan"(a"es )ithin the fa*ily6esta!lishes f(rther that the Bant( lan"(a"es had, !y thefirst *illenni(* B.C. , !e"(n to spread so(th)ard thro("h the forest zones and the -tlantic coast of



?3(atorial -frica, and east)ard alon" the northern ed"e of the forest4savanna !order into the+nterlac(strine re"ion =see fi". %>.

5hereafter, additional 0n(clear zones0 are posited, fro* )hich f(rther dispersion occ(rred east)ard andso(th)ard. Dne of these )as the

8 $ 8

7i"(re %.Maor lines of Bant( *i"rations, accordin" to recent scholarship,and fo(r sites of field research for this !ook: inshasa, representin"estern Bant( 'ar es alaa*, on the +ndian Dcean coast, representin" !oth inland ?ast -frican and )ahili coastal infl(ences )aziland, thenorthern @"(ni4speakin" settin" Cape 5o)n, a cos*opolitan o(th-frican settin".

0Con"o n(cle(s0 in the forest re"ions of Ca*eroon, /a!on, Con"o, and Aaire =eine, off, ;ossen19%%>, also spoken of as 0estern Bant(0 =;ansina 19&L, 199$>. -nother )as 0?ast i"hland,0 fro*the lake re"ions =eine, off, ;ossen 19%%>, also called 0?astern Bant(.0 Fater, in the first *illenni(*-.'. , the epansions contin(ed into ?ast -frica and to o(thern -frica, and, )ith a *it(re of ?asternand est4

8 1 8

ern, across the o(thern avanna to the so(th)est, in Aaire, -n"ola, and @a*i!ia.

5his de*onstrated epansion of the Bant( lan"(a"es raises a n(*!er of 3(estions a!o(t the

relationship of lan"(a"e to other facets of c(lt(re that are "er*ane to o(r interest in therape(tics, partic(larly n"o*a. hat )as the technolo"ical !asis of these societies that per*itted their epansioninto territories occ(pied !y the h(ntin"4and4"atherin" pop(lations preeistent in the continentI asthis Bant( epansion *ore on the order of a "rad(al technolo"ical and c(lt(ral transfer, co**(nity !yco**(nity, or )as it *ore like a *i"rationI ere Bant( lan"(a"es tied to a *ore intensivea"ric(lt(reI +f so, at )hat point did iron )orkin" !eco*e the !asis of this a"rarian technolo"yI 7(rther,)hat types of food crops )ere (sedI /iven the contrastin" environ*ents into )hich the speakers ofBant( lan"(a"es *oved6fro* savanna into rain forest and !ack to savannas6)hat )ere the adaptiveadvanta"es that "ave the Bant( speakers the resilience to replace other )ays of life and otherlan"(a"esI ere the speakers of Bant( lan"(a"es or"anized in any partic(lar social str(ct(resI hat)ere their !eliefsI hat )ere their ass(*ptions and val(es a!o(t health and society, and their

approaches to healin"I -re these reflected consistently in the co**on co"nates across the re"ionIo) did they (tilize the varied environ*ents and nat(ral prod(cts to i*prove healthI ere the n"o*arit(als of any partic(lar i*portance in the process of epansionI 7inally, if )e ass(*e a co**onso(rce for n"o*a, )hich feat(res have re*ained contin(o(s and )hich have chan"edI -re thesereflected in the co**on and varyin" co"nates across the re"ionI

+t is no) ar"(ed, on the !asis of recent archaeolo"ical research in Ca*eroon and /a!on =;an @oten19&1 ;ansina 19&L, 199$> that the estern Bant( epansion alon" the -tlantic coast and into the rainforest )as a "rad(al epansion of stone4tool (tilizin" c(ltivators of est -frican forest4relatedc(lti"ens, that is, trees s(ch as the oil pal* and root crops s(ch as ya*s. 5he ?astern Bant( c(lti"ens,



)hich pres(*a!ly !ro("ht the est -frican "rassland crops to the o(thern avanna, and later too(thern -frica, incl(ded *illet, sor"h(*, and co)peas.

5he appearance of iron )orkin" in this technolo"ical4c(lt(ral settin" is no) !elieved to have occ(rreda!o(t %K$ to K$$ B.C. , the date of early iron4)orkin" finds in @i"eria. elated iron4)orkin" sites, orevidence of iron, have !een fo(nd recently in /a!on and Ca*eroon. 5he

8 2 8

epansion of the eastern lake Bant( *ay have occ(rred as early as %K$ to K$$ B.C. )ith the (se of irons*eltin" and s*ithin". 5his accelerated the a!ility of Bant( speakers to do*inate the landscape, to"ro) crops, to h(nt, and in "eneral to i*prove their adaptive advanta"e. +t is tho("ht also to havecontri!(ted later to the a!ility to for* centralized states. 5he earlier hypotheses that Bant( epansion*i"ht have !een d(e to iron and selected introd(ctions of crops fro* -sia =M(rdock 19K9> have not !een !orne o(t in recent archaeolo"ical and lin"(istic research. 7or one thin", the archaeolo"ical findsof iron are si*ply too late to s(pport s(ch a hypothesis. -lso, the lan"(a"e co"nates that pertain to iron)orkin" are too disparate to lend credence to a hypothesis of dispersion fro* a co**on point.

5he role of cattle and other livestock in the Bant( epansion has !een st(died at so*e len"th !eca(seof the a!sence of livestock in the estern forest re"ion =d(e to tsetse fly infestation> and the etensive(se of livestock in ?ast -frican and o(thern -frican Bant(4speakin" societies. ?hret, st(dyin" thecharacter of lan"(a"e co"nates associated )ith livestock, de*onstrates that this part of an ?asternBant( co*ple )as introd(ced fro* Central (danic peoples to the lake re"ion !y K$$ B.C. =?hret19%#%L>, fro* )here it spread so(th)ard.

5he Bant( epansion *(st not !e constr(ed to have !een a *i"ratory spread of a !iolo"ical or 0racial0"ro(p, ecept in selected di*ensions. /enetic *arkers of the northeast Bant( re"ion north of the lakesrese*!le *arkers of pop(lations in the ori"in area in the Ca*eroon and eastern @i"erian re"ion=ierna( 19&>. Dther)ise, "enetic st(dies have revealed diverse pop(lations, in *any instancesreflectin" 0pre4Bant(,0 !(t speakin" ho*o"eneo(s Bant( lan"(a"es.

Many of the recent specialized lin"(istic st(dies in the Bant( zone have had their !asis in the *assivelifeti*e )ork of Malcol* /(thrie, p(!lished in the fo(r4vol(*e )ork Com$arati)e "antu =19%%1>,)hich *aps the distri!(tion of several tho(sand co"nates. /(thrie<s co*pilations are not eha(stive.5he leica are !(ilt aro(nd key )ord sets deter*ined !y lin"(ists to represent !asic c(lt(ral do*ainsthey are then epanded into *ore c(lt(rally partic(lar do*ains. 7(rther, /(thrie<s leicalreconstr(ctions are of necessity li*ited to those Bant( lan"(a"es for )hich dictionaries andvoca!(laries )ere availa!le in the 19K$s and 19$s )hen he did his )ork. /(thrie interpreted theevidence, !ased on de"rees of co**on leical stock, to ar"(e for a estern and an ?astern Bant(diver"ence fro* a central point on the o(thern avanna. -ltho("h this hypothesis has !eendiscredited !y

8 # 8

s(!se3(ent research, his co*pendi(*, and s(!se3(ent )ork to !(ild (p the !asic proect,N2O provides a"ro)in" fo(ndation for ne) st(dies that test additional hypotheses. +t is /(thrie<s leicon, )ith a fe)s(pple*ental so(rces, that per*its (s to de*onstrate the character of a proto4Bant( level oftherape(tic4oriented ver!al co"nates and derivative secondary, estern and ?astern, s(!sets ofco"nates, concepts, and practices, and the place of n"o*a in this set.



The Le:#(on O" a C'a!!#(a' S*6Saha%an The%a+e*#(!

5he ter*s that pertain to health and healin" in /(thrie<s leicon, and )hich occ(r in the entire re"ion ofBant( lan"(a"es, are ass(*ed to have !een part of the earliest6th(s, proto6level of the Bant(4speakin" societies several tho(sand years a"o. Dther co"nates that appear only in estern or ?asternBant( respectively, are either derived fro* the earlier ter*s as variants, )ere independently created, or)ere introd(ced fro* the o(tside. 5he follo)in" set of co"nate ter*s reveals sy*pto*s, etiolo"ies,

healer roles, *edicines, and rit(al activities )ith the end4"oal of health =asterisks and n(*!ers indicate/(thrie<s 0Co*parative eries0 =c.s.> of co"nate reconstr(ctions !ased on a co*parison of *odernse*antic variations see appendices - and B for the approi*ate distri!(tion>:

Proto,"antu :

)o(nd, !oil, sore =1$& R 4 $-t 4, 1$9 R 4 $-t/ >

to !eco*e ill, illness, to s(ffer =%% R 4d-d 4, %& R 4d-d0 4, %9 R 4d-1d/ 4>

to !e)itch, c(rse, )itchcraft, po)er of )ords =LL R 4d2g 4, LK R 4d2g 4, L R 4d2g1 , L%R 4d2g2 >

*edicine *an, *edicine =%& R 4 g3ng3 , ng3ng3 , %&% R 4 ganga >

*edicine, tree =1%#$ R 4ti4>

*edicine, consecrated char* =1K#L R 4 $1ng- 4> c(rse =1KK% R 4 $1ng 4, 1KK& R 4 $1ng4 4>

dr(*, dr(**in", dance =&LL R 4 g2m3 4, 1L$1 R 4 g2m3 4>

to !eco*e cold, cool do)n, !eco*e c(red, )ell =1KL R 4 $5d 4, 1KK R 4 $5d 4>

interdiction, prohi!ition, to a!stain =&2 R 4 g0d2 4, &22 R 4 g0d 4, R 4 g0d- 4, g0da > =also(y"ens 19&%:K9%$ D!en"a 19&K:2$9211>

8 L 8

%estern "antu :

disease =o*on > =D!en"a 19&K:19>"host =K$ R 4b3nd3 4> healer, *edicine *an =K1 R 4mb3nd3 4>

to c(re =19K R 4b-* 4> to divine or c(re !y divinin" =19 R 4b-* 4>

)hite clay, kaolin =1L%L R 4 $/mb3 4, 1L%% R 4 $/mb/ 4>

consecrated *edicine, char*, fetish =1$%2 R 4*1t0 4> spirit =1$%# R 4*1t0 , *1c0 >

to protect )ith *edicine =99$ R 4*3g 4> leaf =1$21 R 4*#1 >

to !leed !y c(ppin" horn =L#9 R 4cumi* 4>

Eastern "antu :

sore =K R 4donda 4>

)itch, )itchcraft =2L$ R 4cbi 4> ordeal, poison =1&&L R 4 #bi 4>

to practice *edicine, divine =L%1 R 4dagud 4>

spirit, spirit of dead =19 R 4d1mu 4>

consecrated *edicine, fetish, char* =29# R 4c3ng5 4>

c(ppin" horn =L12 R 4c-*6 4, LL$ R 4c-mo 4> to !leed !y c(ppin" =%$$ R 4dumi* 4>

eco"nition of sickness is si"naled very )idely !y the co"nate ter* d-d , or d-d0 , )hose ver! for*luala in ion"o, hal'a in i@de*!( =5(rner 19%>, or um*huhlane in i)ati =Makh(!( 19%&:1>,epresses the eistential 3(ality of s(fferin", in(ry, or *isfort(ne. -cross the entire re"ion this isdifferentiated fro* physical in(ry or sore, for )hich $-t or $-t/ is (sed. +n north)estern Bant(, o*on



epresses this =D!en"a 19&K:19>, or in ?astern Bant(, the ter* donda .

ealth is identified !y n(*ero(s *etaphors, incl(din" 0!alance0 = lunga , in !oth A(l( and on"o>,0p(rity0 =)eedila in on"o>, and 0coolness,0 )hose *ost )idespread co"nate is $5d , 0to !eco*e cool,or cool do)n0 or 0to !eco*e )ell, healthy,0 in contrast to the heat of disease or )itchcraft. 5his isrelated in so*e estern Bant( lan"(a"es s(ch as on"o to the action of the c(ppin" !orn =m$odi >, oneof the *ost )idespread therape(tic and reli"io(s feat(res of Bant(4speakin" -frican societies, )hich

0s(cks o(t0 thro("h the c(ppin" horn =hola m$o*a > the i*p(rity. e"ional ter*s for the c(ppin" hornare c-*6 =?astern Bant(>, c-mo =estern Bant(> the action of !leedin" !y c(ppin", )ith scarificationor scratchin" the skin follo)ed !y s(ckin", is cumi* =estern> and dumi* =?astern>.

+n a recent thesis !y (y"ens =19&%>, as )ell as the )ork !y D!en"a

8 K 8

=19&K>, the concept of interdiction, prohi!ition, or a!stinence has also !een related to the Bant(4-fricansense of health and illness. 5he co"nate g0d2( g0da( g0d- =in its no*inative for*, e."., ngili in 5eke,ci+ila in F(!a> or g0d =the ver!al for*> e*er"es in the contet of rit(al activities, initiations, or na*in",

!(t also )ith practical circ(*stances havin" to do )ith a!stinence fro* specified foods in connection)ith an affliction or ail*ent =(y"ens 19&%:K9%$ D!en"a 19&K:21$211>. @ot only are sickness and*isfort(ne held to !e the res(lt of trans"ression of the prohi!ition health can !e *aintained orcontrolled !y keepin" the interdiction.

5he )idespread dichoto*y that distin"(ishes *isfort(nes or afflictions ste**in" fro* 0nat(ral0 or/od4"iven ca(ses fro* those ste**in" fro* h(*an involve*ent is reco"niza!le thro("ho(t there"ion, altho("h there is no proto4Bant( ter* for /od, s(""estin" that ter*s for /od e*er"ed later. +nthe estern re"ion the *ost )idespread ter* for /od is Nzambi or N#ambi =92K +amb/ , 191% #amb/ or n#amb/ >. +n ?astern Bant( ulungu =%1K dungu > is co**on, and in the o(thern re"ion u*ulu or7m*bulane =A(l(>, (tilizin" the very )idespread ter* *ulu for a"ed one, or *ula for "ro)in" (p.?very)here these i"h /od ter*s are associated )ith *isfort(nes that are 0in the order of thin"s,0 th(s

0of /od.0

By contrast, (nnat(ral or ina(spicio(s *isfort(nes are said to !e ca(sed !y 0people0: in on"o,N*imbe)o O *ia muntu in A(l(, Nu*ufa O *'a bantu . 5he co"nate ste* (sed here6 ntu 6is of co(rsethat fro* )hich the na*e bantu )as dra)n !y nineteenth4cent(ry lin"(ists. 5he association of the !asic ter* for h(*an !ein" )ith a *aor ca(se of affliction to(ches on a f(nda*ental feat(re ofetiolo"ical and therape(tic concepts co(ched in Bant( co"nates.

5he *ost co**on and )idespread action ter*s that spell o(t h(*an4ca(sed *isfort(nes are theco"nate ste* ver!s d2g , d2g , and no(ns d2g1 or d2g2 . 5hese ter*s descri!e the (se of po)erf(l)ords and the intentions !ehind the*6)hether "ood or evil. +n on"o in the )est lo*a is the (se of po)erf(l )ords in oath and c(rse, and *indo*i their i*p(ted (se, )hich is !elieved to ca(se sickness

and *isfort(ne. +n a revie) of lo* in Central -frican life, F(c de e(sch =19%1> identifies the )ays in)hich 0"ood0 and 0!ad0 (ses of spells or po)erf(l )ords are (sed to reinforce partic(lar di*ensions ofsocial str(ct(re. +n A(l(, in the so(th, tha* , the ver!, and ubutha*athi , refer to the process or state ofsorcery and )itchcraft (sed !y *any scholars )ho

8 8

have enco(ntered so*e derivation of the co"nate d2g across Central and o(thern -frica have *askedthe ori"inality of the ver!al concept, and the reco"nition that )ords, an"er, and all other epressions of



the social settin" can affect health and illness. -s )ords and their associated tho("hts can afflict, so)ords and the tho("hts of kin and affliction4peers can heal. 5heophile D!en"a, in his disc(ssion ofBant(4-frican therape(tic practices a*on" the '(ala of Ca*eroon and the M!ochi of @orth Con"o,stresses that the pron(nciations *ade in the esa rite of the '(ala and the ndoo rite of the M!ochi !eco*e a therape(tic force in their o)n ri"ht, si*(ltaneo(sly effective at the *ental and the physicallevel =19&K:2$L>.N#O +n any event, the reality of kin and etra4kin co**(nities in n"o*a de*onstrates

the dyna*ic of the co"nate d2g at )ork.Dther notions reflect f(rther di*ensions of h(*an ca(sation of disease and *isfort(ne. (ch a notion isreflected in the ter* cbi =or tsa'i >, fo(nd in ?koi and 5iv, as )ell as in ?astern Bant( lan"(a"es,*eanin" the s(!stance of )itchcraft po)er in a person, and #bi , in ?astern Bant(, for the poisonordeal that identifies this po)er. i*ilar to this is the notion *undu in estern Bant( to denote thecon"ealed po)er of )itchcraft in the !ody of the perpetrator.

-ncestors represent an etension of the h(*an co**(nity as a *aor ca(se of *isfort(ne and c(re in-frican society. ;ery )idely, definitely in ?astern Bant(, ancestors or spirits of the dead are referred to !y the co**on ter*, dimu , )hich is pro!a!ly proto4Bant(. +n estern Bant(, the "eneric ter* *ulu ,elder =in A(l(, un*ulun*ulu >, is also (sed to refer to ancestor or shade, and as )ith dimu , to the po)erthat *ay ca(se !oth life, if channeled properly, and *isfort(ne, if the co**(nity is not d(ly co"nizantof the ancestral shades. - *aor di*ension of n"o*a is, of co(rse, co*in" to ter*s )ith these 0livin"dead0 in relation to the fort(ne and *isfort(ne of the s(fferer and his or her co**(nity.

Movin" fro* the etiolo"ical and )orldvie) ter*s to those definin" therapy, )e *ay note that t1 6tree,stick, or *edicinal plant6is fo(nd thro("h the entire re"ion and *ay therefore !e ass(*ed to !e proto4Bant(. +n so*e settin"s, for ea*ple a*on" the e*!a of ?astern Aaire, buti carries f(rtherconnotations of consecrated *edicine and of sorcery and )itchcraft =Blakely and Blakely 19&>. &3g or *#1 , her!, a estern Bant( variant, is the "eneric ter* for leaf, or for *edicinal plants, as )ell asto!acco, an -*erican i*port.

5he )ell4kno)n color triad of )hite, red, and !lack is represented

8 % 8

every)here in the therape(tics of Bant(4speakin" -frica and can pro!a!ly !e classed )ith a proto4Bant( rit(al sche*e, altho("h none of the ter*s for color are pervasive thro("ho(t the re"ion. Dneea*ple of a )idespread cere*onial color ter* is the estern Bant( $/mb3 , or $/mb/ , )hite clay orriver chalk, denotative of 0clarity0 or 0p(rity,0 an attri!(te of the ancestors. hite clay, red ochre, and !lack charcoal, or other referents of these properties, are co**only (sed as !asic in"redients of healthcare. hiteness defines the stat(s of the novice )ho, fro* the ti*e of initial entry (ntil "rad(ation, is0in the )hite.0 5his rit(al sy*!olis* is etended to the arena of the sick role, as n"o*a )ell ill(strates.

5he notions of t1( *#1 , and, $/mb3 are (s(ally not, per se, char"ed )ith overtones of po)er. hen

co*!ined )ith other s(!stances into co*po(nds and "iven the 0interpretation0 of a spoken phrase, they !eco*e so. (ch co*po(nds, especially )hen spoken or s(n" over, !eco*e po)erf(l *edicinesinvokin" the attri!(tes of ancestors and spirits. /(thrie !elieves that $engo is the proto4Bant( ter* forthis f(nction. P1ng4 and $hungu in the est, and c3ng5 in the east and so(th of the Bant(4speakin"real*, are its derivative re"ional variants. 5he po)er of *edicine at the level of the co*po(nd, spokenor s(n" over, is evident in its a*!ivalence. 5h(s $1ng or $1ng4 refer not (st to *edicines !(t also toc(rsin" in estern Bant(. i*ilarly, the estern Bant( notion of kStT or kScT refers !oth to the possessin" spirit of an affliction, as )ell as to the *edicine (sed to deal )ith the affliction. +n theeastern*ost appearance of this co"nate a*on" the F(!aized @sen"o of 5anzania =aite 19&%>, it refers



only to spirits. +n the estern re"ion, as in on"o, it carries *ainly the connotation of the consecrated packa"ed *edicine co*po(nd. Focal variations represent !oth or a ran"e of variants !et)een the t)oetre*es here. @"o*a in the *1c0 zone is often sit(ated )ithin this contet as the therape(tic perfor*ance of the *edicine. - *ore localized ter* a*on" the estern F(nda peoples of the o(thernavanna =e."., Gaka, (k(, 5shok)e, and Pende> for the cate"ory of *edicine as spirit4ind(cedco*po(nd or shrine is hamba . +n ?ast -frica, the -ra!ic4derived ter* da'a carries this sa*e

connotation.+n the sa*e )ay as the for*(lation and identification of the sickness or its a"ent *ay "enerate thetreat*ent *ode, thro("h control of that a"ent, so often the therape(tic techni3(e and the specialist aredescri!ed !y the sa*e ter*. 5h(s, very )idely in the Bant(4speakin" area tonal or contet(al e*phasesseparate the co"nate ste* ganga , *edicine,

8 & 8

fro* g3ng3 , doctor, accordin" to /(thrie. hereas the for*er e*phasis is sporadic, the latter is nearly(niversal in the re"ion, ran"in" fro* ng3ng3 in estern on"o, to mganga in ?ast -frica, and in#angaa*on" the A(l(. e"ional ter*s for specialized types of practitioner incl(de, in estern Bant(, bu*i ,co*!inin" c(rin" and divination dia"nosis banda and mbanda in estern Bant(, the first *eanin"spirit of affliction, the second healer dagud in the northeast, *eanin" to practice *edicine or to divineand lumbu or bilumbu in the central o(thern avanna re"ion and igqira in the so(th. 5hese "eneralter*s for doctor or healer are "iven *ore specificity thro("h co*!ination )ith another ter*. 5h(s, theon"o nganga n*isi deals )ith consecrated *edicines =min*isi > nganga lunga is the orthopedistnganga m$odi the c(ppin" horn epert, n*isi m$odi , the c(ppin" horn, and so on.

'ivination is a nearly (niversal techni3(e in these societies, altho("h the partic(lar character of thetechni3(e varies i**ensely. 5he !asic dia"nostic 3(estion for )hich an ans)er is so("ht is that of)hether a *isfort(ne or affliction is d(e to nat(ral6/od4ordained6ca(ses or to h(*an forces, or isrelated to the *is(se of *edicines or inade3(ate control of spirit forces. Beca(se of its inte"ral place in

the interpretation of h(*an eperience in societies of the area, divination *ethods have shiftedfre3(ently to respond to the forces of social chan"e. Unlike the pervasiveness of the ter* that epressesthe hypothesis of h(*an4derived *isfort(ne =d2g >, there see*s to !e no co**on or even re"ionalter* for the interpretation of *isfort(ne in partic(lar cases =(nless it is the co"nate g3ng3 >. +n recentdecades there has !een a )idespread trend for *echanistic techni3(es s(ch as the @"o*!o !asket ofthe o(thern avanna and )est coast, and pen"(la !one4thro)in" in the so(thern re"ion, to !e replaced !y inspirational diviners )ho *ay !e possessed !y a ran"e of spirits: nat(re, ancestral, Christian,+sla*ic. 5he (r"ency to respond to the !asic *etaphysical and social 3(estions a!o(t the ca(ses of*isfort(ne has *aintained the dia"nostic and therape(tic syste* of Central and o(thern -frica a*id*aor chan"es in the past cent(ry. 5he ideational s(perstr(ct(re, *ore than partic(lar techni3(es, hasre*ained hi"hly resilient.

Ng2m3 is a final central co"nate of the *edicine of Bant(4speakin" -frica )hich arises fro* and dra)son all the fore"oin" feat(res. o far this )ork has translated it as 0c(lt of affliction,0 or 0dr(* ofaffliction,0 since in *any re"ions ng2m3 refers to dr(*, the instr(*ent. o)ever, this connection !et)een the ter* and the )ider pheno*enon

8 9 8

is far fro* !ein" a neat sin"le4stranded relationship. -t the core of the 0Bant( con(ndr(*0 is the fact



that altho("h there are so*e )idespread referents of the ter*s )e have seen here, fe) if any are present every)here as a f(lly consistent co*ple of different ele*ents. 5he *(sical instr(*ents thatacco*pany n"o*a and other healin" rites offer intri"(in" cl(es fro* a nonver!al do*ain )hich )ills(pport preli*inary hypotheses to the 3(estions )e seek to ans)er.

In!%*men! O" R#*a' 7ea'#ng A! A Non$e%a' Cognae Se

e *ay think of the iss(es to !e addressed here as a p(zzle )ith several interlockin" pieces. +f thever!al co"nate ngoma is nearly pervasive in Bant( lan"(a"es =)ith the eception of zones B and C, andin the hoisan so(th see *aps, appendi B>, ho) do )e acco(nt for the li*ited distri!(tion, )ithinthat c(lt(ral and lin"(istic space, of rit(al therape(tic instit(tions na*ed ngoma I elated to this, ho)do )e acco(nt for the even less )idely distri!(ted occ(rrence of the dr(* type n"o*a )ithin thatspaceI 5he distri!(tion of the set *ade (p of )ord, !ehavior, and o!ect )ill offer cl(es as to the ori"inand character of the instit(tion.

5here is *ore to the p(zzle. -ltho("h the type of *(sic that acco*panies therape(tic activities inCentral and o(thern -frica varies a "reat deal, )ell !eyond the core area in )hich n"o*a dr(*s are(sed, the association of *(sical instr(*ent types )ith healin" is not rando*. +nstr(*ent types see* to

!e defined !y re"ional sets or traditions, !(t in s(ch a )ay as to diss(ade any zealo(s red(ctionist of aninherent relationship !et)een the n"o*a dr(* type and the therape(tic rit(als.

- first step !eyond the leicon, for the p(rpose of testin" the etent to )hich !ehavioral or nonver!alc(lt(re *ay ali"n )ith ver!al co"nates havin" to do )ith healin", takes (s into the real* of the*aterial c(lt(re of rit(al therapy, na*ely the *(sical instr(*ents, their na*es, and the constellations in)hich they are co*!ined in rit(al perfor*ance )ith sin"ers. 5his evidence, added to the leicalevidence offered a!ove, stren"thens the inferences that *ay !e dra)n a!o(t the ori"in, history, andcharacter of the instit(tion. -s )e pro"ress in this analysis of a co*ple instit(tion, )e )ill ea*inethe relationship of these instr(*ents to voice, son" tet, rhyth*, trance4possession, and the social*ake(p of therape(tic co**(nication )ithin a sociopolitical contet. =appendi C offers a distillationof findin"s on the for*al co*position

8 %$ 8

of instr(*ents, sin"ers, and the overall *ake(p of the n"o*a4type "ro(ps, fro* a ran"e of so(rces !ased on o!servation and the literat(re.> 5he research to date is of *ied 3(ality. +n addition to *y o)no!servations, and the recordin"s and p(!lications of specialized scholars on partic(lar peoples6forea*ple, John Blackin" =19%#, 19&K> on the ;enda, Pa(l Berliner =19&1> a*on" the hona6a *aorsyste*atic co*pendi(* of "reat (sef(lness is the s(rvey of *(sic in Aairian healin" rites !yresearchers -rna(t, Biolo, ?sole, /anse*ans, ishilo, Mal(tshi, and (erson of the @ational M(se(*of Aaire in the 19%$s and early 19&$s =see appendi C>. 5his )ork is !acked (p !y another, earlier, set

of data fo(nd in the )ork of Dl"a Boone, )hose 19K1 classic 8es tambours du Congo belge et du Ruanda,7rundi identified dr(* types and their na*es across Central -frica.

+n the !elt across the *iddle of the continent, fro* on"o to )ahili, )here /(thrie finds the "reatestconver"ence of co**on Bant( ter*s, ngoma refers pri*arily to the elon"ated )ooden dr(* )ith asin"le *e*!rane attached at one end )ith pe"s. Boone noted that this *aor dr(* type )as distri!(tedalon" an east4)est line ro("hly at the o(thern avannaforest !order. @orth of this line )as a re"ion of0*ied0 dr(* types, )ith the pe""ed n"o*a type interspersed )ith a type that (ses cords to fasten the*e*!rane to the !ody of the dr(*. 'r(*s )hose *e*!ranes )ere attached )ith cord or strin" )ererarely called ngoma .



+n the re"ion of n"o*a rit(als, n"o*a the instr(*ent (s(ally is also identified as a dance dr(* and asacred *edicine dr(*. +t *ay also !e a dr(* of state. +n societies )here trance4possession andtherape(tic c(lts are present, n"o*a *ore than any other dr(* is (sed in this therape(tic settin", to theacco*pani*ent of shakers and sin"in". 5o the north of the re"ion )here this set of practices prevails,strin"ed and )ind instr(*ents are *ore co**on in healin" rites n"o*a dr(*s are a!sent.

5herape(tic rit(als in the rain forest of ?3(ate(r Province of northern Aaire "enerally de*onstrate the

typical call4and4response pattern of *(sical interaction fo(nd else)here: a s(fferer and healer, and a0choir0 *ade (p of sets of additional individ(als on either or !oth sides, )ith the acco*pani*ent ofhand clappin", rasps, rattles, )histles, !ells, strin"ed zithers or harps, horns, "on"s, and kettle or slit4"on" dr(*s, as )ell as occasionally the ylophone =see appendi C>. pirits that are invoked in theserites are often ancestors =0?li*a,0 0Bali*o,0

8 %1 8

0Mali*(,0 consonant )ith the co"nate d1mu > or nat(re or )ild spirits =0etshi,0 0@zondo0>.

-ll of the ?3(ate(r ea*ples in the Aaire s(rvey are taken fro* north of the line, esta!lished in

Boone<s !ambours =19K1> st(dy, !eyond )hich no lanced4skin dr(*s are said to have !een *ade and(sed. +n other )ords, the northern forest pict(re of therape(tics fro* the Aaire s(rvey de*onstrates thathealin" rit(als in Central -frica occ(r )idely )itho(t the characteristic n"o*a dr(*. -ltho("h /(thrieincl(des these re"ions in his Bant( lan"(a"e area, they are conspic(o(s for the a!sence of ngoma as aver!al co"nate, a pattern that is also tr(e of the eastern Aaire are"a rite 0B(tii.0

By contrast, the o(thern avanna, ?ast -frican, o(theast, and o(thern -frican ea*ples oftherape(tic rit(als de*onstrate the near pervasive presence of the n"o*a4type lanced4skin dr(* in the perfor*ance of the n"o*a rite. -s one *oves so(th and east, n"o*a dr(*s are the r(le (ntil onereaches the @orth @"(ni !eyond the Aa*!ezi river. 5hey are present in ;enda ngoma dza )adzimu rites, in )azi and han"an rit(als, and in so*e area royal settin"s. B(t a*on" the so(thern @"(ni peoples =A(l(, Hhosa> they are a!sent fro* !oth royal and c(lt settin"s. ere, n"o*a refers neither to

the dr(*s (sed =co)hide stretched over sticks or oil dr(*s>, nor to the dancin", !(t ecl(sively to thesin"in", divinin", and the desi"nation of those )ho do these thin"s. 5h(s, the A(l( isangoma diviner isliterally 0one )ho does n"o*a06that is, sin"s the son"s. -*on" Hhosa, *(ch infl(enced lin"(istically !y hoisan, the role ter* for the n"o*a4sin"er !eco*es igqira divination is handled not )ith !ones !(t thro("h conte*plation. /ro(p and net)ork s(pport plays a *ore i*portant place thanindivid(alized divinin" in the )ork of n"o*a. 5here is th(s a host of re"ional and societal variationsaro(nd )hich the notion 0c(lt of affliction0 or 0dr(* of affliction0 *(st !e analyzed.

?ceptions to this pattern are coastal )ahili, the hona settin" of Ai*!a!)e, and the )estern on"osettin". /enerally, in the ea*ples )e have fro* the vast re"ion *entioned, s(fferer=s> and healer=s>either constit(te or are oined !y a choir and other instr(*ents, s(ch as shakers or rattles, "on"s, and

hand clappin".+n the hona re"ion the dr(* is replaced !y another instr(*ent, the lar"e "o(rd4resonatin" hand piano,mbira , (s(ally played in an orchestra of a dozen or so *e*!ers, in perfor*ances called bira . 5heon"o re"ion reveals a *ied pict(re, insofar as *(sical instr(*enta4

8 %2 8

tion of healin" rites is concerned, consonant )ith Boone<s deter*ination =19K1> that )estern Aaire )asa re"ion of 0*ied0 dr(* types. on"o therape(tic rites (tilize a *it(re of horns, sin"le and do(!le



"on"s, )histles, rattles, and a ran"e of dr(*s =incl(din" n"o*a to dr(* (p *aor n*isi , 0rit(al*edicine0 see appendi C>. 5he )ahili coast feat(res the 0p(re0 n"o*a types of healin" rites,invaria!ly fro* the interior, altho("h the +sla*ic4infl(enced rites (tilize s*all do(!le4*e*!rane dr(*sand shakers.

5his instr(*ent s(rvey, s(""estive of type cl(sters aro(nd the )idespread n"o*a re"ion, !elies thei*pressive *(sical consistency across the s(!continent in ter*s of a fe) feat(res + shall take (p later

in *ore detail, !(t )hich need to !e pointed o(t here. 5hro("ho(t the rites cited, the *(sical scoresoffer a pervasive (se of call and response !et)een the sin"le 0soloist06the s(fferer, novice6and the0choir06the local cell or a "ro(p of 0si"nificant others.0

5he patternin" of the instr(*ents in therape(tic rites, a"ainst this !ackdrop of the call and response andson"4dance, s(""ests that there are re"ionally, or c(lt(rally, specific constellations of instr(*ents. e*ay think of these in ter*s of the co**on4sense desi"nations of instr(*ent types6harp, zither,)histle, horn, dr(*6or in ter*s of the for*al desi"nations of *(sicolo"ists =Marc(se, in Merria*19%%:2K$>: the idio$hone , an 0instr(*ent that yields a so(nd !y its o)n s(!stance, !ein" stiff andelastic eno("h to vi!rate )itho(t re3(irin" a stretched *e*!rane or strin"0 =e."., ylophone, *!ira,sansa, like*!e, rattles, !ells, "on"s, slit dr(*s> membro$hone , 0any instr(*ent in )hich so(nd is prod(ced !y vi!ration of a stretched *e*!rane, !ro("ht a!o(t !y strikin", friction, or so(nd )aves0=e."., dr(*s> aero$hone , 0any *(sic instr(*ent in )hich tone is "enerated !y *eans of air set invi!ration0 =19%%:2K2> =e."., horns, fl(tes, panpipes, and ocarinas> and chordo$hone , 0any instr(*enthavin" strin"s as tone4prod(cin" ele*ents, the pitch of the instr(*ent !ein" dependent on the strin"s0=e."., harp, zither>.

5he chordophones6the strin"ed instr(*ents6altho("h they are present thro("ho(t, are (sed inhealin" rites only in the northern forest re"ion. Most co**on in healin" rites thro("ho(t the Centraland o(thern -frican re"ion, is the idiophone, that is, the shaker, "on", ylophone, slit4"on" dr(*, andthe th(*! or hand piano. econd *ost co**on in healin" rites of the entire re"ion is the*e*!rophone, the sin"le or do(!le *e*!rane dr(*. 5he areophone see*s to !e *ore co**on in thenorthern forest re"ion than in the o(thern avanna and other so(thern re"ions.

8 %# 8

+n ter*s of the hypothesis anno(nced earlier concernin" the relationship of instr(*ent type to thetherape(tic rite, "reat variation is apparent. @evertheless, the variation is patterned. +t is not *erely areflection of the "eneral stock of *(sical instr(*ents (sed in the re"ional c(lt(re. trin"ed instr(*entsand horns are )idespread !(t are not fre3(ently (sed in therape(tic rites o(tside the forest re"ion.'r(*s, readily availa!le in forest societies, are not fre3(ently (sed for healin" there. Dn the o(thernavanna, dr(*s are the pri*ary instr(*ent of healin". 5he pervasive -frican hand4piano6 nsanza(

mbira 6is (sed in *aor healin" rites only a*on" the hona "ro(p of Ai*!a!)e.

- second concl(sion, anno(nced earlier, follo)s fro* this findin" on the pattern of distri!(tion of*(sical instr(*ents (tilized in therape(tic rites. 5h(s )e *(st !e s(spicio(s of clai*s that eplain aspecific pattern of therapy, or possession rit(al, in ter*s of the effects of a partic(lar type of instr(*ent,s(ch as the dr(*. 5his is partic(larly the case "iven the !ack"ro(nd of co**on *(sical style feat(ress(ch as call and response and polyrhyth*, and of the choral nat(re of -frican therape(tic son"4dance.

Dne final piece of the p(zzle, of those )ith )hich )e !e"an this section, re*ains to !e p(t in place.hat, then, eplains the distri!(tion of the n"o*a4style dr(* and the (se of this na*e for thetherape(tic and cele!rative son"4danceI -s )e have seen, this distri!(tion is ro("hly o(tlined on thenorth !y an arc r(nnin" so(th)ard of the Con"oAaire iver, then northeast)ard fro* Fake ;ictoria



across so(thern enya. +t etends fro* the -tlantic to the +ndian oceans, and so(th)ard to the !o(ndary of @"(ni4speakers and the hona. Plotted on /(thrie<s lan"(a"e *ap, this correspondsapproi*ately to the 7, , , F, M, @, P, and parts of the zones =see appendi B>. +t is a!sent fro*the C and *ost of ' zones in the north, present only alon" the coast of -, and sparse in the zonea!sent in the lar"e hoisan zone, as )ell as in part of the zone, the so(th @"(ni.

- tentative interpretation of this distri!(tion of the associated dr(* type and therape(tic rite )o(ld

point to its presence, as a co"nate, in early or proto4Bant(, )ith so*e kind of a*plification in the?astern Bant( *i"rations fro* the lake re"ion, )est)ard across the savanna to the -tlantic coast,so(th)ard across the Aa*!ezi and the Fi*popo, and east)ard to the +ndian Dcean coast. 5he earlyestern Bant( pattern of n"o*a dr(*s is not clear at this point the identification of !oth the dr(*type and the rit(al is etre*ely diverse and needs f(rther st(dy. +t is clear, ho)ever, that over *(ch ofthe )estern Con"o !asin, as in on"o society, there is an overlay or *eldin" of pres(*a!ly ?ast4

8 %L 8

ern and estern Bant( ele*ents. +t is pro!a!le that n"o*a techni3(es and *aterial c(lt(re6the n"o*adr(*6co*ple*ented or incorporated the east)ard spread of distinctly estern Bant( c(lt(ralele*ents s(ch as the n*isi =kno)n fro* the on"o coast to the F(!a4ized @sen"a in Mala)i and far)estern 5anzania>. 5he coastal -tlantic rites in /a!on and Ca*eroon, )here the pe""ed4*e*!ranedr(* is present, are s(""estive of Central -frican rites. hether these are d(e to proto4Bant( or *orerecent ?astern Bant( i*p(lses is (nclear. D(r ?astern Bant( ori"ins hypothesis for n"o*a *(st re*ains(""estive for the present.

So(#a' An) Po'##(a' Va%#a'e! O" A Com+'e: In!#*#on

7or*al one4di*ensional c(lt(ral historical indices s(ch as ver!al co"nates and the distri!(tion of*aterial c(lt(re have set the !road historic !o(ndaries of n"o*a. e *(st no) look )ithin the re"ionand its societies to f(rther identify the s(!ect at hand and to esta!lish the hall*arks for its presence

)ithin this !road contet. 5he net t)o chapters on 0core feat(res0 and 0doin" n"o*a0 )ill f(rtheridentify !ehavioral and nor*ative correlates of n"o*a, as (sed in its !roader *eanin" as has e*er"edin the fore"oin" pa"es, and as the set )e have !een descri!in" as a 0c(lt of affliction.0 o)ever, first)e can identify so*e of the !road4stroke social and political corollaries of those settin"s in )hichn"o*a is present and in )hich it is a!sent. econd, )ithin the re"ion and societies )here this setocc(rs, )e can !e"in to look for the reasons for the rise and decline of partic(lar *anifestations ofn"o*a the instit(tion, and )hy it is se"*ented into *any specialized "ro(ps in one settin" andho*o"eneo(s or (nitary in other settin"s. 5hird, "iven that n"o*a co*!ines feat(res that are nor*allydifferentiated in estern instit(tions and in estern scholarship, )hat is an appropriate (nderstandin"of the c(lt of affliction and its f(nctions as an instit(tionI

C*'! O" A""'#(#on In Cen%a'#ze) An) Segmena%& So(#e#e!

Many of the societies of the s(!continent have !een linea"e4!ased a"rarian co**(nities, practicin"so*e h(ntin", and in re"ions )here the sleepin" sickness4carryin" tsetse fly is a!sent, livestocktendin".

8 %K 8



?specially in coastal re"ions, co**ercial cities have e*er"ed, linkin" the continent to overseas*ercantile centers. 5he re"ion incl(des o(thern avanna *atrilineal societies s(ch as the on"o,F(nda, Cok)e, i*!(nd(, and Be*!a of Aaire, -n"ola, Aa*!ia, and Mala)i patrilineal societiess(ch as the F(!a, Fozi, @ya*)ezi, and others of the central re"ion, and in the so(thern re"ion, the @"(ni4speakin" societies of the A(l(, )azi, and Hhosa and near!y, the hona, otho, and 5s)ana, tona*e a fe). 5he re"ion has seen the e*er"ence of n(*ero(s precolonial states and e*pires, incl(din"

the cl(ster of F(!a, F(nda, i*!(nd(, and Cok)e states on the )estern coast, the on"o, Foan"o,akon"o, and @"oyo states the states of the eastern lakes, B(so"a and B("anda, and east)ard, @ya*)ezi in the Ai*!a!)e re"ion, the historic state of Mona*otapa *ore recently, in the earlynineteenth cent(ry, the A(l( e*pire and the 5s)ana chiefdo*s, and the otho kin"do* in the o(thern-frica area, associated )ith the "reat dist(r!ances kno)n as Mfecane.

@"o*a4type c(lts of affliction have related dyna*ically to these states. 5hey have either !een !ro("ht(nder the t(tela"e of "overn*ent and served the p(rposes of, and the le"iti*ation for, soverei"n po)er,or they have preserved and perpet(ated se"*ents of society not directly related to the state. +n thea!sence of the state, they have provided a for*at for the perpet(ation of social se"*ents, partic(larlythose *ar"inalized or afflicted, s(ch as )o*en, the handicapped, those str(ck )ith *isfort(ne inecono*y4related tasks s(ch as h(ntin", )o*en<s reprod(ctive capacity, or co**erce. +n so*e settin"s,

the *odel of the c(lt has provided the !asis for nor*ative social a(thority, definin" and or"anizin"econo*ic activity, social or"anization, and *ore esoteric reli"io(s and artistic activities.

+n colonial and postcolonial -frica, the lo"ic of the (se of affliction and adversity for the or"anizationof social reprod(ction has contri!(ted to the perpet(ation, even the proliferation, of c(lts of affliction,often in a )ay that has !affled "overn*ental a(thorities and o(tside o!servers. C(lts have arisen inconnection )ith epide*ics, *i"ration and trade ro(tes, shifts in *odes of prod(ction, and in responseto chan"es in social or"anization and the deterioration of (ridical instit(tions. Colonialis* itself(ndo(!tedly "enerated *any of the c(lts of affliction that appeared in the t)entieth cent(ry.Postindependence conditions have contin(ed to provide "rist for the *ill of c(lt for*ation.

5he pict(re of c(lts of affliction )ithin, or in relation to, centralized historic states contrasts *arkedly

)ith that in the decentralized societ4

8 % 8

ies. Under the shado) of the state they are less infl(ential, or entirely a!sent, or transfor*ed into therit(als of statecraft. +nstr(ctive is their apparent a!sence in the 5s)ana chiefdo*s, )here stron" historicchief4ship has provided social contin(ity, a for*at for the (ridical process, and so*e *eans of *aterials(pport to *ar"inalized and needy people. By contrast, in nei"h!orin" @"(ni societies, they havethrived alon"side or (nder the t(tela"e of chiefs and kin"s.

+n other contets c(lts are kno)n to have provided the i*pet(s for the e*er"ence of centralized

polities, as in the case of the B(nzi shrine of coastal on"o. ?lse)here, c(lts have e*er"ed in the )akeof historic states, pickin" (p the a(ra of royal a(thority, the trappin"s of soverei"nty, and transfor*in"the* into a contin(in" so(rce of *ystical po)er. - pri*e ea*ple is the c(lt of yan"o*!e and theB(C)ezi of the lakes re"ion of eastern Central -frica, )hose spirits are said to !e the royal dynastiesof the ancient C)ezi kin"do* =Ber"er 19&1>. B(C)ezi is today fo(nd in 5anzania<s *aor cities. 5hesa*e *odel has !een reported in Mayotte, off the coast of ?ast -frica, )here possession spirits are theaklava kin"s of Mada"ascar =Fa*!ek 19&1:1K2>.

5he dyna*ic relationship of c(lts to centralized polities has !een acco*panied !y chan"es in the )ayspirits and shades are foc(sed in conscio(sness and rit(al. -s the scale and f(nction of a c(lt epands,



narro)ly defined ancestor shades *ay "ive )ay to nat(re, alien, or hero spirits. +n a fe) instances,centralized shrine c(lts have persisted over cent(ries, definin" pri*ary val(es and social patterns for"enerations of adepts. 5he B(nzi shrine of coastal on"o, M!ona of Mala)i, and orekore andChik(nda in Ai*!a!)e are )ell4st(died ea*ples that contin(e into the present. o*e a(thors have*ade a distinction !et)een these centralized 0re"ional0 c(lts and topically foc(sed c(lts of affliction=er!ner 19%%>. B(t the orders, taken in their entirety, s(""est *ore of a contin((* alon" several aes:

centralized to se"*entary, incl(sive to specialized, controlled !y state soverei"nty to independent =oreven opposed to state soverei"nty>. C(lts have crystallized opposition to states, !oth in precolonial,colonial, and to a lesser de"ree, postcolonial settin"s. 5h(s, the C)ezi c(lt channeled opposition tohierarchized str(ct(res in the +nterlac(strine state of )anda =Ber"er 19&1>. C(lt leaders or"anizedopposition to hodesian la!or recr(it*ent practices in the early t)entieth cent(ry and inspired earlystrikes in the *ines =;an Dnselen 19%>. +n the Ai*!a!)ean )ar of independence, *edi(*s played arole of le"iti*atin" the clai*s to land !y the elders, and the aspirations of the "(errilla fi"hters,altho("h the par4

8 %% 8

tic(lars have only !e"(n to !e st(died caref(lly =7ry 19% an"er 19&K:1&%21>. 5he role of n"o*anet)orks in pop(lar resistance in o(th -frica<s to)nships is not yet kno)n to scholars, !(t it *ay !es(!stantial.

+n the t)entieth cent(ry, c(lts of affliction have tended to !e short4ter* *ove*ents of panacea='eCrae*er, ;ansina, and 7o 19%>, often !orn in desperation. 5hey have provided epression to the pains and social pro!le*s of )ide se"*ents of the pop(lace. 5here has !een a "reat deal ofinterpenetration !et)een the c(lts and independent Christian ch(rches, and )ith +sla*ic orders. @e) per*anent c(lts have arisen aro(nd characteristic ills s(ch as the isolated n(clear ho(sehold in the(r!an settin" epide*ic diseases s(ch as t(!erc(losis, and "ettin" !y )ith the chronic pro!le*s relatedto it the divination of social pro!le*s s(ch as (ne*ploy*ent in a proletarian settin" ho) to s(cceedin !(siness and ho) to retain a o! ho) to protect )ealth once it is ac3(ired. Many c(lts foc(s on thealienation and entrap*ent so co**on in the -frican (r!an settin".

