NATURE OF

BIOLOGY Book 2

THIRD EDITION

JUDITH KINNEAR MARJORY MARTIN

This edition published 2006 by

John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd

42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064

Offi ces also in Sydney and Melbourne

Typeset in 10.5/12 pt Times

First edition published 1992

Second edition published 2000

© Judith Kinnear and Marjory Martin 1992, 2000, 2006

The moral rights of the author have been asserted.

National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-publication data

Kinnear, J. F. (Judith F.).

Nature of biology. Book 2.

3rd ed.

Includes index.

For year 12 students in Victoria.

ISBN-13 978 0 7314 0239 7.

ISBN-10 0 7314 0239 1.

1. Biology — Textbooks. I. Martin, Marjory. II. Title.

570

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CONTENTS 5

CONTENTS

Preface xii

About the CD-ROM xiii

Acknowledgements xiv

1 The chemical nature of cells 2

Examining molecules 3

Biotech: The Australian Synchrotron 3

Water: a unique compound 4

Organic molecules 8

Carbohydrates — energy rich 9

Proteins 14

Forensics — detecting haemoglobin 18

Personal story: Mary — thalassaemia minor 19

Lipids 21

Nucleic acids 23

Biology in the workplace: Drew Berry — animator specialising in

biomedical science 27

Biochallenge 28

Key words 29

Questions 29

2 Membranes and cell organelles 32

Life or death for a cell? 33

Apoptosis 34

Biology in the workplace: Sue Macaulay — Chief Radiographer,

St Vincent’s BreastScreen 36

Looking at eukaryotic cells 37

Plants have cell walls 42

Putting the organelles together 51

The cell skeleton 52

Connections between cells: animal cells 52

Connections between cells: plant cells 54

Biochallenge 56

Key words 57

Questions 57

3 Biochemical processes in cells 60

Energy in a capsule? 61

Chemical energy in organic compounds 62

Enzyme action 64

Exploring photosynthesis 69

Which wavelengths of light are most useful? 70

Stages of photosynthesis 72

Comparing C3 and C4 plants 73

Plants — chemical factories 75

Putting photosynthesis together 75Cellular respiration: energy transfer from glucose to ATP 78Two types of cellular respiration 79ATP: Energy currency of cells 80Aerobic respiration: making ATP in the presence of oxygen 81

UNIT 3

Signatures of life

AREA OF STUDY 1Molecules of life

Energy needs of various tissues 85Biotech: The hyperbaric oxygen chamber 86PET images: assessing damage to heart muscle 87Making ATP without oxygen: anaerobic respiration 89Personal story: Kelly Stubbins — elite swimmer and student 90What happens during starvation? 93Elite athletes and their energy sources 94Biochallenge 96Key words 97

Questions 97

4 Molecular biology in medicine 100

Molecular biology — the beginning 101Inherited diseases 102Personal story: Joel Sheahan — living with PKU 105Gene therapy 106Medical diagnosis 109

Personal story: Angela — living with the possibility of Huntington disease 113Rational drug design 114Sir Ronald Ross — Nobel Laureate for his work on malaria 121Manufacturing biological molecules 123Biologist at work: Alister Ward — molecular research for

leukaemia 127Biochallenge 128Key words 129

Questions 129

5 Coordination and regulation:

endocrine systems 132Death at sea 133External and internal environments 134Homeostasis: keeping within limits 136Homeostasis: hormones in action 139

Personal story: Sophie’s story — my life with diabetes 142Biology in the workplace: Trisha Dunning — diabetes nurse

educator 143Cell communication 145Personal story: Maggy Saldais — adventures with

a hormone imbalance 149Pheromones 150Hormones as plant regulators 152Commercial uses of plant hormones 158Biochallenge 162Key words 163Questions 163