+n the (r!an centers of Aaire, 5anzania, )aziland, and o(th -frica the historic c(lts as )ell as ne)adaptations are represented !y part4ti*e and f(ll4ti*e healers and priests and their adepts. +n *ostinstances the ethnic co**(nities of the r(ral hinterlands have !ro("ht their reli"io(s instit(tions )iththe* to the city, )here they have (nder"one shifts of f(nction and si"nification.

Un#a%& An) 3#$e%!e Man#"e!a#on!

- f(rther iss(e in considerin" independent varia!les s(rro(ndin" the ori"in, persistence, and chan"e inn"o*a has to do )ith its alternative (nitary and diverse *anifestation across the re"ion )here it is

fo(nd. 5his contrast is *ost *arked in co*parin" the central re"ion of the continent )ith the so(thernre"ion. -cross the *id4continent, fro* the Con"o coast, across the o(thern savanna, to the 5anzanianhi"hlands and the coastal re"ion, n"o*a4type instit(tions are (s(ally represented in *(ltiples. 5(rner<s)ork =19&> a*on" the @de*!(, a society incorporated on the periphery of the F(nda e*pire, co(ntedt)enty4three n"o*a orders Cory<s )ritin" on the (k(*a of the Fake ;ictoria shores in )estern5an"anyika en(*erated a!o(t t)enty4five n"o*a orders. o*e of these pertained to )o*en<sreprod(ctive disorders or child rearin". Dthers had to do )ith *en<s pro!le*s, either in prod(c4



8 %& 8

tive )ork or in social roles. everal had to do )ith societal dan"ers, either fro* the nat(ral )orld =e."., poisono(s snakes> or fro* spirit(al threats =)itches> or alien spirits. Dthers co(ld !e seen ascere*onial leadership or"anizations that consolidated responsi!ilities s(ch as )itch findin" or thesponsorship of periodic rit(als. +n the so(thern re"ion, partic(larly in @"(ni4speakin" societies ofMoza*!i3(e, Ai*!a!)e, o(th -frica, )aziland, and Fesotho, n"o*a is *ainly presented as a

ho*o"eneo(s type of instit(tion, devoted to the reco"nition of ancestors and addressin" "eneral h(*an pro!le*s.

+t is diffic(lt to interpret this contrastin" confi"(ration in ter*s of an independent varia!le, either in the past or in the present. +t is te*ptin" to look at this contrast in ter*s of a kind of '(rkhei*ian orpencerian social str(ct(ral proliferation or specialization that occ(rs in *ost societies )ith advancin"ti*e. 5he older societies in the Bant( epansion, nota!ly of the central area, )o(ld have sho)n "reaterinstit(tional diversity !eca(se of their "reater historical depth in that settin". hereas the @"(ni in theso(th, ee*plifyin" the end res(lt of *i"rations and frontier4type settin"s, )o(ld have retained a lessdifferentiated type of society. 5his perspective *i"ht then reveal so*ethin" a!o(t the ori"inal role ofn"o*a in the 0Bant( frontier,0 perhaps in the need to consolidate a(thority and to co*e to ter*s )iththreats and contradictions of vario(s kinds. o)ever, there is no )ay to test s(ch a theory orhypothesis, *(ch less deter*ine )hich are the independent and dependent varia!les, (ntil far !etterhistorical (nderstandin" is availa!le.

5here are indications in specific settin"s of trends in c(lts of affliction to)ard "reater proliferation, orto)ard "reater ho*o"eneity, )hich *ay offer a less "randiose approach to the iss(e. 5he salientindependent varia!le here see*s to !e political and social consolidation. +n the seventeenth4tonineteenth4cent(ry coastal Con"o settin", in )hich the Fe*!a c(lt e*er"ed, there )as a proliferationof n*isi *edicines, char*s, and n"o*a4type orders, especially alon" the coast as the coastal tradeeroded political states s(ch as Foan"o, akon"o, and @"oyo, as )ell as the on"o kin"do*, and(nder*ined the (ridical f(nctions that these states )ere a!le to f(lfill. 5he decline of the states *ay !ecorrelated directly )ith the increase of char*s, *edicines, and c(lts, incl(din" Fe*!a. o)ever,

)ithin Fe*!a6the *aor re"ional n"o*a4c(lt or"anization, )hich reflected trade, alliance !(ildin",and healin"6there e*er"ed a consolidation of so*e of the diverse s(!4char*s and f(nctions. 7orea*ple, the coastal *id)ifery order Pfe*!a, the preva4

8 %9 8

lent )ay of dealin" )ith )o*en<s reprod(ctive iss(es, )as co4opted !y Fe*!a =Janzen 19&2:K>. +tsrepresentation in the Fe*!a order and n*obe !asket of *edicines ca*e to !e kno)n as 0Pfe*!a4Fe*!a0 =Janzen 19&2:2K#2KL>. +n other re"ions Fe*!a appears to have incorporated, or ali"ned )ith,other distinctive rit(al f(nctions and *edicines. e *ay proect this proced(re to its lo"ical etensionand i*a"ine that *(ltiple rit(al f(nctions *i"ht !e si*ilarly a!sor!ed )ithin a sin"le instit(tion,

leadin" to "reater f(nctional ho*o"eneity. -t the etre*e, this *i"ht have led to co*plete inte"rationof rit(al f(nctions )ithin the state or so*e other a!sol(tistic type of instit(tion. Dr, it co(ld, as in thecase of coastal on"o, indicate that )here the centralized state had collapsed, n"o*a4type orders took(p so*e of the f(nctions of state, s(ch as conflict resol(tion, social control of threat, and thechannelin" of (sef(l kno)led"e as applied to pro!le* solvin".

-nother ea*ple of *ove*ent to)ard rit(al consolidation fro* the conte*porary n"o*a pict(reco*es fro* 5anzania. 5here, a *odern state4sanctioned or"anization of n"o*a healers, the hirika laMada)a descri!ed in the previo(s chapter, controls the reso(rce of n"o*a recr(it*ent. +ndeed, this



control of accesss to the role of n"o*a healer and *e*!ership in the association is s(fficientlyrestrictive that one of the *aor le"iti*atin" criteria of ad*ission, na*ely certified possession !y a sheitani spirit, occ(rs in only fo(r o(t of a h(ndred individ(als treated !y the n"o*a "ro(p. B(t thehirika<s a!ility to control diversity is offset !y co*petition fro* the *any other n"o*a orders in 'ares alaa*.

+t is diffic(lt to for*(late a strict calc(l(s of the *yriad ran"e of transfor*ations n"o*a *ay (nder"o

across the re"ion )here it has !een reported. - fe) "eneralizations are possi!le. @"o*a appears to fadea)ay )here there is a stron" central a(thority )ith a hi"hly developed (dicial tradition =e."., 5s)ana>.+t see*s to proliferate on the social and "eo"raphical *ar"ins of lar"e e*pires =e."., @de*!( in theF(nda e*pire BaC)ezi in yan"o*!e> or as a *echanis* for the consolidation of a(thority in theinterstices of society )here *isfort(ne l(rks =e."., Bil(*!( in F(!a society>. +t proliferates )here*isfort(ne is ra*pant and )here social chaos prevails =e."., early colonial resistance, post)arAi*!a!)e, o(th -frican (r!an to)nships>. +n the )ake of the de*ise of centralized states, it *ay takeon the f(nctions of the state =e."., Fe*!a in coastal on"o>.

'o the constant feat(res thro("h all these transfor*ations represent an instit(tionI +f so, ho) can that !e characterizedI

8 &$ 8

S(ho'a%'& /'#n)e%! An) The Ono'og& O" A Un#*e In!#*#on

cholars, ad*inistrators, policy*akers, and therapists have predicta!ly co*e (p )ith varyin" opinionson ho) to characterize the n"o*a4type c(lt of affliction. -s a final task in this chapter on identifyin"n"o*a, + )ish to ar"(e for the proposition that it is a (ni3(e instit(tion.

'efinitions of instit(tion a!o(nd, !(t they reflect a co**on (nderstandin" of ho) society is p(tto"ether and f(nctions. '(rkhei* s(""ested =in Parsons 19L9:L$%> that 0NaO !ody of r(les "overnin"

action in p(rs(it of i**ediate ends insofar as they eercise *oral a(thority deriva!le fro* a co**onval(e syste* *ay !e called social instit(tions.0 - falsifia!le proof of this definition held, said'(rkhei*, that 0the *eans to these ends *ay vary, !(t the r(les reflect the co**on val(es. +f they arelost si"ht of, the res(lt is a !reakdo)n of control, and ano*ie.0 +n another tradition, M. /. *ith noted=19%L:212> that 0)hether c(lt(re is restrictively defined as the sy*!ols, nor*s, val(es, and ideationalsyste*s of a "iven pop(lation, or *ore incl(sively as their standardized and trans*itted patterns oftho("ht and action, all instit(tional or"anization has a c(lt(ral coefficient, since each instit(tioninvolves collective nor*s, ideas, and sy*!ols as )ell as standardized *odes of proced(re.0

5hese "eneral theoretical co**ents a!o(t the !road !asis of instit(tions6nor*s, co**on !eliefs,ends *et !y a ran"e of *eans6)o(ld certainly !e appropriate to descri!e )hat n"o*a does in Centraland o(thern -frican society. 5he pro!le*, of co(rse, is that !y estern instit(tional and scholarly

standards so*e of the ea*ples of n"o*a are stran"e indeed. 5hey have heretofore !een p(t intor(!rics of either estern instit(tions or have !een allo)ed to lan"(ish in ethno"raphies as local c(lt(re,for ea*ple, @de*!( reli"ion, A(l( diviners, and on"o fertility *a"ic.

5he interpretation of -frican c(lts of affliction is analo"o(s to the st(dy of so*e other do*ains inanthropolo"ical research in that scholars have !een faced )ith the need to !rid"e the indi"eno(sconcept )ith the analytical notion. o*eti*es scholarship has co*e do)n on the side of the for*er, asin tote*is*, ta!oo, or sha*anis* other ti*es it has co*e do)n on the latter, )hich is fre3(ently areflection of a estern instit(tional cate"ory.



5he de!ate a!o(t kinship in estern anthropolo"y is instr(ctive here. 'avid chneider<s Critique of the

Stud# of &inshi$ took iss(e )ith

8 &1 8

the pervasive ass(*ption !y "enerations of anthropolo"ists since Mor"an of the (niversality of the

fa*ily and kinship. 5his he eplained, not so *(ch !y fa(ltin" Fo(is enry Mor"an for findin" thefa*ily and kinship a*on" the +ro3(ois, !(t !y fa(ltin" anthropolo"y at lar"e for adoptin" esternnotions of !asic instit(tions and i*posin" the* (pon societies of the )orld. 5he 0!i" fo(r0 instit(tionsof estern society are, for chneider: kinship =the fa*ily>, the econo*y =!(siness>, politics =the state>,and reli"ion =the ch(rch>.

estern social science, incl(din" anthropolo"y, has etended this 3(artet as analytical cate"ories ontoother societies, *(ch to the detri*ent of insi"hts to !e "ained. ocieties in )hich these instit(tions orattri!(tes see* to !e co*!ined differently, or are only partially represented, are held to !e0(ndifferentiated,0 and therefore 0*ore pri*itive,0 or so*eho) disor"anized or *(ddled.

Dne of the *aor challen"es, then, in presentin" n"o*a has !een to transcend estern instit(tional

cate"orization. 5he diffic(lty of esterners, and of estern4trained -fricans, in acceptin" n"o*a or thec(lt of affliction as a valid instit(tion in its o)n ri"ht, has !een instr(ctive in this re"ard. +n *any-frican settin"s the colonial le"acy of estern instit(tional str(ct(res clashes *arkedly )ith the-frican instit(tion.

@"o*a in 5anzania, )here there has !een a co**it*ent to !(ild on -frican fo(ndations, ill(strates the point. Dfficially, -frican *edicine and its instit(tions are reco"nized. esearch (nits devoted to thes(!ect have !een sponsored. o)ever, the research effort and the state*ent of the reality oftherape(tic n"o*a are initiated fro* the specialized !asis of estern instit(tional cate"ories. 5h(s, the5raditional Medicine esearch Unit at the @ational ospital is char"ed )ith ea*inin" the !otanicaland che*ical character of *edicines (sed in n"o*a and other types of indi"eno(s *edicine and )ithcreatin" a pro"ra* for pri*ary health )ithin the fra*e)ork of indi"eno(s healin". 5he M(sic section

of the Ministry of C(lt(re is char"ed )ith researchin" the dance and son" !asis of n"o*a, as )ell assponsorin" dance co*petitions of c(rrent n"o*a "ro(ps and licensin" entertain*ent n"o*a. 5heMinistry also sponsors the national dance tro(pe and allied n"o*a "ro(ps. 5he political party of5anzania has de facto liaisons to n"o*a and lar"e healer<s associations. 5anzanian !(rea(cracy th(ssections n"o*a into distinctive cate"ories consonant )ith estern r(les of social order.

+n *y earlier )ork on Fe*!a =Janzen 19&2> + o!served the str(""le of p(!lishers and revie)ers toco*e to ter*s )ith this dile**a of the inte"rity of the instit(tion vers(s the cate"ories of esternscholar4

8 &2 8ship. 5he p(!lisher, in fillin" o(t the Fi!rary of Con"ress Catalo"(e 'ata pa"e, descri!ed Fe*!a as a0c(lt,0 th(s a s(!set of reli"ion. everal revie)ers tried to escape the straitacket of esterninstit(tional typolo"ies !(t s(cceeded only partially in doin" so, co*in" (p )ith hyphenatedcate"orical types. Dne revie)er, after a pa"e of disc(ssion, noted that 0to define it si*ply NFe*!a )asOa c(lt and a social instit(tion that controlled trade, *arkets, and processes of echan"e0 =M(di*!e19&>. -nother, pickin" (p on *y voca!(lary, called Fe*!a a 0therape(tic4alliance4tradin" instit(tion0=7eld*an 19&&>.

5hese revie)ers appreciated the (ni3(e instit(tional profile !etter than another )ho spoke of the !ook<s



havin" offered 0a ne) fra*e)ork for thinkin" a!o(t a little (nderstood re"ion of -frica and foranalyzin" the relations !et)een the political, kinship, reli"ions, and econo*ic aspects of socialstr(ct(re0 =ies*an 19&K>, there!y virt(ally sectionin" the s(!ect thro("h the estern instit(tionalcate"ories.

-nother revie)er =t(art 19&>, )hose s(**ary of the )ork is a *odel of s(ccinct interpretation,offered this eplanation of Fe*!a<s *i of trade, alliances, and therapy: 05he ngoma , or the <dr(* of

affliction< !eca*e the c(lt(ral sy*!ol of a therape(tic society ... )hich evolved to deal )ith the socialstress and c(lt(ral chan"e created !y ?(rope<s "ro)in" co**ercial infl(ence.0 e concl(ded )ith thisinsi"ht: 0N5Oherape(tics *ay !e the *etaphor servin" to facilitate consolidation of s(!stantialreso(rces, *aterial and h(*an, and to aid lon"4ter* reorderin" of instit(tions of redress, econo*icredistri!(tion, and ideolo"ical chan"e.0

e are th(s confronted in Fe*!a, as in *any other variants of the n"o*a profile across Central ando(thern -frica, )ith a constellation of practices and perspectives that are (ni3(e and yield to(nderstandin" only )ith so*e critical analysis. 5his realization hi"hli"hts the centrality of the need todeal caref(lly )ith the ho*olo"y !et)een lan"(a"e, !ehavior, and instit(tions, )hich is closely relatedto the first activity of divinin", science, reli"ion, and a host of other h(*an enterprises, to )it, na*in"the pheno*enon.

5o (nderstand this !etter, it is instr(ctive to look at revie)s of the Fe*!a !ook, partic(larly one thatdisc(ssed the 3(estion of na*in" n"o*a. 5his revie)er =tevens 19&L:29#1> tho("ht the st(dy had !een done a disservice !y allo)in" 0the ter* <dr(* of affliction< to stand in the s(!title.0 +t )as not that0dr(* of affliction 06derived fro* n"o*a6*i"ht !e an erroneo(s la!el for Fe*!a !(t that only ahandf(l

8 &# 8

of specialists like ;ictor 5(rner kno) the ter* refers to @de*!( rit(als. +t has little reco"nition val(eas a *ore )idespread type of pheno*enon, he ar"(ed. Get if none of the estern instit(tional la!els are

appropriate, and an epert<s ?n"lish ter* for the indi"eno(s ter* in one -frican society is notappropriate, then !y )hich ter* do )e descri!e, or (nderstand, the pheno*enon if )e )ish to avoidhavin" it locked into one or *ore versions of, or a hyphenated version of, the estern instit(tional"ridI Be"innin" )ith 5(rner<s local @de*!( )ork, tevens reasons o(t an approi*ation of n"o*a inthe !roader sense, freed of its estern instit(tional cate"orical !oes.

N5(rner<sO (se of the alternate @de*!( *eanin", 0dr(*,0 is si"nificant to ananthropolo"ical investi"ation of sy*!ol and *eanin" in -frican c(lt(res, and it )ill servest(dents and collectors of -frican art )ell to consider for a *o*ent the possi!ility that adr(*, as an o!ect, *ay !e *eanin"f(l only as a constr(ction of *aterials, !arely even as a*(sical instr(*ent its c(lt(ral *eanin" is revealed only thro("h the total socio4reli"io(s

contet of its (se. +n s(ch a contet, then, 0dr(*0 is sy*!ol: it is dr(**in", and it iscollective senti*ent, catharsis, transcendence6indeed, the )hole of the rit(al process. 5herit(al process is social effort.

7inally tevens co*es to his 0discovery point0:

+n this sense, then, the phrase 0dr(* of affliction0 is (stified as referrin" to a type of rit(aland )e can (nderstand )hy Bant(4speakers *ay (se the ter* ngoma to refer even to arit(al in )hich dr(*s are not (sed. 0'r(* of affliction0 is a rit(al )ith a therape(tic ai*,the eorcisin" of so*e *ali"n a"ency, !(t as !oth 5(rner and Janzen *ake clear, 0dr(*0=ngoma > *eans the ai*s, activities, actors, and instit(tions, and the net)ork of sy*!ols !y



)hich they are linked and (nited, that constit(te the rit(al process. =tevens 19&L:29#$>

tevens is correct that ngoma , ho)ever )e )ish to "loss this ter* in ?n"lish or another analyticallan"(a"e, refers over a )ide area of Central and o(thern -frica to a cl(ster of rec(rrin" processes and perspectives havin" to do )ith the interpretation of *isfort(ne, (s(ally *anifested !y disease ordisease sy*pto*s that are i*p(ted to spirits or ancestors, and the rites to !rin" the th(s 0afflicted0 intoa s(pportive net)ork )ith others si*ilarly afflicted and to treat the* !y e*po)erin" the* to deal

effectively )ith the adversity. 5he partic(lar so(rce of the adversity, )hether it is the i*pact of forei"ntrade, t)innin", snake4!ite, or linea"e se"*entation, is secondary to the fact of its definition as the pheno*enon of adversity.

8 &L 8

Con('*!#on

@"o*a, then, is a co*posite, historically (ni3(e instit(tion )idespread thro("ho(t Central ando(thern -frica, )ith *any local and re"ional variations. +ts identity as an instit(tion and as a

!ehavioral process, often )ith na*e reco"nition, sho(ld satisfy scholarship. 5hat it has taken so lon"for scholarship to catch (p )ith indi"eno(s (sa"e is tri!(te to the tendency of scholarship, andad*inistration, to cate"orize in its o)n, often local, ter*s the pheno*enon !efore it.

5his chapter<s "oal of 0identifyin" n"o*a0 has !een eternal and for*al, !ased on ea*inin"co*parative and historical distri!(tions of 0)ords, acts, and thin"s0 and ho) they vary in relation toone another. +ts apparent central p(rpose as an instit(tion is to respond to the need for order, *eanin",and control in the face of *isfort(ne and affliction as defined !y a core proto4Bant( co"nate, d2g : that (st as )ords and intentions !y others can afflict, so they can heal.

8 &K 8

;

Co%e Fea*%e! #n Ngoma The%a+&

- strai"htfor)ard for*(lation of the s(!ect of this )ork, !ased on *aterial presented th(s far, )o(ld !e so*ethin" like the follo)in": J(st as persons or social forces aro(nd the s(fferer are involved in theca(se of affliction =as (nderstood in the proto4Bant( co"nate d2g >, so others *ay help in the dia"nosis,decision *akin" of health seekin", and contin(in" s(pport of the s(fferer to achieve )ell4!ein". -s )ehave seen, these as )ell as other notions are e*!edded in the voca!(lary of Central and o(thern-frican lan"(a"es and constit(te a classic instit(tional for* of the 3(est for therapy and )holeness.

-nd yet, this for*(lation does not cover all aspects of rit(al healin" in Central and o(thern -frica.5here are di*ensions that are not so readily capt(red in the c(lt(ral voca!(lary, or that are *issin"fro* that voca!(lary. 7or ea*ple, + a* not a)are of a consistent voca!(lary for the choreo"raphy orspatial layo(t of healin" rit(als, altho("h they share a strikin" consistency of pattern across the n"o*aarea.

5he social sciences, since their inception, have "rappled )ith the relationship of the ver!alized self4conscio(s *odel of a c(lt(re to the analytical acco(nt of !ehavioral and str(ct(ral feat(res andhistorical patterns o!served !y the scholar. Dn the one hand, there is the pheno*enolo"ist<s insistence



on st(dyin" only that )hich is conscio(sly and ver!ally identified. Dn the other, there is the challen"eto !rin" to"ether analytical theories and interpretations to provide a convincin" !asis for those(nna*ed str(ct(res, contradictions, and historical

8 & 8

chan"es that identify and clarify a !ody of disparate infor*ation. -s Clifford /eertz notes, theethnolo"ist<s task incl(des a "ood deal of pers(asion in depictin" a sit(ation so that the reader finds it(ni3(ely realistic =/eertz 19&&:LK>.

5)enty years a"o + asked )hat )ere the *ost characteristic feat(res of Central -frican healin" =Janzen199>. 5hen + )as not concerned )ith ver!al cate"ories, and + did not perceive the )idespreadeistence of historical patterns. Part of the ans)er to the 3(estion of characteristic feat(res has !een provided in esta!lishin" the )idespread (se of the process + later called the 03(est for therapy,0 )hich)as spelled o(t in a !ook !y that title. +n on"o society it appeared that the process of !ein" afflictedand seekin" relief for that affliction )as driven !y a co*pellin" )orldvie) iss(e, na*ely, the 3(estionof )hether or not the affliction is *erely *atter of fact, or )hether 0there is so*ethin" else "oin" on,0that is, other persons, spirits, ancestors, or the social settin" itself, in the ca(sation of the case. -s soonas this deter*ination )as *ade, in cases + st(died, si"nificant others aro(nd the s(fferer !eca*einvolved in the search for an appropriate sol(tion. 5hese 0therapy *ana"ers !e"an the process NofOindivid(als aro(nd the s(fferer assistin" in offerin" s(pport and dia"nostic affir*ation as the case ca*e !efore n(*ero(s types of care, !e it her!alists, !io*edical hospitals and clinics, diviners, and assortedsocial therapies0 =Janzen 19%&a >. even years later Marc -("E identified a si*ilar process as0therape(tic itinerary0 =19&K>. Many other scholars have reported co*para!le findin"s in their )orkaro(nd the continent.

5his pict(re of Central -frican therapy seekin" is still valid, altho("h it is a li*ited one. -lso, theeercise of creatin" a "eneralized, synthesized *odel of a c(lt(rally specific instit(tion has its perils.Dne of these perils is that of (sin" too li*ited an e*pirical or ethno"raphic !asis of infor*ation, )hich

*i"ht lead to a d(ll, stereotyped, and possi!ly erroneo(s depiction of the instit(tion. -nother dan"er isto a!stract the core feat(res !ased on a *is(nderstandin" of the dyna*ics of the instit(tion. - synthetic pict(re of an instit(tion is correct not !eca(se it reflects the statistical avera"es of all practices !(t !eca(se it eplains the (nderlyin" lo"ic. -nd this *ay not correspond to any partic(lar local tradition.

5his chapter and the net present s(ch a synthetic *odel of n"o*a as a rit(al therape(tic instit(tion inter*s of core feat(res that incl(de: =1> sickness and therape(tic initiation as a phased rite of passa"e=2> identifyin" the ca(ses of *isfort(ne =#> associatin" nosolo"y )ith

8 &% 8

0spirit fields0 =L> the 0co(rse thro("h the )hite,0 of sickness and transition =K> a sacrifice that sets in*otion a circ(it of echan"es => the po)er of the )o(nded healer, to"ether )ith fello) s(fferers, thatis, transfor*in" s(fferer into healer. -ll of these co*e to"ether in a final feat(re presented in the netchapter, the core rit(al, 0doin" n"o*a.0

S#(5ne!! An) The%a+e*#( In##a#on A! A Pha!e) R#e O" Pa!!age

5he first of the core feat(res of the c(lt of affliction is the choreo"raphy of events over ti*e.5hro("ho(t the re"ion )here n"o*a affliction instit(tions are fo(nd, the process of sickness, la!elin",healin", searchin" for ans)ers, !eco*in" )ell, and e*er"in" as a healer is fra*ed !y rites that define



the entry into, and eit fro*, the position of the n"o*a s(fferer4novice. 5hese for*al feat(res and thespatial4te*poral str(ct(re that res(lts fro* the* are distin"(ished here fro* the 3(alitativetransfor*ation of the individ(al =or "ro(p> as identified in another core feat(re, 0the co(rse thro("h the)hite.0

+n the historic Fe*!a c(lt of the Con"o coast and inland alon" the trade ro(tes, this te*poral fra*in")as evident in all re"ional variants =Janzen 19&2>. 5o cite a specific ea*ple, after an n"an"a<s initial

identification of the s(fferers< =in this case, a co(ple> condition as !ein" Fe*!a4related, they )ere p(tin to(ch )ith a senior Fe*!a healer and, in the first event, p(rified and "iven the initial *edicine. 5hey)ere no) Fe*!a novices (nder the s(pervision of their priest4healer. -fter so*eti*es years ofco(nselin", of drea* analysis, of son" preparation, and collection of the f(nds for their final event, they)ere feat(red in a 0"rad(ation0 event, after )hich they )ere f(lly 3(alified Fe*!a officiants.

+n readin", and later in a co*parative field)ork proect, + fo(nd that this sa*e str(ct(re for the fra*in"of rit(al events )as )idely represented in n"o*a settin"s. 5he events that open, close, and p(nct(atethe therape(tic initiation are (s(ally of a day4ni"ht4day se3(ence and d(ration. 5his )as tr(e in on"osociety, in 5(rner<s acco(nts of @de*!( rites of affliction, in i"3ira initiations in the estern Cape, incoastal Ca*eroon rites =in contrast to the /rassfield area in the interior>, and in aitian voodoo, )hichcarries a stron" Central -frican instit(tional pattern. 5his pattern is co**only ali"ned )ith the preparation for *eetin" ancestors or spirits and !rin"in" the novice into co**(nication )ith the*.7re3(ently the se3(ence of events also spatially

8 && 8

reflects this )ith a *ove in the rit(al choreo"raphy fro* a profane to a sacred or a(spicio(s place,*oves that are anno(nced )ith transition son"s to *ove the s(fferer4novice thro("h an inter*ediaryspace =see fi". &>.

5hese openin", closin", and p(nct(atin" events of the n"o*a initiation are *arked as )ell !y the preparation of *edicines, the (tilization of color4coded sta"es and oint*ents spread on the novice, and

!y the sacrifice of an ani*al that is rit(ally identified )ith the novice and is then sla("htered, cooked,and eaten as a co**on *eal.

'espite the pervasive presence of the fore"oin" pattern that str(ct(res the n"o*a rites, there does notsee* to !e a set of co**on ver!al co"nates that relate to this str(ct(re. 5he events that open, close,and p(nct(ate the process are vario(sly called n*embo =cele!ration>, or m$andulu =initiation to orco*position of an n*isi > in on"o nthlombe =cele!ration, feast> in @"(ni lan"(a"es ngoma in ?ast-frica. 5hese ter*s are all (sed fairly "enerally to speak of cere*onies, initiations, or rites of all kinds.

-s in other )idespread c(lt(ral patterns, these ele*ents of Central and o(thern -frican therape(ticinitiation have !een eplained !y a(thors (tilizin" several ethnolo"ical principles that "o !eyond thec(lt(rally partic(lar and descriptive. 5)o *aor approaches that *ay !e o(tlined here are those of the

0rite of passa"e0 and the 0sha*anic career.0 -s )ith all ethnolo"ical eplanations that are *ore "eneralthan descriptive, these have so*e val(e !(t they also re*ain pro!le*atic.

5he ele*ents of initiation in n"o*a4type c(lts of affliction in @de*!( society )ere eplained !y;ictor 5(rner as ea*ples of ;an /ennepian 0rites of passa"e.0 5hey )ere opened !y a rite ofseparation of the novice4s(fferer fro* a prior social state. 5his )as follo)ed !y an inter*ediary0li*inal0 or transitional state. 5he process c(l*inated )ith a rite of reincorporation !y the novice intosociety, as a f(ll4fled"ed healer and *e*!er of the c(lt. Fater, Ma /l(ck*an ar"(ed for a *oreanalytical approach to these rit(als, especially in societies *ovin" to)ard "reater co*pleity anddifferentiation of roles =192:1K2>. 5(rner hi*self ca*e to see the c(lts4of4affliction rites as *ore



sophisticated and varied ea*ples of rit(alization in h(*an society. o)ever, it is (sef(l to (nderstandthe -frican c(lt of affliction as a c(lt(rally specific case of the h(*an rite of passa"e, on a level si*ilarto that )hich sees the sick role and the enco(nter )ith the *edical professional in the est as a 0rite of passa"e.0 -s in any therape(tic co(rse, the o(tco*e is not necessarily ass(red. Many are those )ho !e"in n"o*a,

8 &9 8

7i"(re &.ynthetic confi"(ration of spatial and te*poral or"anization of events in n"o*a4type rites. 5his chart is to !e read as a *(sical score. 5he0ti*e0 line *oves fro* left to ri"ht. 5he 0space0 score also *oves fro*left to ri"ht, !(t indicates the spaces in )hich activity is sit(ated thro("hthe rites.

or )ho participate in it, !(t )ho never co*plete it. 7or this reason it *ay not !e like a strict rite of passa"e. 5he pro"ression thro("h the rit(al "rid is s(!ect to the inner pro"ress of the novice4s(fferer.

Dthers have identified aspects of -frican c(lts of affliction )ith the 0sha*anic career0 ='e e(sch19%1>, altho("h this has !een held to !e pro!le*atic and inappropriate !y *ost a(thors =+. Fe)is19&:%&49#>, for reasons that )ill !e developed at "reater len"th in chapter K. +n Fe)is<s analysis of the0career0 of spirit possession, a series of sta"es *oves the relationship of the novice to the spirit fro* a point )here it is (ncontrolled and invol(ntary to a point )here it reflects "reater control, indeed,vol(ntary interaction )ith the spirit thro("h *edi(*ship. 5his 0career0 is also defined !y the s(!ect*ovin" fro* !ein" a patient or s(fferer to *astery over the so(rce of affliction, and !eco*in" a healerof that condition, altho("h, as noted a!ove, the process *ay stall. o*e aspects of the sha*anic o(rney *ay !e seen in the choreo"raphed *ove fro* profane to sacred space in every rite =see fi". &>.

8 9$ 8

-nd so*e novices do speak of havin" o(rneyed to the !otto* of the river, or into the )oods or )ild !(sh to resc(e a so(l, or to co**(ne )ith a spirit. 5h(s so*e of the ele*ents said to (niversally definesha*anis* are also in keepin" )ith n"o*a rit(al. o)ever, rarely is the n"o*a "rad(ate or healerinvolved in classic sha*anic o(rneys follo)in" the co*pletion of the therape(tic initiation. o*e,s(ch as Botoli Faie in 'ar es alaa*, ad*it freely to havin" !een introd(ced to n"o*a practice as anapprentice.

+t th(s see*s clear that ca(tion *(st !e eercised in applyin" (niversalistic ethnolo"ical eplanations

to a pheno*enon + have ar"(ed is historically and c(lt(rally partic(lar, )ith its o)n distinctivevoca!(lary and si"nificant variation )ithin the re"ion )here it is fo(nd: for ea*ple, the dayni"htdaysched(lin" of the events the (se of )hite sy*!olis* as the len"thy inner or *iddle passa"e the role of perc(ssion in settin" the sta"e for passa"e the spatial choreo"raphy that *oves fro* profane space tosacred space and !ack.

The 3#agno!#! O" M#!"o%*ne

5he st(dent of Central and o(thern -frican collective therapies of the n"o*a type is presented in



*any localities, incl(din" the (r!an centers (nder partic(lar scr(tiny in the present )ork, )ith a !roadarray of afflictions dee*ed appropriate for treat*ent. 5he array is in fact so !road that one can 3(estion)hether the distinct dia"nosis of si"ns, sy*pto*s, or syndro*es is at all a characterizin" feat(re of then"o*a therape(tic *ode. -nd yet, it is analytically i*portant to differentiate pro!le*s !ro("ht inton"o*a4type c(lts of affliction fro* other types of pro!le*s taken else)here.

Dne )ay to look for the distinctive arena of pro!le*s taken into n"o*a healin" is to note that, )ith

so*e eceptions, *any of the n"o*a orders eist, as it )ere, !eyond kinship. ?ven those s(ch as @kitain )estern Aaire and -n"ola, altho("h a!o(t the reprod(ction of the *atrilinea"e, are constr(ed as !ein" a!o(t ho) the linea"e *i"ht transcend the internal dile**as of factionalis*, leadership pro!le*s, and ill )ill that are tho("ht to occasion the sickness and death of infants and the sterility ofthe *others. 5he proto4Bant( co"nate ver! d2g connotes all the so(rces of affliction6sorcery,)itchcraft, !ack!itin"6that res(lt fro* relations )ithin the closely knit h(*an co**(nity. @"o*ainterventions and appeals are *ade to "et !eyond the entrap*ent of d2g =see appendi B, section B.#>.7re3(ently the ancestral shades and

8 91 8

the spirits !eyond are !elieved to call individ(als o(t of their self4cons(*in" destr(ctive tendencies. @"o*a afflictions are th(s not noticea!ly different fro* non4n"o*a afflictions on the s(rface level ofsi"ns and sy*pto*s. 5he dia"nostic interpretation !eco*es i*portant as a )ay of reachin" !eyond the*(ndane for a )ay o(t of an i*passe.

-n i*portant di*ension of all c(lts of affliction is the analytical and dia"nostic f(nction of eval(atin"sickness and *isfort(ne. - distinction is often dra)n, in this connection, !et)een divination, theanalysis of a sit(ation, and healin", the atte*pt to intervene in the sit(ation to chan"e it. 5hisdistinction )as the !asis for 5(rner<s !ook title Re)elation and Di)ination , that is, the relationship !et)een the c(lt of affliction and the dia"nosis of the pro!le*s it addresses. 5he distinction acco(ntsfor so*e of the diversity of affliction c(lt types, for )here social chan"e is intense, the need increases

for co"nitive clarity. 5h(s, in ei"hteenth4cent(ry coastal on"o, d(rin" the decline of the kin"do*s)ith the increase of the trade, incl(din" the slave trade, divination c(lts )ere in "reat prof(sion, partic(larly those relatin" to ad(dication and conflict resol(tion. +n o(thern -frica today, the ter*ngoma is associated *ainly )ith divination. Closer ea*ination, ho)ever, sho)s that the f(nctions ofdivination and net)ork4!(ildin" are co*ple*entary.

'ivination, or dia"nosis, th(s al)ays acco*panies c(lts of affliction, either independently of thehealin" role, or as a part of the specialized techni3(es and paraphernalia of a partic(lar c(lt. 'ivination*(st !e tho("ht of as a contin(in" 3(ery into the 0)hys,0 0)hos,0 and 0)here4fores0 !e"(n in thefa*ily4therapy *ana"e*ent settin" !(t carried thro("h !y specialists )ith epert (d"*ent andtrainin", )ho *ay have had their o)n profo(nd individ(al dile**as, )ho have !een recr(ited to a partic(lar *ode of rit(al life, and )ho have !een initiated to the spirit )orld. -s a techni3(e, divination

*ay !e !ased on a *echanistic syste* of si"ns and interpretations, s(ch as the o(thern avanna @"o*!o !asket filled )ith sy*!olic o!ects si"nifyin" h(*an life, the pen"(la !one4thro)in"techni3(e of o(thern -frican @"(ni society, or recitation fro* the Bi!le or the oran. -lternatively,and accordin" to so*e o!servers increasin"ly, divination is done !y direct reco(rse to trance, in )hichthe diviner, as *edi(*, speaks the )ords of the ancestral shade or spirit in ans)er to a 3(ery. o*ediviners (se a co*!ination of !oth techni3(es, or a selection of hierarchically arran"ed types. +n)aziland, *aster diviners today train novices in the arts of *echanistic !one4thro)in" divination as)ell as the *astery



8 92 8

of trance4divination. +n any case, these divined dia"noses, representin" a type of analysis orinterpretation of daily life, offer the !asis for the *ore synthetic, rit(alized follo)4thro("h of the c(ltsof affliction. o)ever, there is a contradiction or tension !et)een the specificity and concreteness ofthe pro!le*s channeled into divination and treat*ent, and the overall hypothesis of spirit ca(sation that !rin"s an individ(al into a c(lt of affliction.

5he )ork of Aairian researchers Ma!iala =19&2> and Bya*(n"( =19&2> ill(strates this iss(e. i"ns andsy*pto*s =illnesses> acco*panyin" recr(it*ent to Mpo*!o and Bad( are said to incl(de dizziness)ith hall(cinations thro!!in" headaches lack of *ental presence =asthenie> skin rashes =al"ie> lackof appetite diffic(lty in !reathin" heart!(rn )ith aniety rapid or arrhyth*ic heart!eat fever )ithchills se(al i*potence drea*s of str(""les or of !ein" follo)ed !y threatenin" ani*als )ei"ht lossor ecessive )ei"ht, especially if acco*panied !y spirit visitations and a variety of "ynecolo"ical ando!stetrical diffic(lties. 5hese 0*odes of affliction0 are characteristic of *ost of the other collectivetherape(tic rites6 les grands rites 6in inshasa.

Bya*(n"(, )orkin" in B(kav(, in the *o(ntaino(s iv( re"ion of eastern Aaire, is *ore eplicit a!o(tthe "eneralized or rando* character of si"ns, sy*pto*s, and syndro*es in the *ode of affliction

associated )ith the five therape(tic rites of this tradin" and ad*inistrative city of a!o(t seventy4fivetho(sand people. +n the akozi rite, of Bashi and Bale"a ethnic ori"in, early sta"es of sickness are*anifested !y all types of !ehavioral and physiolo"ical pro!le*s, reflectin" so*ethin" of the diversityof akozi spirits !ehind these pro!le*s. +n the ?naa*a or Mana rites of Bashi ori"in =a @ilotic,)andais "ro(p>, the characteristic afflictions incl(de !ehavioral tro(!les, alienation, and physicalsickness s(ch as )ei"ht loss. ere a"ain the distin"(ishin" feat(re of recr(it*ent is not a partic(larsy*pto* or si"n, !(t affliction !y the ?naa*a nat(re spirits of Bashi or )andais ori"in. +n theMit(*!a rite, of Be*!e and Bale"a ori"in, !ehavioral and physical tro(!les of )hatever sort *ayindicate this *ode of affliction. 5he distin"(ishin" feat(re is, ho)ever, evidence in drea*s orhall(cinations of the presence of 0)hite0 or 0?(ropean0 spirits. 5he sa*e type of sy*pto*4si"nrando*ness eists in the M(lan"oyi rite of Fe"a, Ai*!a, and on"e ori"in, in )hich the *aor spirits

are nat(re4 or river4related, and in the @ya*(le*(le rite, in )hich the spirits are of F(!a ori"in,appearin" a*on" the Bate*!o and Bashi peoples. Bya*(n"( e*phasizes that al

8 9# 8

tho("h si"ns and sy*pto*s acco*panyin" those afflicted *ay !e identified and even treated )ith !io*edical *ethods and *edicines, the salient point that !rin"s these s(fferers to dia"nostic entry intothe rit(al therapies is not so *(ch the sickness !(t the identification of the spirit force !ehind thesickness.

D(r analytical approach )o(ld see*, ho)ever, to call for close st(dy of sy*pto*s and si"ns of

affliction or !ehavioral chan"e in relation to the circ(*stances of the personal life of the afflicted, onthe one hand, and the c(lt(ral lo"ic that steers the co(rse of therapy in the direction of identifyin" thespirits, on the other. +t *ay, of co(rse, !e very diffic(lt to correlate the eplicit and i*plicit conditionsof distress )ith the dia"noses and therapies in the Central -frican settin", )here the initial dia"nostic)ork is done apart fro* therape(tic initiation to a "ro(p settin". +n Central -frican cities s(ch asinshasa and B(kav( the collective rites are varied !y re"ional and ethnic ori"in *ore than !y aspecialized division of la!or. 5he dia"nostic )ork is often done !y kin "ro(ps and diviners )orkin"separately fro* the healers. 5h(s the novices are already identified as !ein" in to(ch )ith theappropriate spirits !y the ti*e they *ake their appearance in the rit(al co**(nities.



+n the o(thern -frican contet, that is, in @"(ni4speakin" societies, the relationship !et)een dia"nosisand therapy and the co(rse fro* dia"nosis to therapy *ay !e easier to follo). 5his is so !eca(se herethere appears to !e a "reater concentration of n"o*a therapies )ithin a sin"le instit(tional contet, andth(s a f(sion of divination4dia"nosis and therape(tics. +n the @"(ni contet it is easier to see the type ofaffliction or pro!le* sin"led o(t for divination fro* a*on" the )ide array of co**on afflictions in a pop(lace, as )ell as those cases f(rther sin"led o(t for therape(tic initiation into the n"o*a order.

+ll(strations fro* )aziland and the estern Cape, "iven in chapter 1, de*onstrate this process in anethnically diverse and (r!an clientele.

5he cases seen !y +da Ma!(za of )aziland are said to !e !oth 0-frican0 and 0non4-frican0 she has !oth -frican and non4-frican clients, the latter *ostly -frikaaners fro* o(th -frica. 7or -fricans, shesays, the *ost co**on pro!le* presents in va"(e pains and anieties and is eplained !y har* orsorcery =umbelelo to meqo > res(ltin" fro* interpersonal tension. 5his affects !oth *en and )o*en. @et *ost prevalent is ama*ubalo , affectin" *ostly *en, in the for* of har* or illness res(ltin" fro*violated social or *oral precepts res(ltin" fro* illicit se )ith a protected *arried )o*an. Manyyo(n" people co*e )ishin" to divine their fates, desiro(s of "ood fort(ne in o! seekin",

8 9L 8

ea*inations, or love. he dia"noses their pro!le*s and offers advice accordin"ly.

hites also co*e for these types of pro!le*s. 5heir *ain concern, ho)ever, is fear of poverty. 5heyalso co*e for help in seekin" pro*otions and other o!4related *atters. 7inally, they co*e )ithillnesses i*properly dia"nosed in the hospital or not effectively treated. tress is a co**on co*plaint)hose root ca(se can often !e traced, she noted, to tensions or conflicts )ith do*estic )orkers ors(!ordinates )ho have retaliated.

5he cases that are divined )ith the *ore po)erf(l6and epensive6 femba =possession> *edi(*istic*ethod do not vary fro* those already presented, ecept perhaps that they are *ore chronic and lessspecific, and estern *edicine has !een (na!le to prod(ce a percepti!le i*prove*ent in health.

5he fore"oin" pro!le*s typify those !ro("ht to n"o*a diviners and therapists. Perhaps the *oststrikin" feat(re in this *aterial is the rando*, va"(e, and a*!i"(o(s character of the connection ofsi"n sy*pto*syndro*e to the therapy, !oth in ter*s of physiopatholo"ies and psychopatholo"ies.5his see*s to !e the case especially in conte*porary (r!an settin"s. @evertheless, in these (r!ansettin"s there occ(r 3(ite precise dia"nostic readin"s of life sit(ations that lead to therapy or entry intoone or another n"o*a therape(tic "ro(p. +t is not the partic(lar si"n, sy*pto*, or syndro*e that predicts the therape(tic co(rse. ather, it is the dia"nostic and divinatory (d"*ent that sends the case !eyond the confines of a strictly relational interpretation6as fo(nd in the concept d2g 6to theinterpretation that the s(!ect is called !y spirits ali"ned )ith the n"o*a orders.

No!o'og& An) S+#%# F#e')!ho or )hat eactly are these spiritsI 5he )orldvie) that inspires c(lts of affliction incl(des, as anaio*, the idea that ancestral shades and spirits, (lti*ately epressions of the po)er of /od, *ayinfl(ence or intervene in h(*an affairs. 5hey are held responsi!le for visitin" their senti*ents andforces (pon h(*ans thro("h sickness and *isfort(ne. ho they are, )hy they co*e, and )hat to doa!o(t the* is )hat c(lts of affliction are all a!o(t.

cholarship has "one )ell !eyond *erely descri!in" acco(nts of -frican spirits, to st(dyin" theirconfi"(rations and relationships in society, in "eo"raphical space, and over ti*e =er!ner 19%%>. D(r



ai* here

8 9K 8

is to identify so*e of the co**on feat(res in spirit constellations across the n"o*a re"ion and to "raspthe *eanin" of so*e of the variations. 5he spirits or shades *ay !e either direct, identifia!le lineal

ancestors, or *ore "eneric shades. 5hey *ay incl(de *ore distant nat(re spirits, hero spirits, or alienspirits that affect h(*an events in *any )ays. 5hey *ay !e !eni"n or *ali"n very "eneralized or partic(lar *ale or fe*ale -frican or forei"n. 5he lineal ancestors, )ho are "enerally !eneficent,altho("h so*eti*es stern, are contrasted to )ild *alefic spirits or ene*y hosts )ith sinister andstran"e characteristics. 5here is a spirit 0"eo"raphy0 or 0ecolo"y0 that )idely contrasts spirits of theland fro* those of the )ater. 5he )ell4kno)n -frican color triad6red, )hite, !lack6often is invokedto characterize the spirits as )ell. 5he strin"s of colored !eads or cloth )orn aro(nd the sho(lder and)aist desi"nate spirits )ith )hich the novice or practitioner has a )orkin" relationship. Dld as )ell asne) kno)led"e tends to !e related to the shade and spirit forces, as events are interpreted andadversities dealt )ith. o*eti*es the proto4Bant( ter* zimu or d1mu is (sed to na*e n"o*a spirits, asin the ;enda ngoma dza )adzimu , !(t a ran"e of other na*es or ter*s is (sed as )ell =see appendi B,

section B.1>.

e !e"in this revie) so*e)hat ar!itrarily )ith an @"(ni "ro(p in so(thern Moza*!i3(e, the alan"a,st(died !y 'avid e!ster =19&2>. 7or the* the 0@da(,0 0@"(di,0 0Chik)e*!e,0 and 0Ma(ta0 are thefo(r *ain "ro(ps of spirits. 5he @da(, or ;anda(, are considered the ori"inal ancestors of the alan"a=a o(th hona or 5hon"a "ro(p> and the *ost po)erf(l spirit "ro(p, )ith a direct interest in the affairsof the livin". Beca(se of enri J(nod<s )ork on the 5hon"a in the <#$s, the ;anda( have entered theanthropolo"ical literat(re as one of the *aor ea*ples of 0tr(e sha*anis*0 in -frica ='e e(sch19%1:2%#2%>. 5hey are *entioned pop(larly in 5anzania as havin" inspired the @<an"a c(lt, th(sreflectin" a thread of @"(ni, or @"oni, infl(ence of early nineteenth4cent(ry con3(est fa*e =Aaretskyand ha*!a("h 19%&>. 5he @"(di, associated )ith local affairs, are spirits inflictin" tra(*atic disease)ho need to !e placated to avert h(*an disaster )hen they !eco*e involved. 5he Chik)e*!e are theancestors of isan,goma diviners. 5he Ma(ta are -ra! spirits.

5he distinction !et)een lineal and alien spirits seen here is )idespread. +n near!y )aziland the?*enlozi =literally, those one drea*s a!o(t> are the personal ancestors and are often associated )ith)hite sy*!olis* s(ch as clay, )hite !eads, )hite cloth, or )ith 0*(d,0 that is, the !o(ndaries of )aterand earth. 5he ?*enza)e and Ben"(ni

8 9 8

spirits are those )ho* )azi )arriors killed in previo(s )ars. 5he ?*enza)e prefer the red !eads, theBen"(ni the )hite. 5he ?*enza)e, Ben"(ni, and 'inz(nz( possess diviners. 5he 'inz(nz( or

5inz(nz( are those spirits of the )ater )ho died of dro)nin" they also are associated )ith )hite !eads. 5hese fields artic(late )azi c(lt(re and conscio(sness.

+n the Hhosa re"ion of o(th -frica, and in the (r!an etensions of Hhosa c(lt(re, spirits areco**only identified as !ein" those pertainin" to the fa*ily or clan, those of the )ater, and those of theland or of the forest. Clan ancestors are i*portant to keep in to(ch )ith, !(t they do not inflict illness.5he n"o*a practitioners, the a*a"3ira, are called =t)asa> !y the forest and )ater spirits, and arerepresented in i"3ira cost(*es !y ani*al skins and colored !eads, in *edicines !y plants and *ineralin"redients, and in n"o*a son"s !y *ediatory i*a"ery s(ch as the cra!, the horse, or !irds.



+n coastal 5anzania the distinctions of spirit "eo"raphy al)ays hin"e on the land)ater dichoto*y. Fikethe o(thern -frican spirit cos*olo"ies, this one, too, identifies spirits of the trees and shr(!s, that is,the forest, )ith the land. +n the (r!an 'ar es alaa* settin" i**i"rant )a"an"a =healers> fro* theinterior, predicta!ly, are specialized in 0interior0 spirits, and in the correspondin" n"o*a s(ch asManian"a, @<an"a, and M!(n"i, )hereas )a"an"a fro* coastal areas relate to coastal or )ater spirits.5he voca!(lary of the )ahili coast has adopted -ra!ic ter*s masbeitani and ma+ini to speak of spirits.

5he spirits of the interior carry -frican na*es s(ch as Mchela, Mati*!(na, M!on"oloni, Chenel(, andi*!an"al("o*i =related to @"o*a M!(n"i>, )hereas those of the !each or the )ater carry s(chna*es as Mar(hani, (!iyani, and Mz(ka =related to @"o*a Msa"hiro>. 5he colors red, )hite, and !lack also occ(r on !eads )orn over the sho(lder of the *"an"a =healer>, and in cost(*es.

5he notion of 0spirit fields0 has !een (sed !y a n(*!er of a(thors to descri!e the or"anization of-frican spirits. +t is an analo"y of the concept 0social field0 (sed !y Bateson and 5(rner lon" a"o.-ltho("h so*e her*ene(tic scholars s(ch as Fa*!ek =19&1> insist that the spirits have little to do )ithsocial cate"ories and forces, *any other scholars prefer a '(rkhei*ian correspondence theory !et)eenreli"ion and society, econo*y, historical chan"e, and psycholo"ical states. 5his per*its scholars at leastan openin" hypothesis )ith )hich to assess s(ch pheno*ena as the apparent shift in e*phasis fro*lineal ancestors to *ore distant and alien spirits in recent decades. 5h(s the decline of cer4

8 9% 8

tain local rites and the ascendance of others, or the rise and decline in *any historic ea*ples of spirit4 possession rit(als and c(lts, *ay !e eplained in ter*s of historical social forces and the chan"es thathave occ(rred. 7or ea*ple, the !reakdo)n of specific rit(als in the late nineteenth and early t)entiethcent(ries has !een eplained !y the openin" (p of social relations and the epansion of the scale ofkno)n spheres of infl(ence =er!ner 19%%>. i*ilarly, )orldvie) as reflected in the (nderstandin" andtreatin" of affliction reflects, in t(rn, chan"in" social forces. +t eplains, for ea*ple, the "eneralizationof sy*pto* si"n and etiolo"y relations in the contet of the Fe*!a rite in )estern Con"o over the period fro* the seventeenth cent(ry to the early t)entieth cent(ry in the corridor of the "reat trade !et)een coastal port to)ns of Ca!inda, Foan"o, and Male*!a, and the "reat *arket at Mp(*!( neartoday<s inshasa. Fe*!a<s s(fferers are said to have had a rando* variety of afflictions. ?ven thespirits !ehind the afflictin" and therape(tic rites varied fro* re"ion to re"ion, indicative, + think, of thetre*endo(s (pheavals of the ho(r.

- !rief revie) of the *anner in )hich spirit or ancestor forces are ali"ned )ith social contet(aldisorders in conte*porary (r!an settin"s s(""ests a trend to)ard "reater reliance (pon *ore !roadly !ased, "eneralized in the*e, sy*!olic fi"(res, and a )anin" of local or linea"e ancestors. Bya*(n"(<sovervie) of therape(tic rites in B(kav(, in eastern Aaire, sho)s the association of si"ns and sy*pto*sto spirit nosolo"y. +n the akozi rite, present a*on" Bashi =)andaise> and Fe"a inha!itants, all sortsof !ehavioral and physiolo"ical afflictions are attri!(ted to 0red0 ancestral spirits or shades red is also

the color of the hair and clothin" of the adepts. +n the ?naa*a =also Mana> rite, fo(nd ecl(sivelya*on" the Bashi, a *ore open ran"e of sy*pto*s6for ea*ple, !ehavioral disorders, severealienation, loss of appetite, and physical illness6is attri!(ted to the ?naa*a nat(re spirits )hofre3(ently drive the afflicted to prolon"ed periods of )anderin" in solit(de in the !(sh. +n the Mit(*!arite, a*on" the Be*!a and Fe"a, a si*ilar )ide variety of sy*pto*s and si"ns is attri!(ted to spirits of?(ropeans, that is, aliens, ori"inally revealed or *anifested in drea*s and visions, and )hosevisitations are acco*panied !y loss of conscio(sness d(rin" possession adepts of Mit(*!a spiritsspeak )ahili and s*oke ci"arettes. +n the M(lan"oyi rite, a*on" the Fe"a, Ain"a, and on"e residentsof B(kav(, a variety of sy*pto*s and si"ns is attri!(ted to nat(re or )ater spirits, )ho in the possessed



*edi(*istic divination and !oth 0red0 and 0)hite0 5inz(nz( spirits of those )ho have dro)ned inrivers. Medi(*istic )ork )ith Ben"(ni victi* spirits see*s to !e a recent develop*ent in )aziland.A(l(4type san"o*a diviner4healers have !een in *any re"ions replaced !y 0red0 takoza *edi(*s. +ntheir *ore po)erf(l for*s of divinin" they p(t aside their !ones and their attentive ear for verydra*atic trance4possession dances of -*anza)e and 5inz(nz( nat(re, and Ben"(ni alien spirits.

5o take i!isi<s analysis strictly, these )azi takoza diviner4healers, as )ell as so*e of the B(kav(

therapists, )o(ld !e ind(l"in" in dissonant, and accordin" to her, 0charlatanistic,0 practice. -nd yet theappearance of nonancestral spirits and their *edi(*s has !eco*e very )idespread. -lternatively, toass(*e that therapists i"nore the social forces of alienation and dislocation )hen they contin(e toattri!(te sickness to ancestral calls =partic(larly those that are considered a*ena!le to inte"rativeleadership roles>, is to (nderesti*ate the skill of these talented individ(als )orkin" often in etre*elystrained social settin"s s(ch as in the estern Cape.

5he anthropolo"ical analysis of the relationship of a 0spirit field0 to the social contet of afflictionneeds one f(rther analytical para*eter !eyond those of social scale =i.e., localized vs. re"ional orcos*opolitan> and of nor*alcy =i.e., role nor*alcy vs. sit(ations precipitatin" a!nor*al response torole epectations> to eplain the relevant varia!les of reco(rse to spirit nosolo"y. + have in *ind the place in affliction dia"nosis hin"in" on the de"ree of a*!i"(ity vers(s clarity in the overall

8 1$$ 8

perception of a social sit(ation or a vie) of reality =Bernstein in 'o("las 19%$>.

Bernstein<s *aor point, taken over !y 'o("las, is that in the a!sence of a clear (nderstandin" of a pheno*enon, in this instance the ca(se of affliction, one tends to for*(late na*es, confi"(rations, orstereotypes to co*pensate for the f(zziness. 7ollo)in" this line of tho("ht, an escalation to)ard alienor chaotic spirit forces )o(ld !e (sed in divination or therapy to co*e to "rips )ith stran"e and ne)iss(es in a social sit(ation. 5his hypothesis applies directly to the contrastin" types of n"o*a spirit*anifestation in o(thern -frica, nota!ly the estern Cape and )aziland.

+n the estern Cape the challen"e facin" n"o*a diviners and therapists is not an analysis of thesit(ation !efore the* that is clear eno("h. 7a*ilies are divided, and there is "eneral aniety re"ardin""ainf(l e*ploy*ent. 5he *aor challen"e is that of !(ildin" (p a cohesive social fa!ric o(t of thefra"*ents of fa*ilies and interpersonal relations. -ccordin"ly, diviner4therapists for"e a net)ork oflinks )ithin their ranks that !rin" fra"*ented individ(al lives and fa*ily se"*ents into so*e *orecoherent and s(pportive arran"e*ent. +n )aziland, there is "enerally "reater econo*ic sec(rity and*(ch less aniety a!o(t residence, freedo* of *ove*ent, and one<s personal )elfare. )aziland hasone of the hi"hest per capita inco*es in !lack -frica6Q&$$ per person in 19&2, near that of /a!on andCa*eroon. -nd yet, this very sense of econo*ic develop*ent contains the in"redients to dissolve thenor*ative order. a"e la!or, (r!anization, and ed(cation have had a si"nificant i*pact (pon )azi

society, creatin" enor*o(s opport(nities for (p)ard *o!ility and presti"io(s o!s, especially for yo(n"ad(lts. +t has !eco*e co**on for yo(n" )o*en to esche) *arria"e for professional )ork and to havea child or t)o o(t of )edlock alon" the )ay. 7(rther*ore, the econo*ic opport(nities of )azilandhave in(ndated the co(ntry )ith o(tsiders, s(ch as develop*ent eperts, to(rists, teachers, and traders.5h(s, altho("h there is not the *aterial insec(rity of the estern Cape and the threat to one<s do*esticlivin" arran"e*ent, econo*ic develop*ent has (nleashed other threats to the esta!lished co"nitiveorder. 5his *ay acco(nt for the *ore a""ressive spirit field in )aziland, in )hich the spirits of !one4thro)in" divination =the amadloti and Ben"(ni ancestors> have !een partially s(pplanted !y the spiritsof trance and possession divination =the ?*anza)e and 5inz(nz(>.



8 1$1 8

+t is evident, then, that 0spirit fields0 provide a set of para*eters havin" to do )ith )orldvie), orderand chaos, le"iti*acy, and c(lt(ral cate"ories a"ainst )hich to ali"n, and !e"in to deal )ith, personal pro!le*s.

The Co*%!e Th%o*gh The 0h#e

5herape(tic attention to affliction, thro("h n"o*a, often entails ele*ents of initiation of the afflictedinto *e*!ership, res(ltin" in the elevation of the afflicted to the stat(s of priest or healer in the "ro(p.hether or not this act(ally happens =there are *any dropo(ts> depends on the novice<s pro"ressthro("h early states of therapy and co(nselin", on the novice<s or kin<s *eans, and the etent to )hichthe c(lt is controlled !y an elite that restricts access to its !asic reso(rces.

-cross the n"o*a re"ion, )hiteness defines the special transitional stat(s of the s(fferer4novice in theco(rse to)ard health. +t is epressed !y the (se of clay or chalk, cloth, !eads, rafia, and other *aterialindicators. +n estern Bant( this concept is identified !y derivations of the proto4Bant( co"nate $/mb3

=see appendi B, section B.1#>. +n @"(ni4speakin" o(thern -frica the ter* ikota is (sed for )hite, !(tit is not clear ho) )idespread this ter* is. +n any event, )hiteness is the color and do*inant sy*!ol ofthe transitional sta"e that denotes p(rity, separateness, isolation, the li*inal zone !et)een sickness andhealth, the condition of !ein" sick. o*e n"o*a4type therape(tic settin"s !eco*e involved )ith redand !lack sy*!olis*, often denotin" epos(re to alien or less fa*iliar nat(re spirits.

ta"es that artic(late phases in the 0)hite0 *ay vary fro* t)o to as *any as ei"ht, each of )hich *ayend(re fro* a fe) days to *any years. +n the estern Cape, for ea*ple, the sta"es of this pro"ression !e"in )ith =1> !ein" dia"nosed as t)asa, possessed or called !y a spirit =2> !eco*in" a novice=n*'etha > follo)in" the initiation, and oinin" a sodality (nder the co(nselin" of a senior diviner4healer =#> *ovin" thro("h the 0co(rse,0 !eco*in" a senior, a 0five4to0 =i.e., 0five to *idni"ht,0 al*ostco*pleted>, and !ein" entr(sted )ith aspects of rit(al =L> f(lly 3(alified, co*pletin" the co(rse,

"rad(atin" as a san"o*a or in Hhosa, i"3ira.

Clothin" and !odily paint indicate the pro"ression thro("h the )hite. +nitially, the novice is f(llys*eared in )hite chalk or )ears a )hite cloth. /rad(ally, over the co(rse of ti*e, colors replace )hite4

8 1$2 8

ness the cost(*e of a f(lly 3(alified i"3irasan"o*a provides a *edi(* for the self4definition andartic(lation of the ne) person.

+nitially, face and !ody are s*eared in )hite d(rin" the events of initiation. 5)o sin"le strands of )hite !eads, and the !ladder of a "oat, are )orn aro(nd the head !ead strands are also p(t on each )rist. +nti*e, *ore strands of )hite !eads are added. 5he "ro(ps of a*ak)etha =novices> of a diviner4healer*ay !e seen as a (nifor*ed "ro(p, to"ether, dancin", sin"in", in co(nsel, in isolation. o)ever, astheir therape(tic initiation *oves to its final sta"es and they !eco*e *ore self4confident, they *ay paint only their cheeks and eyes. hen f(lly 3(alified, only the eyes re*ain encircled )ith 0)hite.0Colorf(l !eads and other headdress and cost(*e ele*ents, drea*ed or creatively tho("ht o(t, no)replace the )hite. -t this later phase, the f(r of )ild ani*als s(ch as p(*a, cheetah, leopard, lion, !eaver, and others replaces the strands of "oat hair. Colorf(l !lankets replace the )hite sheets.

5he early novitiate phase is also si"naled !y the o)nership of a forked stirrin" stick, (sed initially to



!rin" the ubulau =*edicine> to a frothy )hite )henever the ancestors or spirits are called in and thenovice is s*eared. 5his stick, )hich is also (sed as a dance )and, is replaced after "rad(ation )ith acolorf(l, !eaded dance )and co*para!le to the )idespread @"(ni kno!kerrie.

5his pro"ression of eterior process of clothin", !ody paint, and artifact parallels the inner process thatthe novice has "one thro("h and of social chan"es that si"nificant others have created aro(nd thenovice. 5he co(rse thro("h the )hite is the fra*e)ork of the sick role. +nitially, there is a *arked

)ithdra)al of self and individ(ality fro* the social settin", altho("h often the fa*ily that ass(*esresponsi!ility for the patrona"e of a diviner4healer sho)s the s(pport and care they have for theindivid(al s(fferer. '(rin" this phase the s(fferer *(st ac3(iesce to ancestors and social others. 5hedeath of the sacrificial "oat sy*!olizes the death of the s(fferer<s self, in echan"e for a ne) life andidentity. +n the early co(nselin" and therapies the s(fferer4novice is passive, receivin" son"s fro*others. 5hen, as he or she develops skills in drea*in" and handlin" spirits6that is, channelin" thechaotic visions and drea*s of the t)asa =call> eperience6the cost(*e !e"ins to sho) !its of color, ofidentity. -cco*panyin" this o(t)ard *anifestation of drea*in", of *essa"es a!o(t the self, is thee*er"ence of the novice<s o)n son"s, co*posed also fro* drea* i*p(lses. 5he initial passivity

8 1$# 8

is replaced !y a state*ent of e"o stren"th as the novice co*poses, sin"s, and teaches others his or herson".

-t the close, as the novice !eco*es a 0 five4to, 0 ready for "rad(ation, she or he sho(ld have a stron"self4proection, capa!ility in leadin" others in therape(tic dance and son", as )ell as a fir*er controlover his or her o)n life than !efore. 5he final "rad(ation feast, *arked !y the sacrifice of a co) or !(lland the *akin" of a colorf(l dance )and, indicates the c(l*ination of the co(rse thro("h the )hite.5he net chapter )ill st(dy the role of the n"o*a son" in this process.

5he efficacy of the therapy, re"ardless of its specific techni3(es, is partially ass(red !eca(se all in theco**(nity feel shared affliction and s(pport the s(fferer, even tho("h not all the co**(nity is kin. +n

*ost instances of prolon"ed sickness in -frican society, dia"nosis and decision relatin" to the co(rse ofhealin"60the 3(est for therapy06are in the hands of a lay kin therapy *ana"in" "ro(p. +n the casesthat co*e into the or!it of c(lts of affliction, the s(pport co**(nity !roadens to !eco*e that of thec(lt *e*!ers. 5he 3(ality of s(pport shifts fro* ad hoc kin aid to that of per*anent involve*ent )iths(ch a net)ork in the initiate4novice<s life, correspondin" to the lon"4ter* involve*ent of theindivid(al )ith the affliction, as a healer4priest.

o*e c(lts of affliction, s(ch as @kita a*on" the on"o peoples of )estern Aaire, are sit(ated )ithinlinea"es. @kita responds to the (ni3(e circ(*stances and sy*pto*s of children<s sicknesses and !arren)o*en a*id the stresses and fears of linea"e se"*entation. 5he i*p(tation of a cl(ster of @kitaafflicted )ithin a linea"e se"*ent provides the rationale and the settin" for the re"eneration of linea"e

or"anization *e*!ers are reaffiliated )ith the ancestral so(rce of their collective a(thority.Most c(lts of affliction, ho)ever, occ(r o(tside the kin settin", f(nctionin" as an addition to kinrelations, and "ive the individ(al lifelon" ties )ith others alon" the lines of the ne) affliction orocc(pation4specific co**(nity. 5he vario(s o(thern avanna reprod(ction4enhancin" n"o*a6s(chas M!o*!o =/o!let4;anor*elin"en 19&&> +so*a, (!)an"(, and (la =5(rner 19&> and (nna*edmahamba a*on" the F(vale =prin" 19%&>6)hich isolate )o*en )ith reprod(ctive pro!le*s ord(rin" pre"nancy and child!irth, radicalize the separation of novices fro* their kin. 5he rationale forthis separation has to do )ith the dan"er of the stresses of daily life and fa*ily relations (pon the fet(s.5he )hite sy*!olis* of clothin" and the



8 1$L 8

m$emba chalk applied to the face and other places in the secl(sion co*po(nd s(""est the li*inalspecial 3(ality of this role. +t is li*inal, also, !eca(se the nor*al con("al life of the novice has !eeninterr(pted to achieve an end that )ill enhance that con("al life.

5he social di*ension of 0the )hite0 *ay vary in its partic(lars fro* occ(rrin" )ithin linea"e andfa*ily to re*oval fro* it. 5he co**on core !eneath this is, ho)ever, that it (s(ally represents acontrast fro* the prior state and !rin"s the individ(al into to(ch )ith rit(al eperts )ho re!(ild theindivid(al<s identity aro(nd a sol(tion to the pro!le* or affliction.

Sa(%#"#(e An) E:(hange

acrifice of *a**als and !irds is )idely present in the n"o*a process of personal transfor*ation.Partic(lar ill(strations of this are fo(nd in Fe*!a, )here the chickens and pi"s are killed at appropriate (nct(res of the novice<s co(rse. 5his sacrifice see*s to occ(r *ost often at the initial entry into theco(rse thro("h the )hite and at "rad(ation. +t occ(rs at the close of the dayni"htday event. +t also

occ(rs in the o(thern -frican settin", as )itnessed !y the instances in Cape 5o)n descri!ed in chapter1: a "oat at the ti*e of an entry, a "oat or a sheep at the ti*e of a healer<s or novice<s p(rification, and aco) at the ti*e of a "rad(ation.

hy is sacrifice so i*portant in the co**e*oration of rit(al transition, in the *o*ent of sicknessI;ictor 5(rner, in eplainin" the i*portance of sacrifice in n"o*a rit(als a*on" the @de*!(, !e"ins)ith the repetitive, or cyclical, nat(re of life in the society. o*e of these feat(res are d(e to thea"rarian contet of the @de*!(, )ho yearly plant their crops and harvest the*. o)ever, *ost of thedr(*s of affliction are foc(sed on the h(*an life co(rse, in )hich *o*ents s(ch as !irth, adolescence,the varied conflicts and afflictions of ad(lthood, and death, need to !e addressed. @de*!( society isinvolved in chan"e, !(t the core of society, its val(es and patterns and ideals, are tho("ht of as if theysho(ld re*ain constant. 5he rit(als of affliction seek to ret(rn to that constancy, !y s(!s(*in"

*isfort(ne to the per*anence of the invisi!le spirit )orld. Misfort(ne that res(lts fro* conflict createsvicti*s. 5he sacrificial victi*, in the a!stract sense of a s(!stit(tionary victi*, lets the conflict, thean"er, so to speak 0have its !lood.0 5o offer a sacrificial ani*al also p(rifies the (niverse in that itrestores or re"enerates the h(*an co**(nity to its ideals. 0-t the *o*ent )hen the )heel

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has co*e a f(ll circle, NsacrificeO sets the cycle "oin" a"ain0 =5(rner 19&:2%>.

5his is !asically an 0atone*ent0 vie) of sacrifice, in )hich the violence in h(*an society can !eoverco*e thro("h its sy*!olic *anifestation in the victi*. 5his is not far fro* the J(deo4Christian

sacrificial tradition in )hich la*!s, or first sons, are offered for the epiation of h(*an sins.

-ltho("h the atone*ent notion of sacrifice is present in n"o*a sacrifice, as the acco(nt of the casest(dy of initiation in Cape 5o)n related in chapter 1 s(""ests, there is another di*ension to n"o*asacrifices that (stifies an echan"e concept of sacrifice. avin" attended a fe) sacrifices in -frica,incl(din" that descri!ed in chapter 1, + can attest that there is a si"nificant rit(al econo*ic di*ension at)ork. 5he 0horizontal0 di*ension of the distri!(tion of food and the co**on *eal that incl(des thecons(*ption of the sacrificial ani*al represent as *(ch a 0co**(nion0 as a reli"io(s atone*ent.5o"ether they !rin" o(t a social di*ension that 5(rner does not specifically *ention, na*ely, the !e"innin" or the rene)al of echan"e relationships !et)een individ(als and social (nits that are at the



!asis of on"oin" social relations. 5he nat(re of these net)orks that are created and cele!rated inconnection )ith the sacrifices )ill !e eplored *ore f(lly in chapter . -lso, in the sacrifices of sheep,"oats, and cattle, the red *eat protein is si"nificant in the diet of those attendin".

- co**(nal *eal follo)in" an all4ni"ht co**(nal dance applies tre*endo(s ener"ies to thereconstit(tion of the social )hole that is asse*!led. 5his leads directly to the final core feat(re, the !elief that *isfort(ne, adversity, and affliction *ay !e transfor*ed into po)er and )holeness. 5here is

a stron" insistence in n"o*a theorizin" that sin"in", sacrifice, and co**(nin" t(rn life aro(nd andliterally !rin" life o(t of death.

The S*""e%e% /e(ome! The 7ea'e%

5he lyrics of n"o*a son"s echo this core feat(re, as in this son" fro* ancient Fe*!a on the on"ocoast: 05hat )hich )as the sickness, has !eco*e the path to the priesthood.0 7ro* the estern Cape:0Fet darkness t(rn to li"ht.0 5he sin"le *ost characteristic feat(re of n"o*a is this transfor*ation ofthe ne"ative, disinte"rative affliction into positive, inte"rative )holeness. 5here are, of co(rse, otherreli"io(s and therape(tic traditions in )hich this occ(rs. Dne thinks of the estern

8 1$ 8

self4help orders, even psychiatry, in )hich the st(dent receives psychoanalysis !efore !ein" a!le to practice.

+n the several local traditions of n"o*a )hich have !een (sed repeatedly to ill(strate the "enre in this !ook, )e have seen a variety of applications of this the*e of transfor*ation. Barrenness and threatened*iscarria"es "ive )ay to techni3(es for fertility and child care in the o(thern avanna and esternBant( settin"s. +n the inshasa (r!an settin", the trapped4)ife syndro*e is replaced !y *e*!ership inthe Ae!ola net)ork of the for*erly isolated. +n )estern 5anzania, snake4!ite is t(rned into kno)led"eof the (se of veno* for i**(nization. +n o(thern -frica, the chaos of rapid ind(strialization feeds the

enhance*ent of divination techni3(es the fra"*entation of the fa*ily ho(sehold leads to thea*plification of net)orks linkin" fra"ile ho(seholds.

5he ener"y that co*es to the afflicted fro* oinin" those )ho have 0!een there0 and )ho haves(rvived or recovered, or at least learned to cope )ith the affliction, often is represented in so4called0*edicines0 of office s(ch as the *ici of estern Bant(, or the *obe of Central -frica. -c3(irin" these*edicines, or char*s, or techni3(es, is part of the end sta"e of 0the )hite,0 either "enerated !y thenovice d(rin" the lon" co(rse of therape(tic trainin", or asse*!led at the ti*e of his or her0"rad(ation.0 Many ti*es these *edicines are o(tri"ht *a"ical or *etaphorical *e*entos of theaffliction, *e*entos that thro("h association )ith *aterial o!ects fro* cos*olo"ical, ve"etal, ani*al,or h(*an do*ains !eco*e state*ents a!o(t the condition of the novice. + co*e !ack to this process inchapter K and interpret it f(rther (nder the r(!ric of 0*etaphors of diffic(lt eperience.0

M(ch of the e*po)er*ent of n"o*a is, ho)ever, in the ne)ly ac3(ired a!ility of the afflicted to *eetspecific or "eneral pro!le*s )ith resolve. 5his often entails the adoption of a healer4prescri!ed prohi!ition or r(le, ill(stratin" the proto4Bant( concept g0d2 . -s )e )ill see, the personal son",developed thro("h drea* st(dy, and thro("h sharin" n"o*a )ith one<s fello)s, also plays an i*portant part. (!se3(ent chapters )ill eplore this f(rther.

Con('*!#on

5he core feat(res of n"o*a presented in this chapter are relatively static feat(res. Dn their o)n they are



*erely aspects of the )ider "eneral c(lt(re or set of !ehaviors. 5herefore )e *(st stress that they are

8 1$% 8

not to !e taken too literally as the attri!(tes of n"o*a every)here or that )here they are identified,they have to do )ith n"o*a. 5o"ether they reveal si"nificant characteristics )ith )hich to (nderstand

ho) n"o*a4type affliction and healin" is or"anized.

5he feat(res disc(ssed in this chapter are (s(ally not identified !y descriptive indi"eno(s ter*s,altho("h + have !een a!le in so*e cases to relate the* to proto4Bant( co"nates. Dn !alance, *(ch ofthe *ost characteristic !ehavior in n"o*a does not correlate strictly )ith a "iven voca!(lary. +t can !edescri!ed, disc(ssed, and interpreted, !(t it is not locked into a technical fied voca!(lary. 5his )o(lds(""est that the pheno*enolo"ist<s constraint of st(dyin" only that )hich is conscio(sly and ver!allyidentified )o(ld !e ill4advised, and that a c(lt(re<s reality, )hile it *ay !e descri!ed and shaped !ylan"(a"e, is certainly not li*ited to ver!al co"nates.

;er!al co"nates and these core feat(res co*e to"ether in a poi"nant action4ter*, 0doin" n"o*a,0 to)hich )e t(rn net.

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<

3o#ng Ngoma

The Te:*%e o" Pe%!ona' T%an!"o%ma#on

(phil)a n"a*(t(. 0e s(rvive !eca(se of each other.0Hhosa prover! applied to n"o*a

Mpi*pa yoyo !ana kina nk(n(n( yanene nate ye !)isi !( kiedi. 05his sa*e ni"ht all dancea !i" @k(n(n( dance that ends at the !reak of day.0)a*!a ?lie, on"o ethno"rapher, descri!in" a Fe*!a "atherin" in 1912

0'oin" n"o*a0 is the central event in n"o*a. +t is the 0do*inant trope,0 the 0sy*!ol that stands foritself0 =a"ner 19&:29#$> and defines the instit(tion. 0'oin" n"o*a0 opens )ith a declarativestate*ent, prayer, or (tterance, then *oves on to son" !e"(n !y the one )ho *akes the state*ent asthe call and son" is developed, the s(rro(ndin" people respond )ith clappin" and soon sin"in" !e"ins

en *asse, and then the instr(*ents enter in. 5his !asic set of feat(res, )ith *any variations, *ay !efo(nd thro("ho(t the lar"er Central and o(thern -frican settin". 5he @de*!( call it *'imba ng9oma ,0to sin" an n"o*a0 =5(rner 19%K:#>. 5he ;enda of the northern 5ransvaal also (se the sa*e ver! tospeak of n#imbo dza dzingoma , sin"in" an n"o*a, 0dr(*0 =Blackin" 19&K:L1>. 5he on"o of esternBant( 0dr(* (p0 = si*a ngoma > a *aor *edicine )ith a son", n*unga . +n the @"(ni4speakin" settin"in o(thern -frica, the isangoma , diviner4healer, is one )ho =i 4> does = sa > n"o*a. -ll of thesereferences identify n"o*a )ith patterned rhyth* of )ords, the (se of perfor*ance dance, and theinvocations or the son"s that artic(late the affliction and the therape(tic rite.

Many son"4dance perfor*ances p(nct(ate the s(fferer4novice<s co(rse thro("h the )hite. ?ven after



!eco*in" a f(lly 3(alified healer,

8 1$9 8

the practitioner participates contin(o(sly in n"o*a sessions. 5his chapter presents a sin"le i*portantea*ple of 0doin" n"o*a.0 +n !oth content and str(ct(re, this n"o*a perfor*ance reveals that here, in

the conscio(sly for*(lated echan"e of son"4dance, and in the *ove*ent of the individ(al fro*s(fferer4novice to acco*plished, sin"in", self4proectin" healer, lies the heart of the instit(tion. + !elieve it is a classic6that is, ancient and for*ative6instit(tion in Central and o(thern -fricanhealin".

Unfort(nately, it has !een least )ell st(died of all the aspects of -frican *edicine. Many scholars have*issed the *ark, in a sense, e*phasizin" only a li*ited aspect of it. o*e have sin"led o(t only thehealer4patient relationship for attention others, the sy*!ols yet others, the plants. Many have follo)edtrance !ehavior and ass(*ed it is the central point of the rit(al, )itho(t p(ttin" it s(fficiently intoinstit(tional contet. ;ery fe) scholars of -frican *edicine and reli"ion have !othered to look at the*(sic. cholars of -frican *(sic, for their part, have i"nored the therape(tic 3(alities, and intentions,of this kind of *(sic.

Te: An) Te:*%e In A"%#(an 7ea'#ng

-*andina Fiha*!a, in a recent article, 0ealth and the -frican 5heatre,0 has descri!ed the relationship !et)een health and perfor*ances of all kinds in -frica. 0ealth and disease are social pheno*ena )ithi*plications !eyond the individ(al, the physical, and the present. Perfor*ances are often concerned)ith the *aintenance of co**(nity and individ(al health, the prevention of ill health, and therestoration of health and )ith instillin" s(rvival kno)led"e0 =19&:#K>. ?a*ples incl(de . oyinka)ritin" a!o(t the cleansin" of society, cos*ic e3(ili!ri(*, and society as s(fferer M(hando on the*adness of social and econo*ic s(ccess, and society ca(sin" sickness and (ssein descri!in" the evilof corr(ption, eploitation, oppression, and class divisions and aspirations as devils = ashetani > )ho

have infiltrated society and need to !e eorcised for health to !e restored. @"o*a provides the fa!ric of personal transfor*ation it helps sort thro("h personal or societal eperience )ith prevalent *etaphorsand other types of kno)led"e.

5here *ay !e no close analo"(e in estern civilization to these co*!ined feat(res of n"o*a. Fiha*!aand others< reference to theater and perfor*ance are acc(rate. o)ever, for ill(strative p(rposes + shallfor

8 11$ 8

the *o*ent ar"(e that an approi*ation of s(ch an analo"(e eists in the con(nction of Fatin and Dld

7rench roots tetus( tetere , and contetus or contetere . 5hese ter*s provide a pict(re of a fa!ric of*eanin"s p(lled o(t of a contet and p(t into )ords. !etere refers do(!ly to 0)eavin" a fa!ric0 in thetechnical sense of p(ttin" to"ether the )arp and )eft of cloth, as )ell as to the ori"inal )ritten or printed )ords of a literary )ork, a sin"le tet. 5he con 4tet is )here the separate threads are !ro("htto"ether into one fa!ric.

@"o*a !rin"s to"ether the disparate ele*ents of an individ(al<s life threads and )eaves the* into a*eanin"f(l fa!ric. +t does this, partic(larly, thro("h devices of *(t(al 0call and response0 sharin" ofeperience, of self4presentation, of artic(lation of co**on affliction, and of consens(s over the nat(reof the pro!le* and the co(rse of action to take. 5he n"o*a tet is created over the co(rse of *any



*onths and years and finally is presented for*ally at the ti*e of the s(fferer4novice<s e*er"ence as af(lly ready healer. +n another sense the tet of self4presentation is never co*pleted, for as lon" as then"o*a participant lives, there )ill !e *o*ents and ti*es of self rene)al, in the contet of others.

,3o#ng Ngoma,8 The Co%e R#*a' Un#

5he son"4dance of n"o*a *ay last all ni"ht, as in the on"o ea*ple at the head of the chapter. (ch asession is *ade (p of *any shorter (nits of son": the self4presented and the response. +n the Cape5o)n settin", )hich )ill !e feat(red here, it *ay !e repeated !y the sa*e person =(s(ally )ith adifferent son">, or so*eone else 0takes (p n"o*a0 and 0does his or her n"o*a06 sa ngoma . 5hese3(ence of s(ch (nits *ay "o on for ho(rs. +t *ay occ(r )ithin the contet of events heralded as p(rification cele!rations for esta!lished healers or as cele!rative points in the initiatory co(rse ofnovices. 5he fa*iliar "ro(p n"o*a son" presentations *ay !e seen at a )ide variety of events )ithinthe local n"o*a net)ork. -n i*portant variant of the s(fferer4sin"er presentin" his or her invocationand son" is for another sin"er to present the 0case0 of the s(fferer. 5his *ay occ(r in the instance of avery sick individ(al, so*eone )ho has not developed her or his son" or )ho cannot perfor*, or asenior healer )ho has s(ffered the death of a close kins*an and is !ein" *inistered to.

5he case that )ill !e ill(strated is fro* a 0)ashin" of the !eads0 of a senior i"3irasan"o*a in theestern Cape follo)in" the period of

8 111 8

*o(rnin" of the death of her *other. er sister and host of the event san" the leads, reiteratin" thedeath of their *other. 5he spoken openin"s to each (nit narrated the days leadin" (p to the death,details s(rro(ndin" the death. +t )as th(s in effect a re3(ie* n"o*a and a co*in" o(t of *o(rnin" ofthe descendant. 'eath is i*p(re, !(t *o(rnin" and co**e*oration allo) the n"o*a practitioners tocleanse the*selves and to 0thro) o(t the darkness0 and to 0)ash the !eads0 )ith *edicines6in @"(ni poll(tion ter*inolo"y, to replace darkness )ith li"ht.

-t the site of thro)in" o(t the darkness, o(tside, the sa*e for*at is a"ain repeated. 7or the spoken prayer parts, the novices =a*ak)etha> sit do)n for the declaration, then rise for the dancin" andsin"in" =fi". 9>.

+n the follo)in" pa"es + present a se3(ence of self4presentations =u*unqula > and son"4dances =n"o*a> perfor*ed at the a!ove event, first a*on" senior san"o*a and a*a"3ira of the estern Cape, follo)ed !y a session !y their novices.N1O

1. 7*unqula N!y the senior healer )hose *other had died, and )ho )as !ein" cleansedO: Su*ube

ndilthandenza *e a *disitsho *umama . +n so sayin" +<* prayin" to *other. e<ll leave havin" )ashedeach other Nrepeated *any ti*esO. &u$hil'a ngamutu . e s(rvive Nor liveO !eca(se of each other.hile )e say )e ca*e to 0heal0 here.

Ngoma: "ambulele umama ... 5hey killed *a*a.

2. 7*unqula : Go( )o(ld have tho("ht that the ni"ht 0)ar0 )o(ld have cal*ed do)n this Ni"3iraspirit(alityO. B(t no, it doesn<t. +<* in it, al)ays facin" a )hite person Nat )orkO, and *ay!e that<s )hy+<* 0on ed"e.0

Ngoma: "alele $hezu *'eentaba zu8undi . 5he NancestorsO are sleepin" at the top of the *o(ntains ofUl(ndi.

#. 7*unqula : Fet<s camagusha no) Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. @izala Na relativeO, + )ant yo(



to say for *e to these a*a"3ira and these visitors )hat )e<re here for, they<re )elco*e.

Ngoma Nin -frikaansO: %at ma*eer )andag( 'at ma*eer; hat<s happenin" todayI

8 112 8

7i"(re 9.Plan of ho(se, co*po(nd, and street in Cape 5o)n to)nship settin")here 0doin" n"o*a0 )as perfor*ed, in the contet of 0)ashin" of the !eads0 of senior healer -delheid @dika follo)in" her *other<s death:=a> livin" roo* and inter*ediate rit(al space )here all n"o*a sessions areheld, as )ell as 0callin" do)n ancestors0 =!> kitchen =c> !edroo*=d> stora"e roo* =e> !ackyard =f> s(!renter shelter ="> )ater tap, toilet=h> profane p(!lic space )here 0co*in" o(t0 is held and )here darknessof poll(tion is 0thro)n a)ay.0

L. 7*unqula: Hulle 'il meet 'at ma*eer )andag; &affirdans. Go( )ant to kno) )hat<s happenin" heretodayI +t<s a affir dance Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht.

Ngoma: Ndi#amthenda u <esu= 'a*lulula umo# a 'am . + love Jes(s, he set free *y so(l.

K. 7*unqula : Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. Camagusha . + thank !ein" )elco*e in this ho*e,camagu . + )as coronated in this ho*e, and the isidlo*olo !(shy hat )as "iven to *e here.

1.Go(n" )o*en and *others of the linea"e in procession, d(rin" @kita rite in

on"o4@tand( society, )estern Aaire. Photo archive, +nstit(t des M(sEes @ationa(d( Aaire.

2.'iversity of n"o*a dr(*sfro* the Con"o Basin, Aaire:=a> )ith face of M!(olo healin"spirit, Gaka, o(th)estern

Aaire, +nstit(t des M(sees @ational d(Aaire =+M@A>%1.1#&.1 =K9 c*. tall, 2& c*. )ide>

=e>MC- &9%%, (s(, Manie*a, K #c*., !efore 19$2 =Boone ;+2 0n"o*a0>



=f> MC- L&.2$.1$%, (n"ana, o(th)estern Aaire, 9& ## c*., !efore 19L& =Boone H+++1$>

=!>5shok)e4F(nda, asai,+M@A %1.22.1# =K# c*. tall>fro* the collections of theoyal M(se(* of Central-frica, 5erv(ren =MC->and p(!lished in Dl"a Boone,Fes ta*!o(rs d( Con"o !el"e

et d( (anda4Ur(ndi, 19K1

=c> MC- #&&2&, F(l()a, asai,K2 #Kc*., collected 19#9=Boone plate ;+++#L, 0n"o*a0>

=d> MC- #19, 5a!)a,o(theast Aaire, 2& 2% c*., prior to 1&&21&&K =Boone ;+12, 0n"o*a0>

=">MC- 2%%29, Fele, asai,9& 2& c*., !efore 192L=Boone HHH;+++K>

=h> MC- #%9KK, (t(, (tsh(r(, iv(, &# L1 c*.=Boone HH;++%, 0in"o*a0 or 0i*p(r(z(0>, thethon"4tied dr(* !eaten )ith stick sho)n here, typical of northern forest and est -fricanre"ion, !(t )ith for* and na*e of 0n"o*a0 area.



5he faced dr(*s artic(late vis(ally the idea of the spirit4rhyth* in n"o*a. Photo"raphs c6hco(rtesy ection of ?thno"raphy, oyal M(se(*of Central -frica, #$&$ 5?;U?@, Bel"i(*.

#. ishi @ze*!ela, of inshasa, Aaire, !efore paintin" of her late da("hter Janet, for )ho* she is a *edi(* in Bil(*!(, a rit(al of F(!a ori"in. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

L.ishi @ze*!ela, a Catholic, stands !efore this paintin" of Jes(s in her healin"chapel in her ho*e co*po(nd in inshasa. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

K.Pre"nant )o*an 0in secl(sion0 as part of reprod(ction enhancin" n"o*aa*on" the Chok)e of Aaire, o(thern avanna. 5his is co*para!le to n"o*aMpo*!o in the o(th asai. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19K9.

.-t Betani, the diviners< colle"e, ei"ht ti"o*ene dr(*s of co)hide over se"4

*ents of oil dr(*s lie in the s(n to ti"hten the hide for the net perfor*ance.5hey )ill !e (sed in *edi(*istic takoza divination cere*onies to reveal theca(ses of distress for clients. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

%.5anzanian *"an"a Botoli Faie of 'ar es alaa* de*onstrates and displays paraphernalia for n"o*a M !(n"i:five n"o*a dr(*s, t)o )ooden do(!le "on"s, and *edicine !asket. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&#.

&.-n ea*ple of n"o*a as sec(larized entertain*ent, perfor*ed !y the Bara"(*a n"o*atro(pe of Ba"a*oyo, here doin" the indi*!a danceat the -l*ana ni"htcl(! in 'ar esalaa*, 5anzania. +nstr(*ents incl(de n"o*a, other dr(*s, and ylophone. Photo !y J. M.Janzen, 19&#.



9.enior novice in +da Ma!(za<s colle"e in Betani, )aziland, perfor*s pen"(la !one4thro)in" divination, )idespread in o(thern -frica, !efore a client =ri"ht>and a collea"(e =left> )ho indicates a"ree*ent or disa"ree*ent )ith each

declaration !y the diviner. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1$.- "ro(p of novices =ama*'etha > in )hite perfor*in" an n"o*a on thestreet in /("(leto to)nship, o(th -frica,at the ti*e of a 0)ashin" of the !eads0 p(rification for i"3ira -delheid @dika. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

11.Co)hide over oil dr(* is here (sed in an n"o*a session in /("(leto, Cape 5o)n,o(th -frica. +t is dr(**ed !y a novice =nk)etha> )ho has her head !o(nd )itht)o strands of )hite !eads to indicate that she is 0in the )hite.0 he is acco*panied !y a hand4clappin" noninitiate. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

12.5)o novices =a*ak)etha> participate in n"o*a session in /("(leto, Cape 5o)n.

5hey are part of a close circle of novices )ho are 0presentin" the*selves0 incall4and4response perfor*ance. 5he script of this event is "iven in chapter K. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1#. @"o*a session presented in chapter K )as led !y this )o*an, a (st4"rad(atedi"3ira =healer> )hose *anner of leadin" the others o(t, of dancin", and of !rin"in" the participants to"ether )as as strikin" as is her co*pos(re in the pict(re. 5he !ead)ork is the !e"innin" of her i"3ira cost(*e, )hich !e"an)ith a fe) strands of )hite !eads )hen she )as a novice and )ill flo)er intoa colorf(l f(ll cost(*e. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1L.- 0)hite0 novice serenely )atches others inn"o*a perfor*ance after havin" presentedherself to others in evocation, prayer, son",and dance. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.



1K. Preparin" to 0thro) o(t the darkness,0the poll(tion of death of a novice<s kins*an. +"3ira /olden Maola distri!(tes to!acco tohis novices, )hich they )ill thro) into the

)aters of the +ndian Dcean near Cape 5o)nto the acco*pani*ent of a sin"in" and dr(**in"n"o*a. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1. -*a"3ira -delheid @dika =left> and helper =ri"ht> stir the (!(la( *edicine of entryinto 0the )hite0 at the o(tset of the s(fferer<s novitiate. Photo !y, J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1%. Fater, after the "oat sacrifice and the all4ni"ht n"o*a, the openin" phase of n"o*a initiation is concl(ded )ith n"o*a sessions on the street of /("(leto, a !lack to)nship near Cape 5o)n. 5he 0)hite0 novice is seatedin the fore"ro(nd )hile f(lly 3(alified a*a"3ira take t(rns enco(ra"in" hi*)ith son"4dance n"o*a. Photo !y J. M. Janzen, 19&2.

1&.5he a(thor kneelin" !et)een the "rad(atin" still4veiled novice and her kins)o*an =left>and her i"3ira healer =ri"ht>,

in /("(leto to)nship. Photo !y einhild Janzen, 19&2.

8 11# 8

Ngoma : + love Jes(s, he set free *y so(l.

. 7*unqula : Mzala, + thank )hat yo(<ve done, sayin" sorry after 0sinnin",0 cons(ltin" those a!oveyo(.


%. 7*unqula : e ca*e to (ncover the )o(nd, and thereafter take so*e oil and anoint it. +, too, ca*e tosay: Fet the )o(nd !e healed. 5he a*a"3ira have spoken )ell.


5he !asic call4and4response str(ct(re of the (k(n3(lan"o*a pattern is enriched !y a rhyth* !et)eenspeakin" and sin"in". -frikaans, ?n"lish, Hhosa, A(l(, and )azi evocations and son"s in these t)osessions are a partic(larly poi"nant re*inder of the cleava"es and cos*opolitan diversity of o(th-frican society. ?specially to(chin" are the echan"es in -frikaans =V#, VL> that *ay have !een pro*pted !y *y presence )ith several *e*!ers of *y fa*ily. Dne of the senior i"3ira in evocationn(*!er # asks the others to tell 0)hy )e<re here.0 5hat is follo)ed !y an n"o*a in -frikaans: 0hat<shappenin" hereI0 5he net u*unquia =VL> responds that it<s a *affirdans . 5his de*onstrates the po)er



of the *edi(* to a!sor! the condescendin" attit(de of )hite o(th -frica to)ard an -fricaninstit(tion. 5he echan"e is, ho)ever, intended to !e ironic. 7*unqula n(*!er 2 also to(ches on therole of n"o*a in helpin" these a*a"3ira deal )ith the racial tension in their society. 5his )o*an )as ado*estic )orker in a )hite ho*e, and she co*plained to (s of her lo) )a"es for lon", hard )orkin"ho(rs despite *any years of seniority. he (sed the n"o*a session to tell the others, and her ancestors,that this is )hat *ade her 0on ed"e,0 or spirit(ally 0sharp.0

5he repetition of the n"o*a 0+ love Jes(s ...0 fro* Aionist sin"in", de*onstrates the infl(ence ofChristianity, !(t it also s(""ests that it is diffic(lt to dra) a line separatin" 0-frican0 fro* 0Christian0reference points. o)ever, n"o*as 1, 2, and % are in a *ore conventional idio*.

-fter shakin" off the isimn#ama , poll(tion, as a res(lt of the death, and sin"in"4prayin" for the i"3ira,the second n"o*a session follo)s for the novices. - (st4"rad(ated, f(lly 3(alified i"3ira =the )o*anin the !l(e and !lack striped s)eater, plate 1#> leads this session. =Plates 1$, 11, and 12 portray thisevent.> he opens )ith a son"4dance.

8 11L 8

Ngoma: Simon'o#a . e have spirit ...&. 7*unqula N!y a !oy noviceO: a @")ane NancestorsO, hear *e.

Ngoma: ombeleleni( unon*ala( ngasemlanieni . in" and clap for the cra! net to the river.

Ngoma: He a+ola >clan name?( $huma e +ele . Maola, co*e o(t of ail. Ndinendabe zonzi 'a*ho . +have ne)s of yo(r ho(se. =ee fi". 1$.>

NDne of the persons in the circle points to another )ho is sick, a novice.O e are "ivin" Nthe son",n"o*aO over to yo( *other, camagu .

Ngoma : ... eluhambeni . ... in a trip Nina(di!leO.

9. 7*unqula : + ask for protection fro* *y people NancestorsO, the ade!es and the Mtinik(l(s.

Ngoma : NcallO A*ulal'a ez'eni a*ulal'a NresponseO a*ulal'a a*ulal'a ez'eni . ...

Ngoma: He a+ola $huma entela*'eni( ndinendaba zonzi 'a*ho . Maola co*e o(t of confine*ent=lit. 0the pot0>, + have ne)s of yo(r ho(sehold. Camagu@

Ngoma : ey Maola, co*e o(t, + have ne)s of yo(r ho(sehold.

1$. 7*unqula : Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. + call on *y ancestors. 5his i"3ira )as handed *e !ya parent )hile livin". + take after *y "rand*other, and (se one of the e#ezeni *edicines. + rese*!le ani"3ira of i"3iras, a tr(ly a(thentic one. 5he )hite !ones over )hich death lies, + approached the* )ith*y !ack t(rned to the*, that they not !e resentf(l of *e. May the dr(" !e revealed to *e, so that as ani"3ira + *ay !e a!le to say the tr(th after kneelin" !efore *y clients.

Ngoma: &ha'uhibe igqira . /o, "o i"3ira.

11. 7*unqula : ince + al*ost left this cere*ony )itho(t co*in" forth to say so*ethin", + *i"ht fallsick after leavin" this ho(se. May + sin".

8 11K 8



7i"(re 1$.patial layo(t of 0doin" n"o*a0 in livin" roo* of ho*e depictedin fi"(re 9 =a> all participants in livin" roo* =!> circle of a*ak)etha=novices> =c> f(lly 3(alified i"3ira =healer> )ho leads session actors in therit(al (nit once session has !e"(n: =d> in left4hand sche*e, novice presentsu*unqula =e> other novice or leader responds to self4presentation, and

leads in son"4dance, as sho)n in ri"ht4hand sche*e. Ngoma: Ndine thumba lam lo*uthandaza . + have *y ti*e to pray.

Ndinenda'o #am #o*uthandaza . + have *y place to pray.

12. 7*unqula: Camagusha@ Fet (s re*e*!er )hat )e are here for. !o u*ublamba , p(rification. + havevery little )ith *e. NesponseO Ca*a"(. Fet the darkness !e replaced !y li"ht NesponseO Camagu . + pray for a dr(", that it *ay do its )ork. May it !e there, as far as the caves, the river, fro* )here itco*es, and )here its roots are "ro(nd on a stone to *ake *edicine of it. + a* also here to pray to /od.May this ho*e of the Mak)ayis have the darkness replaced !y li"ht.

Ngoma: Andimanto esandleni( ndize *an#e N*osi. Sendondele e*rusini( e*ubethel'eni . + have nothin"at hand, + co*e once Ford ...

1#. 7*unqula : hen +<* here, presentin" *yself, + think !ack to *y *other<s ho*e, at the )a@"(ni,and the )ay they said, 0Fet darkness !e replaced !y li"ht.0 Ndi#anqula ndi#athendaza( camag'ini INesponseO Camagu . + ad*it that + take pills )hen + co*e to a cere*ony Ninthlombe O !eca(se it *akes*e sick. May darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. My people sho(ld not )orry that +<* doin"

8 11 8

this u*unqul presentation. +<ll lead in *y son" and then hand the n"o*a over.

Ngoma: Andi#o#i*i le nt'aza na ingangani . + a* not afraid of this "irl )ho is as !i" as *yself.NesponseO Camagu .

1L. 7*unqula : + a* hard4pressed !y rental fees and *any other thin"s. + had to take fro* *y children,asked the* to "ive *e so*e soap, for the yo(n" )o*en here to s*ell "ood.

Ngoma : Blessed !e the na*e of the Ford Nin ?n"lishO.

Ngoma: omelelani *unzima emblabeni . Be stron" !eca(se it<s hard here on earth.

1K. 7*unqula : + co*e fro* afar. My ho*e is in )aziland, and +<* a visitor. + call on *y ancestors.

Ngoma : NcallO 7n'o#a 'am NresponseO 'an*bulul9umo#a 'am . My spirit, he set *y spirit free.

Ngoma: Ndize *u'e( undincede . + a* co*in" to yo( Ford for help.

Ngoma: Sicel9i camagu . e are re3(estin" a camagu.

1. 7*unqula : + call (pon *y ancestors to let darkness !e replaced !y li"ht. + a* "lad that the darknessthat has !een han"in" over here co(ld !e re*oved, that !roken hearts have !een consoled. + thank all of/od<s children present, in the na*e and a(thority of Jes(s. allel(ah, *i"ht /od "ive (s po)er. MayJes(s "ive the )o*an Marade!e po)er. 5hin"s are as they are, the )earin" of )hite !eads Nnovices)ho are initiatedO, !eca(se there is no peace in the )orld. allel(ah, !eloved ones, *ay /od !lessyo(.

Ngoma: !hemba lam ngu esu( ndozimele nge#e . My hope is Jes(s, +<ll hide in hi*.



1%. 7*unqula : + )ish to !e a sincere, honest i"3ira. +f + can<t dia"nose so*ethin", +<ll kneel do)n and pray in order to tell the tr(th. + )ant to stand atop of 5a!le Mo(ntain and !e li"ht to the people. Maythe darkness !e replaced !y li"ht

5he spoken calls =u*unqula > and s(n" responses =n"o*a>, )ith dr(* and dance acco*pani*ent,de*onstrate the co*ple !asis of this instit(tion. 5here is a keen desire on the part of these novices=a*ak4

8 11% 8

)etha> to !e in to(ch )ith each other, as they p(t it, to camagusha . 5he phrases 0let<s camagusha 0 orthe call 0camagu@ 0 follo)ed !y the response camagusha indicates !efore each n"o*a (nit a kind ofrit(al positionin" to follo) thro("h. 5his call anno(nces, in effect, 0let<s do an echan"e,0 or 0)e haveheard,0 0)e have a"reed.0 5hese ver!al si"nals are i*portant as rhetorical fra*in" devices in then"o*a )ork at hand.

5here is also evidence of deli!erately handin" the n"o*a aro(nd, as it )ere, 0!ein" it.0 +n set n(*!er &so*eone, it is not clear )ho, hands the son" over to another )o*an.

5he content of the individ(al declarations and son"s varies )idely, the for*er for the *ost part relatin"to the lives of partic(lar individ(als, their call, sickness eperience, environ*ent, their aspirations,)hereas the latter, the son"s, are *ore c(lt(rally standardized. - n(*!er of u*unqula evocations callon ancestors for help and solace. e see fro* the na*es *entioned that this is a varied "ro(p ofnovices fro* across o(thern -frica. Clan na*es s(ch as a @")ane fro* the ?astern 5ransvaal =V&>,ade!e and Mtinik(l( =V9>, the "eneric )a@"(ni =V1#> are *entioned. Dne says she is fro*)aziland. 5he ancestors are invoked in a "eneral sense here, )hich differs fro* identification )ith partic(lar ancestors in other re"ions of Central and o(thern -frica =e."., 7ry a*on" the Aez(r(, or5(rner a*on" the @de*!(>. 5here is also indirect and direct reference to nat(ral do*ains of land and)ater and to *ediators across these do*ains. 5he yo(n" !oy =V&>, follo)in" his u*unqula , sin"s o(tthe 0cra! son"0 and others oin in. 5his is a co**only heard n"o*a !oth in o(thern -frica and

else)here =the ter* n*ala for cra! is very )idespread, as is the reference to the cra! as a *ediator>.5he cra! !(rro)s in the !each sand and sc(rries into the )ater )hen discovered. +t is the perfectnat(ral reference for a spirit(al *etaphor !rid"in" land, the do*ain of h(*ans, )ith )ater, the do*ainof ancestors and spirits. i*ilarly, there is reference to plants and dr("s =e."., V12> fo(nd in caves andalon" rivers, *ediatory zones, that are (sed to enhance the n"o*a process of 0co*in" o(t0 and0sharin"0 and 0presentin"0 oneself.

Most of the novices epress a concern for artic(latin" their inner conflicts, "ettin" their )ords o(t.on"s in n(*!ers & and 9 *ention a Maola )ho is i*plored to 0co*e o(t of his confine*ent06 literally a pot6!eca(se they have ne)s to share )ith hi*. 5his i*a"e of a person !ein" in a ail, or a prison, or a 0pot,0 is an intri"(in" one for the person )ho is tryin" to clarify his sit(ation. -nother

i*a"e co**on in this

8 11& 8

occasion )as that of 0replacin" darkness )ith li"ht,0 !ein" a!le to 0see0 clearly.

o*e of the u*unqula self4presentations have to do )ith personal pro!le*s. +n n(*!er 1$ the novicetalks of her call fro* her "rand*other and asks that she !e a!le to follo) in her steps as an i"3ira. +nn(*!er 11, the novice feels co*pelled to share so that she )on<t !eco*e sick. 5he novice in n(*!er 12 prays for a *edicine that )ill help her clarify her sit(ation. @ovice n(*!er 1# ad*its that she takes



*edicine prior to the sessions !eca(se they *ake her sick. +n n(*!er 1L, the sin"er confesses that sheis so poor that she took fro* her children to !e a!le to !rin" so*ethin" to the sharin" session. -nother,in n(*!er 1, la*ents that there are so *any l"3iran"o*a novices !eca(se thin"s are so hard, !eca(sethere is no peace in the )orld. everal see* to !e already thinkin" ahead to )hen they )ill !e i"3ira. @ovice n(*!er 1$ prays that she )ill have effective *edicines revealed to her !y her "rand*other. @ovice n(*!er 1 prays that another )o*an *ay have po)er. @ovice n(*!er 1% )ishes to stand atop

5a!le Mo(ntain6the hi"hest, *ost pro*inent point in the Cape6and !e a shinin" li"ht to her people.eferences to /od, to Jes(s, and to the ancestors s(""est that there is no dividin" line in the *inds ofthese people !et)een )hat is 0-frican0 and )hat is 0Christian.0 +n fact, *any of the* have !een incontact )ith the ch(rch and even contin(e to !e *e*!ers, !(t they are no) participants in n"o*a toco*e to ter*s )ith their sickness, their sit(ation, and their u*ut'asa , 0call.0

Common Song! An) Pe%!ona' Song In Ngoma Na%%a#$e T%a)##on

5he distinction !et)een the therape(tic son" and the co*in"4o(t son" s(""ests that )ithin the co*plesy*!ol 0n"o*a0 there are at least t)o levels of narrative or perfor*ative (nderstandin". 5he first is thei*portance of son"4dance in definin" and co*in" to ter*s )ith the s(fferin" the second is the

i*portance of *ovin" the s(fferer to)ard a for*(lation of his or her o)n personal artic(lation of thatcondition.

+n ;ictor 5(rner<s acco(nt of Chiha*!a, a c(lt of affliction devoted to av(la, the hite pirit, adoctor na*ed Fa*!akasa 0sin"s an ngoma 0 to av(la on !ehalf of another )o*an askin" to !erelieved fro* !arrenness:

8 119 8

Co*pletely )hite is that )hite clayGo( yo(rself "randparent Nn*a*a O

-ll of yo(, yo( @ya*akan"<a-ll of yo(, o(r dead.5oday if yo( are *akin" this person sick 5oday )e )ill sin" yo(r dr(*5his person *(st !eco*e stron".Co*pletely )hite is that )hite clay. =5(rner 19%K:#>

5his appears to !e a "eneric n"o*a, not Fa*!akasa<s special son". Get it fits the for*at of intercessionof one n"o*a participant for another, seen already in the case of the yo(n" Cape 5o)n novice )hoco(ld !arely do his n"o*a, or of the senior healer )hose sister san" of her "rief at the death of their*other, or of the participant )ho t(rned the son" over to a partic(lar )o*an )ho )as very sick. 5hisfor*at is the 3(intessential act in n"o*a, for it !onds the sin"er to the one !ein" s(n" to, and sho)s the

second ho), )hen he recovers, he *ay !e"in to refor*(late his o)n self )ith a creative ne) son".

@"o*a *ay take another for* in )hich the individ(al !e"ins to present self in a *ore active andartic(late *anner. 5his leads to the special personal son". -n ea*ple of this is fo(nd in the )ork of psychoanalysts ;era B(hr*an and @3a!a /3o*fa, )ho have st(died Hhosa healin" in the 5ranskei,o(th -frica. ?very i"3ira =san"o*a> and trainee has a personal special son" that 0ca*e to hi*0 d(rin"sickness and trainin" =19&1:#$$>. Mrs. 5., an i"3ira )ho is the *ain fi"(re in the article, )as healed !yand trained )ith her i"3ira h(s!and. he drea*ed her son" at the !e"innin" of her sickness, )hen she)as t'asa:



o, here co*es an ani*al,+t is clappin" for *e.

5his son", like *any a*on" the a*a"3ira, represents fi"(res of the )ater or the forest ancestors, th(shavin" an o(ter cos*olo"ical linka"e. 7(rther di*ensions of Mrs. 5<s son", or son"s, de*onstrate herinner self4i*a"e, and the i**ediate events in her life, *ost recently a death in her fa*ily:

+ a* sick, + a* sick. @e)s is !ad a!o(t *e in this location5hin"s are !ad )ith *e,+ a* livin" !y prayer.-ll thin"s have "one )ron" at *y place.+ a* "oin".5hin"s have "one )ron" at *y place. =19&1:#$9#1$>

8 12$ 8

er h(s!and<s 0special son"0 d)ells on his *edi(*, a horselike fi"(re that he calls ;(*ani:

ere co*es ;(*ani,+ divine )ith hi*,My horse of ne)s.+ )ill die callin" o +t is co*in"o My horse of ne)s +s co*in".;(*ani. =19&1:#$#>

-n ea*ple of a stron", f(lly developed son" co*es fro* the Fe*!a order of early t)entieth4cent(ryinland on"o society. ere entire poly"yno(s ho(seholds )ere initiated to Fe*!a follo)in" affliction

or draft !y the ho(sehold head. Fe*!a<s characteristic sickness afflicted this *ercantile elite, strikin"the* )ith fear of the envy of their s(!ordinates and the (r"e to redistri!(te their )ealth to their linea"eco**(nities. 5he Fe*!a initiatory treat*ent created especially consecrated poly"yno(s ho(seholdsthat served as nodes on the re"ional fa!ric of alliances and ro(tes thro("h and over )hich the caravans*oved on their )ay to and fro* the ocean and the !i" *arket at Mp(*!( a!ove the rapids on the Aaireiver. Dne of the fe) personal Fe*!a son"s that has s(rvived follo)s:

5hat )hich co*es fro* the s(nthe s(n takes a)ay.5hat )hich co*es fro* the *oonthe *oon takes a)ay.7ather Fe*!a,

e "endered *e, he raised *e.Praise the earth, praise the sky.7or + have !een enhanced,+ have "one far,7ro* far + have !ro("ht NFe*!aO !ack.

5he initiate Fe*!a co(ple has taken a pil"ri*a"e into contact )ith the ancestors to !rin" !ack itsFe*!a insi"nia. +t is also a sy*!olic pil"ri*a"e son", declarin" s(ccessf(l e*er"ence into f(ll Fe*!astat(s. - f(rther verse of the son" addresses the s(fferers this s(ccessf(l therapist )orks )ith.



earch in the ranksof the patrifilial children

8 121 8

of yo(r clan.

ooo Nof the dr(*O ... o Nresponse of dr(*Oill yo( "ain Fe*!aI ? NyesO Fe*!a

5he presidin" healer refers to the so(rce of initiatory reven(e the client *ay !rin", and the linea"es ofthe *atriclan<s sons in )hose ranks one *ay find preferred *arria"e partners to enhance co**(nitysta!ility. -ddressin" the spirit, the healer sin"s:

Fet "o of the s(fferer so he *ay !e healed,e )ill !rin" "oods accordin"ly5here!y offerin" a "ift to yo(r priests. =Janzen 19&2:12$121>

- final ea*ple, fro* historic (k(*a in )estern 5anzania, fro* n"o*a @dono, sho)s that the n"o*ason" can take a collective, al*ost national t(rn. ere, a Christianized son" fro* the ti*e of orld ar

+ la*ents the dro("ht that is ra"in" and dra)s so*e )ider i*plications.

e failed in o(r d(ty to Jes(s the redee*er.D(r /od, he is cross and sends no rain.e see the clo(ds !(t they *ove a)ay./od hides the )ater and lets (s die,even the child in the )o*! of the *other.hat is o(r cri*e, D /odIMen arrived )ho ta("ht (s lies,not to *ake the ri"ht sacrifices.-ll co(ntries are sad

every)here the s(n is shinin" )ith s(ch force.D(r /od is very cross a!o(t ad(ltery, )itchcraft, lies, andthe cri*es of theft.5he Mte*i Mkondo of B(li*a has a "ood na*e, !(t he does not s(cceed in *akin" rain.+ hear that far to)ard lake ;ictoria there is rain.5he rain there *oves stones,it drives the* 3(ickly in front of it alon" the "ro(nd.D Mother, )ait, + shall sit on a lo" andlook at the )orld to see fro* )here the rain co*es.here is *y father to teach *eI

+ a* alone.5ho("h the a of the rain*aker Mi"o*a can !e noticed,+ a* alone, !(t not afraid. =Cory n.d. a >

5he st(dy of son"s s(ch as these in -frican healin" has not co*e very far, since *ost scholars )hohave looked at the* have concentrated on lyrics or on nonver!al sy*!ols. 5hey have not (s(allyassociated the content of these son"s )ith social and c(lt(ral concepts. Get

8 122 8



the distinction !et)een co**on and personal son" appears to !e very )idespread in n"o*a4typerit(als. 5he si"nificance and the role of self4presentation, or of others helpin" the s(fferer learn toartic(late self and (lti*ately co*pose his or her o)n son" or son" repertoire, have !arely !een o(tlinedin field st(dies and in scholarship.

The S%*(*%e O" Ngoma The%a+e*#( Comm*n#(a#on

Dne )ay of co*prehendin" the place of n"o*a son" in -frican healin" is to take serio(sly thereference to tet, tet(re, and contet, and to look not only at the content of the son"s !(t at thestr(ct(re of these co**(nications. 5he (nderlyin" and *ost pervasive str(ct(re of n"o*a is the call4and4response pattern that is co**on in *ost -frican *(sic. 5his is tr(e not only of the son"s, !(t ofthe very str(ct(re of the *(sic and the rit(al itself. 5here are n(*ero(s variations on this the*e:s(fferer and healer s(fferers a*on" the*selves healers a*on" the*selves s(fferer, healer, andothers ele*ents of s(fferer<s kin "ro(p and spirits and h(*ans. ince little collected therape(tic son"*aterial "ives the relational contet clearly, )e need here to depend on the ea*ples availa!le fro*across the n"o*a re"ion.

5he estern Cape ea*ple of 0doin" n"o*a0 offers a ready ill(stration of the call4and4response *otif

of son". 5he invocation, spoken, is follo)ed !y a son" that is intoned !y the speaker. 5he s(rro(ndin"individ(als oin in )ith son". 5here are f(rther a*plifications of the call4response rhyth*. 5here is thedialectic of speakin" and sin"in". ithin the sin"in" there *ay !e a call4and4response pattern. 5he setsof invocation =u*unqula > and son"4dance =n"o*a> are referred to !y the set call 0 Camug'ini I0 andthe response 0Camagusba@ 0 5hese t)o applications of the co**on ver! 0to a"ree,0 or 0to haveconsens(s, or affir*,0 pave the )ay for a )ell4(nderstood ro(tine that !rin"s a s(fferer into the "ro(p,sets hi* or her (p to offer a fe) tho("hts or concerns, and for the others to respond to the* in anaffir*in", s(pportin" *anner. 5hro("ho(t all of this, instr(*ental acco*pani*ent is li*ited to theson"4dance, and follo)s the vocalized, danced portion of the set. 5his is in keepin", every)here, )iththe pattern of instr(*ents !eco*in" a secondary or tertiary voice in the se3(ence of voices enterin" in.-ccordin" to i*ha -ro*<s *assive )ork Pol#$honies et $ol#r#thmies instrumentales d9Afrique

centrale =19&K>, this feat(re is !asic to *(sical styles across -frica. +t is the fo(ndation (pon )hich

8 12# 8

the (ni3(e feat(res of polyrhyth*ic and polyphonic patterns are !(ilt =see fi". 11a>.

- *ore ela!orate pattern of different voices is ill(strated in the acco(nt of Fe*!a son"s offered a!ove.ere, senior priests and priestesses, the novice priest and priestesses, and the patrifilial children of thenovice priest echan"ed t(rns leadin" their son"s in a 0"rad(ation0 rite =Janzen 19&2:11L121>. 5heseson"s are intoned )ith the ver!al call 0o4ko4koI0 =s(""estive of the dr(*s> and the response 0o05hen the lead sin"er opens )ith a phrase s(ch as 0ill yo( "ain Fe*!aI0 and the chor(s responds )ith

0Ges6Fe*!a0 5his is follo)ed !y the !ody of the son"4dance perfor*ance of each partic(lar son",)ith its rec(rrent internal call4and4response pattern.

- f(rther, lar"er str(ct(re reflects the parties present in the rite. 5hro("ho(t the event, the pro"ressionof lead sin"ers is the follo)in": =1> sponsorin" healer or Fe*!a 7ather =2> the other Fe*!a priests)ho are present at the event =so*eti*es the Fe*!a priestesses have a separate son"> =#> the patrifilial0children0 or offsprin" of the novice =that is, the offsprin" of *ales of his *atriclan6a classificatorys(pport "ro(p> =L> finally, the novice, after he and his )ives have co*pleted their initiations =see fi".11!>.

+n the co**(nication pattern of son" in )hich divination is done, an even *ore co*ple echan"e



e*er"es at ti*es. 5his can co*e in t)o )ays. 5he first is in the presence of a third party )ho affir*sor ne"ates the interpretation of the diviner4healer the second co*es in those cases in )hich the divineracts as a *edi(* for a spirit. +n o(thern -frica the 0third party,0 either an assistant to the diviner or akin or friend representin" the client4s(fferer, responds to the divinatory interpretation of the diviner.-fter each (tterance of the diviner, the third party intones 0+ a"ree0 = si #a )uma > or 0+ do not a"ree.0 +nthe first case the diviner )ill contin(e the co(rse of analysis of the case (ntil reachin" a concl(sion. +n

the latter, the diviner )ill !ack (p and try another track of analysis or )ill stop to disc(ss the case )iththe client. o)ever, in o(thern -frica and else)here, the diviner is often epected to esta!lish thetr(th thro("h a variety of convincin" *eans, *echanistic or inspirational. 'ivination is not ane*pirical science !ased on 3(estionin" and the st(dy of e*pirical evidence it is held to !e a *ysticalart, !ased on clairvoyant kno)led"e and )isdo*. 5h(s, at the end of the session, there is a"ree*ent.N2O

hen this clairvoyance is epressed in *edi(*istic for* )ith the spirit invadin" and speakin" thro("hthe diviner, in a sense the spirit

8 12L 8

7i"(re 11.=a> 5he str(ct(re and se3(ence of voices and instr(*entation inn"o*a son", co**on to -frican *(sic *ore )idely =!> the relationshipof 0roles0 or 0parts0 in a doc(*ented n"o*a event in @orth on"o in theearly t)entieth cent(ry =Janzen 19&2:1$12L>.

is the third party alon" )ith the diviner and the client4s(fferer. +n the ethos of possession divinin", it isnot appropriate to disa"ree )ith the spirit. Dne *ay not (nderstand the spirit, !(t it is al)ays ri"ht.5herefore the diviner !eco*es the third party, interpretin" the (tterances of the spirit as they arechanneled thro("h hi* or her, *(ch as the diviner interprets the !ones in o(thern -frica, or the

@"o*!o !asket o!ects on the o(thern avanna, or the shells of the +fa oracle.

5he co*!ination of *(ltiple co**(nicative di*ensions of vocal, vis(al, instr(*ental, and spatial andsocial do*ains enriches the overall 0tet0 in n"o*a, allo)in" it to artic(late the co*pleity andcontradictions of h(*an eperience. 5his process is enhanced !y the addition of interpreters or theaddition of points to the co**(nicative str(ct(re =fi". 12> and of *(sic to the co**(nication, all of)hich )e *ay speak of as 0rit(alization.0

+n several anthropolo"ical definitions of rit(al inspired !y co**(nications theory =e."., Feach 19,19% Bateson 19K&, 19%2> the essence of rit(alization is the process of addin" channels or *edi(*s ofepression to a disco(rse so that there *ay !e *(ltiple, or red(ndant,

8 12K 8

7i"(re 12.Modes of *ediation in n"o*a co**(nication. 5hese variations*odel *ost of the cases presented in this )ork in ter*s of str(ct(res !et)een s(!ects or 0players.0 ettin" =a> sho)s a co**on clinical settin"



)ith a therapy *ana"er *ediatin" !et)een healer and s(fferer. 'ivination(s(ally offers t)o types of str(ct(res, =!> and =c>, in )hich the techni3(e or the shadespirit !eco*e the *essa"e *ode !et)een healer and s(fferer4client. - *ore ela!orate *odel e*er"es, =d> and =e>, in )hich there is aninterpreter for the diviner and the spirit or techni3(e =as in @"(ni divinin")here so*eone intervenes to 0a"ree0 or 0disa"ree0 on !ehalf of the client.

5his *odel also applies to 0doin" n"o*a0 =e> in )hich there is a sessionleader )ho *ediates !et)een spirits and novices, and a partic(lar noviceat a "iven *o*ent and the others )ho respond in n"o*a.

levels of co**(nication. 5h(s, in the ea*ple cited a!ove, instr(*entation )o(ld !oth repeat, andenhance, the pri*ary level of vocal co**(nication. 7or Bateson and Feach, rit(alization occ(rs !eca(se of a 0!lock0 or 0static0 in pri*ary channels of co**(nication and !ehavior. ed(ndancy helpsto overco*e or !ypass these !locka"es. 5his is not far fro* 5(rner<s =19&> approach to rit(al, )hich itis !ased *ore on the i*portance of si"n and sy*!ol. +n this perspective, rit(al is si*ply the "reaterde"ree of 0density0 in the *eanin" attached to par4

8 12 8

tic(lar si"n referents. it(al acts o(t relationships and *eanin"s so as to hei"hten e*otion and toartic(late contradictory senti*ents. 5hese a(thors are not, ho)ever, overly concerned )ith the role of*(sic in rit(alization, altho("h their theories do not contradict the foc(s (pon *(sic that is (lti*atelyre3(ired to (nderstand Central and o(thern -frican n"o*a.

O" M*!#( an) R#*a' #n Ngoma

Maha*o(d in"iri4n"iri, the (fi M(sli* *"an"a =healer> of 'ar es alaa* )ho )as introd(ced inchapter 1, reected the (se of n"o*a in his healin" )ork on the "ro(nds that it )as *erely 0happiness.0+sa assan, )ho is also M(sli*, (tilizes n"o*a !eca(se it is an essential *ethod of "ettin" the patient

to 0talk.0 @"o*a, especially the dr(**in", 0hei"htens e*otions.0 5he theory !ehind this the*e )ill !etaken (p in the net chapter, in )hich )e eplore 0ho) n"o*a )orks.0 ere + introd(ce the characterand role of *(sic in n"o*a therape(tic rit(alization.

- fre3(ently *entioned feat(re of *(sical rit(alization in this tradition is the 0distinctive rhyth*ic pattern0 of each n"o*a. John Blackin", )ho has st(died the *(sic of the ;enda people, traces thisfeat(re to the place of rhyth* in the very distinction !et)een son" =u imba > and speech =u amba >=19%#:2%>. -s this distinction is also present in the ion"o lan"(a"e in estern Bant(6sin"in" !ein"*u#imba , speech *u*amba 6)e *ay ass(*e it to !e another very )idespread Bant( lan"(a"e feat(re !eneath therape(tic rit(al. 7or the ;enda, as for other Central -frican societies, n"o*a and relatedtherape(tic rites and techni3(es are desi"nated !y their distinctive rhyth*s. Df the n#imbo dza

dzingoma , Blackin" notes that these 0son"s for special rites acco*pany certain ordeals that the novices*(st (nder"o )hen they are in the second sta"e of initiation. ?ach one has a distinctive rhyth*ic pattern0 =19%#:L1>.N#O +n 5anzania, +sa assan and other )a"an"a and *(sic eperts also point to theassociation of spirits in n"o*a and distinctive rhyth*s. M(sic, )ith the assistance of *edicines, !rin"so(t the speech in the s(fferer, )hich then indicates to the presidin" *"an"a )hich spirit *(st !e dealt)ith. 7or Botoli Faie, a *"an"a fro* il)a in 5anzania, specific instr(*ents play distinctive rhyth*sappropriate to each spirit. 5his de"ree of specificity !et)een spirit and rhyth*, as )ell as the dance, is present as )ell in loa possession in aiti =Co(r4



8 12% 8

lander 19$:21>, partic(larly in the Central and est -frican ori"inatin" spirits.

e sho(ld !e slo), ho)ever, to *ake a necessary connection !et)een partic(lar rhyth*s, instr(*ents,and dances and spirits across the f(ll "a*(t of -frican epression. -s )e have already noted, trance isnot necessarily a corollary of the spirit or shade etiolo"ical hypothesis. +n the estern Bant( @kitasociety, the entire linea"e is ca("ht (p in doin" the rite. +ts initiation is pro*pted !y the sickness ordeath of infants and *others in the *atrilinea"e or !y disp(tes at the ti*e of protracted se"*entationevents. 5he 0therapy0 also entails restorin" ancestral le"iti*acy in the linea"e fra"*ents. ?ven insettin"s s(ch as the estern Cape reco(nted earlier in this chapter, the ti"htly re"i*ented n"o*a son"4dance sessions do not pro*pt trance !ehavior, nor do there appear to !e distinctive rhyth*s )ith the partic(lar ancestral fi"(res *entioned in the self4presentations and the son"s. /il!ert o("et<s )ell4kno)n )ork usic and !rance is !ased on the ass(*ption that *(sic is )idely associated )ith trance,in so*e places tri""erin" it, and in other settin"s cal*in" it =19&K:vii>. 5he relationship !et)een thet)o is th(s *ore co*ple than the red(ctionist ar"(*ents proposed !y a(thors s(ch as @eher =192>, @eedha* =19%>, (ley =19%>, and others )ho s(""est that perc(ssion, dr(**in", or related po(ndin" rhyth*ic *(sic, !y its intrinsic nat(re, sti*(lates or "enerates dissociative !ehavior.

5hese red(ctionistic theories of *(sical rhyth* and trance !ehavior are very attractive in certainsettin"s in Central and o(thern -frica )here trance occ(rs in connection )ith stron" dr(**in".-ttendants of a seance in )hich trance is acco*panied !y the participants< (se of shakers and severaltypes of dr(*s, incl(din" the hi"h pitched n"o*a, )ith rhyth* (pon rhyth* added to achieve the(ni3(e polyrhyth*ic effect that -frican *(sic is so )ell kno)n for, *(st in their 0"(t0 !elieve in thetheory of the ne(rolo"ical ind(ce*ent of trance thro("h rhyth*. 5he effect of polyrhyth*ic perc(ssionis not only the ha**erin", drivin" of the !asic !eats, )hich are like call4and4response patterns inconversation )ith each other, !(t the 0*etrono*e sense0 =Chernoff 19%9:L9> of the 0off !eat0 and the0hidden !eat0 that p(lsates as a !asic drivin" force !eneath the s(rface =5ho*pson 19&#:iii>. 5hes(pposition that this hidden !eat sets (p sy*pathetic echoes )ith the !rain<s alpha )aves, )hich are ata co*para!le rhyth*, see*s 3(ite pla(si!le.

5he pro!le*, a"ain, is that not all trance is to(ched off !y stron"

8 12& 8

rhyth*ic *(sic6indeed, so*e is to(ched off !y no *(sic at all6and so*e stron" polyrhyth*ic *(sic)hen played *asterf(lly does not ind(ce trance. +f there is a statistical prevalence of trance or possession !ehavior in the n"o*a re"ion in association )ith polyrhyth*ic *(sic, )ith dr(**in",especially n"o*a dr(*s, despite the te*ptin" red(ctionist hypothesis, the evidence and the lo"ic of thecase re3(ire (s to concl(de that it is a c(lt(rally *ediated association.

(ch a concl(sion s(""ests that trance *ay !e an analo"y or a *etaphor for the interpretation of life<s

eperience !(t is not a drivin" or deter*inin" force that invaria!ly shapes the co(rse of sickness andhealin".

Con('*!#on

0'oin" n"o*a0 is the central feat(re of the instit(tion )e have called ngoma thro("ho(t this )ork it isthe rit(al (nit that defines the instit(tion. 'oin" n"o*a has !een ill(strated in this chapter !y a Cape5o)n event in 19&2, !(t it co(ld have !een e3(ally )ell ill(strated !y events fro* thro("ho(t the)ider re"ion )here, it see*s, a "reat si*ilarity of for* prevails. 5his n"o*a (nit is str(ct(red aro(nd



the call4and4response paradi"* of co**(nication, )ith spoken call often !ein" echoed or ans)ered !ys(n" and danced response and the acco*pani*ent of instr(*ents. 5his co**(nicative str(ct(re is thecontet )ithin )hich the *eanin" of individ(al lives, a*on" the n"o*a practitioners, is artic(lated and)here these individ(als are (r"ed to create a son" of their o)n. Df co(rse, there are co(nselin" sessionsand other types of conferrals !et)een these se*ip(!lic n"o*a "atherin"s that *ay occ(r )henevern"o*a adherents *eet. B(t it is the n"o*a son"4dance presented here that is the 0*ini*al constit(ent

(nit0 of the entire n"o*a process.estern scholarship has not kno)n eactly ho) to cate"orize this (nit, as )as the case )ith the lar"erinstit(tion. +s 0doin" n"o*a0 *(sic, or is it son", dance, or "ro(p therapyI +s it )orshipI +n thetheoretical p(sh to identify the (ni3(eness of the instit(tion, + have reserved (d"*ent on this score !yintrod(cin" the core notion as a translation of the indi"eno(s na*e, 0doin" n"o*a.0 o*e of the principles of 0rit(alization0 see* to apply to the *anner in )hich n"o*a is done and )hen it is done.More )ill !e said in the net chapter a!o(t the a*plification of *essa"es and the role of *etaphors)ithin the

8 129 8

son"4dance co**(nication, especially on the role of spirits in these co**(nications.

- close look at 0doin" n"o*a0 reveals that it is the for*at and the settin" in )hich hi"hlyindivid(alistic perceptions are !ro("ht into the *irror of social reflection and s(!ected toreinforce*ent, repetition, and reaffir*ation. 5he so(rce of all the tets, dances, and rhyth*s is thisindivid(alized yet collective session in )hich the participant4s(fferer4perfor*er is (r"ed to 0co*e o(tof his prison0 to f(ll self4epression.

8 1#$ 8

=7o4 Ngoma 0o%5!

O" Co)e! an) Con!(#o*!ne!!

5he *(sic enchants the s(fferer ... to reveal the spirit.+sa assan, 'ar es alaa* n"o*a healer

5his chapter and the net )restle )ith the nat(re of kno)led"e6!oth personal and c(lt(ral6and the)ay it is (tilized in n"o*a. +n previo(s chapters n"o*a has !een presented in a n(*!er of

perspectives: the ethno"raphic present, the deep history of lin"(istic analysis and archaeolo"y, and theclose4(p vie) of the core feat(res and the *ain rit(al, 0doin" n"o*a.0 5his chapter on 0ho) n"o*a)orks0 seeks to (nderstand ho) kno)led"e in this contet is constr(cted and (sed. +ndi"eno(s theoriesof n"o*a and a variety of analytical theories are !ro("ht to !ear on the s(!ect. 5he net chapter presents social and de*o"raphic perspectives and conse3(ences on ho) n"o*a )orks.

+n eval(atin" the n"o*a response to distress, scholars need to ask )hether, and to )hat etent, o(rapproach filters eplanations in ter*s of the eperience of individ(als or of the c(lt(ral para*eters thatres(lt fro* co*para!le o(tco*es a*on" individ(als )ithin "ro(ps. 7or, altho("h it has !eenesta!lished that there is indeed a )idespread instit(tion across Central and o(thern -frica )ith distinct



feat(res, it is also clear that partic(lar localized and re"ional foci of affliction *ay see* very disparatefro* one case to the net. 5he ontolo"ical pro!le* of relatin" (ni3(e individ(al eperience to c(lt(ralinterpretation *(st no) !e confronted. 5his is partic(larly ac(te in re"ard to ho) the healer en"a"es inintentional action to)ard the afflicted.

5hese 3(estions take (s to the heart of the iss(e of therape(tic 0efficacy0 as it has !een de!ated in*edical anthropolo"y and related disciplines, )hich face the assess*ent of therapies st(died

co*paratively

8 1#1 8

=Go(n" 19%% -hern 19%9 lein*an 19&$ 'evisch 19& Csordas 19&&>. ince the test of efficacydepends "reatly (pon the criteria (sed, it is clear that there are *any )ays of clai*in", as )ell asindependently testin", efficacy. o*e scholars have s(""ested that the pl(ralist array of therapies in the)orld is so vast that an assess*ent of efficacy is an i*possi!le task =indzin"re 19&K:1>. 5hisrelativistic perspective is consonant )ith another "ro(p of scholars )ho approach the 3(estion !ystressin" the c(lt(ral constr(ction of efficacy, !ased (pon people<s !eliefs, (pon their fears of inefficacyof healin". 5he efficacy of a therapy *ay !e esta!lished !y st(dyin" therape(tic disco(rse on illnessand the people<s choices in seekin" therapy. 5he present chapter deals )ith this type of efficacy ofn"o*a. - second "ro(p of scholars =prin" 19%&, 19&K Corin 19%9, 19&$ Janzen 19&$, 19&9 /o!let4;anor*elin"en 19&&> insists that efficacy *(st !e *eas(red in a!sol(te 3(alities of !etter health,)hich is defined in ter*s of s(rvivorship, and *ortality rates. e take (p this perspective in the netchapter.

5he 3(estions of kno)led"e in n"o*a and the efficacy of its actions co*e to"ether in the sections ofthis chapter. e !e"in )ith a look at the distinction !et)een individ(al and collective eperience andkno)led"e. Most scholars )ho st(dy -frican c(lts of affliction see* to d)ell on the spirit pheno*enon, aro(nd )hich there s)irl *any an"les of interpretation. o*e of the *ore i*portant ofthese, for present p(rposes, are revie)ed. 5hen )e look at the conscio(s indi"eno(s theories a!o(t

n"o*a, )hich are (s(ally !ased on the hypothesis of spirit possession as the !asis of the *isfort(ne.7ro* there, )e t(rn to eplanations that are *ore interested in the tacit or i*plicit kno)led"e ofsy*!ols and *etaphors, and the )ay this allo)s for a *ore penetratin" analysis of the rit(als. 7inally, !eca(se a n(*!er of the n"o*a traditions de*onstrate rather sophisticated kno)led"e a!o(t thee*pirical )orld, )e *(st eplore the relationship of scientific or e*pirical kno)led"e to rit(al healin".5he (nderlyin" leit*otif of this chapter and the net is that there are varied types of kno)led"e )ithinn"o*a th(s there are likely to !e varyin" types of efficacy in n"o*a as a rit(al therape(tic enterprise.

Pe%!ona' E:+e%#en(e An) C*'*%a' Rea'#&

+n a 19&2 st(dy of the estern Bant( c(lt of affliction, Fe*!a, + pressed to its (lti*ate concl(sion the

ar"(*ent that the individ(al eperience of each Fe*!a 0afflicted0 =individ(al or co(ple> co(ld !e

8 1#2 8

"rasped !est in the contradictions and stresses confrontin" that person or persons. 5his contrasted, +s(""ested, )ith so*e interpretations of c(lts of affliction as standardized *anifestations of afflictionthat led to predicta!le initiatory therapies into specified c(lts. y*pto*s in the cases reported inconnection )ith Fe*!a varied fro* headache, skin rash, ver!al hysteria =loss of speech>, sto*achache,and a variety of heart afflictions, to loss of potency and to chaos in the co**(nity6in other )ords, a



va"(e and a*!i"(o(s array of si"ns and sy*pto*s6all !ein" interpreted as 0the Fe*!a sickness0 !ydiviners or fa*ily *e*!ers. By the ti*e s(ch an individ(al =or co(ple, since it )as theco(pleho(sehold that )as initiated to Fe*!a> had "one thro("h the co(rse of Fe*!a initiation, the*ost idiosyncratic *anifestation of affliction had !een s(!ected to a standardized set of c(lt(ralclassifications and rit(al ro(tines. -s the initial rit(al of p(rification, and the lon" *iddle co(rse to)ardthe final cere*ony pro"ressed, *(ch of the sy*!olis* and lit(r"y co(ld !e (nderstood in ter*s of

c(lt(rally standardized dichoto*ies and cate"ories.+n one !ody of *aterial fro* the Mayo*!e re"ion of Fo)er Aaire, the *edicine chest of the "rad(ate priestly co(ple, in the or"anization of its contents, ali"ned classificatory oppositions a!o(t "ender,color, cos*olo"ical orderin", and plants. +n the *edicine<s sy*!olic str(ct(re, the 0do*estic a!ode0)as contrasted to 0p(!lic space,0 the for*er containin" *ale and fe*ale ele*ents, as )ell as the priestly hierarchy inte"ratin" the co(ple )ith the p(!lic real* of Fe*!a. 5hese social di*ensions)ere, in t(rn, epressed or a*plified !y spatial, ani*al, and ve"eta!le o!ects or locations. 5he*edicine, in effect, epressed the h(*an di*ension !y proectin" its inner para*eters o(t onto otherdo*ains. 5he etiolo"ical *yth acco(ntin" for Fe*!a<s ori"in devoted attention to the co*position ofthe *edicinal satchel on a o(rney of the Fe*!a h(s!and in search of a sol(tion for his )ives< health pro!le*s. 5he satchel<s contents th(s served as a *ediatory vehicle !et)een the h(*an real* and the

s(pernat(ral =Janzen 19&2:2K%2%2>.5he point + )ish to stress in recitin" these details a!o(t the rit(als, *edicines, and *yths of Fe*!a isthat they are part of a dyna*ically patterned c(lt(ral code easily a*ena!le to str(ct(ral analysis.o)ever, the less patterned, chaotic real* of personal eperience as seen in distress or disease *(stnot !e i"nored in the process of identifyin" the c(lt(ral codes to )hich they are s(!s(*ed. +e*phasized that it )as necessary to reconstr(ct, fro* all availa!le !its of evidence, the historicalsettin" )ithin )hich the c(lt of affliction6the Fe*!a sol(tion6had arisen, and to identify the3(estions and paradoes that had !een

8 1## 8

asked and enco(ntered at that ti*e, and contin(ed to !e asked and enco(ntered as individ(als )eredra)n into it. 5hese 3(estions, or *o*ents of crisis, + called 0diffic(lt eperiences.0

+n this analysis of the settin" at the !asis of Fe*!a<s ori"in, + (sed B(rrid"e<s concept of the 0tr(econtradiction0 =19%:1$K1$>, developed in a criti3(e of FEvi4tra(ss<s )ork on tote*is*. B(rrid"ehad ar"(ed that a FEvi4tra(ssian opposition, at the !asis of tote*ic representation of society<s distinct"ro(ps, )as not the sa*e as a contradiction. - contradiction arose fro* contrary and clashin" socialnor*s, conflictin" "oals or interests p(rs(ed !y social se"*ents, or conflictin" interests )ithinindivid(al lives, leadin" to paralysis and stress. 5he distinction !et)een contradiction and oppositionsee*ed to !e an i*portant one to *ake in the eval(ation of Fe*!a, partic(larly if one )anted to "raspthe rec(rrin" eistential contet of distress of those individ(als )ho )ere steered to)ard the Fe*!a

resol(tion, that is, those )ho *ay have !een involved in *ercantile p(rs(its, )ho )ere possi!ly)ealthy, and )ho ca*e to fear the envy of their s(!ordinates in the kinship arena. My analysis )ent o(tfro* the pre*ise that there )as a distinction !et)een idiosyncratic, varia!le individ(al perception ofchaos, distress, and aniety, and the *echanis*s of c(lt(ral order.

5his point *ay !e p(t another )ay. J(st as eperience constantly *eets and shapes c(lt(re, historyconstantly enco(nters *yth. 5he t)o are *(t(ally shaped. @ever is 0livin" *yth0 a fied canon. FEvi4tra(ss ackno)led"ed that *ythic str(ct(res *ay acco**odate, even "enerate, ne) ele*ents andco*!inations. B(t he did not )ell eplain ho) h(*an eperience contin(ally "enerates ne) variations.



is analysis lacked the di*ension of the contradictory in eperience it lacked the di*ension of the political *anip(lation of *yth, )hich is co**only called ideolo"y. Both di*ensions are i*portant ino(r analysis of -frican rit(al and lead directly to an (nderstandin" of 0ho) n"o*a )orks.0 B(t )eneed to look at a ran"e of theoretical approaches to ho) this is eplained. e !e"in )ith a look atn"o*a as reli"io(s and psychoanalytical eplanations then )e t(rn to sy*!olist and *etaphoricaleplanations finally, in this chapter, )e look at the possi!ility of other types of kno)led"e in n"o*a,

incl(din" scientific kno)led"e.

S+#%# Log#( An) The%a+e*#( 3#!(o*%!e

5his section )ill s(rvey and eval(ate a n(*!er of theories on and eplanations of the relationship ofspirits to the therape(tic process. Both scholarly and practitioners< vie)s )ill !e considered.

8 1#L 8

S+#%#! A S(ho'a%'& /*gaoo>

5he *aority of )riters a!o(t c(lts of affliction have si*ply s(!ordinated the pheno*enon to anothercalled 0spirit possession.0 Dn the s(!ect of spirits ind)ellin" people, scholarship itself see*s to have !een o!sessed )ith a !("a!oo6a pec(liar fascination, a fear, a concern6a )ord perhaps derived fro*the estern Bant( notion bu*a lubu*a , to divine, to treat.N1O o pervasive has !een this fiation onspirit possession that it has apparently !eco*e a s(i "eneris cate"ory of estern scholarship, one thathas "iven rise to entire !i!lio"raphies on the s(!ect =Crapanzano and /arrison 19%% Aaretsky andha*!a("h 19%&>. 5he estern !("a!oo has certainly "otten in the )ay of clear (nderstandin" of the-frican instit(tion.

- Part of the pro!le* has !een the (se of the ter* shamanism , !oth in the (se and in the !reach.-ltho("h *any a(thors on -frican spirit possession *ake a ro(tine reference to the diffic(lty of (sin"

the ter* shamanism to refer to the -frican settin", the (se of s$irit $ossession tends to serve as ae(phe*is* for sha*anis*. -(thors s(ch as +. Fe)is =19&, especially his chapter 05he ha*an<sCareer0> and 'e e(sch =19%1, especially his articles 0Possession et cha*anis*e0 and 0Fa folie desdie( et la raison des ho**es0>, )ho do (se -frican *aterial in their "eneral disc(ssions on spirit possession, and (se the ter* shaman , do not lay to rest the definitional iss(e. Dther a(thors offer lesschar"ed descriptive distinctions in their )ritin" on -frican spirits. ;an Bins!er"en and choffeleers=19&K:#9L$> distin"(ish !et)een sha*anistic and *edi(*istic divination. +n the for*er, the diviner issaid to "o on a spirit(al visionary 3(est fro* )hich he ret(rns )ith his revelations this is rare in-frica. +n the latter, the diviner is locally considered to !e entered or possessed !y an eternal, invisi!lerevelatory a"ent. 5his for* is said to !e prevalent in -frica.

- distinction !et)een those societies that reflect possession !elief and those that practice possession

trance )as introd(ced !y ?rika Bo(r"(i"non =19%:LLL> to acco(nt for another i*portant dichoto*yin relation to spirits. -ccordin" to Bo(r"(i"non, the distinction !et)een the t)o can !e acco(nted forin ter*s of types of social or"anization. Fess co*ple societies in )hich individ(als take initiatives areless likely to (tilize trance states than *ore co*ple societies in )hich reli"io(s epression iscontrolled or channeled.

tr(ct(ral interpretations, s(ch as these provided !y 'e e(sch and Bo(r"(i"non, offer co*parisons ofdifferin" valences of spirit presence



8 1#K 8

!et)een entire societies. 'e e(sch<s distinction !et)een adoricisme and eorcisme e*phasizes thealle"ed pattern that in the first case creates a per*anent !ond !et)een h(*an and spirit, and in thesecond leads to the cleansin", or castin" o(t, of the possessin" spirit. +n the first case the s(fferer !eco*es a vehicle, or *edi(*, of the spirit in the second the s(fferer needs to !e c(red of possession='e e(sch 19%1:2#K>. 5he first is 0"ood0 possession the second 0!ad.0

+n practice, )hat do these str(ct(ral s(rveys of possession types revealI o) helpf(l are theyI 7or 'ee(sch, the on"o =in the @kita possession> and the 5hon"a feat(re possession sickness and trance,th(s callin" for eorcis* or healin". 5he (k(*a and Foved( reflect sickness possession, fro* )hichtherapy is the only sol(tion. Medi(*istic possession is fo(nd a*on" the (k(*a, (!a, F(!a, and @(!a, th(s approachin" sha*anis*. B(t only the ;anda(, a s*all "ro(p livin" a*on" the 5hon"a,have )hat 'e e(sch calls 0a(thentic sha*anis*0 =19%1:2K&2%>.

5his approach, )hich l(*ps entire societies into str(ct(ral types, has !een correctly criticized !y an(*!er of )riters =e."., +. Fe)is 19&>, )ho point o(t that these ideal types are in fact (s(ally *o*entsin individ(al 0careers.0 5he typolo"ies are !ased on rather inade3(ate ethno"raphic infor*ation that"eneralizes to the entire society. 5hey need to !e "iven a *ore historical and contet(al interpretation

in order to eplain )hy so*e sectors of a society, at partic(lar (nct(res in history, are prone to possession.

+an Fe)is<s earlier approach to this 3(estion, developed fro* his )ork a*on" o*alian pastoralists inthe orn of -frica, has !eco*e )idely kno)n for its e*phasis on the 0*ar"inal c(lt,0 )hich stands incontrast to the 0central0 or do*inant c(lt in a society. pirit possession, he ar"(ed earlier, )as anepression of crisis, i*passe, or confine*ent, and the only le"iti*ate or per*issi!le o(tlet !y *e*!ersof society6often )o*en6in s(!ordinate or *ar"inal positions. @at(re spirits, the so(rce of their possession, )ere *ar"inal in the c(lt of the do*inant6that is, +sla*, controlled !y *en.

Fater =19&> Fe)is ela!orated on this hypothesis of the 0epide*iolo"y of possession0 )ith a *oredyna*ic *odel that stressed the individ(al co(rse fro* 0(ncontrolled0 to 0controlled0 *ystical

eperience. +n social sectors that )ere *ar"inal, the career of possession led fro* *e*!ership in a c(ltof affliction !y a peripheral spirit in the do*inant pantheon to a kind of per*anent acco**odation)ith the *ystical force. +n social sectors that )ere *ore central to po)er in society,

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possession led to control and even eorcis* of the *ystical force. +f control, or channelin", of the force)as the o(tco*e, s(ch holders of *ystical po)er )ere "enerally tho("ht to possess )itchcraft6that is,*ystical6po)er over others. 5his, of co(rse, co(ld lead to the (se of this po)er in social control and"overn*ent. 7or Fe)is, the *ain difference !et)een )itchcraft =*alefic *ystical po)er> and possession had to do )ith )hether it )as handled 0o!li3(ely0 in c(lt acco**odation or 0directly0

thro("h eorcis* !y the do*inant reli"ion or (tilized in social control =19&:$>.

'e e(sch<s and Fe)is<s approaches to possession in -frican reli"ion offer a sketch of the )ork of a*aor school of )riters )ho vie) it as a co*pensatory effort to co*e to ter*s )ith *isfort(ne,s(fferin", and evil. 5here are *any reasons )hy spirit possession *i"ht !e a do*inant hypothesis ofdiffic(lt eperience in Central and o(thern -frica. +n societies that are acephalo(s, either today orhistorically, individ(als )ho clai* ori"inal kno)led"e are v(lnera!le to envy and criticis*. 5h(s, (stas s(ch individ(als are often code4la!eled as )itches, in keepin" )ith Fe)is<s approach, so c(lt(ralnor*s offset this !y fosterin" as the so(rce of all ori"inal kno)led"e and of chan"e the real* of spirits,especially ancestral spirits or shades, the c(stodians of societal core val(es.



Dther a(thors have 3(estioned the )ider applica!ility of Fe)is<s *ar"inality *odel of possession c(lts.Finda /iles =19&%> has st(died the interface of n"o*a and +sla* on the )ahili coast of 5anzania,)here there is a far "reater interpenetration of the t)o than Fe)is *i"ht allo). +n any event, shes(""ests that not only are n"o*a and related rit(als practiced !y M(sli*s !(t the M(sli* )a"an"a areoften a*on" the *ost devo(t adherents of +sla* in )ahili society. - fe*inist scholar of Central-frican rit(al healin", -nita prin", )ho has st(died n"o*a rit(als a*on" F(vale )o*en of )estern

Aa*!ia, offers that Fe)is and other 0*ar"inalist0 interpreters of c(lts of affliction have "enerally failedto consider the real presence of disease in connection )ith spirit possession and entrance to an n"o*aorder. prin" ar"(es that the predo*inantly *ale scholars of rit(al in -frica have i*posed on -fricaneperience the nineteenth4cent(ry estern vie) of )o*an that acco(nts for )o*en<s *ysticaleperience as their fail(re to cope )ith social conflicts =prin" 19%&, 19&K>. + ret(rn in the net chapterto prin"<s i*portant st(dy of the epide*iolo"y of possession in relation to de*o"raphic and social profiles.

hereas the for*er interpretations of -frican possession are charac4

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terized !y their red(ction of the pheno*enon to social or str(ct(ral the*es, other approaches take theeplanation in the direction of psycholo"ical theories. BWhr*an and /3o*fa =19&1&2> have st(diedHhosa healers in the 5ranskei of o(th -frica and are pers(aded that the a*a"3ira of the 5ranskei,)hose )ork in *ost respects rese*!les that of the Cape 5o)n therapists presented in chapter 1, can !est !e eplained !y J(n"ian psychotherape(tic *odels, and that the 0sickness0 =t)asa> that n"o*atreats is lar"ely psychopatholo"y, )ith schizophrenialike sy*pto*s of ecessive drea*in" =19&1>. 5hesi*ilarity of drea*s and drea* therapies, and the son"s derived fro* drea*s, to those of other c(lt(raland civilizational settin"s offer BWhr*an )hat she s(""ests is convincin" case *aterial for a J(n"ianapproach =19%&>.

-nother type of psychotherape(tic interpretation is offered !y psycholo"ist ?llen Corin of the estern

Bant( rite Ae!ola, reported in chapter 1 as an ?3(ate(r Province Aairian rite !ro("ht to inshasa. Corinrelates her (nderstandin" of Ae!ola to the approach of the 0'akar "ro(p0 )orkin" (nder enriCollo*!, )ith a "enerally psychoanalytic orientation. - *aor concern in -frican psychotherapy,s(""ests Corin, is the differentiation of the self )ithin a ti"ht kin settin". 5his leads fre3(ently to adia"nosis of )itchcraft, )ith the identification of a specific other as the so(rce, s(ch as a *other<s !rother in a *atrilinea"e, or an (ncle in a patrilinea"e. o)ever, etiolo"ies in -frican therapies areoften presented in a chainlike se3(ence, s(ch that c(lt(rally standardized etiolo"ies s(ch as )itchcraftand spirit possession are invoked to eplain 3(ite a variety of partic(lar si"ns and sy*pto*s.

5his is the case )ith Ae!ola, in )hich all cases are (lti*ately eplained !y possession of the spirit ofAe!ola, a type of (priver nat(re spirit. Get, on st(dyin" the si"n4sy*pto* sets of partic(lar *e*!ers ofAe!ola in inshasa, Corin de*onstrated that a *aority )ere reco**ended for recr(it*ent d(e to

trans"ressions of social r(les =2& percent> and interpersonal conflicts =KK percent>, )hereas )itchcraft=& percent>, *eetin" an evil spirit =2 percent>, and direct possession !y the Ae!ola spirit =% percent>)ere relatively insi"nificant i**ediate ca(ses =19&$:1K$>.

Corin<s *ethod of relatin" the individ(al eperience to the c(lt(rally standardized ca(se offersi*portant correctives to the pro!le*s of the str(ct(ral reifiers as )ell as the psycholo"ical red(ctionisteplanations of spirit possession. Corin s(""ests, first, that there is a loose, acco**odatin", link !et)een si"n4sy*pto* and etiolo"y and, second, that the spirit possession nosolo"y is, as + haves(""ested thro("ho(t this



8 1#& 8

)ork, a kind of c(lt(ral hypothesis a!o(t *isfort(ne =Corin 19&$:1K2 see also Crapanzano and/arrison 19%%, )ho* she cites>. 5he narro) psychopatholo"ical interpretation of n"o*a offered !yBWhr*an not only see*s forced, it does not allo) for the 0recr(it*ent to leadership0 (nderstandin" of

n"o*a that appears in the indi"eno(s *odel of the a*a"3ira the*selves.Get other approaches to spirit possession in -frica *ove a)ay fro* the sociolo"ical and str(ct(ral perspective entirely on the "ro(nds that this fails to take into consideration the ter*s of the eperienceitself. 5hese a(thors, s(ch as Fa*!ek =19&1> and Co*aroff =19&1, 19&> )ork )ith an approach that is"enerally called 0pheno*enolo"ical0 or 0her*ene(tical.0 Fa*!ek<s )ork on the island of Mayotte inthe +ndian Dcean !et)een Moza*!i3(e and Mada"ascar especially typifies the approach. ather than presentin" spirit possession as a pheno*enon to !e eplained in ter*s of society or its o)n c(lt(ralstr(ct(re, this approach presents it as a tet that needs to !e 0read0 in its o)n ter*s and cate"ories. -sFa*!ek points o(t, on Mayotte possession is presented in ter*s of 0c(rin",0 !(t it really has little to do)ith 0disease.0 5he spirits, )ho are for the *ost part spirits of the dead, are related to as separate,al*ost h(*an, !ein"s. +nteraction )ith these spirits can !e differentiated !y distinctive codes of food

and "est(re echan"e, incense, the topics of conversations, and the role of third parties =19&1: 11>.-ltho("h Fa*!ek approaches the 3(estion of the 0epide*iolo"y of possession 06that is, the fre3(encyof possession and social cate"ories of the possessed, )ho are *ainly )o*en6he reects any directsociolo"ical inference to their roles as *ar"inal to +sla* or to their distinctive role in society. ather, heinsists that possession is a c(lt(rally a(tono*o(s do*ain that *(st !e seen in its o)n ter*s and its o)nlo"ic.

Csordas =19&&> has recently provided a co*para!le pict(re of reli"io(s healin" in a non4-fricansettin", na*ely charis*atic Christian healin" in the United tates. o)ever, he "oes !eyond the *ere pheno*enolo"ical portrayal of healin" to atte*pt to eplain the criteria for 0efficacy0 in its o(tco*e.ith penetratin" case st(dy co*parisons, he has identified the follo)in" criteria as i*portant varia!lesin predictin" the o(tco*e: the s(fferer<s prior disposition to)ard the treat*ent, )hether positive orskeptical the 3(ality and character of the partic(lar reli"io(s eperience the possi!ility in the *ind ofthe s(fferer as to the o(tco*e the occ(rrence of personal chan"es in incre*ental steps =Csordas19&&:1#&>. Csordas<s application of these criteria to charis4

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*atic Christian healin" takes (s directly to evidence for n"o*a therapy<s efficacy as esta!lished !yhealers and s(fferers the*selves. -fter revie)in" the literat(re and *y o)n fieldnotes on this point, +a* a*azed that so little is availa!le. -lso, those )ith personal involve*ent in n"o*a and )ho aredivined to !e possessed do not speak )ith one voice. till, it is i*portant to discern an indi"eno(s

0theory of n"o*a0 that can !e "eneralized fro* partic(lar settin"s to the entire ran"e of *anifestations.

7ea'e%!? V#e4! O" Ngoma The%a+&

M(chona, the @de*!( doctor )ho* ;ictor 5(rner relied on etensively for his (nderstandin" of @de*!( rit(al, incl(din" c(lts of affliction, is depicted as a verita!le sa"e of esoteric lore of theo(thern avanna. 5here is not a rit(al sy*!ol or a "est(re that he cannot interpret. M(chona<skno)led"e is the principal so(rce of o(r etensive appreciation of Central -frican rit(al colorsy*!olis*, of the choreo"raphy of the affliction c(lts, and of o(r (nderstandin" of the )ay individ(als



*ove thro("h the sta"es of their therape(tic initiations. o)ever, there are very fe) passa"es in theee"etical co**entary of M(chona in )hich )e act(ally hear hi* developin" his o)n vie)s on ho)the c(lts of affliction are s(pposed to )ork. Us(ally he is respondin" to 5(rner<s 3(estions a!o(t theinterpretation of partic(lar rit(al sy*!ols. 5he closest )e co*e in 5(rner<s Drums of Affliction to atheory of the syste* is in appendices in )hich a n(*!er of @de*!( *en epo(nd on the character ofshades =mu*ishi >, shado) or reflection =m'e)ulu >, "host =musalu >, and a dead person =mufu >, the

constit(ent ele*ents of a person, and ho) these ele*ents can ca(se disease in others and need to !edealt )ith. (ccess in the h(nt, accordin" to one, sho(ld pro*pt the h(nter to offer an offerin" to hisancestral shrine tree and to distri!(te the *eat to others. 7ail(re in the h(nt *ay re3(ire one to take)hite clay =m$emba > to the sa*e shrine tree to invoke assistance fro* /od thro("h the *ediation ofthe shade. everal others e*phasize the serio(s conse3(ences of drea*in" =lota > a!o(t the shades,)ho are nor*ally invisi!le. (ch a drea*, or persistent drea*s, )ill ca(se sickness and re3(ire thedrea*er to seek o(t a doctor =chimbanda > to help the person drink the appropriate *edicine. 5o haveidentified one<s shade is to have a *ystical helper )ho can co*e to one<s assistance. -t other ti*es theshades co*e in drea*s and re3(est !eer or food offerin"s. +f one does not satisfy these de*ands )ithappro4

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priate responses, one )ill !e stricken )ith disease. Us(ally a diviner is needed to identify the shade and)hat *(st !e done a!o(t it. Beco*in" a shade is part of the process of dyin" and havin" the !ody, the"host =mufu >, separated fro* the shado) and shade =19&:2&L29$>. +n this, the role of the n"o*a c(ltof affliction is to !e the or"anized effort to esta!lish appropriate relationships !et)een individ(als andtheir shades. +t is also the or"anized effort to restore health )here disease or *isfort(ne have !eeninterpreted !y divination as !ein" ca(sed thro("h drea*in" of shades. D!vio(sly *(ch is left to thediviner. +t is i*portant to note here that )hat other )riters call 0possession0 or 0trance0 !ehavior is*entioned !y 5(rner )ith reference to only three of the t)enty4three c(lts of affliction: +ha*!a,entailin" the etraction of the ancestor<s tooth ayon"<(, in )hich the *ode of affliction is respiratory

disorders, and the patient drea*s of a deceased diviner relative and 5(k(ka, )astin" or respiratorytro(!les, in )hich the patient drea*s of spirits of ?(ropeans and speaks )ith ton"(es, si*(latin"?(ropean !ehavior =19&:#$$#$2>. hy has estern scholarship e*phasized possession so *(ch,)hen it is only a *inor feat(re of the entire n"o*a syste*, in the sense of trancelike or o(t4of4conscio(sness !ehaviorI

?lse)here, as )ell, de*onstrative possession and trance are either a!sent in the overall syste* of shadeor spirit involve*ent or they are one )ay a*on" others of epressin" co**(nication )ith spirits. Dr, possession on the part of *edi(*istic divinin" or in rit(al therapies is a pheno*enon that e*er"es inthe contet of n"o*a instit(tions at a partic(lar point in history, or declines si*ilarly in other settin"s.?ach of these possi!ilities needs to !e revie)ed to acc(rately (nderstand )hat the shades or spirits inn"o*a *ean and ho) they are (sed as active presences in rit(al.

5he n"o*a4related role of shades and spirits )here de*onstrative possession4trance is alto"ethera!sent is ill(strated in the estern Cape, and perhaps in @atal, th(s a*on" *ost Hhosa, Mpondo, A(l(,and so*e )azi settin"s. @ot only is divination done )itho(t paraphernalia, there is no de*onstrativetrance epression of u*ut'asa , the state of !ein" 0called0 !y ancestors.

5he second condition, in )hich de*onstrative trance4possession *oves into a settin", is ill(strated !ythe 0red0 takoza4san"o*a *ethod of *edi(*istic divinin" seen in )aziland and apparently in re"ionsof Moza*!i3(e. Most so(rces, as )ell as takoza s(ch as +da Ma!(za, said the appearance of this typeof divinin" is of recent ori"in, havin" co*e



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fro* the 5hon"a, 3(ite possi!ly the ;anda( to )ho* 'e e(sch attri!(ted 0a(thentic sha*anis*.0

+n act(al divination this *eshin" of the less de*onstrative techni3(e )ith possession4trance divinin"takes the for* of a hierarchy of *odes. -scendin" fro* t)o to thirty4five e*lan"eni in price are

ran"ed =1> the !asic !one4thro) divination, =2> !one thro) )ith epert translation !y a *ediator !et)een the diviner and client then, in increasin" epense and de"rees of po)er, =#> the client<sreco(rse to *edi(*istic divination )ith )azi )ater spirits, victi*s of )azi )ars, and alien spirits.avin" presented a estern4style fa*ily iss(e to levels 1 and 2 of this syste*, and havin" seen thehierarchy of level # in operation, + sa) that co(nselin" and pro!le*4solvin" *ay "o on alon"side the*ore for*al divination hierarchy. + have si*ilarly seen vario(s *echanistic *ethods of divinin" p(taside for co(nselin" and interpretation in on"o settin"s. +t is apparent, ho)ever, that altho("h any*ode of kno)led"e is reco"nized in this -frican contet, ancestrally sanctioned kno)led"e often has"reater le"iti*acy.

5he third possi!ility, that of the decline of possession4trance in n"o*a, *ay !e ill(strated in the5anzanian contet, )here n"o*a, altho("h associated )ith "ro(ps of spirits, is (s(ally done strictly asa dance and therape(tic techni3(e. - for* of ro(tinization and control of the rit(al, as )ell as ahierarchization of the or"anization of healers )ho practice a partic(lar n"o*a, has apparentlycontained, or controlled, open *anifestation of the spirit.

5he analytical thread that r(ns thro("h all these 0transfor*ations of spirit0 is that they are part of a)orldvie) or ideolo"y of order and *isfort(ne, of health and disease, in )hich individ(al eperience is !ro("ht to"ether )ith c(lt(rally nor*ative kno)led"e. +t is not an ea""eration to speak of partic(larspirits as specific paradi"*s and the real* of spirits as a "eneralized paradi"*.

@"o*a needs to !e (nderstood as the instit(tional for* that fre3(ently e*er"es as Central -fricans pick (p the pieces of their lives follo)in" a co**on and rec(rrin" *isfort(ne. Part of this for* has todo )ith the ass(*ption that *isfort(nes *ay ori"inate in the real* of h(*an !ein"s or for*er h(*an

!ein"s and spirits, as (nderstood in the proto4Bant( co"nate dX". 5he partic(lar co*!ination of ca(sali*p(tations of *isfort(ne and the social contet )ith )hich this is dealt )ith does not r(le o(tco*!inin" 0e*pirical0 or 0practical0 kno)led"e )ith spirit kno)led"e. -lso, !eca(se of the socialdan"ers of epos(re of individ(als )ith kno)led"e to envy and acc(sation, spirit le"iti*a4

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tion is a preferred le"iti*ation of !oth ne) pro!le*s and ne) sol(tions. +t in no )ay s(!stit(tes forco**on4sense kno)led"e or ad hoc pro!le* solvin". +t is th(s a serio(s oversi*plification to restrict)hat + call the 0spirit hypothesis0 to possession and trance.

+n several of the rare conversations + held )ith n"o*a therapists in )hich the 0theory0 )as disc(ssed,e*phasis )as placed on the s(fferer<s acceptance of the condition and the callin", as interpreted !y thediviner or healer, and (pon the relationship !et)een the s(fferer<s son" and spirit. Dne of theseacco(nts is fro* Cape 5o)n, the other fro* 'ar es alaa*. 5hese lead (s to look for other types ofanalytical *odels to (nderstand 0ho) n"o*a )orks0 than have !een so("ht so far.

-delheid @dika, )ith )ho* + had the pleas(re of speakin" on vario(s occasions a!o(t her )ork, spokeof the i*portance of (nderstandin" the s(fferer<s drea*s. 5hey co(ld indicate the nat(re of the call, andof the spirits, as )ell as the appropriateness of the s(fferer<s choice of a sponsorin" healer. 5heacceptance of the challen"e, call, or sickness =u)uma *ufa > )as the !e"innin" of recovery. =5his is



si*ilar to -lcoholics -nony*o(s reha!ilitation, or to Csordas<s 0predisposition.0> Physical sy*pto*ss(ch as headache and nose!leedin", and *ental sy*pto*s are often the epression of resistance to thesickness. @dika )as not )illin" to speak of the* as the displeas(re of the spirits. -cceptance, ratherthan eorcis*, )as the preferred *ode in )hich she and other Cape 5o)n healers approached 0spirits.0

Medicines in the first sta"e of the initiatory therapy, s(""ested @dika, are (s(ally intended to cal* and p(rify the s(fferer, to cleanse the tho("hts, and to 0drive a)ay the darkness.0 5his *edicine, )hich

*ay contain anal"esics and hall(cino"ens, is (s(ally 0)hite,0 )hether it is a plant4derived li3(id=ubulau > or )hite chalk =i*ota >, !eca(se the ancestors are of a 0)hite0 disposition. +ncense (sed in theearly rites of initiation is intended to "ain favor )ith the ancestors. he stressed the i*portance of the"oat sacrifice in her )ork, in ter*s of the disposition of the s(fferer and the relationship )ith othersand the ancestors. er theory of the son"s e*phasized the for*ation of a stron" self thro("h self4 presentation in the n"o*a sessions.

o)ever, it )as in 'ar es alaa*, in conversations )ith the leaders of the coastal healer<s associationhirika la Mada)a, that a theory of n"o*a in relation to spirits e*er"ed. on" )as stressed as centralto the rit(al. D*ari assan, M(sli* *"an"a and practitioner of n"o*a Msa"hiro for s(fferers ofchronic and severe headache ca(sed !y the coastal or !each spirits =sheitani> Mar(hani, (!izani,Mz(ka, and in4

8 1L# 8

y(*akero and also of headaches ca(sed !y ar(n"( 0inland0 spirits of the hills, !ao!a! trees, or*o(ntains, offered this:

5he ai* of healin" n"o*as is to *ake the patient talk, to hei"hten e*otions. +f that fails,yo( "o to the forest for roots, "ive the* *edicine. ?ither )ay, talkin" is i*portant. 5he p(rpose of the dr(**in" is to kno) the partic(lar spirit, so it speaks o(t in the patient, sothe healer kno)s ho) *any, )hich, )here they co*e fro*, )hat it )ants. hen the patientspeaks, it<s the spirit Nspeakin"O. pirit and person are one and the sa*e. -fter *edicine is

taken, and n"o*a is played, the patient *(st sin" in increasin" te*po, the son" of the partic(lar spirit. +t<s th(s the patient )ho directs the healer on the type of treat*ent.

+sa assan, also a M(sli* healer and officer of the or"anization, added that:

5he spirits like the *(sic, so they *ay *ake the*selves *anifest, so they *ay talkNthro("h the s(ffererO. - specific type of *(sic is for a specific type of spirit only this )ay)ill each spirit reveal )ays of releasin" the patient. Dnce the healer has esta!lished the typeof spirit !efore hi*, in the person, he !e"ins the correspondin" type of *(sic. 5he lyricsare the healer<s Nor s(fferer<sO o)n. +t is i*possi!le to "ive lyrics of a partic(lar n"o*a !eca(se there is so *(ch i*provisation and variation, so *(ch depends on the individ(alcase. o) then does an n"o*a help a personI 5he *(sic enchants the s(fferer so he can

epress hi*self !etter, and reveal the spirit.

0-cceptin" the sickness,0 0confessin" drea*s,0 0presentin" one<s self,0 0the spirits talkin",0 0s(ffererand spirit !ein" the sa*e thin",0 0patient directin" the healer0 are so*e of the epressions that "et tothe core of n"o*a disco(rse. +n ter*s of the co**(nicative str(ct(re of this disco(rse, )e have seen=in the previo(s chapter> ho) i*portant is not only the t)o4)ay disco(rse !et)een healer and s(fferer !(t that a third pole, a third party, is also co**on. 5his *ay !e the therapy *ana"er of on"o society,the diviner4assi"ned assistant )ho says 0+ a"ree,0 in )aziland, or the s*all "ro(p in the n"o*asession )ho listen and sin" !ack to the s(fferer the son" (st intoned. pirit, here, *ay !e consideredanother type of third party in the disco(rse, )hich *ay or *ay not !e dra*atically *anifested. +n other



)ords, spirit is a *anner of speakin", a hypothesis, a for*at.

Ngoma a! The%a+e*#( 3#!(o*%!e

5he analytical theory that see*s to !e *ost consonant )ith this vie) of n"o*a rit(al healin" *ay !efo(nd in the recent )ritin" of

8 1LL 8

5(llio MaraYhao, !hera$eutic Discourse and Socratic Dialogue . Marafihao is interested in findin" o(t)hat it is a!o(t ver!al therapy that c(res. +s it a 0science of the psyche0 or a 0rhetoric ofco**(nications0I 5o or"anize his in3(iry he selects 7re(dian psychoanalysis and fa*ily therapy ast)o etre*e opposed approaches on a contin((* of approaches to lan"(a"e in therapy. 5he first, )ithits theories of transference, of condensation, of the s(!conscio(s and the li!ido, finds lan"(a"e as as(rface *anifestation of deeper psychic and physical forces in the individ(al. 5herape(tic speech is toreveal and correct these forces. 7a*ily therapy, !y contrast, is far *ore s(rface4oriented, )ith fa*ily*e*!ers talkin" to"ether, )ith the therapist<s "(idance, to reveal and to a"ree on pro!le*s,

*is(nderstandin"s, contradictions, and approaches to co**on *(t(al reinforce*ent. Get in fa*ilytherapy there is a f(rther ele*ent that is often !la*ed for contradictions and fa(lty relations, na*ely,the force of po)er and *anip(lation. +s it possi!le to !rin" the varied therape(tic schools to"ether(nder one (*!rellaI

MaraYhao =19&> sees the diver"in" strate"ies of ver!al therapy6ee*plified in psychoanalysis and infa*ily therapy6as part of a estern c(lt(ral str(""le that has "one on for several *illennia !et)eent)o f(nda*entally opposed approaches to p(!lic kno)led"e: the first, ca("ht (p in deep dark secrets ofthe so(l the second, in a str(""le for consens(s of kno)led"e that is o(t in the open. ocraticdisco(rse, )hich appeared as /reek society )as *akin" the transition fro* a predo*inantly oralsociety to one that depended on )ritin", provided a *ethod for )orkin" o(t *any of the tensions thatopposed, or contrasted, the t)o approaches to lan"(a"e (se. 5hro("h the (se of 3(estions and ans)ers

6dialo"(e6these disco(rses sho)ed p(!lic kno)led"e, and kno)led"e of the self, to !e el(sive,transitory, and !o(nd (p in socially e*!edded relationships.

5here are (st eno("h rese*!lances !et)een -frican n"o*a (ses of ver!al kno)led"e in therapy and)hat Marafihao is sayin" a!o(t estern ver!al therapy, that )e *ay disa"ree )ith hi* that this is a(ni3(ely estern str(""le. +n n"o*a there is kno)led"e of the spirits as fo(nd in drea*s, a!ove all. +norder to identify )hich spirits are at )ork6)hich deep dark de*ons6it is necessary to 0let thes(fferer talk0 =or sin">. hen the pattern or the *ood !eco*es apparent, the appropriate dr(*s canrespond )ith appropriate rhyth*s. Psychoanalysis stops )ith the revealin". -frican therapy follo)sthro("h

8 1LK 8

)ith the son"4clarification. +n fa*ily therapy kno)led"e is !ro("ht o(t thro("h the "rid of socialrelations. +n n"o*a the "rid of disco(rse, thro("h )hich kno)led"e is revealed, is 3(ickly s(!ected tothe test of a"ree*ent or disa"ree*ent, a kind of ocratic 3(estionin" and ans)erin".

5hese are, then, the approaches to spirit in -frican and estern reli"io(s and therape(tic tho("ht. 5heyare an i*portant point of depart(re for o(r (nderstandin" of ho) n"o*a )orks. o)ever, they are notthe end of that o(rney for (nderstandin". e carry so*e of these perspectives into the net section onsy*!ols and *etaphors in n"o*a therape(tic disco(rse. 5his takes (s !eyond conscio(sness.



F%om S+#%# To Song6)an(e8 A%#(*'a#ng Mea+ho%! O" 3#""#(*' E:+e%#en(e

-ltho("h )e have no) !ro("ht o(r (nderstandin" of n"o*a therape(tic techni3(e aro(nd to foc(ss3(arely on son" and dance, )hich is to say a conscio(s ver!al epression and perfor*ance, there isval(e in retainin" so*ethin" of the psychoanalytic appreciation for the 0deep, dark forces0 of the so(l.-ltho("h )e have rele"ated 0spirit0 to the stat(s of a divinatory or dia"nostic hypothesis, or paradi"*,)e *(st still try to acco(nt for the types of anieties and perpleities, i*passes and 0intracta!le

dile**as,0 associated )ith the spirit hypothesis. @"o*a son"s, especially the personal son"s, *akereferences to personal eperiences, as in the son"s cited in chapter L: the 0sickness all aro(nd in this place0 of Mrs. 5. in the 5ranskei of lack of rain in historic 5anzania of the pain of se"*entin" linea"esin on"o society of the infertility of a close friend of Fa*!akasa, the @de*!( )o*an.

5here are all(sions to the nat(ral (niverse, the cos*olo"ical "ro(ndin" of i*a"es, *etaphors, or tropes.5he 0ani*al callin" *e0 of Mrs. 5<s son" the *edi(* horse, Mr. 5<s ;(*ani the s(n and the *oontakin" and "ivin" in the Fe*!a priest<s special son" the )hiteness of ancestral resol(tion inFa*!akasa<s son" the cra! that sc(ttles !ack and forth fro* )ater to land on the +ndian Dcean !each.5he i*a"es in the Gaka version of the @kita rite, as related !y 'evisch =19&L>, incl(de n(*ero(s (sesof nat(ral *etaphors s(ch as chickens layin" e""s and hippos risin" fro* the )ater.

5he *anner in )hich eperience is connected )ith these stock c(lt(ral fi"(res has !een pers(asivelyeplained in the )ork of s(ch schol4

8 1L 8

ars as Ja*es 7ernandez and enaat 'evisch. +nchoate personal distress and feelin" are p(lled o(t,"iven valence and clarity thro("h association )ith eterior i*a"es.

My favorite ea*ple of this process co*es fro* a *arvelo(s Fe*!a son", )hich )eaves to"etherinner personal i*a"es of pain )ith the path of Fe*!a opport(nity, death of personal fr(stration )ithne) life, and the all(sion to the risin" and settin" of celestial !odies:

5hat )hich )as a 0stitch0 of painas !eco*e the path to the priesthood.+t has ca(sed to rise5he s(n of Fe*!a.My death occ(rred+n the Fe*!a 7ather. @o) there is life in Fe*!a. =Janzen 19&2:11&>

5he cos*olo"ical !ack"ro(nd kno)led"e reveals that the celestial !odies of s(n and *oon cycleendlessly in their co(rses, and that si*ilarly, individ(al life *ay cycle fro* despair to hope, death tolife. 5hese cos*olo"ical i*a"es are part of a )idespread Bant(4-frican (se of threshold *etaphors

relatin" personal and social eperience to nat(re, to the invisi!le forces in nat(re, especially asconcept(alized in )ater, earth, and sky. 5he *etaphoric operation *ay relate to the nat(ral cate"ories,as in this Fe*!a son":

Praise the earthPraise the sky.

Dr it *ay attach the eperience to 0*overs0N2O )ithin, or *ore co**only across, these cate"ories,s(ch as, a"ain, the 0s(n of Fe*!a0:

hat Fe*!a "ives, Fe*!a takes a)ay



hat the s(n "ives, the s(n takes a)ay.

i*ilar are Mr. 5<s horse *edi(*, )hich !rin"s hi* *essa"es, or Fa*!akasa<s 0)hiteness,0 )hich !rin"s her friend fertility fro* the ancestors, or Mrs. 5<s 0ani*als,0 )hich call her. +n n"o*a tho("ht,so*e of these 0*etaphoric *overs0 are, of co(rse, spirits, so*eti*es accepted =adored, in 'e e(sch<s)ords>, other ti*es reected =eorcised>. 5he process is hardly *echanistic, nor is it fied as positive orne"ative in an entire society. 5he 3(estion is, to cite Aairian philosopher ;alentine M(di*!e, 0ho)

does one read and interpret these proced(res as *etaphorizationI0 =19&:2&$2&1> 5hat is, ho) *i"htone

8 1L% 8

read the 0*ytholo"ization of history and the historicization of *ythical narratives0I

+n Fe*!a, this process )as the effort of individ(als, kinfolk, and diviners to interpret the s(fferer<sintracta!le sit(ation, that is, to find a *etaphor in the stock of c(lt(rally ordered ideas to interpret anddeal )ith that sit(ation. Fe*!a did not force the eperience of the Fe*!a sickness into a sin"le *old.ather, + s(spect that the presidin" Fe*!a father took as his point of depart(re the drea*s, sy*pto*s,

co*plaints, and aspirations of the Fe*!a son6the patient6and his )ives, and )orked fro* there.-ccordin"ly, there are i*portant variations in son" versions fro* the sa*e re"ion and period,s(""estive of individ(alized rit(alization. 5h(s, )hile the partic(lar individ(al sit(ation of the patient4novices varied accordin" to their eperiences and s(rro(ndin"s, the process of interpretin" thro("h theconstr(ction of *etaphors )as co**on to all.

Metaphor, as seen here, is a ver!al or nonver!al6perfor*ed6process !y )hich a "iven set of ter*s orfi"(res is associated )ith another set so as to "ive the first ideational, e*otional, or dra*atica*plification contained in the second set, or in the co*!ination of !oth. 5his process )as at the core ofthe Fe*!a eperience.

5he son"4dances of the 0dr(* of affliction,0 )hich define the eistential *o*ent of the s(fferer4

novice, the psycholo"ical state of the s(fferer, are ali"ned )ith another set of ter*s that vividly reflectthe eperience and cast it into a )ider fra*e of reference.

5he fore"oin" ea*ples are relatively strai"htfor)ard. Dthers, )hich are dra)n fro* the voca!(laryand prose of on"o *yth cycles, reflect a *ore "randiose *anip(lation )ithin c(lt(rally standardized*aterial and settin"s. -ltho("h Fe*!a<s association at this level has !een noted in every re"ion, and)ith a series of *ythic fi"(res, + ill(strate *y point )ith the ecellent case of Fe*!a<s (se of the Moni4Ma*!( trickster cycle.

-s all )ho have read an -frican trickster cycle )ill kno), this -frican fi"(re plots *any s(rprises andtransfor*ations, so*e )ith violent, others )ith socially rede*ptive o(tco*es. Many of the trickster<sdeceitf(l deeds are !ased on p(nnin", )ith a*!i"(o(s ver!al all(sions, or on a*!i"(o(s social ter*s.+n the on"o trickster cycles there co*es a ti*e )hen the people, or their (d"es, rise (p to take thevillain trickster to co(rt. -t first they are inclined to for"ive hi* !eca(se his intentions appeared tohave !een no!le. Fater, ho)ever, )hen it !eco*es

8 1L& 8

apparent that he has c(nnin"ly (sed c(lt(ral a*!i"(ities6contradictions6to *islead and deceive anddestroy others, he is re"arded as a cri*inal and a )itch. Ulti*ately he is killed. 5h(s the standardtrickster cycles.



+n a c(ltic settin", as in the trickster )ho !rin"s Fe*!a, the trickster t(rns c(lt(ral hero, t(rnin" thesesa*e a*!i"(ities aro(nd, fetchin" the appropriate *edicine )ith )hich to resolve the dile**as andcontradictions of those ca("ht in the*. +n the tet presented in the !ook, *(ch is *ade of theco*position of the satchel in )hich are fo(nd the helpers )ho )ill aid Moni4Ma*!( "ain thereco"nition of his father, /od, )ho (lti*ately presents the Fe*!a *edicine, (st as the Fe*!a fatheretends the *edicine to his Fe*!a son.

+t )o(ld see*, then, that in a c(ltic settin" s(ch as Fe*!a, or of another n"o*a, the conscio(snessfo(nd in lyrics is *anip(lated so as to create a positive, con(nctive, o(tco*e to those dile**as )hich,in nonc(ltic versions, are "iven a ne"ative, dis(nctive portrayal. Dr perhaps this *anip(lation in theinterest of a positive narrative o(tco*e is the *ark of r(lin" class conscio(sness that seeks to containor override contradictions that !eset the society. 5his )o(ld have !een a fittin" analysis of Fe*!a perfor*ances !eca(se its ranks )ere filled )ith the *ercantile and po)er elite of the society )hoso("ht to "ain )ealth fro* the coastal trade and at the sa*e ti*e *aintain, thro("h "enero(scere*onial distri!(tions, the e"alitarian ethic in @orth4on"o kin4!ased society. hatever the case, itis clear that this *anip(lation )ithin Fe*!a of standard c(lt(ral narratives lends s(pport to thehypothesis of Fe*!a<s concern for social control, of its (se of ideolo"y.

Fe*!a<s *edicines and nonver!al rit(als !eco*e i*portant in seein" ho) 0contradictions0 )ere dealt)ith. + have sho)n, in detail, that the contradictions or social a*!i"(ities that are edited o(t of the*(ndane version of *yth for c(ltic p(rposes are in nonver!al *etaphors associated )ith *edicinalco*positions, as in the Fe*!a *edicine !o =n*obe >. 5he contradiction *etaphors are allo)ed tore*ain in all their antithetical forces, and are transfor*ed and converted, in the Fe*!a rit(als, intosocial po)er. +n this sense one *ay speak here of *etaphoric healin" and transfor*ation, or of theefficacy of rit(al healin" =see also 'evisch 19&L:1L$1L&>.

5his scholarly (nderstandin" of *etaphor as active a"ent is appropriate !eca(se all(sion to spirits is, inthe -frican settin", also a hypothesis, an analytical eercise. 5he *isfort(ne of Fa*!akasa<s friend isnot *ade si"nificant (ntil it, and the sol(tion, are conte4

8 1L9 8

t(alized )ith reference to Chiha*!a. Mrs. 5<s sadness at the death of her son4in4la) and her "enerally*isera!le sit(ation are foc(sed in the diviner<s enco(ra"e*ent to oin an i"3iran"o*a sin"in" "ro(p inthe contet of o(th -frican apartheid.

e kno) very little of the act(al choreo"raphy of these *etaphors of diffic(lt eperience, s(n" anddanced o(t6that is, as perfor*ance. @"o*a as historical *aterial, )ith the son" tet, dialo"ic tho("hit *ay !e, offers a !ias of a co"nitive *odel of n"o*a therape(tic rit(al. 5he transfor*ation of the*etaphor to a *edicinal *aterial level is a very te*ptin" interpretation that sho)s the 0po)er0 or0efficacy0 of the rite. o)ever, fro* )atchin" n"o*a sessions in inshasa, 'ar es alaa*, )aziland,

and Cape 5o)n, *y over)hel*in" i*pression is that the son" tets, in order to !e effective *etaphorsof the diffic(lt eperience, *(st !e sta"ed in a contet of s(pport that per*its the f(ll release ofe*otional pain and tension. 5his *ay incl(de the enact*ent of an"er or tension, as )ith the yo(n")o*an in inshasa )ho nearly !eat her infant child<s head on the concrete, or the yo(n" *an in Cape5o)n )hose pain at havin" to lead his son" )as visi!le in his ta(t face and !ody =see plate 12>.

5hese *etaphors or tropes, s(n", tho("ht, danced, and felt, are of co(rse so*eti*es identified as the)ork of the spirits. +t is i*portant to e*phasize that the o(tside analysis, (st as the internal theory,reco"nizes that the spirit eplanation of *isfort(ne and its deno(e*ent is one availa!le option, )hichco*es in a co*pellin" *anner to so*e thro("h drea*s6)hich *(st !e interpreted6and in a less



co*pellin" *anner to others. Possession th(s is an availa!le hypothesis, a c(lt(rally learned !ehavior.-ltho("h it *ay !e a *aor fra*e)ork )ithin )hich n"o*a kno)led"e is co(ched, it is !y no *eansthe only one, and it sho(ld not !e constr(ed as overdeter*inin" the content of n"o*a kno)led"e.

Ngoma An) S+e(#a'#ze) no4'e)ge

5he 0)orkin"0 of n"o*a has !een presented here as a for*at for "eneratin", artic(latin", and applyin"kno)led"e a!o(t *isfort(ne. -ltho("h spirit possession is often "iven as a fra*e)ork for n"o*a ideasand is then said to have co*e thro("h drea*s or in divination, at other ti*es the kno)led"e of n"o*arese*!les *ore the )orkin" concepts of a profession, or the crafts of a specialized "(ild. nake4handlin"

8 1K$ 8

n"o*a of )estern 5anzania ill(strate this type of kno)led"e. +t is loosely and for*ally associated )ith possession, !(t rarely )ith trance.

5he )estern 5anzanian snake4handlin" n"o*a *(st co*e to ter*s )ith technical recipes of veno* and

antidotes, handlin" snakes, and treatin" snake!ite, as )ell as )ith hysteria and fear that acco*panies,even in 5anzania, attit(des to)ard snakes and vipers. istorically, the (k(*a, @ya*)ezi, andnei"h!orin" societies have had to cope )ith so*e of the )orld<s *ost poisono(s vipers and otherfri"htenin" snakes. 5he !ite of the !lack *a*!a, for ea*ple, )ill kill its victi* )ithin half an ho(r.5he co!ra can spit poisono(s veno* and !lind its victi*. Boa constrictors and pythons, )hich stran"letheir victi*s, are for*ida!le creat(res too.

5he (k(*a approach to dealin" )ith snakes is thro("h n"o*a4style dance "ro(ps. Dn one front, thereare the societies, dances, and initiations. Carried !y the rit(al is the scientific kno)led"e of antidotesand snakelore. 5he *e*!ers of the snake4handlin" n"o*a *ake antidotes )ith veno* 0*ilked0 fro*the viper<s fan"s and co*e to the aid of people )ho find snakes in their ho(ses.

@or!ert Chen"a, novice of a (k(*a snake4handlin" n"o*a and )ho )orks at the Ministry of C(lt(rein 5anzania, related the character of the c(lt(ral kno)led"e of snake handlin", altho("h not itstechnical secrets, )hich are kept )ithin the n"o*a order. 7irst, + )as str(ck )ith his positive attit(deto)ard snakes. 05anzania really has 3(ite nice snakes, yo( kno),0 said Chen"a. econd, in speakin"a!o(t the snakes, he took their vie)point. 5he !lack *a*!a is very lazy, he said, !(t has a very "ood poison. 5he snakes "et ac3(ainted )ith their trainers and reco"nize their distinct s*ell. +f yo(<ve !een"ood to the* they kno) after a )hile that yo( )on<t har* the*, so they can !e handled. 5he snake4handlin" dance serves to lessen fear of snakes, since d(rin" the dance all types of snakes are handled,and in the one + sa), a 0vol(nteer0 allo)ed hi*self to !e !itten.

o) does this trainin" and kno)led"e of snake veno* and antidotes relate to the ancestor possessionideolo"y of the n"o*a or"anizational *ode in "eneralI e kno) little a!o(t recr(it*ent to the snake4handlin" n"o*a, nor )hether recr(it*ent fits the notion of a 0call0 !y ancestors. o)ever, the oneacco(nt of a historic initiation into a snake4handlin" n"o*a that )e possess, na*ely the (k(*aB(yeye =Cory 19L>, sho)s that the linka"e !et)een the eperience )ith snakes and the concept(alorder is handled thro("h the (taposition, in the initia4

8 1K1 8

tory lod"e, of three le"endary cos*ic serpents )ith the three rit(al colors: red, )hite, and !lack =Cory



19L:1K1>.

5he son"s of n"o*a B(yeye, for snake handlin", reflect the sa*e f(sion of eistential concern for the0diffic(lt iss(e06here those 03(ite nice0 snakes6the invocation to the ancestors, and a concern for the protection of special kno)led"e.

Go( *others of the ant4hills Nthe snakesO)ith the "larin" eyes,do not h(rt (s.e are yo(r children.Fook do)n, yo( ancestors of the B(yeye,Fook do)n at (s.hoever looks at (s )ith envy,May they !eco*e !lind.hoever p(rs(es (s, the B(yeye,May dieMay he !(rst like clo(ds.

Possession, if this !e it, !acks (p the nor*ative codes that call for le"iti*ation of skilled and esoteric

snake4handlin" kno)led"e !y the ancestors./iven this inte"ration of *(ltiple *odes of kno)led"e and evidence in a series of n"o*a, the prospectsfor f(rther evol(tion of the n"o*a for*at, )ith application to a variety of 0diffic(lt iss(es,0 is likely.e sho(ld not !e s(rprised to find in n"o*a the possi!ility of a shift of le"iti*atin" ideolo"ies fro*one *ode of kno)led"e to another, or of the insertion of ne) kno)led"e into old le"iti*acy.

Con('*!#on

5he efficacy of n"o*a rit(al therapy is, as )e have seen, *any4sided. +n order to esta!lish criteria forefficacy, )e have had to identify so*e of the types of kno)led"e that are fo(nd at the !asis of n"o*a.5hese have !een "ro(nded in the different kinds of 0diffic(lt personal eperiences,0 )hich have !een

interpreted thro("h divination, dia"nosis, and other proced(res to fit c(lt(rally standardized cate"oriesand eplanations. 5he 0spirit0 hypothesis is )hat !rin"s the individ(al eperience into the or!it ofn"o*a. o)ever, spirit is not )hat it appears to !e, nor is it e3(ally stron" in all epressions. 5hisepression ran"es fro* a *ere divinatory hypothesis that *ay or *ay not !e accepted to a

8 1K2 8

f(ll4!lo)n trance. 5his, in t(rn, *ay !e lon" lastin" and pervasive or fleetin" in ti*e and place. 5heconsens(al !asis of kno)led"e is i*portant, !oth in estern and -frican healin", as Marafihao =19&>has sho)n. 5his consens(al !asis of kno)led"e provides for a social handle, a social for(*, for(nderstandin" the deep, dark secrets in the so(ls of individ(als. +t provides a fra*e)ork to deal, p(!licly, )ith the thin"s that individ(als find fearf(l, )ith the )ays they )o(ld *anip(late kno)led"e 6)itchcraft, in the -fricanist<s idio*.

5he consens(s of kno)led"e in an n"o*a for*at *ay also provide the !asis for rational or technical(nderstandin" of the nat(ral )orld, for the e*pirical application of techni3(es to co**on pro!le*s, as)e have seen in the (se of antidotes for veno*o(s snake!ites.

on", )hich provides the for*at for p(!lic scr(tiny of these secrets and a for(* for re*e*!erin", also provides (s )ith tet that contains the *etaphorization of these eperiences into c(lt(rally standardizedfor*s. 'iffic(lt eperience, inchoate feelin"s, e*otions, and hidden *eanin"s are "iven standardized



epression in the son"s. +f they are representative of the eperience of *any, they catch on, are s(n"repeatedly, and !eco*e part of the co**on c(lt(re.

8 1K# 8

@7o4 Ngoma 0o%5!

The So(#a' Re+%o)*(#on o" 7ea'h

+s it "ood for the childrenIick Goder, Plannin" -dviser, )aziland Ministry of ealth

?plorin" the iss(e of efficacy contin(es in this chapter, in ter*s of the s(rvivorship of at4risk sectorsof society and the role of n"o*a in the creation and *aintenance of a social fa!ric that contri!(tes to

health. hereas in the previo(s chapter + identified practitioners< and analysts< theories of ho) n"o*arit(als are intended to )ork, here + shall ea*ine the conse3(ences of n"o*a (pon the 0socialreprod(ction0 of health. ocial reprod(ction as (sed here refers to the *aintenance of a )ay of life andthe co**it*ent of reso(rces to relationships, instit(tions, and s(pport or"anizations that directly orindirectly *aintain health.

7o(r )idely different n"o*a settin"s ill(strate the social4reprod(ction4of4health *odel of analysis: thehistoric coastal Con"o Fe*!a order in the contet of the *ercantile trade at the -tlantic coast theo(thern avanna natality4enhancin" n"o*a orders of Aa*!ia and so(thern Aaire the to)nship n"o*aorders of Cape 5o)n the professionalized n"o*a instit(tions of 'ar es alaa*.

5he 3(estions that are at the heart of this in3(iry are these: hat type of social fa!ric is created,reinforced, or reprod(ced !y a partic(lar n"o*a orderI o) does it address health iss(es and needsICan this !e assessed in ter*s or definitions that health planners or practitioners co(ld (seI

8 1KL 8

7ea'h An) 7ea'h In)#(ao%!

5he analysis of n"o*a rit(al healin" in ter*s of health re3(ires !oth a distinctive perspective ondefinitions of health and a !rid"e to the definitions of health co**only (sed !y de*o"raphers andhealth planners. ealth is a (niversal h(*an "oal, like virt(e or eno("h to eat, !(t it el(des definitionecept in ter*s of specific ne"ative or positive criteria. Myriad definitions of health eist.N1O 5his is not

the contet in )hich to present an eha(stive revie) of the*. 7or present p(rposes, )e re3(ire, rather,a selection of those that see* to fit the pheno*enon.

+t has !een o!served that "ood health is not necessarily deter*ined !y *edicine, especially not c(rative !io*edicine, narro)ly defined =@avarro 19%L orld ealth Dr"anization 19%& 'a)son 19%9>.ather, a ran"e of factors s(ch as n(trition, ho(sin", environ*ental 3(ality, social order, and*echanis*s for copin" )ith stress are i*portant =/ish 19%9>. 7(rther, if i*prove*ent of health on asocietal scale is to !e attained, then health policies *(st !e appropriate so as to avert healthcatastrophies or "rad(al declinin" levels of health.



Dne )ay to descri!e health, s(ita!le for present p(rposes, is that it is e*!edded in a set of str(ct(redrelationships, ri"hts, and practices rooted in a )orldvie) of val(es, tr(ths, and ideals. +n a sta!lesit(ation this )o(ld incl(de hy"iene =altho("h *ethods )o(ld vary>, ade3(ate and clean )ater,s(fficient and clean food =altho("h this )o(ld vary fro* nearly all4*eat to all4ve"eta!le>, r(les ofsocial interaction and or"anization =varyin" enor*o(sly>, and rit(als spellin" o(t the coherence andinterconnectedness of thin"s. -s )e )ill see, this (nderstandin" of health co(ld !e 0paraphrased0 in

ter*s of the ecolo"ist<s concept of the 0adaptive syste*,0 in )hich the h(*an co**(nity o!tains itsfood so(rce thro("h a "iven technolo"y, a "iven social order, and a str(ct(red flo) of ener"y fro* theenviron*ent to the h(*an co**(nity and !ack into the environ*ent =Janzen 19&$:%&>.

More foc(sed in scope and scale )o(ld !e a description of health !ased on the society<s self4conscio(sefforts to treat disease and restore health6that is, its *edical or rit(al syste*s. ere )e )o(ld find at)ork 0an eplicit theory =or theories> of disease ca(sation, a correspondin" set of therapies, and a foc(sdirectin" the scale of application of s(ch theories and therapies. 5hese aspects of the *edical syste*)ill !e evident in sy*pto*s, co*plaints, and ver!alized state*ents a!o(t illness and health, in thec(lt(ral pre*ises (sed to eval(ate the *eanin" of affliction, and in practices of heaters0 =Janzen19&$:9>.

'espite the appropriateness of s(ch concept(alizations of health for

8 1KK 8

the p(rpose of (nderstandin" rit(al healin", it is (sef(l to !e"in this disc(ssion )ith the types of healthassess*ents that have "enerally !een done )ith *ore precise *eas(res of fertility, *ortality, and*or!idity6the de*o"rapher<s stock in trade. e learn fro* a orld 'evelop*ent eport iss(ed !ythe orld Bank =19&K>, that cr(de !irth rates and cr(de death rates in (!4aharan -frica<s 0lo)inco*e co(ntries0 and its 0*iddle inco*e co(ntries0 have declined fro* 19K to 19&#. 7or 19K, the !irth rate in lo)4inco*e co(ntries )as L&1$$$ and the death rate 221$$$ for *iddle4inco*eco(ntries the !irth rate )as K$1$$$, the death rate 221$$$. 5his prod(ced a pop(lation "ain per

ann(* of a!o(t 2.% percent. By 19&# !oth had declined, to L%1$$$ !irths and 1&1$$$ deaths for lo)4inco*e L91$$$ !irths and 11$$$ deaths for *iddle4inco*e6a pop(lation "ain per ann(* of #.# percent. 5h(s, death rates declined faster than !irth rates, leadin" to an overall "ro)th in pop(lationincrease rates.

- "ood portion of this decline in cr(de death rate ca*e a!o(t thro("h the decline in infant *ortalityrates. +n 19K +M )as 1K 1$$$ in lo)4and *iddle4inco*e co(ntries in (!4aharan -frica. 5his)as a "reat i*prove*ent over the #K$1$$$ +M that had prevailed in the continent earlier in thecent(ry. +n a fe) co(ntries, s(ch as enya, +M had !een !ro("ht do)n to (nder 1$$1$$$ !y the late19&$s. 5hese 0i*provin"0 health fi"(res )ere, ho)ever, offset !y to % percent decline in food prod(ction, )hich translated in the lo)er4inco*e co(ntries into a nearly 1$ percent decline in calorieintake =the *iddle4inco*e co(ntries sa) a sli"ht i*prove*ent in this cate"ory>. +nsofar as one can then

etrapolate fro* these co*posite statistical fi"(res, s(rvivorship has increased, altho("h real inco*eand food prod(ction has decreased.

Mor!idity patterns in the n"o*a re"ion, as *eas(red !y a"encies s(ch as the orld ealthDr"anization and standardized *eas(res, indicate that altho("h so*e of the *aor conta"io(s diseasess(ch as s*allpo, cholera, and *easles had !een eli*inated or !ro("ht (nder control, others s(ch asdiarrhea and respiratory infection contin(ed to !e the "reatest killers of infants. /enerally, the disease profile contin(ed to !e that of conta"io(s diseases rather than of de"enerative and other 0diseases ofcivilization.0



hat do these fi"(res *ean in ter*s of o(r (nderstandin" of the !ackdrop of rit(al healin", or thestat(s of health in the re"ion )ith )hich )e are concernedI 'oes n"o*a relate to these pop(lation*eas(resI

5here is a disc(ssion that concerns o(r a"enda, perhaps indirectly, havin" to do )ith )hether (!4aharan -frica<s health *eas(res repre4

8 1K 8

sent a conventional pattern of de*o"raphic transition, co*para!le to that )hich has !een seen in?(rope and -sia. 5here, follo)in" the decline of *ortality and *or!idity earlier in this cent(ry, fertility*eas(res declined as )ell. +n -frica, altho("h *ortality and *or!idity have declined, fertility has pro!a!ly increased. 5his pattern *ay !e related to )hat n"o*a does.

Dne set of analysts ar"(es that the de*o"raphic profile of (!4aharan -frica is to !e eplained !y the peripheralization of the s(!continent in the )orld capitalist syste*, and !y capital<s need for a lar"e,cheap, s(rpl(s la!or pool =/re"ory and Piche 19&2 Cordell, /re"ory, and Piche 1992 tock 19&>.-nother "ro(p =e."., Festhae"e and ?elens 19&K> eval(ates )hat they call 0de*o"raphic re"i*es,0

characteristic profiles, )ith an interest in the fate of socioecono*ic and c(lt(ral *echanis*s s(ch aschild spacin", ho(sehold str(ct(res, and n(*!er and co*position of fa*ily *e*!ers availa!le forchildcare, )hich *i"ht affect overall de*o"raphic trends. 5hey doc(*ent the apparent collapse inrecent decades in -frica of a n(*!er of these lon"4ter* historic str(ct(res and the conse3(ent increasein fertility rates. - related perspective has s(""ested that *(ch of Central and o(thern -frica<s social priorities are derived fro* a linea"e !ase and a partic(lar technolo"y of hoe a"ric(lt(re =/oody 19%Cald)ell, Cald)ell, and (i""in 19&9> and that so lon" as these instit(tional str(ct(res prevail, healthand fertility *eas(res )ill !e affected in distinctive )ays.

5he o(tco*e of this de!ate on -frica<s de*o"raphic transition )ill not !e clear for so*e ti*e. ekno) health has i*proved considera!ly in the past half4cent(ry, !(t there is still *(ch roo* fori*prove*ent in diseases and conditions for )hich c(res are availa!le. e kno) fertility has not !e"(n

to decline, and in so*e areas it has pro!a!ly increased. Clearly *any of these factors affectin" healthstat(s have to do )ith kno)led"e, access to reso(rces, and social policies. 5herefore, in o(r assess*entof the role of rit(al healin" in affectin" health stat(s, )e do )ell to keep 0hard0 de*o"raphic data in*ind !(t to develop social theories of the )ays health4related reso(rces are "enerated and (tilized. 5hisis )hy it see*s appropriate to !rin" the notion of 0social reprod(ction0 to !ear (pon the analysis ofhealth and healin".

The So(#a' Re+%o)*(#on o" 7ea'h

5he definition of social reprod(ction )ith )hich this chapter !e"an6the *aintenance of a )ay of lifeand the co**it*ent of reso(rces

8 1K% 8

to relationships, instit(tions, and s(pport or"anizations that directly or indirectly *aintain health6)asa "eneric state*ent derived fro* a n(*!er of )riters )hose )ork on this concept *ay !e presented*ore f(lly here.

+n assessin" a 0social reprod(ction0 concept of health, it is i*portant to identify the social (nits orsectors involved and to identify so*e indices of this process that are separate fro* !iolo"ical



reprod(ction and the reprod(ction of la!or. Meillasso(<s )ork offers one perspective on this type ofanalysis. e separates the 0do*estic co**(nity0 as a social for*ation fro* !oth !iolo"icalreprod(ction and the reprod(ction of la!or for capitalist needs =19&1>. 5his analytical *odeldistin"(ishes the ener"y or 0social prod(ct0 needed =a> to reconstit(te prod(ctive ad(lt prod(cers, =!> ton(rt(re f(t(re prod(cers, that is, 0not yet prod(ctive0 children, and =c> to *aintain the postprod(ctiveelderly and the sick =19&1:K1K%>. 5he s(* of these prod(cts offers an indication of )hat is re3(ired to

socially reprod(ce the do*estic co**(nity. elative s(rpl(ses enhance and enrich the co**(nityrelative deficits erode it. Dver several years one can in theory deter*ine the level at )hich aco**(nity reprod(ces itself or falls !elo) a *ini*al replace*ent level.

Dther a(thors "o !eyond Meillasso(<s approach to incl(de *ore than *aterial needs in the calc(l(s ofsocial reprod(ction. 5he distinctions !et)een social, !iolo"ical, and sy*!olic reprod(ction are f(rtherdeveloped in Pierre Bo(rdie(<s )ell4kno)n st(dy of the a!yle of -l"eria, p(!lished in his Butline of

a !heor# of Practice =19%%>. ere the patrilinea"e, co*posed of ho(seholds headed !y !rothers, is the principal social instit(tion. ;ario(s centrif("al forces are at )ork to !rin" disinte"ration to the linea"e.trate"ies to p(ll the linea"e to"ether, to *aintain the fa*ily6socially, sy*!olically, and !iolo"ically 6concentrate on the appropriate *arria"e. 5his is often a *arria"e of a *an to his father<s !rother<sda("hter =bint amm >, so co**on in pastoral no*adic societies. (ch a *arria"e serves *aterially to

keep the herds and other aspects of the estate intact. o)ever, Bo(rdie( points o(t that s(ch a strate"yinvolves far *ore than (st econo*ic *ana"e*ent =19%%:$>. 5he ethos of honor attaches to the (nityof the land, to e3(al stat(s alliances, and the (nity of the a"natic "ro(p, the presti"e of the ho(se.Bo(rdie( says it is i*possi!le to separate ends and *eans in the collective *atri*onial strate"ies.?very *arria"e tends to reprod(ce the conditions that have *ade it possi!le. 0Matri*onial strate"ies,o!ectively directed to)ards the conservation or epansion of the *aterial and sy*!olic capital ointly possessed !y a *ore or less etended "ro(p,

8 1K& 8

!elon" to the syste* of re$roduction strategies , defined as the s(* total of the strate"ies thro("h)hich individ(als or "ro(ps reprod(ce the relations of prod(ction associated )ith a deter*inate *odeof prod(ction !y strivin" to reprod(ce or i*prove their position in the social str(ct(re0 =19%%:%$>.

5hese iss(es of threshold levels of ho(sehold and co**(nity *aintenance are addressed in ColinM(rray<s )ork 05he ork of Men, o*en and the -ncestors: ocial eprod(ction in the Periphery ofo(thern -frica0 =19%9>, in Fesotho co**(nities that are deeply involved in oscillatin" la!or*i"ration to the *ines, cities, and factories of o(th -frica. -s has !een a!(ndantly doc(*ented,Fesotho has *oved fro* !ein" an a(tono*o(s a"rarian society earlier in this cent(ry, )hich eported"rain, to !ein" a society no) lar"ely dependent on )a"e la!or, and )hich i*ports *ost of its food.'isease levels have risen d(rin" this period t(!erc(losis in partic(lar constit(tes a *aor ende*icdisease =M(rray 19&1>. -""re"ate de*o"raphic data for Fesotho are co*para!le to data else)here in

the continent, )ith cr(de !irth rates havin" re*ained constant at L21$$$ per ann(*, and death rateshavin" declined fro* 1& to 1K1$$$ fro* 19K to 19&#, res(ltin" in an increase in pop(lation "ro)thover that ti*e fro* 2.L to 2.% percent per ann(* =orld ealth Dr"anization 19%9 orld Bank 19&K>.

M(rray<s caref(l anthropolo"ical field)ork s(""ests that these a""re"ate de*o"raphic data *ask thesi"nificant intra4co**(nity and ho(sehold disparities, havin" to do )ith ho(sehold *ake(p, related*ortality and *or!idity, and overall health rates. Up to %$ percent of the ho(seholds are *ana"ed !y)o*en )ho are al*ost entirely dependent on their h(s!ands< )a"e la!or for s(rvival. Dnly percent ofho(sehold inco*e ca*e fro* the sale of far* prod(ce. -t hi"hest risk for disease )ere those fa*iliesof sin"le ho(sehold heads, and children in fa*ilies in )hich the spo(se of the resident head did not



provide a cash stipend =M(rray 19%9:#L>. +n these ho*es infant *ortality often reached K$ percent,far hi"her than the 12$1$$$ avera"e. -ltho("h these 0at risk0 ho(seholds reprod(ced the la!or pool forthe o(th -frican ind(stries and contri!(ted to pop(lation increase, they )ere not 0sociallyreprod(cin" the*selves.0 +n Meillasso(<s e3(ation of social reprod(ction, they plainly reflected asocial prod(ct deficit.

+n M(rray<s acco(nt, social *echanis*s *ost often (tilized in Fesotho society to achieve social

reprod(ction )ere 0inter4ho(sehold inco*e transfers,0 s(ch as cash and in4kind re*ittances, !ride)ealth transfers, share4croppin" arran"e*ents, and other contract(al and re4

8 1K9 8

ciprocal arran"e*ents connected )ith a"ric(lt(re also, infor*al sector transfers s(ch as !eer !re)in", petty tradin", and conc(!ina"e, all of )hich *aintained a )ider scale of social relations than theho(sehold, and th(s etended via!le social s(pport links for those in short4ter* or lon"4ter* need. +nnotin" a f(rther feat(re of Fesotho society that is directly related to the )ay n"o*a reprod(ces society,M(rray de*onstrates ho) the echan"es and feasts of ancestor rit(als, often in connection )ith leavin"for, or ret(rnin" fro*, *i"rant la!or, play an i*portant role in for"in" and rene)in" the alliancesneeded to s(rvive the a!sence of the fa*ily head =M(rray 19%9:#L%>. -ltho("h n"o*a in a narro)sense is a!sent in historic otho45s)ana society, perhaps !eca(se of its centralized (dicial instit(tions,the initiation case in chapter 1 is that of a otho *an )hose fa*ily is ca("ht (p in la!or *i"ration.

- f(rther note)orthy a(thor )ho has taken a vie) co*para!le to 0social reprod(ction of health,0)itho(t (tilizin" these eact )ords, is teven 7rankel, an M.'. 4anthropolo"ist )ho has )orked a*on"the (li in @e) /(inea. 7rankel<s *edical anthropolo"ical st(dy of the (li of @e) /(inea =19&>develops !oth the ne"ative indices of health, the 0a!sence of disease,0 and the positive concept of0social effectiveness.0 5he ela!oration of rhetorical skills, esoteric kno)led"e, rit(al practices, andcos*etic decorations are considered essential in the a!ility to !e effective in social echan"es. 5heseare seen as prere3(isites in solicitin" others< "enerosity and (lti*ately ena!lin" an individ(al to care for

a fa*ily and to lead the co**(nity. 7or the (li, and for 7rankel, social effectiveness is seen asoperatin" at a level to incl(de not only the ho(sehold !(t lar"er societal levels as )ell, and not *erelythe *aterial !asis of eistence !(t the sy*!olic echan"es needed to etend p(!lic instit(tions.

+n s(*, the concept of social reprod(ction offers a *odel of ho) therape(tic rit(als s(ch as n"o*a*i"ht prove efficacio(s in enhancin" health. Can it !e testedI

P%o"#'e! O" Ngoma So(#a' Re+%o)*(#on

5he social net)orks and therape(tic cell co**(nities for*ed thro("h the lon"4ter* association of*aster4healer and novice, as )ell as the 0lay0 clients and the asse*!lies of people at rit(al events, *ay)ell offer, in their a!ility to recreate society, the *ost prono(nced characteristic

8 1$ 8

of n"o*a therapy in achievin" and *aintainin" health )here it has collapsed. 5he str(ct(re of thesee*er"ent social for*s sho)s the social reprod(ction aro(nd s(fferers and for*er s(fferers, healers andthe healed. 5he fo(r ill(strations of this process that follo) )ill foc(s, as noted earlier, on the type ofsocial fa!ric that is created, reinforced, or reprod(ced !y the partic(lar n"o*a rit(al so as to *oreeffectively address health needs.



Re(on(#'#ng L#neage an) T%a)e #n P%e(o'on#a' ongo So(#e&

+n the settin" of the ancient Fe*!a c(lt of affliction in Fo)er Aaire, the local linea"e )as challen"ed toco*e to "rips )ith the *ercantile )ealth of the "reat trade )ith the coast )itho(t havin" its e"alitarianethos shattered. + have s(""ested, in chapter 1 of the present )ork and else)here =19&2:%$%9>, thatthis )as possi!le thro("h the (dicio(s creation of alliances !et)een linea"es, )hich for"ed linksacross the co(ntryside alon" the trade ro(tes, and thro("h ade3(ate echan"e and distri!(tion )ithin

these nodes of society, there!y ass(rin" that Fe*!a *e*!ers co(ld safely travel fro* *arket to*arket, and to the coast )ith their caravans.

5he de*o"raphic profile of coastal on"o society d(rin" the seventeenth to early t)entieth cent(ries,d(rin" )hich Fe*!a eisted, is kno)n to have s(ffered fro* an overall decline of a!o(t K$ percent of)hat it had !een in the siteenth cent(ry =a(tter 19:2%1>. -n o!ective assess*ent of the factorsinvolved in this )o(ld incl(de not only the slave trade, )hich dre) the !est yo(n" ad(lts o(t of thesociety, !(t the co*po(ndin" infl(ences of societal !reakdo)n res(ltin" fro* raids and epide*ics.

Fe*!a initiation rit(als approached these conditions at several levels. Dne )as the divination andtreat*ent of specific sy*pto*s and si"ns related to the fear of s(!ordinates< envy. o)ever, a *orei*portant criterion of the initiates< acceptance )as their a!ility to pay for the final sta"es of the

initiation rite, the 0"rad(ation,0 )hether )ith their o)n or their linea"e<s patrona"e. ?ffectively, Fe*!a)as a c(lt of affliction of the elite ho(seholds of north !ank Con"o iver society, in the face of thedisinte"rative forces of the *ercantile trade )ith the coast.

5he social str(ct(ral partic(lars of this arran"e*ent are )ell kno)n. Df strate"ic si"nificance in the)hole Fe*!a sche*e of social reprod(ction )as the Fe*!a ho(sehold, )hich !ro("ht to"ether t)otypes of

8 11 8

"ro(ps. Dne )as the alliance that linked *aor lando)nin" freeholder linea"es in adacent

co**(nities the second )as the alliance that !onded s(ch freeholder linea"es )ith client linea"efra"*ents. +n the first instance, the *arria"e tended to !e of the patrilateral, cross4co(sin type !et)eenlinea"es of e3(al stat(s, !et)een )ho* e3(al echan"e *arked s(ccessive *arria"es of this type. +nthe second settin", they )ere often, fro* the perspective of the *arryin" *ale in the do*inant linea"e,*atrilateral cross4co(sin *arria"es. 5his pattern epressed the (ne3(al echan"e !et)een the t)olinea"es, servin" nevertheless to )eld the co**(nity of several eo"a*o(s linea"es to"ether in ahierarchic local society. 5he Fe*!a *arria"es !et)een freeholders ass(red a re"ional net)ork for thetrade and peacef(l relations in a re"ion )here no historic state etended its he"e*ony. 5he Fe*!a*arria"es !et)een (ne3(al6*aster and client, or slave6linea"es enhanced the local co**(nity !yenlar"in" its pop(lation and political !ase. +ndeed, the rhetoric of Fe*!a stated that the linea"e in possession of Fe*!a 0co(ld not die o(t.0

+n these t)o )ays Fe*!a helped to socially reprod(ce the society in the face of the centrif("al forces(nleashed !y the coastal trade fro* 1$$ on, econo*ic divisions )ithin linea"es, slave raids, fe(ds and)ars, and epide*ics. e have no )ay of kno)in" )hether Fe*!a di*inished the episodes of fear ofenvy !y s(!ordinates, either thro("h protective *edicine or thro("h redistri!(tion of "oods and food.o)ever, it is clear, and north on"o infor*ants stress, that Fe*!a )as (s(ally an i*portant deterrentto local fe(ds and th(s averted the !loodshed, loss of property thro("h !(rned ho(ses, and chaos thatother)ise res(lted fro* local )ars. +n this sense Fe*!a did have a *eas(ra!le effect on the )ell4!ein"of the re"ion )here it )as i*planted.



e have only "li*pses of the n(*!ers of individ(als in a re"ion involved in Fe*!a. +n ter*s of the percenta"es of *arria"es that *i"ht have !een 0Fe*!a *arria"es,0 etrapolatin" fro* historical data inthe villa"e on )hich + have s(ch records, it appears that less than K percent )ere involved. Get as theelite, they )ere infl(ential, and the i*pact of Fe*!a )as considera!le.

Sa$#ng L#$e! o" Mohe%! an) In"an! on he So*he%n Sa$anna

-nother area in )hich )e *ay (sef(lly ea*ine the 0social reprod(ction0 hypothesis of the efficacy ofn"o*a rit(als is in the enhance4

8 12 8

*ent of conception and s(ccessf(l !irthin" and the s(rvival of healthy children. -ltho("h n"o*a4typeintervention has !een st(died in the estern Bant( @kita rite descri!ed earlier, and altho("h ;ictor5(rner st(died certain n"o*a rites a*on" the @de*!(, these st(dies do not foc(s on epide*iolo"icalor de*o"raphic varia!les. o)ever, )e no) kno) that the re"ion fro* the -tlantic coast inland to)estern asai in Aaire, and the o(thern avanna to )estern Aa*!ia, and north)ard to Con"o and

/a!on, constit(ted6and in so*e areas still constit(testhe )idespread 0infertility zone0 =/aisie 19&9>.5he )ork !y -nita prin" =19%&, 19&K> and ;eroni3(e /o!let4;anor*elin"en =19&&> on this n"o*a4style instit(tion on the o(thern avanna of north)estern Aa*!ia and so(thern Aaire, respectively, iseceptionally val(a!le for its attention to the de*o"raphic and epide*iolo"ic indicators associated)ith the p(rported "oals of n"o*a. prin" has st(died the (la rite and related mahamba ="enericshrines> a*on" the F(vale /o!let4;anor*elin"en has st(died an instit(tion called M!o*!o a*on" theM(to*!o M(k(l( F(!a of ha!a Province in Aaire. 5hese are si*ilar in their e*phasis onreprod(ctive diffic(lties in the c(lts of affliction of (!)an"(, +so*a, and aspects of @k(la )hich;ictor 5(rner =19&> descri!ed a*on" the @de*!( of Aa*!ia.

5he core feat(res of n"o*a identified in chapter # *ay all !e fo(nd in the reprod(ctive enhance*ent

rites on the o(thern avanna. 5he *ode of affliction is identified as spirit4ori"inated threat to thene)ly conceived fet(s. -fter an initial rite of entrance, the pre"nant )o*an leaves her h(s!and andenters secl(sion in a special enclos(re constr(cted in the ho*estead of her sponsorin" healer4"ynecolo"ist4*id)ife, )here she is taken care of )ith anti4a!ortive *edication, special diet, andhy"ienic attention. Upon the s(ccessf(l !irth of the child, in so*e variants, and as *(ch later as thefirst steps of the child in others, secl(sion ends )ith a second4sta"e n"o*a "rad(ation and final entry ofthe *other into the order. +n M!o*!o, as descri!ed !y /o!let4;anor*elin"en, the end of secl(sionco*es shortly after the !irth of the child, at )hich ti*e the *other and child are )ashed in a near!yriver and presented to the father. @"o*a *(sic acco*panies this 0co*in" o(t0 of the ne) child )ith its*other.

Both prin" and /o!let4;anor*elin"en are interested in the 0efficacy0 of these !irth4enhancin"

proced(res. prin" criticizes 5(rner for payin" little attention to this 3(estion and for ass(*in" that+so*a =for *iscarria"es, a!ortions, still!irths, !arrenness, *enstr(al disorders, illness of infants>,(!)an"( =for t)in pre"nancies, infant disorders, !arrenness, *iscarria"es, *enstr(al disorders> and @k(la =for

8 1# 8

*enstr(al disorders, !arrenness, *iscarria"es, ill health of infant> )ere pri*arily social, sy*!olic, andreli"io(s in nat(re. he is interested, first of all, in the 0epide*iolo"y of rit(al participation0 and in



)hether the secl(sion proced(res enhance s(rvivorship. Dne i*portant predisposin" iss(e to !e takeninto acco(nt in the F(vale re"ion of Aa*!ia is that altho("h the contin(ity of the linea"e and fa*ily ishi"hly val(ed, infertility and s(!fec(ndity of )o*en is co**on and s(rvivorship of infants is lo).-!o(t 2$ percent of F(vale )o*en in prin"<s sa*ple of forty4five4year4old )o*en had !een !arrend(rin" their ad(lt lives. - hi"h percenta"e )ere s(!fec(nd, that is, had "one five years )itho(t a live !irth d(rin" reprod(ctive years. 7(rther, infant *ortality )as a!o(t 1K$1$$$. 5his res(lted in a

co*pleted fa*ily size on avera"e per )o*an of only 2.$K children for the society, )hich is !arely areplace*ent level =prin" 19%&:1%K1%>. 5he F(vale )ere (nderstanda!ly concerned )ith fertilityenhance*ent.

easons for the hi"h infertility incl(ded hi"h levels of "enital and (rinary4tract disease, *(ch !arrenness, and fetal )asta"e. 5hese are in part reflected in the hi"h level of a!do*inal pains,dys*enorrhea, and fevers pro!a!ly ca(sed !y !ilharziasis, "onorrhea, and nonspecific !acterialinfection, in addition to *alaria, hook)or*, and a*e!iasis, )hich are ende*ic =19%&:1%>.

5he isolation therapy at the ti*e of conception is part of a *ore "eneral c(lt(ral strate"y of the F(valeto i*prove the chances of offsprin". Childless )o*en are first of all "iven treat*ent for !arrenness. +fthey !eco*e pre"nant, they receive the perfor*ances of several mahamba c(lts at a n(*!er of possi!le points in their reprod(ctive years. +f a pre"nant )o*an has a *iscarria"e or delivers a still!orn child,she is a likely candidate for the secl(sion rit(al. +f she has *enstr(al dysf(nctions, she )ill receiveher!al treat*ents, )hich, if (ns(ccessf(l, )ill !e follo)ed !y f(rther rit(al treat*ent. +f a )o*an<schild !eco*es sickly, !oth *other and child )ill !e secl(ded. +f a )o*an<s s*all child dies, she )illreceive secl(sion. +f a )o*an !eco*es ill )ith pro!le*s (nrelated directly to child!irth, she )ill !e acandidate for the secl(sion rit(al. 0Possession0 c(lt initiation *ay th(s occ(r at any one of a n(*!er of points in the co(rse of a )o*an<s reprod(ctive years. 5he etiolo"y of spirit or shade involve*ent is(s(ally *ade official !y the diviner. arely does it involve trance, altho("h the n"o*a4type son"4dance, a variety of partic(lar *edicinal and technical treat*ents, food prohi!itions and special diets,the 0)hite0 sy*!olis* of secl(sion, and the t)o4sta"e passa"e are inte"ral feat(res of the rites.

7(lly half of the )o*en in F(vale society are initiated to one or

8 1L 8

another *anifestation of reprod(ctive c(lts !y the ti*e they reach the end of their child!earin" years.+n 5(rner<s @de*!( sa*ple, )o*en<s reprod(ctive iss(es )ere !y far the *ost fre3(ent enco(nters ofindivid(al @de*!( )ith the n"o*a syste*. +n his sa*ple fro* t)o areas, 5(rner noted that nineteen oft)enty4si )o*en had "one thro("h @k(la t)elve of t)enty4fo(r thro("h +so*a and (!)an"( each=19&:#$#>. /o!let4;anor*elin"en, )hose )ork is still in process, "ives no statistical infor*ation ofthis type. prin" e*phasizes that these reprod(ction enhance*ent rit(als are th(s responses to !oth"eneralized physical ill health and partic(lar concerns of o(thern avanna fa*ilies for effective !iolo"ical and social reprod(ction.

o) effective are the rit(als and their related interventionsI /o!let4;anor*elin"en (d"es as 0tr(ly !eneficial0 the follo)in" aspects of M!o*!o rit(al: the contin(o(s assistance of the healer and the)o*an<s h(s!and, creatin" an enco(ra"in" at*osphere for her so*e r(les of !ehavior, partic(larly thenecessity of livin" a)ay fro* the stresses of fa*ily life, the dan"ers of epos(re to conta"io(s diseasesand )ork4related infections, and havin" co*plete rest and, after child!irth, secl(sion to reinforce the*other4child !ond. More dan"ero(s to the health of *other and child are certain practices in preparation for !irth and delivery, )hich, !eca(se they are nonsterile, *ay increase the risk ofinfections or tetan(s, and certain food prohi!itions that appear to restrict intake of n(tritio(s food. Dn



!alance, !elieves /o!let4;anor4*elin"en, the M!o*!o rit(als appear to enhance the chances of)ell!ein" of !oth *other and child.

prin"<s analysis of F(vale )o*ens< reprod(ction rit(als, altho("h it does not lend itself to a precisestatistical eval(ation, does s(""est that the isolation therapy and the *aintenance of net)orks of n"o*aorders pro!a!ly i*prove the health of *others and children, that is, increase s(rvivorship. prin"<sevidence s(""ests that *ost )o*en )ho are divined to re3(ire n"o*a rit(als do enter the*, and in

their later years these )o*en !eco*e the doctors of these c(lts. 5his *eans that !eca(se they are atrisk, s(rvival ratios of the infants of those )o*en )ho are *e*!ers of, involved in, and leaders in then"o*a orders )ill !e lo)er than a*on" non*e*!ers. (rvivorship *(st !e co(nted in ter*s of pre"nancies saved that *i"ht other)ise have !een lost and s(rvivin" infants )ho *i"ht other)ise have !een lost.

-nita prin" foc(ses her disc(ssion of efficacy6altho("h she does not (se the ter*6aro(nd thestr(ct(re and the stren"th of the net)ork of )o*en active in reprod(ction enhance*ent, and )hat thisdoes for their self4i*a"e, social role, and the str(ct(re of the co**(nity. 5he

8 1K 8

se3(ence of !ein" a s(fferer4novice, an apprentice, and finally a c(red4doctor res(lts in a cooperativesyste* of social relations per*ittin" )o*en to "ain, and perpet(ate thro("h practice and teachin", thekno)led"e of ho) to deal )ith )o*en<s reprod(ctive concerns. -s in other n"o*a contets, adversityis t(rned into stren"th, aniety into specialized kno)led"e, s(fferin" into healin". 5he instit(tionalfra*e)ork !rin"s spirit possession, as an ideolo"y, into the set of etiolo"ical !eliefs, altho("h the typeof kno)led"e needed to deal )ith infertility, threatened *iscarria"e, still!irths, sick children, and therest, is hi"hly practical, )hat in the est )e )o(ld call e*pirical and rational kno)led"e, rather than atrance state.

@ot all n"o*a attention to children is as sal(tary as that of the o(thern avanna. Dn t)o occasions inthe 19&2&# s(rvey + )itnessed practices that + tho("ht *i"ht lead to the child<s death, rather than to its

recovery. Both had to do )ith divinatory possessions. 5he first occ(rred in inshasa as Ma*a ishi @ze*!ela, the F(!a Bil(*!( *edi(*, allo)ed her apprentice *edi(* to flail a!o(t )ith her child pressed !et)een her le"s, sho(tin" that it )as evil and that she had an evil spirit. D!vio(sly the yo(n")o*an )as (nhappy, and in a reckless a!andon she took her *isery o(t on her child. 5he child escapedthat episode (nscathed, !(t the *other nearly s*ashed its tender sk(ll on the ce*ent floor, )ith )hichit ca*e into very close proi*ity on several occasions. 5he other ti*e )as d(rin" a divinin" session in)aziland )hen the *ost ela!orate and hi"h4priced *edi(*ship divination )as done to deter*ine theca(se of the sickness of a s*all child. /ranted, in !oth cases, the infants )ere !orn to )o*en )ho )erenot *arried, or )hose *arria"es had ended. 5h(s, ancestral and spirit displeas(re as ca(se of a s*allchild<s respiratory infection )as a type of dia"nosis that sho(ld have !een a!andoned in favor ofade3(ate clinical and parental care. -ltho("h these t)o *edi(*ship divinations *ay have enhanced

fa*ily solidarity, they did not contri!(te to the )ell!ein" of the infants involved.

ick Goder<s concern, 0+s it "ood for the childrenI0 )as not an idle one )ith re"ard to n"o*a rites.

Reg#ona' Ne4o%5! o" he I!angoma Amag#%a o" So*he%n A"%#(a

5he de*o"raphic profile of o(th -frica reflects !oth third )orld and first )orld conditions. hitesociety has lo) *ortality and fertility, on par )ith estern ?(rope, and a *or!idity profile in keepin")ith



8 1 8

an ind(strialized, affl(ent society. 5he leadin" ca(ses of death are de"enerative and cardiovasc(lardiseases. By contrast, the society of the !lack to)nships reflects conditions of hi"h *ortality andfertility the leadin" *or!idity ca(ses are infectio(s diseases and accidents. -*on" ad(lts, t(!erc(losisis a serio(s pro!le*. -*on" children, respiratory and intestinal infections and conta"io(s diseases arethe leadin" ca(ses of death. o(th -frican ho*elands, )hose health statistics are often not p(!lished in

official records !eca(se so*e of the* are 0independent,0 have the hi"hest infant *ortality rates in-frica, near #$$1$$$.

@"o*a is )ell4represented in the !lack to)nships of the estern Cape, as noted in earlier chapters.o)ever, its relationship to the fore"oin" health indicators is not )ell (nderstood. Fittle )ork has !eendone on the s(!ect. 5he co*position of n"o*a cells is not as strict or )ell4defined as in Central-frica. @"o*a activity, as noted, eists in a sin"le inter4ethnic *ode, rather than !ein" the*aticallyspecialized and ethnically distinctive. Cells *ay !e or"anized as infor*al friendship alliances !et)eenhealers =san"o*a, a*a"3ira>. Dne i"3ira )ith )ho* + disc(ssed the co*position of her "ro(p ofcolla!oratin" healers, s(""ested that she *et )ith 0her friends,0 )ho* she invited to her events )itha!o(t a )eek<s advance notice, on the !asis of friendship and co*pati!ility, that is, that they did notdrink ecessively. +t )as alon" s(ch lines that infor*ation )o(ld !e passed and *(t(al help and "iftsechan"ed over divination, co(nselin", and healin"4initiatin".

+n five related events + o!served in Cape 5o)n, a loosely linked 0star0 net)ork pattern e*er"ed,s(""estive of overlappin" sets of f(lly initiated san"o*a or a*a"3ira =see fi". 1#>. 5o the skeletalnet)ork of estern Cape diviner4healers, one *(st add an array of, on avera"e, ten novices allied )itheach healer, pl(s the novices< fa*ilies and friends. 7or the five a*a"3ira )ith )ho* + )as a!le todisc(ss this, each had nine, t)enty, ten, ten, and si apprentices respectively. 5hese novices re"(larlyattend p(rification events on the occasion of a death in the fa*ily or kindred of any one of the* andalso of their *aster4healer they attend all events p(t on !y their *aster4healer, s(ch as initiations and"rad(ations. 5he novices< o)n fa*ilies are to so*e etent involved, if not directly in the events, thenindirectly in the !enefits of the re"(lar food distri!(tions *ade at the ti*e of "oat, sheep, and cattle

sacrifices and feasts. 5he attendance at one typical event, the initiation *entioned in fi"(re 1#, incl(dedsi *aster healers =three Hhosa and one A(l( )o*an, t)o A(l( *en>, t)o fe*ale Hhosa seniornovices, si Hhosa

8 1% 8

7i"(re 1#.Pattern of association of individ(al healers and their novices in five

events in estern Cape n"o*a net)orks, late 19&2. Capital letters refer tosenior healers present at partic(lar events cl(sters of enclosed <s refer tothese healers< novices in therapytrainin" )ith the*.

fe*ale novices and one *ale Hhosa novice, a otho *ale initiate, and seven (nidentified additionalnovices. everal dozen o!servers )ere on hand, incl(din" the initiate<s fa*ily and nei"h!ors.

5he stren"th and depth of this type of or"anization in Cape 5o)n to)nship society is not easy to"eneralize )itho(t ade3(ate s(rvey infor*ation. o)ever, a ro("h esti*ate *ay !e proected fro*n(*!ers of *aster healers in the t)o streets in /("(leto and @yan"a )here ngoma participation )asassessed. Dne street had fo(r f(ll i"3ira residents the other had t)o, pl(s an i'ele her!alist. + )as told



that this )as a co**on de"ree of representation for the to)nships. 5his avera"e of #.K a*a"3ira perstreet, ho)ever shaky its statistical si"nificance, ti*es the 1K# e3(al4len"th streets and ho(ses in t)oto)nships, )o(ld s(""est that there are K#K f(lly 3(alified san"o*aa*a"3ira in /("(leto and @yan"a. 5his fi"(re, do(!led to incl(de the to)nships Fan"a and Crossroads, )o(ld yield an esti*ateof over a tho(sand healers of the n"o*a

8 1& 8

type in the to)nships of Cape 5o)n. +f the estern Cape e"ional -(thority<s fi"(re of 2$$,$$$-frican inha!itants is (sed, there )o(ld !e approi*ately one n"o*a healer for 2$$ inha!itants.

o)ever, to esti*ate the f(ll etent of n"o*a net)orks in the pop(lace, this fi"(re *(st !e *(ltiplied !y ten, for the avera"e n(*!er of each *aster healer<s apprentice4novices. -ss(*in" five to sevenindivid(als in each ho(sehold, this )o(ld indicate n"o*a involve*ent, as *aster healer or apprentice,in one in fo(r ho(seholds.

(ch !randishin" of statistical infor*ation is ad*ittedly of d(!io(s val(e. 5he clai* that n"o*a cellsand net)orks socially reprod(ce relations needs to !e "iven contet not only in the n"o*a settin" !(t

also in the do*estic settin" o(t of )hich the individ(als ori"inate. ?vidence for this is a"ain so*e)hatanecdotal and case4st(dy specific. - revie) of one i"3ira<s roster of c(rrent =19&2> apprentice4novices,their fa*ily settin"s and do*estic relations, and )ork records sho)ed the follo)in". @ovice one, a*arried )o*an )ith five children in the ho(se, had entered n"o*a seven years earlier. ith asecondary school de"ree, she )orked for her h(s!and<s !oss at a constr(ction co*pany. he )as a 0fiveto0 =*idni"ht>, that is, near co*pletion, and )as asse*!lin" "oods for her "rad(ation. @ovice t)o, also*arried to a *an )ith 0"ood )ork,0 and )ith children in the ho*e, )orked as a cleanin" )o*an. hehad !e"(n seven years earlier and )as "atherin" reso(rces for her "rad(ation. @ovice three, *arried toa *an )ith steady )ork in a !lanket factory, also )orked as a cleanin" )o*an. er children )eres*all )hen she entered n"o*a nine years earlier. he )as tryin" to collect "oods for her "rad(ation. @ovice fo(r had children at ho*e and )as *arried to a tai4!(s o)ner )ho e*ployed other drivers.

he did not )ork o(tside the ho*e. he had !e"(n n"o*a nine years earlier, havin" !een a Aionist, and)as a 0five4to0 asse*!lin" "oods for her "rad(ation. 5hese fo(r )o*en, )ith seven to nine yearseperience as novices, )ere the *ainstays in n"o*a sessions (nder the direction of their *aster healer.

- second "ro(p of fo(r novices in this cell see*ed to have "reater diffic(lty *ovin" 0thro("h the)hite.0 5hey )ere all sin"le *others )orkin" o(tside the ho*e. @ovice five )orked as a do*estic andhad three children. he had !e"(n n"o*a nine years earlier !(t had only pro"ressed to the stat(s of (nior novice. @ovice si, a sin"le *other of one da("hter, also )orked as a do*estic. he had pro!le*s )ith alcoholis* and )as not pro"ressin" )ell in her therape(tic initiation. @ovices seven andei"ht )ere a *other4da("hter set, livin" to"ether

8 19 8

)itho(t h(s!ands. 5he da("hter )as a schoolteacher. Both )ere (nior novices.

5)o ne) apprentices )ere !oth parents in relatively sta!le *arital relationships )ith s*all children atho*e. @ovice nine, a *e*!er of the Bant( Pres!yterian Ch(rch, )as *arried to a *an )ith a "ood o!. @ovice ten )as a *arried *an )ith children and sta!le e*ploy*ent.

7e) "eneralizations *ay !e dra)n fro* this set of ten novices in one healer<s "ro(p of apprentice4novices. Dne co**on factor is that they enter n"o*a as yo(n" or *iddle4a"ed ad(lts, and *ost re3(irefro* five to ten years to *ove thro("h the novitiate. B(t little is kno)n a!o(t the 0epide*iolo"y0 of



n"o*a involve*ent in o(th -frica.

Janet Mills, ho)ever, has so("ht to identify factors )ithin the ho(sehold that *i"ht !e associated )iththe appeal to n"o*a =19&2>. -ltho("h the eplicit reason co**only "iven for enterin" an n"o*a cell isthe 0call0 =t)asa> fro* ancestors, she has investi"ated the possi!le correlation !et)een this s(pportseekin" and active t(!erc(losis cases in the ho(sehold. he fo(nd t(!erc(losis to !e sli"htly *orefre3(ent in n"o*a4related than in non4n"o*a ho(seholds. -ltho("h no conscio(s or eplicit linka"e is

*ade in n"o*a participants< eplanations !et)een t(!erc(losis and the call to oin n"o*a, the possi!le !asis for s(ch a link *ay !e hypothesized. +t is (nlikely that n"o*a healin" is directly !eneficial fort(!erc(losis. ather, it *ay !e that (st as t(!erc(losis6ende*ic in its latent state6has er(pted inactive infection, the ener"ies of prod(ctive individ(als have !een so strained as to lead to s(pportseekin" in an n"o*a or si*ilar net)ork. 5(!erc(losis is ende*ic in o(th -frican !lacks, and a varietyof stressors, s(ch as inade3(ate n(trition, poverty, lack of ade3(ate shelter, can !rin" on an activeepisode. -lso, prolon"ed rest alon" )ith *edication is re3(ired to recover fro* an active episode.Participation of the care providers6that is, spo(se6in an n"o*a cell or net)ork )o(ld provide there3(isite s(pport, additional contacts, and so(rces of aid needed to deal )ith the lon"4ter* crisis oft(!erc(losis in the fa*ily.

-ltho("h one co(ld fi"(re the n(tritional intake offered to participants in the n"o*a net)ork events asa possi!le point of depart(re for the analysis of its eistence, *ore si"nificant *ay )ell !e the socialinvest*ent in n"o*a therape(tic str(ct(res. +f one in fo(r ho(seholds is involved, this net)ork coversthe entire (r!an society, as )ell as connectin" it to other cities and r(ral areas.

5his si"nificance of social reprod(ction, )hich + ar"(e is also health4!(ildin" efficacy, )o(ld see* to*ake an i*pact at three levels: the

8 1%$ 8

n(cle(s of the *aster )ith apprentices the !road net)ork spannin" the )hole society and thoseho(seholds that are connected )ith n"o*a. '(rin" the years of apprenticeship4initiation4therapy, the

*aster heater serves as role *odel, co(nselor, therapist, "(ide in ret(rn, the *aster *ay epectservices and so*e "oods fro* the novices. -ltho("h the novices or their fa*ily pay their *asters a"oodly s(* of *oney for the sacrifice ani*als and for their o)n cost(*e, they stand to !enefit in thereshapin" of their lives, in sortin" o(t pro!le*s, findin" contacts to o!s, and referrals of all sorts.+ntense resocialization occ(rs )ithin the "ro(p of novice4peers. 5he possi!ilities "o !eyond this, to the*ore p(!lic net)ork into )hich the *aster healer is the 0h(!0 of the )heel, radiatin" o(t alon"0spokes0 to *any ho(seholds, and (lti*ately, to the entire society. - case can !e ar"(ed that t)asa isnot *adness, !(t the call to social reprod(ction. +t is, as arriet @"(!ane has s(""ested =19&1>, a pan4societal net)ork etendin" across o(thern -frica, and, as )e no) kno), )ell !eyond.

P%o"e!!#ona' an) Sae Con%o' o" Ngoma on he S4ah#'# Coa!5he final ea*ple of the social reprod(ction of health thro("h n"o*a is fro* coastal 5anzania andsho)s yet another variation of the therape(tic foc(s and or"anizational str(ct(re of the instit(tion.-*on" Aara*o and Ai"(a peoples of the )ahili coast, the coastal healers have (tilized their n"o*anet)orks to create a centralized instit(tion, the hirika la Mada)a ya iasili, )ith officers, !ooks, atreas(ry, and a 0director,0 that is, a representative of "overn*ent to !e a liaison )ith appropriate*inistries. Focal n"o*a perfor*ances dra), as every)here in n"o*a, a shiftin" set of senior participants )ith their apprentices and novices. -t another level, there are individ(al )a"an"a )ho !elon" to patrilinea"es, )hich in the )ahili coastal settin" have often passed their therape(tic skills



fro* "eneration to "eneration.

5he hirika had a!o(t five h(ndred *e*!ers in 19&#, )ith stron"est representation in 'ar es alaa*,5an"a, Ba"a*oyo, and Moro"oro, and in the ne) capital, 'odo*a. 5hey )ere tryin" to create !ranches in other localities. 5anzania had earlier eperi*ented )ith a national or"anization of healers, !(t this )as a!olished )hen it !eca*e too politicized, that is, fract(red and po)erf(l. 5he links !et)een the hirika and the "overn*ent revealed so*e of the sa*e forces of econo*ic

8 1%1 8

interest, of political stren"th, and of party and "overn*ent control that had s(rfaced in the nationalor"anization. hy )as the state interested in n"o*aI

5he hirika had official reco"nition thro("h the Ministry of C(lt(re, )hich "enerally handled licensesfor n"o*a entertain*ent "ro(ps and cond(cted research on son"4dance. hy, tho("h, sho(ldtherape(tic dancin" !e controlled !y the Ministry of C(lt(re and not the Ministry of ealthI 5he po)erof n"o*a as a reso(rce, especially one so lar"e and )ell or"anized, )as indicative of its sy*!olic po)er in society at lar"e. 5he role of a party4appointed 0director0 )ith affiliation to the national

political party hinted at so*e of the potential tensions !et)een the or"anization and the state<s interest.5he director in effect controlled the recr(it*ent of ne) n"o*a cells to the hirika, there!y eercisin"restrictions on its overall infl(ence. 5his )o(ld avert )hat had occ(rred in the case of a cattle4r(stlin"n"o*a that had arisen in response to the need to locate stolen livestock. 5he "overn*ent had hearda!o(t it only after it )as f(lly constit(ted and then !elatedly tried to "ain its alle"iance. o*e)hatsi*ilarly, the n"o*a for entertain*ent or"anized !y the @ational ervice indicated the effort to connectthe state to the po)erf(l sy*!olis* of socially foc(sed son"4dance.

5hese details of the relationship !et)een state and n"o*a ill(strate a si"nificant "eneral principal. -reso(rce s(ch as n"o*a, )hich *ay arise in response to a need, and )hich sy*!olically, socially, and*aterially reprod(ces itself, !y that very fact attracts the state, )hich seeks to co4opt po)er andle"iti*acy (nto itself.

5he reso(rces to !e dra)n fro* the hirika6an (*!rella or"anization of therape(tic n"o*a6)erealso apparent to the individ(als and fa*ilies )ho *ade their livin" fro* these perfor*ances. Unlikethe pop(listic net)orks of reprod(ction4enhancin" n"o*a of the o(thern avanna or the to)nshipn"o*a of the estern Cape, here !y no *eans everyone )ho )as !ro("ht into the initial sta"e oftreat*ent follo)ed thro("h )ith the f(ll initiation. +n fact, accordin" to the records and testi*ony ofthe hirika leaders, only a!o(t # to L percent of the s(fferers )ho entered n"o*a dispensaries fortreat*ent )ere f(lly initiated. 5his is corro!orated !y research of a decade earlier, in )hich only threeof sity )a"an"a had entered their healin" profession thro("h spirit callin" =F. )antz 19%L:2$#>.

+n 'ar es alaa*, the reco"nition of healers and the opport(nity for the* to or"anize into associationshas led to the stren"thenin" of their control of reso(rces =Unsch(ld 19%K>. Dn the one hand, this has led

to

8 1%2 8

f(ll4ti*e practice, the (tilization of therape(tics as inco*e, and to the control of the therape(tic andsy*!olic reso(rces, in this case divination, the dia"nosis of spirit possession, and the perfor*ance ofa(thorized therape(tic son"4dance. Dn the other hand, this has led to the restriction of access to the roleof the n"o*a healer and to the consolidation of *e*!ership in the hirika.



5he effect of professionalization of health care else)here has !een the codification of *ethods and there"(lation of access to the ranks of those )ho practice =Fast and Chav(nd(ka 19&>.

Con('*!#on

5his chapter has offered an approach to the st(dy of the relationship !et)een social or"anization andthe allocation of reso(rces, and to their i*pact on health in the contet of n"o*a4type healin". ocialreprod(ction theory, as p(t for)ard !y Meillasso(, Bo(rdie(, M(rray, and 7rankel offers tools for a*ore ri"oro(s analysis of the *anner in )hich society itself str(ct(res the reso(rces of health.

Unfort(nately, very little research has !een cond(cted to act(ally test propositions a!o(t the efficacy ofn"o*a4type therapy in ter*s of *eas(ra!le health indicators. +n the cases )e have revie)ed here, onlythe )ork !y -nita prin" and ;eroni3(e /o!let4;anor*elin"en on fertility4enhancin" rit(als of theo(thern avanna approaches the 3(estion in s(ch a )ay as to offer clear co*parative res(lts. @"o*astr(ct(red care and isolation fro* the stresses of ho(sehold d(ty appear to *ake a difference ins(rvival of at4risk pre"nancies.

- retrospective hypothesis for the controlled st(dy of health as social reprod(ction )o(ld need to provide the follo)in" *ini*al infor*ation. hat is the nat(re and etent of social s(pport and its

allocation to health4related arenas in the ho(sehold, the etra4ho(sehold net)orks, and society at lar"eI-re there *eas(ra!le differential effects (pon s(rvival of at4risk se"*ents of society or thei*prove*ent of perceived healthI

8 1%# 8

Con('*!#on

- *aor "oal of this )ork has !een to eplore the !asis for the instit(tion vario(sly kno)n as the 0rit(alof affliction,0 0c(lt of affliction,0 or 0dr(* of affliction,0 the latter ter* !ein" derived directly fro* the)idespread notion n"o*a, a Bant( lan"(a"e co"nate. Utilizin" a variety of historical, lin"(istic,archaeolo"ical, and co*parative so(rces, the case )as *ade that n"o*a *ay have e*er"ed as part ofthe classical Bant( epansion over t)o *illennia a"o, altho("h so*e evidence points to a *ore recent?astern Bant( ori"in.

@ineteenth4cent(ry c(lt(re historians *i"ht have said that )e had perhaps identified a health andhealin" 0co*ple,0 a set of interrelated traits and practices, and (ni3(e characteristics. Dthers *i"hthave so("ht to eplain it in ter*s of its ori"ins. Dne reader of this *an(script noted that if n"o*a )asas old as s(""ested, it *(st have responded to a distinctive need d(rin" the ori"inal Bant( epansion.

Unfort(nately, to (nearth s(ch an ori"inal p(rpose is !eyond o(r reach. Perhaps one day verysophisticated sociolin"(istic history or se*iotic analysis of !odily *otion )ill div(l"e the prehistory of

n"o*a. 5his )ork does not rest its case for n"o*a<s eistence solely on a ri"oro(s c(lt(ral4historicalapproach to rit(al. ather, (tilizin" a !road s(rvey approach, + have de*onstrated certain (nderlyin"co**on properties6lin"(istic, !ehavioral, and str(ct(ral6that see* to *ake it appropriate to speakof n"o*a as an instit(tion, in the tradition of '(rkhei*, e!er, and Mar.

8 1%L 8

5he for*al properties of this instit(tion )ere 3(ite readily identified: the phased rite of passa"e, an



approach to classifyin" *isfort(ne )hich e*phasizes the place of the social contet6of people therole of the shades and spirits in the o(tco*e of dealin" )ith that *isfort(ne the release of the s(ffererfro* nor*al social o!li"ations, and the pro"ression of the s(fferer4novice thro("h the 0)hite0 li*inalsick role and initiation to f(ll *e*!ership in the order the pervasiveness of sacrifice, )hich sets in*otion an echan"e !et)een the livin" and the s(pernat(ral, as )ell as creatin" the !onds andnet)orks a*on" the livin" thro("h the cookin" and distri!(tion of the sacrificial ani*al finally, the

e*po)er*ent of the initiate as 3(alified healer.o)ever, these feat(res do not hold to"ether as an instit(tion (ntil they are identified in their perfor*ance contet, that of 0doin" n"o*a.0 +n this settin", a far *ore dyna*ic set of feat(res is at)ork. 5he actions, descri!ed and analyzed in chapter L, !rin" to"ether every level of participant6 novice, trainee, senior 3(alified person, as )ell as )hoever else is present6to share of the*selves andto respond to one another. 'oin" n"o*a sets the sta"e for each and every individ(al in the order to)ork on self4transfor*ation thro("h son", as if !efore a constant *irror of others also seekin" the sa*e"oal. 5o"ether, they seek rene)ed self4definition, in personalized son" state*ents that resonate )ith theco**on ter*s of the rit(al. estern instit(tional analysis has all too often cr(shed and distortedn"o*a4type pheno*ena !y forcin" the* into its o)n fa*iliar slots and cate"ories. +n the present )ork+ have tried to interpret the (ni3(eness of the instit(tion in a n(*!er of other )ays.

it(al analysis offers one approach. it(al *ay !e defined as the a*plification of layers (pon layers of*eanin", of levels or *edi(*s of epression, or as the addition of *ore lines of co**(nication tothose nor*ally (sed !et)een individ(als. it(alization *ay occ(r !eca(se of 0clo""ed channels0 orcontradictions in the individ(al<s life, or in the ho(sehold (nit or society aro(nd the individ(al. Dr it*ay res(lt fro* (ni3(e r(pt(res )ithin the social environ*ent or fro* chronic s(fferin" of sectors ofsociety, s(ch as )o*en )ith children or )orkin" *en alienated fro* their fa*ilies. +t *ay res(lt fro*constant se"*entation of the linea"e !asis of society.

D(r task )o(ld have !een facilitated had there !een a conscio(s a)areness in Central and o(thern-frica of an overarchin" instit(tional presence. +n *y s(rvey )ork in inshasa, 'ar es alaa*,)aziland, and Cape 5o)n + enco(ntered little or no evidence of this a*on"

8 1%K 8

patients and healers, nor a*on" scholars. ealers did have an a)areness of re"ional net)orks, ofco**on ties. +n )estern Aaire, there )as a)areness of the co*para!ility of @kita, Bil(*!(, Ae!ola,and the other grands rites , and in 5anzania, of the eistence of other n"o*a than the ones practiced,incl(din" those fro* other re"ions. +n o(thern -frica, there )as a "reater de"ree of *iin" and cross4fertilization of n"o*a or the )ork of the a*a"3ira than any)here else. +n so*e )ays, scholars )ere*ore provincial than the healers, in that they often li*ited the foc(s of their research to tri!al andnational entities, for ea*ple, the A(l( diviner, the Ai"(a rite of affliction, the @de*!( c(lt ofaffliction.

5his a!sence of the a)areness of a lar"er instit(tion and its character called for a f(rther ontolo"ical3(ery of )hether the overlappin" levels of evidence6the ver!al co"nates, the !ehaviors6co(ld provide (s )ith a clear pict(re of )hat n"o*a )as all a!o(t. ealers and scholars alike )ere intri"(ed !y the possi!ility that their local instit(tion *i"ht !e part of a lar"er entity. 5hey )ere a!le to point o(treco"niza!le co**on practices or feat(res in photo"raphs and *(sical recordin"s, as )ell asdifferences !et)een their o)n practices and those of others. o*e asserted that the version fro* afar)as 0)ron"0 in ter*s of the )ay they did it. @evertheless, there e*er"ed in practitioners< acco(nts of0ho) n"o*a )orked0 a *ore or less co**on theory that )ords and spirit etiolo"ies6often as



epressed in son"6provided the core )orkin" principle of n"o*a. 5his aspect of n"o*a needsetensive f(rther research, as very little case *aterial eists on the )ay in )hich individ(als reachcreative self4epression thro("h the cr(ci!le of affliction.

B(t )e are "ettin" ahead of o(rselves. hat finally is "oin" to !e the na*e of this ne)ly identified,)idespread, apparently ancient instit(tionI 5he na*e is no triflin" *atter, for on the choice of na*e)ill han" *(ch of the identity of the instit(tion. 0C(lt of affliction,0 0possession c(lt,0 0divination,0

0rite of affliction,0 0dr(* of affliction,0 and n"o*a have !een (sed *ore or less interchan"ea!ly. 5hefirst several are reco"nized analytical na*es the last, an indi"eno(s ter* that has *(ltiple *eanin"sand is therefore a*!i"(o(s. 5he advanta"e of (tilizin" an analytical ter* is that )e can say it eistseven if the locals "ive it another na*e. o)ever, the advanta"e of (tilizin" the -frican na*e, ngoma ,or another variant, ngoma za *utibu =0therape(tic n"o*a,0 in the )ords of ?. . Makala in 5anzania<sMinistry of C(lt(re>, or 0n"o*a4type rit(al0 or therapy, to cite -nita prin", is that

8 1% 8

)e tie into the conscio(s level of a)areness of it. 5his offsets certain scholarly ecesses that havedistorted the identity and definition of the instit(tion in the literat(re.

5his perspective helps (s overco*e partic(larly the estern preocc(pation )ith 0trance0 and0possession0 as the central definers of the instit(tion, )hich the ter* cult denotes. 7iation (ponnatives )ith (pt(rned eyes "r(ntin" (nintelli"i!le spirit talk and dancin" a!o(t in a frenzy has sed(cedscholars fro* the i*portant task of lookin" at the contet, str(ct(re, history, intention, and chan"e of anancient instit(ted process. -s has !eco*e clear in the co(rse of this st(dy, trance !ehavior is !(t anoccasional corollary of the etiolo"y that attri!(tes *isfort(ne to ancestors and spirits. 5he spirit possession etiolo"y is a type of ideolo"y or hypothesis, (s(ally invoked !y diviners, to interpret a ran"eof (s(ally va"(e sy*pto*s or si"ns, altho("h at other ti*es it is (sed in very clear4c(t epressions ofdistress. 5he spirit hypothesis, as + like to call it, rarely !l(rs the practical ei"encies of day4to4day life.+t is rather a fra*e)ork that sets (p and le"iti*ates an instit(tion that *ay !rin" to"ether *any kinds

of perspectives and theories. 5o li*it n"o*a epression to possession trance is partic(larly (nfort(nate !eca(se its o(tco*e is the eact opposite of possession, na*ely, creative self4epression. 5rance, )henit does *ake an appearance, is (s(ally an aspect of the perfor*ance rit(al and needs to !e seen in thecontet of dialo"ical *(sic, confessions, and divinatory sessions in )hich pro!le*s are !ein" )orkedo(t. Dnly occasionally do trance and possession oin as a sha*anic4type o(rney of the analyst.

7or these reasons, this )ork has stressed the centrality of disco(rse in n"o*a interaction andkno)led"e. 5he 0doin" n"o*a0 process is a for*at for the identification of so(rces of *isfort(ne, for !rin"in" o(t and artic(latin", ener"izin", and transfor*in" individ(al identity and p(rpose, and for"atherin" others )ho are in a position to vicario(sly help )ith these tasks. +t is a process that *ayaddress any type of sit(ation in )hich the for* is servant to the content. +t *ay acco**odate a "reatlatit(de of types of kno)led"e: co**on sense, the hypotheses e*!edded in spirit fields technical

kno)led"e of the nat(ral )orld, scientific kno)led"e !ased on propositions, social principles in kinand non4kin society, and other types of 0s(rvival kno)led"e,0 to cite Fiha*!a =19&>. /re"ory Batesonlon" a"o e*phasized that one of the f(nctions of rit(al )as the preservation and (tilization ofkno)led"e.

eaders )ill have reco"nized the si*ilarity !et)een n"o*a4type

8 1%% 8



healin" orders in -frica and estern self4help instit(tions s(ch as -lcoholics -nony*o(s, ei"htatchers, Parents -nony*o(s, net)orks of or"an transplant s(!ects, parents of s(dden infant deathsyndro*e victi*s, cardiac reha!ilitation "ro(ps, and *any *ore. 5hese, in the est, have often had the !enefit of !io*edical cons(ltants or liaisons, altho("h in their or"anizational character they have !eenindependent of direct *edical instit(tional control. Part of their s(ccess in the lives of *e*!ers is thetransfor*ation of the self in the very area of prior )eakness or failin".

D(t of this process e*er"es a f(rther a"enda of this )ork, na*ely, to define health, to test theinstit(tion<s i*pact on health, and to deter*ine its efficacy in either preventin" deterioration of healthor in restorin" health )here it has deteriorated. 5here is *(ch varia!ility in the criteria !y )hich healthinventories are (d"ed. 5he theoretical terrain of this disc(ssion is fra("ht )ith philosophical dile**asa!o(t the identification of sets of varia!les (sed in definin" health. +n this )ork, criteria that have !een !ro("ht for)ard have had to do )ith )ords and conscio(sness, la!elin" of diseases, and the predisposition of the s(fferer )ith the role of *etaphor and sy*!ol and the a*plification of theseepressions in rit(al perfor*ance )ith the creation of co**(nities of the afflicted and the i*portanceof sharin" one<s pro!le*s )ith others.

Beca(se of the prevalence of a trance and possession definition of n"o*a in *(ch of the scholarlyliterat(re and pop(lar c(lt(re, or the i*plication that n"o*a<s therape(tic orientation is psycholo"icalonly, there has !een a certain resistance on the part of scholars and policy4*akers to consider n"o*a<srole as it addresses epide*iolo"ical and de*o"raphic definitions of disease. Get as )e have seen, thereappears to !e si"nificant evidence that n"o*a rites s(ch as the 5anzanian snake handlin" or theo(thern avanna fertility4enhance*ent proced(res for *others and children at risk *ay directlyaddress these iss(es.

/iven the pro*ise of si"nificant ill4health risk red(ction in so*e partic(lar n"o*a instit(tions, )hatare the prospects that they can !e en"a"ed *ore intentionally in the a"endas of health *inistries andother a"enciesI Dne iss(e that has e*er"ed in this re"ard is the str(""le over the or"anizational*atrices of ngoma entities. 7or the *ost part, n"o*a or"anizations represent an 0(ncapt(red0 po)er !ase )hose leaders and reso(rces, decentralized as they are, resist co4optation !y the nation4state.

here there has !een centralized or"anization, as in coastal

8 1%& 8

5anzania, str(""le for the control of n"o*a reso(rces has re*ained a pro!le*.

@"o*a reso(rces have !een effectively inte"rated into national instit(tions in )aziland, )here thekin" has personally endorsed, and (nder)ritten the care and trainin" of, skilled heaters s(ch as +daMa!(za. +t is possi!le, !(t diffic(lt, to "eneralize this *odel of inte"ration in the *odern state, )here !(rea(cratic r(les and decisions are prevalent. +t *i"ht )ork to the etent that leadership re*ains personalized )ithin the *antle of !(rea(cratic rationality. o)ever, in s(ch a patri*onial syste* there

is enor*o(s co*petition for the le"iti*ation that s(ch personal s(pport entails, and it hardly provides a !asis for consistent and e3(ita!le distri!(tion of reso(rces to a needy pop(lace.

+t appears *ost appropriate to seek inte"ration of n"o*a4type instit(tions, and their overallenhance*ent, at a less !(rea(cratic level, s(ch as has !een sketched in Aaire. 5here, the state healthservice has reco**ended "eneral hy"ienic instr(ction for all healers to (p"rade their contri!(tion tohealth )itho(t erodin" their po)er !ase. P(!lic health and hy"iene instr(ction of healers in /hana andierra Feone has prod(ced si"nificant red(ction of infant *ortality rates.

-s the o(thern -frican n"o*a net)orks sho), there are transnational channels of infor*ation at )orkthat tend to distri!(te ne) kno)led"e. @"(!ane )rites that the shiftin" cell co*position at s(ccessive



sessions of the san"o*a (ni3(ely serves to spread insi"ht a!o(t healin" techni3(es and sol(tions to pro!le*s. +n theory, it sho(ld !e possi!le to introd(ce kno)led"e of hy"iene, p(!lic health, and otherareas of p(!lic concern at any point in s(ch a net)ork and see it spread thro("ho(t the syste*. Dfco(rse, n"o*a kno)led"e, as )e have seen, has its o)n ass(*ptions and str(ct(res. -ncestral or spiritle"iti*ation, rather than individ(al le"iti*ation, *(st re*ain prior. 5his is -frica<s )ay of stressin" the*oral !asis of (sef(l kno)led"e in the instit(tional process. Get the distinction !et)een co**on and

personal son"s allo)s for the introd(ction of ne) personal kno)led"e. 5o the etent that personalkno)led"e, or *essa"es a!o(t personal transfor*ation, are "eneralized and taken on !y others, andthen !eco*e co**on kno)led"e, n"o*a settin"s *ay serve as channels of ne) o(tside kno)led"eand infor*ation.

@"o*a, an apparently classical instit(tion of Central and o(thern -frica, deserves o(r consideration,)hether )e are interested in its

8 1%9 8

dance and disco(rse for*at, its therape(tic instr(*entalities, or its applica!ility to the resol(tion ofsocietal pro!le*s. e do )ell to consider n"o*a as a (ni3(ely n"o*a instit(ted co*!ination of processes and attri!(tes that the est p(ts to"ether in other )ays, or leaves (ndone.

8 1&1 8

A++en)#: A

Pa%#a' L#!#ng o" -*h%#e?! In$eno%& o" /an* Lang*age!

5hese "ro(pin"s, *apped on the follo)in" topo"raphical charts s(""estive of their "eo"raphicalrelationships =see appendi B>, are arran"ed accordin" to *orpholo"ical and leical feat(res of Bant(

lan"(a"es. -ltho("h so*e of /(thrie<s "enetic relationships are disp(ted, this listin" and the co"nates(**ary is a )idely accepted overvie) of lan"(a"e and c(lt(re relationships.

-.1$ FU@'U4B-FD@/ /DUP NCa*eroonO

-.11 Fondo

-.2$ 'U-F- /DUP

-.2L '(ala

-.#$ BUB?4B?@/- /DUP

-.#2a Banoo =@oh(, @oko> NCa*eroonO

-.#2b Bapoko =@aka, P(k(>



-.#L Ben"a N/a!on, io M(niO

-.L$ B-- /DUP NCa*eroonO

-.L2 Bakon==-!o>

-.L#a M!ene =Basa, oko, Mvele>

-.$ -@-/- /DUP

-.# Man"isa

-.%$ G-U@'?47-@/ /DUP

-.%1 ?ton

-.%2a ?)ondo =Ga(nde>

-.%2b Mvele

-.%2c Baka

-.%2d Gan"afek

-.%#a Be!ele

-.%#b /!i"!il

8 1&2 8

-.%L B(l(

-.%K 7an" =Pan")e>

-.&$ M--4@J?M /DUP



-.&1 Mv(*!o =@"(*!a>

-.&# Makaa

B.1$ MG?F? CFU5? N/a!onO

B.11a Mpon")e

B.11b on"o =Dr(n"(>

B.11c /al)a

B.11d 'y(*!a

B.11e @ko*i

B.2$ ?F? /DUP

B.22a . ele

B.22b @"o*

B.2L (*!v(

B.2K ota =hake, Mahon")e>

B.#$ 5D/D /DUP

B.#1 5so"o =Mitso"o, -pindi>

B.K$ @J-B+ /DUP

B.K2 @ze!i =@a!i>

B.$ MB?5? /DUP NCon"oO

B.1 M!ete



B.2 M!aa*a =M!a*!a>

B.%$ 5?? /DUP NCon"oO

B.%1a 5e"e4ali

B.%1b @inini

B.%2a @"(n")el =@"(n"(l(>

B.%2b Mp(*p(

B.%#a 5saayi

B.%#b Faali

B.%#c Gaa=Gaka>

B.%#d )e

B.%La @dzindzi(

B.%Lb Boo =Bo*a>

B.%K Bali =5io, 5eke>

B.%a Mosieno

B.%b 'ee

B.&$ 5?@'?4G-@A+ /DUP

B.&1 5iene =5ende>

B.&2 Bo*a

B.&# Mfin( =7(nika, Mf(n(n"a>



B.&Ka M!ie* =. Ganzi>

B.&Kb ?. Gans =Ganzi>

B.&Kc Geei

B.&Kd @ts(o

8 1&# 8

B.&Ke Mp(r

B.&% M!((n =M!(nda>

C.1$ @/U@'+ /DUP N@orth AaireO

C.11 @"ondi

C.12a Pande

C.12b Bo"on"o

C.1# M!ati

C.2$ MBD+ /DUP

C.2# @"are

C.#$ B-@/+4@5DMB- /DUP

C.#1a Foi

C.#1b @"iri

C.#2 Bo!an"i

C.#Ka @to*!a



C.#Kb Bolia

C.#a Poto

C.#b Mpesa

C.#c M!(dza

C.#% B(a

C.L$ @/DMB? /DUP

C.L1 @"o*!e

C.LK -n"!a =@"eli*a, Beo, 5(n"(, B(r(>

C.K$ DD4?F? /DUP

C.K2 o=oko>

C.KL Fo*!o =5(r(*!(>

C.KK ele

C.K Fo*a

C.$ MD@/D /DUP

C.1a @.?. Mon"o

C.1b @.. Mon"o =@k(ndo>

C.# @"ando

C.%$ 5?5?F- /DUP

C.%1 5etela



C.%# @k(t(

C.%L Gela

C.%K ela =Fe*!a>

C.&$ UB- /DUP

C.&2 on"o*eno

C.&# B(shon"

'.1$ MBDFD4?@- /DUP

'.1L ?nya =/enya, ?na, Ai*!a>

'.2$ F?/-4-F-@/- /DUP

'.21 Bali =.?. B(a, Ban"o>

'.2L on"ola

'.2K Fe"a =e"a>

8 1&L 8

'.2% Ban"(!an"(

'.2&a . oloholo =/(ha, alan"a>

'.2&b ?. oloholo N5anzaniaO

'.L$ D@JD /DUP

'.L2 @dandi =@andi, h(>

'.K$ B?MB?4-B-+ /DUP



'.KL Be*!e

'.$ U-@'-4U@'+ /DUP

'.1 (anda

'.2 (ndi

'. a

?.1$ @GDD4/-@'- /DUP

?.11 @yoro =/(n"(, yopi>

?.12 5ooro

?.1# @yankoro =i*a>

?.1K /anda

?.1 o"a

?.#$ M--B-4FUG- /DUP

?.#2a an"a =F(hya>

?.#2b 5sotse

?.L$ -/DF+4U+- /DUP

?.L1 Fo"ooli

?.L2 /(sii =/(zii, isii>

?.K$ +UGU -MB- /DUP NenyaO

?.K1 /ekoyo =ik(y(>



?.K2 ?*!o

?.K# Mero

?.KK a*!a

?.$ C-/- /DUP

?.1 )o =Mer(>

?.2a ai =Cha"a, Moshi, Macha*e>

?.2b (no =Maran"(>

?.2c o*!o

?.L ahe

?.K /)eno

?.%$ @G+-45-+5- /DUP

?.%1 Poko*o

?.%2a /irya*a

?.%2b a(*a =@ika, @yika>

?.%# 'i"o

?.%La 'a!ida =5aita>

?.%Lb a"ala =5aita>

7.2$ UUM-4@G-M?A+ /DUP Nestern5anzaniaO

7.21 (k(*a



7.22 @ya*)ezi

8 1&K 8

7.#$ +F-MB-4+-@/- /DUP

7.#1 @ila*!a =+ra*!a>

7.#2 e*i =@yat(r(>

/.1$ /D/D /DUP N5anzaniaO

/.11 /o"o

/.2$ -MB-F- /DUP

/.21 5(!eta =5aveta>

/.2# a*!aa =ha*!ala>

/.2L Bondei

/.#$ A+/UF-4A--MD /DUP

/.#1 Ai"(la =Ai"(a>

/.#2 'h)ele

/.## Aara*o ='zala*o>

/.#L @"(l(

/.L$ -+F+ /DUP

/.L1 5ik(( =5(k(l(>



/.L2a -*(

/.L2b Mvita

/.L2c Mri*a

/.L2d Un"(a

/.LLa @"azia NCo*oro +s.O

/.LLb @(ani =inz(a>

/.K$ PD/DD /DUP

/.K1 Po"olo

/.$ B?@-4+@/- /DUP

/.# Bena

.1$ +D@/D /DUP NAaire, Con"o, -n"olaO

.11 Be*!e

.1# (nyi

.1L @din"ioyo

.1a . on"o

.1b C. on"o

.1c Go*!e

.1d . on"o

.1e B)ende



.1 f Faadi

.1 g ?. on"o

.1h .?. on"o

.2$ +MBU@'U /DUP

.21a M!(nd( =@don"o>

.21b M!a*!a

.#$ +G-- /DUP

.#1 Gaka

.## (n"(

8 1& 8

.1$ CD?4FUC-A+ /DUP N-n"ola,Aaire, Aa*!iaO

.11 Ciok)e =Cioko, 'ok>

.1L F)ena =F(vale>

.1K M!(nda

.2$ FDA+ /DUP

.21 Fozi =ololo>

.#$ FUG-@- /DUP

.#1 F(yana =F(yi>

.#2 M!o)e



.L$ UB+G- /DUP

.L1 5otela

.L2 (!iya NBots)anaO

F.1$ P?@'? /DUP NAaireO

F.11 Pende

F.2$ D@/? /DUP

F.21 ete

F.22 Bini

F.2# on"e =Ge*!e>

F.2L F(na =+nkon"o>

F.#$ FUB- /DUP

F.#1a F(!a4asai

F.#1b F(l(a

F.## F(!a4Nha!aO

F.#L e*!a

F.#K an"a

F.L$ -D@'? /DUP

F.L1 aonde



P.## @"(l(

.1$ UMBU@'U /DUP N-n"olaO

.11 M!(nd( =@ano>

.2$ @'DM/- /DUP

.21 )anya*a =(*!a> N-n"ola, .. -fricaO

.22 @don"a =-*!o>

.2# )a*!i

.2L @"andyera

.#$ ??D /DUP

.#1 ereto

.L$ G?G? /DUP NBots)anaO

.L1 Gei =Geye, (!a>

.1$ D@- CFU5? NAi*!a!)eO

.11 orekore

.12 Aez(r(

.1#a Manyika

.1#b 5e!e NMoza*!i3(eO

.1L aran"e



.1K @da(

.1 alana

.2$ ;?@'- /DUP No(th -fricaO

.21 ;enda

.#$ D5D45-@- /DUP NBots)ana,FesothoO

.#2a Pedi =@. otho>

8 1&& 8

.L$ @/U@+ /DUP No(th -frica, )azilandO

.L1 Hhosa

.L2 A(l(

.L# )ati Z @"oni NMala)i, )azilandO

.LL @de!ele

.K$ 5-4D@/- /DUP

.K1 5s)a NMoza*!i3(e, Ai*!a!)eO

.$ CDP+ /DUP NMoza*!i3(eO

.1 Copi =Fen"e>

A.1 5+; /DUP N@i"eriaO

A.1 5iv

A.2a ?D+' /DUP N@i"eriaO



A.2b Bale!

A.2 g @. ?t(n"

A.2r @ki*

8 1&9 8

A++en)#: /

3#!%#*#on! o" Te%m! #n /an* Lang*age! Pe%a#n#ng o

The%a+e*#( Con(e+! an) A(#on!5he ver!al co"nates in these *aps are reconstr(ctions of co**on ancestral ter*s derived fro* *odern phonetic rese*!lances and pres(*ed se*antic shifts fro* an ori"inal !asic so(nd and *eanin". 5hedistri!(tions are !ased *ainly on the )ork of Malcol* /(thrie, as p(!lished in his Com$arati)e "antu

the n(*!ers "iven )ith *ost ter*s are fro* his Co*parative eries =C..>. 7ollo)in" his convention,the asterisk indicates a reconstr(cted ancestral or 0proto40 for* derived fro* conte*porary phoneticand se*antic variations. +t *(st !e e*phasized that these reconstr(ctions are !ased on a li*itedn(*!er of lan"(a"es for )hich "lossaries and dictionaries )ere availa!le in the 19K$s and 19$s )hen/(thrie did his )ork th(s the distri!(tions sho)n are approi*ations and *ay have "aps. Maps 2, %,and 19 are !ased partially on other )ork.

8 19$ 8

B.1

C.. 1$& R ,$-t, )o(nd

C.. 1$9 R ,$-t/, )o(nd, !oil

5his distri!(tion indicates a proto4Bant( co"nate, )ith B.1L coe3(al in the?astern Bant( re"ion.

8 191 8

B.2

C.. %% R ,d-d, to !eco*e ill

C.. %& R ,d-d0, illness



C.. %9 R ,d-d/, illness

R ,gon, to !e sick

5he co"nate 4d-d 4 is distri!(ted so as to s(""est an ancient proto4Bant( lei4cal ite* that has !een partially replaced !y *on or o*on in the estern Bant(forest area =D!en"a 19&K:19 (y"ens 19&%:&9#>.

8 192 8

B.#

C.. LL R ,d2g, !e)itch, c(rse

C.. LK R ,d2g, )itchcraft

C.. L R ,d2g1, )itchcraft

C.. L% R ,d2g2, )itchcraft

- )idespread ter* in *any societies of the s(!continent, an ancient proto4Bant( and central conte*porary concept in therape(tic tho("ht syste*s.

8 19# 8

B.L

C.. %& R ,g3ng3, R ,ng3ng3, *edicine *an, doctor

C.. %&%

R

,ganga, *edicineBoth healer and *edicine are derived fro* this )idespread and pres(*a!ly proto4Bant( co"nate.

8 19L 8

B.K

C.. 1KK% R ,$1ng, c(rse

C.. 1KK& R ,$1ng4, c(rse C.. 1K#L R ,$1ng-, fetish, char*, o*en

/(thrie s(""ests that C.. 1K#L )as proto4Bant( and is part of a set incl(din"

t)o synony*o(s co"nates629# R 4c3ng5 4, ?ast Bant( =B.1%> and 1$%2 R 4*1t0(est Bant( =B.12>6that e*er"ed )here the ori"inal ite* disappeared.

8 19K 8



B.

C.. 1KL R ,$5d, to !eco*e cold, to cool do)n

C.. 1KK R ,$5d, to !eco*e c(red, to "et )ell

5his !if(rcated estern and ?astern Bant( distri!(tion s(""ests a proto4Bant(stat(s for this co"nate, and the pervasiveness of the notion of 0the cool0 inconnection )ith health, p(rification, or cleansin" and !y i*plication, of heat)ith sickness, disorder, and poll(tion.

8 19 8

B.%

C.. &2R ,g0d2, , ,g0da, , ,g0d-, s(!stantive for* of interdiction, prohi!ition

C.. &22 R ,g0d, ver!al for* indicatin" to interdict, to ref(se, to create an interdiction, to a!stain fro* food, activities, contacts

5he reconstr(ction of this co"nate is !ased pri*arily on (y"ens<s recent )ork =19&%> in the 5erv(ren Bant( lan"(a"es proect, )hich is a contin(ation andetension of /(thrie<s )ork, as )ell as his intensive st(dy of the 7an" and Betilan"(a"es. +ts pervasive distri!(tion s(""ests it as a part of the proto4Bant(health concept(al sche*e, altho("h there are other ter*s for this concept.

8 19% 8

B.&

C.. &LL R ,g2m3, dr(*

C.. 1L$1 R ,ng2m3, dr(*

'istri!(tion of ngoma as son" or perfor*ance:5he central co"nate of this !ook, ngoma =dr(*>, is distri!(ted )idely thro("h4o(t the Bant( lan"(a"e areas, )ith the eception of the forest re"ions C and'. 5his, and the distri!(tion of the additional *eanin" of 0son"0 and 0perfor4

*ance0 s(pports the hypothesis of an ?astern Bant( ori"in of the therape(ticn"o*a that is the s(!ect of this )ork.

8 19& 8

B.9



C.. 1%#$ R ,t1, *edicine

C.. 99$ R ,*3g, to protect )ith *edicine

C.. 1$19 R ,*#, leaf, to!acco

C.. 1$21 R ,*#1, leaf

Df these t)o co"nates for plants, or *edicinal plants, the *ore )idespread,

4tS4, proto4Bant(, is also identified as 0tree0 =C.. 1%29> and 0stick0 =C..1%#1>. 5he other ter*s denote *edicinal (ses of plants or the process of pro4tectin" )ith *edicine, ,*3g, . 5o!acco, introd(ced fro* -*erica, )as assi*i4lated to the estern Bant( co"nates, 4kaya4, 4kayi4.

8 199 8

B.1$

C.. L12R

4c-*6 4 c(ppin" horn C.. LL$ R 4c-mo 4 c(ppin" horn

C.. L#9 R 4cumi* 4 !leed !y c(ppin"

C.. %$$ R 4dumi* 4 !leed !y c(ppin"

?astern and estern Bant( ter*s for the c(ppin" horn and for the process of !leedin" !y c(ppin" s(""est that these are part of an old syste* of therapy,altho("h there *ay have !een an even older co"nate that is no) lost.

8 2$$ 8

B.11

C.. K$ R 4b3nd3 4 "host

C.. K1 R 4mb3nd3 4 *edicine *an

C.. 19K R 4b-* 4 to c(re

C.. 19 R 4b-* 4 to divine, to c(re !y divinin"

5here are t)o related estern Bant( ter*s for healer, divinin", or the processof healin". banda s(""ests *edi(*ship in so*e settin"s. 5he distri!(tion of

the ter* b-* s(""ests an earlier epansion in estern Bant(.

8 2$1 8

B.12

C.. 1$%2 R 4*1t0 4 fetish, char*



C.. 1$%# R 4*1t0 4, or 4*1c0 4, spirit

5his estern Bant( concept and practice is present as a visi!le *edicine or o!4 ect in its )estern distri!(tion. -t its so(th and eastern epansion, or frontier,it co*es to !e identified *ainly as spirit. +ts eastern4*ost occ(rrence is d(e tothe epansion of F(!a infl(ence in the siteenth cent(ry a*on" the en"a4enalin"(istic "ro(p =aite 19&%>.

8 2$2 8

B. 1#

C.. 1L%L R 4 $/mb3 4 )hite clay

C.. 1L%% R 4 $/mb/ 4 )hite clay

5he (se of )hite clay or kaolin is pervasive in (!4aharan rit(al, !(t this

ter* for it is estern Bant(. 5hat this co"nate is ancient is seen fro* its presence a*on" the 5iv of ?astern @i"eria, in the p(tative ori"in area of Bant(lan"(a"es.

8 2$# 8

B.1L

C.. K R 4donda 4 sore

- co**on co"nate of ?astern Bant( ori"in.

8 2$L 8

B.1K

C.. 2L$ R 4cbi 4 )itch, )itchcraft

C.. 1&&L R 4 #bi 4 ordeal, poison

5hese t)o related co"nates of ?astern Bant( ori"in *ay !e related to the 5ivnotion tsa) , or tsa'i =see Bohannan 19K&>, the evidence of )itchcraft s(!stancein the !o)els of a corpse.

8 2$K 8



B.1

C.. 19 R 4d1mu 4 spirit

5his apparently ancient and proto4Bant( co"nate for spirits, (s(ally ancestral,is )idespread in n"o*a rit(als. &ulu *ay !e the estern Bant( co(nterpartfor this.

8 2$ 8

B.1%

C.. 29# R 4c3ng5 4 fetish, char*

5he ?astern Bant( co(nterpart of 4*1c0 4 =B.12>, !oth of )hich, accordin" to/(thrie, *ay have replaced $1ng4 =B.K>.

8 2$% 8

B.1&

C.. L%1 R 4dagud 4 practice *edicine, divine, foretell

Dagud is the ?astern Bant( co(nterpart to mb3nd3 and b-* =B.11>, )hichto"ether s(pplanted 4 g3ng3 4 =B.L> in certain instances.

8 2$& 8

B.19

C.. %1K R 4dungu 4 M(l(n"(, M(r(n"(, /od

C.. 92K R 4 +amb/ 4 /od

C.. 191% R 4 #amb/ 4 or 4n#amb/ 4 /od

R 4 8eza 4, /od

R M(k(l(, @k(l(, -ncient Dne, /od

5hese are ea*ples of n(*ero(s ter*s for /od (sed in the attri!(tion of illnessetiolo"ies that contrast to h(*an4ca(sed or spirit4ca(sed etiolo"ies. D!en"a=19&K:1K21K#> is the so(rce for the distri!(tion of the last t)o ter*s.

8 2$9 8



A++en)#: C

In!%*mena#on A((om+an&#ng 7ea'#ng R#*a'! #n Cen%a' an)

So*he%n A"%#(a

+nitial na*es refer to ethnic entities n(*!ers in parentheses refer to /(thrie<s lin"(istic "ro(pin"ssho)n on *ap C.1 and related *aps in appendices - and B na*es in 3(otation *arks refer totherape(tic rit(al or association, or na*e cited in tet vocal arran"e*ent and instr(*ental co*!inationare in order of type: idiophone, *e*!rophone, aerophone, and chordophone. o(rces are "iven at endof entry.

E*ae*%

Mon"o4?konda =C.1a> 0?li*a0: voice [ bo*'asa rasp ele$o rattles )histle lo*ombe zither =+M@A N+nstit(te des M(sEes @ationa( d( AaireO recordin" %K.#.#1 !y Boilo>

Mon"o4?konda =C.1a> 0?li*a0: voice [ bo*'asa rasp !ell ele$o rattles )histle lo*ombe zither =+M@A recordin" %K.#.%1 !y Boilo>

Mon"o4?konda =C.1a> 0?li*a0: voice [ ingengele !ell bo*'asa rasp ilongo kettle dr(*=+M@A recordin", %K.#.&1 !y Boilo>

@to*!a =inshasa> =C.#Ka> 0?li*a0: voice =1 fe*ale healer, 2 fe*ale novices> [ L rasps ilongo kettledr(*=+M@A recordin", %K.%.2# !y F(dion"o>

Mon"o4@"elentand( =C.1a> 0Ae!ola0: voice [ !ell do(!le "on" dr(*=+M@A recordin", %K.#.111 !y Boilo>

Mon"o4@k(ndo =C.1b > 0@zondo0: voice [ ba*'asa rasp ilongo kettle dr(*=+M@A recordin" %K.#.1K Boilo>

8 21$ 8

Mon"o4Bat)a =C.$> 0@zondo0 =+lako>: choir =+M@A recordin" %.#.2$2 !y Boilo>

Mon"o =C.$> 0Bon"ita0: 2 soloists [ choir [ rattles=+M@A recordin" %K..1L !y (ersin and ?sole>

5etela =C.%1> 0etsi0: 1 *ale 2 fe*ales [ 2 di'olo cala!ash rattles lo*ombe trapezoid dr(*

=+M@A recordin" %K.&.%# !y (ersin and ?sole>

5etela =C.%1> 0heatin" son"0: 2 fe*ales choir =+M@A recordin" %K.&.%K !y (ersin and ?sole>

8 211 8

Mon"o4Ba"and( =C.#> 0@kan"a0: 2 soloists K healers choir [ # isanga rattles elonza !ell mo$ati horn



=+M@A recordin" %L..K2 !y (ersin>

Mon"o4Ba"and( =C.#> 0@kan"a0: vocal handclappin" [ isanga rattles=+M@A recordin" %L..%1 !y (ersin>

Boyela4Male*ada =C.%L> 0etsi <okonda0 =Bali*o>: 1 fe*ale [ 2 *ales [ choir [ elan+a "on"isanga rattles ifange horn=+M@A recordin" %L..2## !y (ersin>

Boyela4Makanda =C.%L> 0etsi <okonda0 =Bali*o>: 1 fe*ale 1 *ale choir [ bo#ende rattleselond+a "on" lo*ombe trapezoid dr(* basuli sticks=+M@A recordin" %L..1L !y (ersin>

Boyela4Makanda =C.%L> 0etsi <okonda0 =Bali*o>: # fe*ales fe*ale choir [ rattles [ ilon+a "on" [n*ombe dr(* [ ifonge horn=+M@A recordin" %L..2#K !y (ersin>

Boyela4Makanda =C.%L> 0?kata0 0Ficit0: # fe*ales choir handclappin" [ !ell rattles trapezoiddr(* 2 *e*!rane dr(*s ifonge horn=+M@A recordin" %L..2K1 !y (ersin>

Boyela4Makanda =C.%L> 0Ficit0: 1 fe*ale choir [ ifonge horn=+M@A recordin" %L..19# !y (ersin>

Boyela4Makanda =C.%L> 0etsi <okenda0: 2 fe*ales fe*ale choir [ isanga rattles n*ombe trapezoiddr(*=+M@A recordin" %L..#$2 !y (ersin>

@"!aka4Ma!o =C.LK> 0@zo*!o0: vocal solo #$4voice choir =+M@A recordin" %K..#21 !y (ersin and ?sole>

B(da =C.#%> 0*(sic of healin"0: L *ales [ 1 sanza hand piano 2 rattles=+M@A recordin" %K..Kb and %>

Ea!e%n Ba#%e

are"a ='.2K> 0B(tii 0: ad(lt *ale choir [ lar"e dr(* s*all dr(* perc(ssion stick =+M@A recordin" %L.1L. !y ishilo>

So*he%n Sa$anna

F(nda45shok)e =.11> 0son" of healin"0: + fe*ale soloist choir [ lubemb do(!le "on" ngom dr(**a*a*as+ dr(* sticks=+M@A recordin" %K.2.1#L !y /anse*ans>

F(nda =F.K2> 0healin" son"s0: L fe*ales=+M@A recordin" %K.2.1L and 1K1 !y /anse*ans>

Pende =F.11> 0@"o*!o0 divination: 1 fe*ale [ dimba ylophone=+M@A recordin" &$.2.2L# !y Mal(tshi>

Pende =F.11> 0a*!a0: fe*ale vocal [ ngoma dr(*=+M@A recordin" &$.2.2#LL2 !y Mal(tshi>

8 212 8



Gaka =.#1> 0divination0: diviner assistant choir [ nkoko trapezoid dr(* ngoma dr(*=+M@A recordin"s %L.L.21# and %L.1.LK>

F(vale =.1L> 0a*!a0: fe*ale vocal choir [ ngoma dr(*s =prin" 19%&>

@de*!( =F.K2> 0dr(*s of affliction0: solo choir [ ngoma dr(*s =5(rner 19&>

ongo6A'an#(oyo =.1L> 0divination son"0: fe*ale and *ate vocal [ ngond+i do(!le "on" bintha*idi rattles 2ngoma,ngoma trapezoid dr(*s $itu )histles=+M@A recordin" &1.2.9# !y (ersin>

oyo =.1L> 0@kazi M!(*!a Maveko0 n*isi son": fe*ale and *ale vocal [ tshingoma trapezoid dr(*=+M@A recordin" &1.2.K1 !y (ersin>

oyo =.1L> 0Male*!e @yenda )a*iye Fali0 n*isi son": fe*ale vocalhandclappin"=+M@A recordin" &$.1.111 !y (ersin>

on"o4Mpan"( =.1"> 0@kita0: & fe*ales [ rattles 2 ngoongi do(!le "on"s moondo sin"le

*e*!rane dr(*=Ciparisse 19%2>

Ea! A"%#(a

(k(*a ='ar es alaa*> =7.2$> 0M(n"ano0: solo choir [ ngoma dr(*s

Mat(*!e ='ar es alaa*> =P.1#> 0Manian"a0: solo choir [ shakers ngoma dr(*

Mat(*!e ='ar es alaa*> =P.1#> 0M!(n"i0: vocal [ )ood "on"s K ngoma dr(*s

Ai"(a ='ar es alaa*> =/.#1> 0Mar(hani0: vocal [ shakers K do(!le *e*!rane dr(*s

Ai"(a ='ar es alaa*> =/.#1> 0Msa"!iro0: vocal [ shakers

So*hea! A"%#(a

Aez(r( =.12>: vocal [ mbira hand pianos rattles ngoma dr(*s=7ry 19%:11&>

5aa!)a =M.L1> 0F(*!(0: vocal choir [ rattles 2 ngoma dr(*s=o!erts 19&&:fi". 2>

hona =.1$> 0Bira dza )adzimu 0: vocal [ mbira hand pianos )ith "o(rd resonators=Berliner 19&1>

8 21# 8

So*he%n A"%#(a

;enda =.21> 0ngoma dza )adzimu 0: soloist choir [ shaker n"o*a drums=Blackin" 19%#>

)azi =.L#> 0san"o*a0: soloists choir [ tigomene *etal and *e*!rane dr(*s



estern Cape =.L$ and K$> 0amagqira 0: soloists choir [ *etal and *e*!rane dr(*

8 21K 8

Noe!

1 Se#ng! an) Sam+'e! #n A"%#(an C*'! o" A""'#(#on

1. 5his is one of n(*ero(s references thro("ho(t this )ork to the interface of n"o*a and Christianity.Fater, in the acco(nt of 5anzanian n"o*a, a si*ilar interface appears !et)een +sla* and n"o*a. +n as(rvey overvie) )ork of this type, + have not !een a!le to eplore syste*atically the *any )ays in)hich there has !een interpenetration of n"o*a )ith the )orld reli"ions. Focal histories, partic(lar*ission policies, reactions of local a(thorities, and partic(lar decisions !y infl(ential individ(als )o(ld !e ele*ents affectin" the interfaces.

2. +t is possi!le that the ubulau drink taken !y the novices (st prior to this *o*ent )as a hall(cino"en

!ased on a plant in"redient (sed in the drink. o)ever, + )as (na!le to p(rs(e this or other (ses of*edication in n"o*a in any detail !eca(se of the s(rvey nat(re of the proect. 5he phar*acopoeia ofn"o*a is of co(rse an entire additional proect related to -frican *edicine in "eneral, !eyond the scopeof this )ork.

2 I)en#"&#ng Ngoma 7#!o%#(a' an) Com+a%a#$e Pe%!+e(#$e!

1. Feicostatistics is the *ethodolo"y !y )hich phonetic, *orpholo"ical, and *orphophonolo"icalfeat(res are correlated across a n(*!er of pres(*a!ly "enetically related lan"(a"es. i"herfre3(encies than rando* cl(sters of correlated feat(res are held to de*onstrate "enetic or historicco**onality. 5he )adesh list of 1$$ leical ite*s, co**on to all kno)n )orld lan"(a"es, has also !een (sed in this research on Bant( lan"(a"es.

2. 5he *ost si"nificant contin(ation of /(thrie<s )ork has !een carried on !y the 5erv(renleicostatistical proect, initiated !y -ndrE Co(pez, -lfred Mee(ssen, and Jan ;ansina in the 19K$s andheaded today !y Gvonne Bastin of

the Fin"(istic 'epart*ent of the M(sEe oyal de +<-fri3(e Centrale, 5erv(ren, Bel"i(*. -dditionalresearch )ork in the Bant( paradi"* is !ein" cond(cted !y the Centre +nternational des CivilisationsBanto(es, of Fi!reville, /a!on, incl(din" so*e coastal archaeolo"ical research to esta!lish the lo)erthreshold of the +ron -"e in the estern Bant( epansion.

#. D!en"a<s chapter 05radi4prati3(e et santE chez les Banto(0 =19&K:19K421%> concentrates on aco*parative reconstr(ction of M!ochi and M!(l( and related lan"(a"es of estern ?3(atorial -frica,

essentially estern Bant(, and does not !enefit fro* the )ork of /(thrie.

< 3o#ng Ngoma The Te:*%e o" Pe%!ona' T%an!"o%ma#on

1. + a* inde!ted to 5he*!inkosi 'yeyi of ?ast Fondon, o(th -frica, for translatin" and interpretin"the transcription of this estern Cape event.

2. +n so*e interpretations of A(l( divination, this a"ree*ent, contained in the ver! )uma , is t(rned intoconfession, u*u)uma , )hich is etracted fro* the client !y the diviner after a series of interro"ations.-el4+var Ber"l(nd offers a vivid acco(nt of a divination of this sort in the contet of A(l( independent



Christians =Ber"l(nd 19&9:11#411K>.

#. Blackin"<s identification of other son" styles in the (niverse of all ;enda initiation *(sic incl(des:n#imbo dza u se)hetha , son"s for dancin" ro(nd, s(n" !y "irls dancin" co(nterclock)ise aro(nd thedr(*s, incl(din" a 0son" of dis*issal0 and a 0recr(itin" son"0 n#imbo dza )hah'ira , son"s of the*asked dancers, )ith varyin" te*po to acco*pany different phases of the dance and distinctiverhyth*s to *ark vario(s steps and n#imbo dza mila#o , son"s of the la)s of the school, s(n" !y

novices and any "rad(ates present =19%#:L$EL1>.

= 7o4 Ngoma 0o%5! O" Co)e! an) Con!(#o*!ne!!

1. 5he ter* bugaboo , or boogaboo , has a Central -frican ori"in dra)n directly fro* the esternBant( reli"ion and healin" voca!(lary. ;ass =19%9:1$> traces it to bu*a lubu*a , to divine, or cons(lt adiviner.

2. +n se*iotic parlance, appropriately called 0shifters.0

@ 7o4 Ngoma 0o%5! The So(#a' Re+%o)*(#on o" 7ea'h

1. + have eplored definitions of health else)here =Janzen 19&K:L4% 19&9, in (llivan, ed. and7eier*an and anzen: forthco*in">. 5he first t)o of these disc(ssions concentrate on a series of healthconcepts, incl(din" 0health as )hat physicians do,0 0health as the a!sence of disease,0 <<health asf(nctional nor*ality,0 <<health as adaptation,0 0positive health,0 and 0health (topias,0 alon" )ith 0thesocial reprod(ction of health.0 +n (llivan, ed., 19&9, these are interlaced )ith 0ver!al concepts0 in-frican healin". Positive health indicators are diffic(lt to encaps(late or codify since they depend (pon partic(lar pro"ra*s to carry the* o(t. Most national !io*edical health pro"ra*s are

defined in ter*s of 0the a!sence of disease0 and lend the*selves to de*o"raphic indicators of*ortality, *or!idity, and fertility. + have tried to develop the 0social reprod(ction0 definition of health !eca(se it see*s (ni3(ely s(ited to eval(ate n"o*a rit(al healin".

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'eep tho("ht: tr(ct(re and intention in on"o prophetis*, 191$21. Social Research L, 1:1$1#9.19%9b

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19&1 Human s$irits: A cultural account of trance in a#otte . Ca*!rid"e: Ca*!rid"e University Press.

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19%&!he Humbu . Ph.'. dissertation, Fo(vain Catholic University, Bel"i(*.

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19% Asian medical s#stems . Berkeley, Fos -n"eles, Fondon: University of California Press.

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19&K

ocial or"anization and reprod(ctive re"i*es: Fessons fro* (!4aharan -frica and historical )estern?(rope. Paper presented at 07ertility 5ransitions0 Conference, ?ast Fansin", Mich., -pril.

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19%K &no'ledge of illness in a Se$i* societ# . Ca*!rid"e: Ca*!rid"e University Press.

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19%% Ecstatic religion: An anthro$ological stud# of s$irit $ossession and shamanism . ar*onds)orth,Middlese: Pen"(in Books.

19& Religion in contet: Cults and charisma . Ca*!rid"e: Ca*!rid"e University Press.

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19%9!he rituals of labour migration among the cale*a . Master<s thesis, hoades University, Port?liza!eth, o(th -frica.

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19%%7etishis* revisited: on"o nkisi in sociolo"ical perspective. Africa L%:1L$1K2.

19&a Religion and societ# in Central Africa . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press.

19&b?thno"raphy and the closin" of the frontier in Fo)er Con"o, 1&&K1921. Africa K:212%9.

19&&Co*pleity, astonish*ent and po)er: 5he vis(al voca!(lary of on"o Minkisi. <ournal of Southern

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19%&

!he traditional healer . M!a!ane, )aziland: e!enta @ational +nstit(te for the University of Bots)anaand )aziland.

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19% 8inguga: Ngoma #a %amatergo . 'ar es alaa*. Mi*eo.

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19&1 aidens( meal and mone# . Ca*!rid"e: Ca*!rid"e University Press.

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19%%5raditional *(sic of !lack -frica. +n Africa , ed. P. M. Martin and P. D<Meara, 2L#2K&. Bloo*in"ton:+ndiana University Press.

8 229 8

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19&2 Health and healing in a South African to'nshi$ . Master<s thesis, University of Cape 5o)n.

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19K!he &alela dance: As$ects of social relations among urban Africans in northern Rhodesia .Manchester, ?n"land: Manchester University Press =hodes4Fivin"stone Papers @o. 2%>.

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19%

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19K9 Africa: ts $eo$les and their culture histor# . @e) Gork, 5oronto, Fondon: Mc/ra)4ill Book Co.

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19%95he )ork of *en, )o*en and the ancestors: ocial reprod(ction in the periphery of o(thern -frica. +n!he social anthro$olog# of 'or* , ed. andra all*an. @e) Gork: -cade*ic Press.

19&1



Lamilies di)ided: !he im$act of migrant labour in 8esotho . Johannes!(r": avan Press.

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19%L5he (nderdevelop*ent of health or the health of (nderdevelop*ent. nternational <ournal of Health

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192- physiolo"ical eplanation of (n(s(al !ehavior in cere*onies involvin" dr(*s. Human "iolog# #L,2:1K11$.

@"(!ane, . See also i!isi.

19%%

"od# and mind in ulu medicine: An ethnogra$h# of health . @e) Gork: -cade*ic Press.

19&1-spects of clinical practice and traditional or"anization of indi"eno(s healers in o(th -frica. SocialScience and edicine 1KB, #:#1#.

@siala Miaka Maken"o

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19&2

Personal co**(nication.

8 2#$ 8

D!en"a, 5.

19&K 8es "antu: 8angues( $eu$les( ci)ilisations . Fi!reville, Paris: Centre +nternational des CivilisationsBant( ?ditions PrEsence -fricaine.

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19L9!he structure of social action . @e) Gork: 7ree Press.

19K1!he social s#stem . @e) Gork:7ree Press.

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19%K5he chronolo"y of the +ron -"e in Bant( -frica. <ournal of African Histor# 1, #:#21#L2.

19%



-rcheolo"y and Bant( lin"(istics. %orld Archeolog# &, 1:K&2.

19%%5he spread of the Bant( lan"(a"e. Scientific American 2# =-pril>: 1$11L.

19&$F<epansion Banto(e en -fri3(e orientale: Fes te*oi"na"es de l<archEolo"ie et de la lin"(isti3(e. +n 89e$ansion "antoue , ed. F. M. y*an and J. ;oorhoeve, L9%1L. Paris: ?F-7.

19&K-n archeolo"ical re4consideration of Bant( epansion. untu 2:9&L.

Polo*e, ?. C.

19&$5he reconstr(ction of proto4Bant( c(lt(re fro* the leicon. +n 89e$ansion "antoue , ed. F. M. y*anand J. ;oorhoeve, %%9%91. Paris: ?F-7.

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19%9

'isease at the crossroads: 5o)ards a history of therape(tics in B(lozi since 1&%. Social Science and edicine 1#B, L:2&K#1.

19&evie) of 8emba FGIJK. <ournal of African Histor# 2%: L&&K$$.

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19%K Dance and societ# in Eastern Africa: !he "eni Ngoma . Fondon: illia* eine*ann.

19&K Peasant consciousness and guerrilla 'ar in imbab'e . Fondon: Ja*es C(rrey Berkeley and Fos-n"eles: University of California Press.

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19&Kevie) of 8emba FGIJK. Research in African 8iterature , 2L2%.

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19&&5hro("h the !a*!oo thicket: 5he social process of 5a!)a rit(al perfor*ance. !he Drama Re)ie' #2,2:12#12&.

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19&K usic and trance: A theor# of the relations bet'een music and $ossession . Chica"o and Fondon:University of Chica"o Press.

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De l9Atlantique au Lleu)e Congo: 7ne geogra$hie du sous,$eu$lement . 2 vols. Paris, Fa aye:Mo(ton.

8 2#1 8

ava"e, M.

19%95he political econo*y of health in o(th -frica. +n Economics of health in South Africa , ed. 7. ilsonand /. escott, 1L$1$. Johannes!(r": avan Press.

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19&L A critique of the stud# of *inshi$ . -nn -r!or: University of Michi"an Press.

hileondoa M()isi, D.

19%Obasa(O Ngoma #a 7tamaduni %etu . 'ar es alaa*: Ministry of C(lt(re.

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19%L East African societies . Fondon and Boston: o(tled"e Z e"an Pa(l.

i!isi, . See also @"(!ane.

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o(th -frican +nstit(te of ace elations

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19&KSociet# and the dance . Ca*!rid"e: Ca*!rid"e University Press.

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19%&?pide*iolo"y of spirit possession a*on" the F(vale of Aa*!ia. +n %omen in ritual and s#mbolicroles , ed. J. och4*ith and -. prin", 1K19$. @e) Gork and Fondon: Plen(* P(!lishin".



19&Kealth care syste*s in north)est Aa*!ia. +n African healing strategies , ed. B. M. d( 5oit and +. .-!dalla, 1#K1K$. D)erri, @e) Gork, Fondon: 5rado4Medic Books.

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19&Levie) of 8emba FGIJK. African Arts &L:29#1.

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19&0'isease and develop*ent0 or 05he (nderdevelop*ent of health0: - critical revie) of "eo"raphical perspectives on -frican health pro!le*s. Social Science and edicine 2#, %:&9%$$.

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19&evie) of 8emba FGIJK. Africana <ournal 1#:2#K2#%.

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19&o(nd and senses: 5o)ard a her*ene(tics of perfor*ance. Histor# of Religions 2, 1:1##.

8 2#2 8

)antz, F. .

19%L!he role of the medicine man among the aramo of Dar,es,Salaam . Ph.'. dissertation, University of'ar es alaa*.

)antz, M. F.

19%$ Ritual and s#mbol in transitional aramo societ# . Uppsala, )eden: /leer(p =t(dia MissionaliaUpsaliensia H;+>.

19%5he spirit possession c(lts and their social settin" in a Aara*o coastal society. Ethnologia Lennica 1 2:2%#9.

19%%a'yna*ics of the spirit possession pheno*enon in eastern 5anzania. +n D#namics and institution , ed.. Biezais, 9$111. -!o, 7inland: cripta +nstit(ti 'onneriani -!oensis +H.

19%%bMethodolo"ical notes on c(lt(ral research a*idst planned develop*ent: - case st(dy on spirit possession. !emenos: Studies in Com$arati)e Religion 1#:1KL1%L.

19%9Co**(nity and healin" a*on" the Aara*o in 5anzania. Social Science and edicine 1#&:191%#.

)aziland Central tatistical Dffice

19%9S'azi $o$ulation census JF ;ol. +. M!a!ane: Central tatistical Dffice.



5e*kin, D.

19%#ealth and disease. +n Dictionar# of the histor# of ideas , #9KL$%. @e) Gork: Charles cri!ner<s ons.

5ho*pson, . 7.

19&#

Llash of the s$irit . @e) Gork: ando* o(se.5(rner, ;. .

19%!he forest of s#mbols: As$ects of Ndembu ritual . +thaca, @.G.: Cornell University Press.

19&!he drums of affliction: A stud# of religious $rocesses among the Ndembu of ambia . Dford:Clarendon Press.

19%K Re)elation and di)ination in Ndembu ritual . +thaca: Cornell University Press.

Unsch(ld, P.

19%KMedico4c(lt(ral conflicts in -sian settin"s, an eplanatory theory. Social Science and edicine 9:#$# #12.

;an Bins!er"en, .

19%%e"ional and non4re"ional c(lts of affliction in )estern Aa*!ia. +n Regional cults , ed. . P. er!ner.Fondon, @e) Gork: -cade*ic Press =-- 1>.

19&1

Religious change in ambia . Fondon: o(tled"e Z e"an Pa(l =-frican t(dies Centre Feiden>.;an Bins!er"en, ., and M. choffeleers, eds.

19&K!heoretical e$lorations in African religion . Fondon, Boston, Mel!o(rne, and enley: o(tled"e Ze"an Pa(l.

;an @oten, 7.

19&1Central -frica. +n eneral histor# of Africa : Ancient ci)ilizations of Africa , ed. /. Mokhtar. Fondon:eine*ann ?d(ca

8 2## 8

tional Books Berkeley, Fos -n"eles, Fondon: University of California Press Paris: U@?CD =)ithcolla!oration of '. Cahen and P. de Maret>.

;an Dnselen, C.

19%Chibaro . Fondon: Pl(to Press.



;ansina, J.

19%9&$Bant( in the crystal !all. Histor# in Africa :2&%### %:29##2K.

19&Lestern Bant( epansion. <ournal of African Histor# 2K:1291LK.

199$ Paths in the rainforests . Madison: University of isconsin Press.

;ass, . .

19%9!he "antu s$ea*ing heritage of the 7nited States . Fos -n"eles: Center for -fro4-*erican t(dies,University of California, Mono"raph 2.

a"ner, .

19&S#mbols that stand for themsel)es . Chica"o: University of Chica"o Press.

aite, /.

19&%P(!lic health in pre4colonial ?ast4Central -frica. Social Science and edicine 2L, #:19%2$&.

e!ster, '. 19&2 Personal co**(nications.

er!ner, ., ed.

19%% Regional cults . Fondon, @e) Gork: -cade*ic Press =-- Mono"raph 1>.

19&9 Ritual $assage( sacred +ourne# . ashin"ton, '.C., and Manchester: *ithsonian +nstit(tion Press and

Manchester University Press.

199$B)iti in reflection: Dn the f("(e of "ender. <ournal of Religion in Africa 2$, 1:#91.

ilson, M.

19# Reaction to conquest . Fondon: Dford University Press.

orld Bank

19&K%orld de)elo$ment re$ort . /eneva: orld Bank.

orld ealth Dr"anization

19%& Primar# health care . /eneva: orld ealth Dr"anization.

19%9Statistical annual J . /eneva: orld ealth Dr"anization.

Go(n", -.

19%%



Drder, analo"y and efficacy in ?thiopian *edical divination. Culture( edicine and Ps#chiatr# 1,2:1&#2$$.

Aaretsky, +., and C. ha*!a("h

19%&S$irit $ossession and s$irit mediumshi$ in Africa and Afro,America . @e) Gork and Fondon: /arlandP(!lishin".

8 2#L 8

Ailaoneka ad(*a, /.

19%2 A theatrical descri$tion of fi)e !anzanian dances N@"o*aO. Master<s thesis, University of 'ar esalaa*.

Aola, +.

19

C(lt(re and sy*pto*s: -n analysis of patients< presentin" co*plaints. American Sociological Re)ie' #1:1K#$.

8 2#K 8

In)e:

A

-!do*inal disease, 1#2 , 1#-!d(l attah of Macina, #1

-hern, ?., 1#1

-*e!iasis, 1#

-ncestor<s tooth, as ca(se of sickness, 1L$

-nieties, va"(e, L$

-ppetite, lack of, 19 , 2L , 92

-ro*, ., 122 412#

-("E, M., &

/

Backache, 2 , 2% , #%

Bacterial infection, 1#

Bad(:

c(lt of affliction, Mai4@do*!e ori"in, Aaire, 11



in inshasa, 19

Bant( lan"(a"es and c(lt(res, & , K% 4#

estern, 11 41L, $ 4#, L , % , & , %# , 19& 42$#

epansion, K9 4#

*ap of, $

?astern, $ 4#, %# , 2$# 42$%

leicon of healin" and health in, # 49

hypothesis of epansion, and n"o*a, %# 4%L

na*es of, 1&1 41&&

and distri!(tion of therape(tic co"nates, 1&9 42$&

and instr(*ents of healin" rites, 2$9 421#

Barrenness, 1$ , 11& , 12 41K

Bastin, G., K9Bateson, /., 12L , 1%

Ber"er, +., %

Berliner, P., %$

Bernstein, B., 1$$

Betani =)aziland> Colle"e of 'iviners, #% 4K$

Bi!ea(, /., 12

Bilharzia, L# , 1#

Bil(*!(:

c(lt of affliction, F(!a ori"in, 11

in inshasa, 1L 41&

*(sic for, 212

Bira, hona rite co*para!le to n"o*a, 212

Blackin", J., %$ , 1$& , 12

Blood, hi"h press(re of, ca(sed !y fear of others, L$

Bon"ita, rite of affliction, Mon"o ori"in, 21$

Boone, D., %$ 4%2

Boorse, C.,

Booth, @., 1L

Botoli, F., 2# 42K, #2 , 12

Bo(rdie(, P., , 1K% 41K&

Bo(r"(i"non, ?., 1#L



Brideprice, affliction d(e to nonpay*ent of, 1

BWhr*an, ;., and @. /3o*fa, 119 412$, 1#%

B(kav( =eastern Aaire>, n"o*a in, 92 49#, 9% 49&

B(rrid"e, ., 1##

B(tii, rite of affliction, are"a ori"in, 211

B(yeye, (k(*a snake4handlin" n"o*a, 1K$ 41K1

Bya*(n"( F(f(n"(la )a Chi!an"a4!an"a, 92 49#, 9% 49&

C

Cald)ell, J., 1K

Call and response, LL , %2 , 11$

consist

8 2# 8

across continent, %2

!asis of 0doin" n"o*a,0 111 411

Cancer, 2%

Cape 5o)n, 1$ , # , $

rationale for research site, K 4

n"o*a in, K$ 4KK, 1K 41%$

0doin" n"o*a0 in, 11$ 411&Centre +nternational des Civilisations Banto(es =C+C+B->, Fi!reville, /a!on research center, K9

Chav(nd(ka, /., 1%1 41%2

Chen"a, @., #2 4#K, 1K$ .

See also M(n"ano

Christianity:

and n"o*a, 1K , #2 , %% , 9& , 21K

in n"o*a lyrics, 111 411&, 121

Cok)e people =Aaire, -n"ola, Aa*!ia>, %K

Color =red)hite!lack> sy*!olis*, & ,1K , 1 , 1% , 1& , #& 4#9, L% , K$ , K2 , KL , L , 1L2 , 1%L

spirits classified in ter*s of, 9K 499

co(rse thro("h 0the )hite,0 1$1 41$L, 1&

Co*aroff, J., 1#&

Cordell, '., 1K



Corin, ?., 1& 419, 1#1 , 1#% 41#&

Cornet, J., i

Cory, ., 2 , & , 21 422, 1K$ 41K1

Co(rlander, ., 12 412%

Csordas, 5., 1#1 , 1#&

C(lt of affliction: defined, 1 , 1$

(r!an chan"es in, 1& 42$.

See also @"o*a

C)ezi =also B(C)ezi>: rite of affliction of yan"o*!e ori"in, 21

in (k(*aland, 22

in 'ar es alaa*, %

3

'ance, co*petition, 22 , #L , KL , 1$9 , 111 411, 11& , 122 , 1L9 , 1# .

See also 'r(* hyth* on" on"4dance

'ar es alaa*, 1$ , $ , 9$ , 1L2 41L#

rationale as research site, K 4

n"o*a in, 2$ 421, 22 4#K

'a)son, M., 1KL

'eCrae*er, ., #

'e e(sch, F., # , $ , && , 9K , 1#L 41#'e*aret, P., # , K9

'evisch, ., 12 , 1#1 , 1LK , 1L&

'ia!etes, 2%

'ia"nosis, L1

of *isfort(ne, 9$ 49L

'iarrhea, #1

'isco(rse:

on spirits and illness cases, K$

st(died, to esta!lish criteria of therape(tic efficacy, 1#1

epressions of n"o*a disco(rse, 1L#

as c(rin" 3(alities of ver!al therapy, 1LL

"rid of, in n"o*a, 1LK

centrality of, in n"o*a interaction and kno)led"e, 1% .



See also no)led"e it(al on" on"4dance

'ivination:

in Bil(*!(, 1L , #K ff

0thro)in" !ones,0 L2

in )aziland, #% 4K$

in o(th -frica, K$

*edi(*ship vs. *echanistic, L2 4L#, L& 4K$

relationship to c(lts of affliction, 91 492

femba type, 9L

of *isfort(ne, 9$ ff

and spirits, 1$1

co**(nicative str(ct(re of, 12#

@"o*!o type, Pende, 211 .See also 'ia"nosis

'izziness, 1% , 19 , 92

D2g( d2g( d2g1( d2g2 , proto4Bant( co"nate:

h(*an4ca(sed *isfort(ne, force of )ords, K 4, % , & , 9$ , 1L1 , 192

addressed in n"o*a healin", &K , 9$

and spirit fields, 9L

Donda =eastern Bant(, sore>, L

'oyal, F.,

'rea*s, 12 , 19 , 1#% , 1#9

of ani*als, 19

of people, #%

of ancestors, #&

of str(""les, 92

of ?(ropeans, 1L$

'r(*, dr(**in", 1 , 2K , 2 , LL , # , & , %$ 4%2

needed to !rin" o(t the spirit, L%

p(rpose of, in healers< theories of n"o*a, 1L# .

See also M(sical instr(*ents

D-d( d-d0( d-1d/ =proto4Bant(, to !eco*e ill>, # , 191

'(ala people =Ca*eroon>,

'(!os, .,



'(rkhei*, ?., %& , &$ , 9& , 1%#

E

?fficacy: of therapy, %

co*parative criteria of, 1#$ 41#1

of n"o*a in o(thern avanna fertility enhance*ent, 1L 41K

?hret, C., K9 , 2

?kata, rite of affliction, Boyela ori"in, 211

?koi people =@i"eria>, $ ,

?li*a, rite of affliction, ?3(ate(r, @. Aaire, ori"in, 11 , 2$9

?naa*a =Mana>, rite of affliction, B(kav(, of Bashi ori"in, 9%

?ntertain*ent, and n"o*a, #2 4#K

?3(ate(r re"ion =@. Aaire>, Ae!ola, c(lt of affliction fro*, 1& 419

?tiolo"y of disease, illness: children<s illness and death, 12 , 2# , 12

ordinary vs. sheitani , 2%

-frican vs. non4-frican, L$

umbelelo( mego( res(ltin" fro* interpersonal tensions, L$

ama*ubalo , res(ltin" fro* !roken *oral precepts, L$ , 9#

d(e to )eakness, LL

deter*ine after hospital has 0failed,0 LL

0of /od0 vs. h(*an4

8 2#% 8

ca(sed, K 4

spirit fields and, 9L 41$1

conflict, interpersonal, as ca(se of illness, 1#%

(lti*ate, and partic(lar si"ns and sy*pto*s, 1#%

link !et)een, and partic(lar si"ns and sy*pto*s, 1#%

?yesi"ht, loss of, 2

F

7ace, t)isted, distorted, 2

7ear, of poverty, !y hites, L$

7eld*an, &2

7ertility enhance*ent n"o*a, 11 41K



7evers, 12 , 19 , 92 , 1#

conv(lsive, #1

7o, ., #

7rankel, ., 1K9

7reidson, ?.,

7ry, P., %%

-

/aisie, ., 12

3ng3 , proto4Bant( ter* for healer, doctor, for *edicine, 2# , #1 , % 4&, 19# .

See also @<an"a

/eertz, C., &

/iles, F., 1#

/l(ck*an, M., &&

/o!let4;anor*elin"en, ;., 1$# , 1#1 , 12 41K

/onorrhea, 2%

/oody, J., 1K

/3o*fa, @., 119 412$, 1#%

/reen, 5., ii

/reen!er", J., K9

/re"ory, J., and ;. Piche, 1K/(thrie, M., 2 4&

/ynecolo"ical and o!stetrical disorders, 19 , 92

*iscarria"e, 1$ , 12

threatened, 1K

*enstr(al, 12

dys*enorrhea, 1#

s(!fec(ndiry, 1#

"enital tract disease, 1# .

See also 7ertility enhance*ent +nfertility

7

Hamba : shrine type o(thern avanna, % , 1$#

Chiha*!a, 11& 4119

+ha*!a, 1L$



as reprod(ction enhancin" n"o*a, a*on" F(vale, 12 41L

and n"o*a a*on" Pende, 211

Gaka, 212

F(vale, 212

ar)ood, -.,

assan, +., 2 429, 12 , 1L#

assan, D., 2K 429, 1L2 41L#

eadache, 19 , 2L , 2 , 2% , 2& , 29 , LK , K1 , 92 ,1#2 , 1L2

ealin": distinct fro* reli"ion, in scholarship, L

distinctive feat(res of Central -frican, &

ealth: definitions of, 4%, 1KL , 21 421%

indicators of, 1KK 41K

social reprod(ction of, 1K 41$eart: !(rn )ith aniety, 19 , 92

rapid or arhyth*ic !eat, 19

fear of attack, K1

fail(re, KL

afflictions, 1#2

eine, B., K9 , $

e*!a people =Aaire>,

e*orrhoids, 2%

ook)or*, 1#

(ley, 7., 12%

(y"ens, P., L 4K

y"iene, ideas of, in -frican healin", 2$

y*an, F., K9

ysteria, ver!al =loss of speech>, 1#2

I

+llness, acceptin", as first sta"e of therapy, K1

+*potence, 19 , #1

+nfectio(s disease, 1

+nfertility, 12 , 1#

)idespread zone of, 12 41K



+nstit(tion, % , %& , &$ 4&#, 1%# 41%9

variations, L

defined, &$

synthetic *odel of -frican therape(tic, its risks and !enefits, &

+sla*, and n"o*a, #$ 4#2

+solation, 19

+so*a, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$# , 12

J

Jo!lessness, o! aniety, as ca(se of illness, K1

akozi, rite of affliction in B(kav(, of )andaise and Fe"a ori"in, 9%

alan"a people =Ai*!a!)e>, 9K

ayon"<(, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1L$

illin"i, rite of affliction of )ahili coast, 21

in"iri4n"iri, M., #$ 4#2

inshasa, rationale for research site, K 4, $ , 1#%

grands rites in, 11 42$, 92

inya*(kera, rite of affliction of )ahili coast, 2

lein*an, -., 1#1

no)led"e:

of n"o*a, codified in note!ook, 2%

0s(rvival kno)led"e0 and n"o*a, 1$9 , 1%

i*plicit, in sy*!ols and *etaphors, 1#1

ancestral sanction of, 1L1

content of, in n"o*a, not overdeter*ined !y possession, 1L9 41K1

consens(al !asis of, in healin", 1K2

on"o re"ion, people =Fo)er Aaire>, %K , 1$& , 12$ 4121, 1L% 41L& @kita, rite of, 12 41L

c(lts of affliction and historic trade, LK , L 4&, 1$ 411

8 2#& 8



L

Fa*!eck, M., % , 9 , 1#&

Fast, M., and /. Chav(nd(ka, 1%1 41%2

Feach, ?., 12L

Feadership: sickness of, 12

recr(it*ent to, in n"o*a, 1#&

Fe*a, /., i , 12

Fe*!a:

Fo)er Aaire c(lt of affliction, & , %& 4%9, 12# 412L, 1#1 41#2

definin", as n"o*a, &2 4&#

lyrics in, 12$ 4121, 1L

interpreted, 1L% 41L&

and social reprod(ction, 1$ 411Fesotho, social reprod(ction in, 1K& 41K9

Festhae"e, ., 1K

FEvi4tra(ss, C., 1##

Fe)is, +., # , &9 , 1#L 41#

Fichindika, rite of affliction, coastal )ahili, 2

Fiha*!a, -., 1$9 , 1%

Fokote, rite of affliction, Boyela ori"in, 211

Foved( people =o(th -frica>, L$

F(!a people, $ , %# , 12 41K

Bil(*!( rite of, 1L 41&

F(*!(. See Bil(*!(

F(vale people =Aa*!ia>, # , 1# , 12 41K

M

Ma!iala Mandela, i , 19 42$, 92

Ma!(za, +., #% 4L9, 9# 49L, 1L1

Madness, fear of, #%

Mado"oli, rite of affliction, )ahili coast ori"in, 21

eplained, 2

a+ini , spirits in )ahili n"o*a, of -ra!ic ori"in, 2#

Makala, ?. ., ii , 2K 429, ##



Makh(!(, F., ii , L

Malaria, 1#

Manian"a:

rite of affliction, il)a ori"in, 21

in 'ar es alaa*, eplained, 2# 4 2K

paraphernalia (sed, 2L 42K

*(sic for, 212

Maranhao, 5., 1LL

asheitani , spirits, of -ra!ic ori"in, 2#

Mat(*!e, people, coastal 5anzania, 2# , $

M!a!ane4Manzini, )aziland, rationale as research site, K , $ . See also )aziland

M!ochi people =/a!on>,

M!o*!o: rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$# F(!a4ha!a, 12 41L

M!(n"i:

rite of affliction, il)a ori"in, 21

in 'ar es alaa*, eplained, 2#

paraphernalia (sed, 2K

*(sic for, 212

Medicine, 2% , && , 1$ , 1#9 , 1L&

co*!ination of, in therapy, 2$ , #1

in *obe !asket, 2L , 2K , L , 1$ , 1L&

in !eaded "o(rds, 2&

in antelope horn, 29

in trance divination, L# , LK

in !(cket, K2

dr(**in" (p, 1$&

revealed in son"4dance, 11L

"iven to assist patient to talk, 1L#

defined as syste*, 1KL

Medi(*ship, L# 4K$

defined, in )aziland, LK

perfor*ed, in femba divination, L 4K$, 9L

in Ai*!a!)ean )ar, % .



See also 'ivination Possession %% . 5rance

Meillasso(, C., 1K%

Mental dist(r!ance, 2 , 2% , 1L$

Metaphor: 9 , 1$9 , 12& 41#1, 1LK 41L9

!rid"in" do*ains, 11%

trance as, of eperience, 12& , 129 , 1#

defined, 1L%

of healin" and transfor*ation, 1L&

of 0diffic(lt eperience,0 and re4 cr(it*ent to n"o*a, 1LK , 1L9.

See also it(al y*!ol 5rope

Me(ssen, -., K9

Mikanda4Mikanda, rite of affliction, Upper Aaire and iv( ori"in, 11

Mills, J., ii , 19Mind, *e*ory loss, 1%

lack of presence, 19 , 92

Mitchell, J. C., 2

Mit(*!a, rite of affliction, B(kav(, 9% , 9& , 99

Miz(ka, Mz(ka:

rite of affliction, ?ast -frican, iv( ori"in, 11

in 'ar es alaa*, 2#

in inshasa, 11

Morsy, .,

Moza*!i3(e, n"o*a in, 9K

Mpo*!o:

rite of affliction, Mai4@do*!e Aaire ori"in, 11

in inshasa, 19

Msa"hiro:

5anzanian rite of affliction, 21

'ar es alaa*, eplained, 2# , 2

perfor*ed, 2& 429

*(sic for, 212

Mshi(, ?., 2# , 2%

M(chona, 1#9 41L$

M(di*!e, ;. G., &2 ,1L 41L%



M(lan"oyi, rite of affliction, B(kav(, of Fe"a, Ain"a, on"e, 9%

M(n"ano:

rite of affliction, (k(*a and @ya*)ezi ori"in, in 'ar es alaa*, #2 4##

perfor*ed, #L 4#K

*(sic of, 212

M(rray, C., , 1K& 41K9

M(sical instr(*ents, in healin", 9 4%L, 2$9 421#

N

@<an"a:

rite of affliction, possi!ly @"oni ori"in, 21 , 9K

spirits affectin", 2#

eplained, 2 , 9K

perfor*ed, 29 4#$.

See also /]n"]

8 2#9 8

@avarro, ;., 1KL

@de!ele, people =. -frica, Ai*!a!)e>, #K , #% , $

@de*!( people =. Aa*!ia>, s(!ect of ;. 5(rner<s research, 1 4#, $ , %% , 1$& ,1#9 41L$, 12

@dika, -., ii , K1 , 1L2 @eedha*, ., 12%

@eher, -., 12%

@ervo(s !reakdo)n, LK

@et)orks, % , 1%

Ng2m3 =proto4Bant(, dr(*, son"4dance>:

defined, 1

research on, 2 4

perfor*ance of, 1 41%, 2& 4#$, ## 4 #K , LL 4L&, K2 4KL, 11$ 411

as "(ilds in (k(*a society, 22

in relation to +sla*, #1 4#2

of entertain*ent, in 'ar es alaa*, #2 4#K

and stress on divination of @"(ni societies, #K 4#%

in )aziland, #% 4K$



initiation to, in Cape 5o)n, K1 4KK

as proto4Bant( co"nate, & 49

hypothesis of historic ori"in, %# 4%L

s(**ary of patterns of representation of, %9

ontolo"y of, as (ni3(e instit(tion, &$ 4&#

as (ncapt(red po)er !ase, 1%%

distri!(tion of co"nate in Bant( lan"(a"es, 19%

@"(!ane, ., ii , # , L9 , K , 1%$ .

See also i!isi

@"(ni lan"(a"e and peoples, & , #& 4KK, %&

@kan"a, rite of affliction, Mon"o, 211

N*isi =*1c0 >, 12 , L , % , & , %2 , %L , %& 4%9, && , 1$ , 1#9 , 2$1

*(sical acco*pani*ent, a*on" oyo, 212 @kita, Fo)er Aaire on"o c(lt of affliction for linea"e, ho(sehold and individ(al )ell!ein", 11 , 1241L, 1$# , 1#K , 12

@k(la: rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$#

F(vale, 12

*(sic in, 212

@ose!leedin", LK , K1 , 1L2

@sen"a people =Moza*!i3(e>, %L

@siala Miaka Maken"o, i , 12 41# @ya*(le*(le, rite of affliction, B(kav(, of Bate*!o and Bashi ori"in, 9&

@ya*)ezi people =eastern 5anzania>, ## , $ , %K

@ze*!ela, ., 1L 41&, 1K

@zo*!o, rite of affliction, @"!aka ori"in, 211

@zondo, rite of affliction, Mon"o ori"in, 2$9 421$

O

D!en"a, 5., L 4

P

Pains, va"(e, L$

Paralysis, 2

Parsons, 5.,

Pedi people =. -frica>, #K , #%



Pende people =Aaire>, %

Phillipson, '., K9

Poll(tion, of death, 111 411#

Possession, 1 , & , 19 , 2# , #2 , %9 , &9 , 1$$ , 1#L 41#9

and spirit classes, 2# , #2

in dances, 29

)ith *edi(*ship, L#

as trance, #% , 1L1 41L#

in Bil(*!(, 1K 41&

n"o*a practice, )itho(t, 2

and divination, 9L

distinction of !elief in, and trance, 1#L

theories of, 1#K 41#as *inor ca(se of illness in Ae!ola, 1#%

*inor feat(re of n"o*a, ea""erated !y scholars, 1L$ 41L1

as hypothesis or ideolo"y, 1L9 41K2.

See also Medi(*ship pirit 5rance

Po)er:

controlled and (ncontrolled, #

a(thority, social rene)al, and healin", 12

liaison of n"o*a to party in po)er, 2&

n"o*a in relation to soverei"n po)er of state, %K 4%

)eak states or se"*entary societies, %9

and efficacy of n"o*a rite, 1L9

le"iti*acy of n"o*a, attraction of state, 1%1

n"o*a as (ncapt(red po)er !ase, 1%%

Prins, /., 2 , #

Prohi!ition, in health and illness, L 4K.

See also 5rans"ression

Psycholo"ical distress, 12 , 1&

P(rification, *etaphors and techni3(es of, L , &9 , 1$1 , 111

P-t( $-t/ =proto4Bant(, !oil, sore, )o(nd>, # , 19$



(est for therapy, & , 1$#

R

an"er, 5., 2 , %%

eprod(ction enhance*ent, 11 41K

espiratory disorder, 1L$

asth*a, 2%

hyth*, 1 , 9 , 1LL

of )ords, 1$&

polyrhyth*s, 122 412#

distinctive, in each n"o*a, 12

and trance, 12 412&

ies*an, P., &2

ite of passa"e, &% 4&9

it(al:

defined, 12L 412

and *(sic in n"o*a, 12 412&

s(**arized, 1%L . See also C(lt of affliction

Metaphor y*!ol

it(alization:of affliction, 1

c(lt of affliction as, in h(*an society, &&

as added levels of tet, and reasons for, in n"o*a, 12L 412K

8 2L$ 8

o!erts, -., 1L

o("et, /., 12%

(hani:

rite of affliction, )ahili coast ori"in, 21

in 'ar es alaa*, in relation to +sla*, #$ 4#1

(n"(, rite of affliction, )ahili coast ori"in, 21



S

acrifice, 1K

in Cape 5o)n n"o*a, K1 4KL, 1

)hen occ(rrin" in n"o*a rites, &9

theories of, in n"o*a, 1$L 41$K

a(tter, /., 1$

ava"e, M.,

chneider, '., &$ 4&1

choffeleers, 1#L

e*ali, +. -. J., i , 2#

haker, rattle, 1 , #$

"o(rd, 2L

hakin" of !ody, 2Lhan"ani people =Moza*!i3(e>, #% , #&

hirika la Mada)a ya iasili =Dr"anization of 5raditional Medicine, coastal 5anzania>, 2K , 2% , %9 ,1L2 , 1%$ 41%2

hona people =Ai*!a!)e>, %$ 4%1, %#

i!isi, ., 9& 499.

See also @"(!ane

indzin"re, @., 1#1

kin, rash, 19 , 92 , 1#2*ith, M. /., &$

nake4handlin", in 5anzanian n"o*a, 1L9 41K1

o!h(za #%

ocial reprod(ction: of health, 4%, 1K 41K9

profiles of, 1K9 41%2

on", sin"in", 1 , , 1 41%, #& , #9 , LL , K2 , 9 , 1$& , 1$9 , 111 411, 119 , 12$ , 121 , 12 , 1L# , 1LK, 1L% , 1K1 , 1%L , 1%K

co**on and personal, in n"o*a, 11& 4122call and response in, 11% , 122 412

*etaphors in, 1L

and inchoate feelin"s of 0diffic(lt eperience,0 1K2

on"4dance, 1 , #K , KL , 1$9 , 111 411, 11& , 122 , 1L9 , 1#

orcery, L$ .

See also itchcraft



otho45s)ana people =Fesotho, Bots)ana, o(th -frica>, K$ 4KK, 1%

o(l, loss, as ca(se of child<s illness, L

pirits, 12#

loss of contact )ith, 12

evil, 1& , 19 , 1#%

of ven"ef(l ancestors as ca(se of sickness, L

displeas(re over (nfinished *arria"e, as ca(se of sickness, L

hypothesis of recr(it*ent to c(lt of affliction, 92 , 1L# , 1LK

fields, 9L 41$1

in Moza*!i3(e, 9K

in )aziland, 9K 49

in o(th -frica, 9

in coastal 5anzania, 9 in eastern Aaire, 9%

in A(l(land, 9&

in divination co**(nicative str(ct(res, 12#

spirit lo"ic, 1#L 41#9

displeas(re of, 1L$

relation to trance, 1L$ 41L#.

See also Medi(*ship Possession 5rance

prin", -., 2 4#, 1$# , 1#1 , 1# , 12 41K

tevens, P., &2 4&#

till!irth, 12 , 1K .

See also /ynecolo"ical and o!stetrical disorders

tock, ., 1K

t(art, C., &2

(k(*aland, people =)estern 5anzania>, & , 21 422, ## 4#L, %% , 121 , 1#K , 1K$ 41K1

and )ork of . Cory in, 2

n"o*a in, 21 422

(k( people =Aaire>, %

)antz, F., 2 , #$ , 1%1

)antz, M. F., 2 , 21 , #$

)aziland, people: rationale as research site, K 4

n"o*a in, #K 4K$, %K , 9# , 9L , 9& 499, 1L$ 41L1



spirit fields in, 9K 49

y*!ol, y*!olis*, K&

as attri!(te of instit(tion, &$

0dr(*0 as sy*!ol of therape(tic instit(tion, &2 4&#

of color, in n"o*a, 1$1 41$K

that stands for itself, 1$& , 1$9

nonver!al, 121

in rit(al, 12K

reprod(ction of, 1K%

and state control, 1%1 .

ee also Metaphor 5rope

y*pto*4si"n:

a!sence of specificity, in n"o*a affliction, KK , 9L of *isfort(ne, in n"o*a, 92 49L

in Ae!ola, 1#%

T

5anzanian Ministry of C(lt(re, M(sic 'ivision, ii , ## 4#L, 1K$ , 1%K

licensin" n"o*a, #2 , 1%1

5eke people =Con"o>, %

5herape(tic traditions:indi"eno(s -fri4 can, defined, 1 42

research strate"y in st(dy of, K 4

*i*icry of estern, 2$

or"anized into association, 2% ff

+sla*ic4-ra!ic, and n"o*a, 2% 42&, #1 4#2, 1#

licensin" of, #2 4##, 1%1

Christian faith healin", LL , 1#& 41#9

!io*edicine, LL , K1 , 1KL

psychoanalysis, KK , 1LL

psychotherape(tic interpretation, of n"o*a, 1#% , 1#&

estern self4help, 1L2 , 1%%

fa*ily therapy, 1LL .

See also ealth no)led"e orld ealth Dr"anization



5herapy:

individ(al and collective *echanis*s of, % , 1# , 1L , 21

)ith )hite po)der = $/mb3 >, 1K , 1 , % , 1$1 ,

8 2L1 8

1$L

secl(sion, co(nselin", rit(al, 19 , 21 , LK , K1 , 1#

initiation as, 19 , K1 4KK

paraphernalia for, in 'ar es alaa*, 2K

0o(tlinin"0 person )ith *edicine, 2&

readin" and prayer, #1

n"o*a for, vs. entertain*ent, #2

i**(nization a"ainst snake!ite, )ith veno*, #K *editative and co(nselin", #%

thro("h force of )ords,

proto4Bant( co"nates of, 4&

characteristic feat(res of Central -frican, & , &&

0co(rse thro("h )hite0 as, 1$1 41$L

sacrifice as, 1$L 41$K

her!al, dietary, and rit(al, 1#

!eneficial and deliterio(s, in reprod(ction enhance*ent, 1L .

See also 'ivination 'r(*, dr(**in" ?fficacy Medicine @"o*a

5herapy *ana"e*ent, & , 1$#

5ho*pson, . 7., 12%

5hon"a people =Moza*!i3(e>, #% 4#&, 1#K

;anda( a*on", 1#K

5iv people =@i"eria>, $ ,

5raditional Medicine esearch Unit, M(hi*!ili ospital, 'ar es alaa*, i , #$

5rance: in Bil(*!(, 1 , 1& , 92 , 1$$

fe*!a, in )aziland, LK

and *(sical rhyth*s, 12% 412&

rise and decline, presence and a!sence of, in n"o*a, 1L$ 41L1.

See also Medi(*ship Possession pirits

5rans"ression, of social r(les, ca(se of si"n4sy*pto*s, 1#% .



See also Prohi!ition

5rope:

0doin" n"o*a0 as do*inant, 1$&

and diffic(lt eperience, 1LK , 1L9 .

See also Metaphor it(al 1K$ . y*!ol

5(!erc(losis, K1 , %% , 19

5(k(ka, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1L$

5(rner, ;. ., 1 , 2 , 21 , L , %% , &# , && , 1$# 41$K, 1$& , 119 , 12K , 1#9 41L$, 12 41L

!'asa =sickness, call, to initiation>, little sy*pto*4si"n specificity in, KK , 1#% , 1L$

5)in pre"nancies, 12

U

Unsch(ld, P., 1%1 41%2

Urinary tract disease, 1#

V

;an Bins!er"en, ., # , 1#L

;an @oten, 7., K9 , 1

;an Dnselen, C., %

;ansina, J., # , K9 , $ , 1

;enda people =o(th -frica>, %1 , 1$& , 12

;isions, #%

of ancestors, #&

;o*itin", #1

!lood, #% , LK

0

aite, /., %

eakness, of !ody, 2L

e!ster, '., 9K

ei"ht, loss or ecess, 19 , 2L , 92

er!ner, ., % , 9L 49K, 9%

est, M., ii

etsi4okenda, rite of affliction, 5etela ori"in, 21$

ilson, M., #



itchcraft, 2$L

as ca(se of sickness, 1 , # , 1#%

orld Bank, 1KK , 1K&

orld ealth Dr"anization, 1KL 41KK, 1K&

(!)an"(, rite of affliction, @de*!(, 1$# , 12

D

Hhosa people =o(th -frica>, & , #% , K$ 4K1, %1 , %K , 9 , 9& 499, 119 412$, 1 41&

Y

Gaka people =Aaire>, %

Gesia F(ther in", ii

Goder, ., 1KK

Go(n", -., 1#1

B

Aaire, Fo)er, in coastal trade, 1$ 411

Aa*!ia:

n"o*a in est of, #

and the 0infertility zone,0 12

Aara*o people =coastal 5anzania>, 2 4#K,1%$ 41%1

Aaretzsky, +., 9K

Ae!ola:

c(lt of affliction in ?3(ate(r, @. Aaire, and inshasa, & , 11 , 2$9

(r!an chan"es, 1& 419

de"ree of trance in, 1#%

Ai"(a people =coastal 5anzania>, 2 4#K, 1%$ 41%1

Aola, +.,

A(l( people =o(th -frica>, #K , #% , #& , K$ 4K1, L 4&

passi*, %K , 9& 499, 1 41&

8 2L2 8

'esi"ner: U.C. Press taff

Co*positor: Presti"e 5ypo"raphy

5et: 1$1# a!on



'isplay: a!on

Printer: 5ho*son4hore, +nc.

Binder: 5ho*son4hore, +nc.

Preferred Citation: Janzen, John M. Ngoma: Discourses of Healing in Central and Southern Africa. Berkeley: University of

California Press, c1992 1992. http:ark.cdli!.or"ark:1#$#$ft#%%9n&vf

ngoma medical drums

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