vi CONTENTS

UNIT 3

Signatures of life

AREA OF STUDY 2Detecting and

responding

6 Coordination and regulation:

nervous systems 166A bundle of nerves 167

Biology in the workplace: Claire Jackson — optometrist 169

The nervous system 170

Nerve cells 172

What is a nerve impulse? 174

Nerve cells communicate with other cells 175

Headache — is it a pain in the head? 182

The central nervous system 183

Looking into the brain with PET and CAT scans 186

Nerve action and hormone action: a comparison 187

Quick-change artists 188

Homeostasis: nerves and hormones acting together 189

Personal story: Patricia Hulskamp — kidney transplant

recipient 194

Biochallenge 196

Key words 197

Questions 197

7 Infection and disease 199

A plague of plagues 200

What is a disease? 203

Pathogens — non-cellular agents 204

Another non-cellular pathogen — viruses 207

Infl uenza — a common viral disease 210

An Australian Nobel Laureate — Sir Macfarlane Burnet

(1899–1985) 212

Pathogens — cellular agents: bacteria 213

Mary Mallon — a famous carrier of typhoid 219

Lethal sandwiches 220

Treatment of bacterial diseases 221

Penicillin — the miracle drug 222

New techniques for detecting bacteria 223

Bacteria and plant infections 224

Biology in the workplace: Cathy Harcourt —

medical laboratory scientist 225

Eukaryotic pathogens 226

Multi-celled organisms 227

Sexually transmitted diseases 233

Control against pathogens 235

Biologist at work: Dr Anneke Veenstra-Quah —

animal biologist 238

Biochallenge 240

Key words 241

Questions 241

CONTENTS vii

8 Immunity: defence against disease 244

A vaccine for cervical cancer 245

Immunity 246

Non-specifi c immunity 246

Specifi c immunity 250

Colony stimulating factors — csfs 252

The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research 260

Acquiring specifi c immunity 263

Eradicating a disease by vaccination 265

Adverse events associated with immunity 269

Trent — allergic to peanuts and dairy products 270

Personal story: Rachel’s story — a case of systemic lupus

erythematosus (sle) 276

Biochallenge 280

Key words 281

Questions 281

9 Genes, chromosomes and patterns of

inheritance 286The genetic lottery 287

Biologist at work: Lisette Curnow — genetic counsellor 290

Chromosomes: gene carriers 291

Personal story: Jane’s story, as told by her mother 298

Meiosis: diploid to haploid 302

Genes: inherited instructions 306

Alleles: particular forms of a gene 309

Identifying genotypes 312

Relationship between expression of alleles 314

Tortoiseshell cats and the X chromosome 315

Environmental interactions with genotypes 318

Rules of the genetic game 321

What about linked genes? 324

Estimating distance between linked genes 326

Family pedigrees: drawing genetic portraits 328

Biology in the workplace: Associate Professor Jane Halliday

— epidemiologist 332

Biochallenge 334

Key words 335

Questions 335

10 Nature, structure and organisation of the

genetic material 339In a monastery garden 340

Where are genes located? 346

What are genes made of? 348

Nature of genes 351

Analysing DNA 351

DNA forms a double helix 353

Relating DNA to chromosomes and genes 356

viii CONTENTS

UNIT 4

Continuity and change

AREA OF STUDY 1Heredity

Gene structure 358

Gene sequencing 359

DNA sequencers 360

Nature of the genetic code 362

What is a genome? 365

Biologist at work: Dr Sue Forrest — molecular geneticist 369

Genetic material: stable or changing? 370

A closer look at a gene 373

A royal mutation 374

Coding and fl anking regions 375

Finding the double helix 377

Biochallenge 379

Key words 380

Questions 380

11 Gene function: genes in action 384

Sea in the blood 385

Personal story: Soltirios — living with thalassaemia 387

Genes in action 388

Transcription: copying the original 389

Translation: decoding genetic instructions 391

Comparing prokaryotes and eukaryotes 395

Gene action in thalassaemia 397

‘Beta plus’ — another form of thalassaemia 399

All genes produce RNA . . . most then produce protein 400

Genes have various functions 401

Self-replication: copying itself 403

A closer look at DNA replication 405

Time and place for everything 406

Gene action in Mendel’s peas 407

How do microarrays work? 409

Switching genes off 409

How does RNA interference work? 410

Biochallenge 413

Key words 414

Questions 414

12 Manipulating DNA: tools and techniques 418

Murders at Ekaterinberg 419

Tools of the genetic engineer 422

Eco RI — what’s in a name? 422

Getting hold of specifi c DNA 427

Making multiple copies of a gene 428

Amplifying traces of DNA 429

Gene transfer between species 431

DNA technology in medicine 433

Protocol for predictive testing for HD 436

DNA technology in forensics 437

DNA profi ling in Australia 443

What’s my DNA profi le? 446

CONTENTS ix

DNA profi les are not just for people! 448

Biologist at work: Peter Timms — DNA wildlife detective 450

Identifi cation in mass disasters 455

DNA and paternity testing 455

Biologist at work: Linzi Wilson-Wilde OAM — forensic

scientist 456

Biochallenge 458

Key words 459

Questions 459

13 Population genetics 464How now, red fowl! 465

Causes of variation 471

Inherited variations 474

Polygenes in action 476

Mutation: source of new genetic variation 477

Biotech: Visualising genetic variation in a population 478

Genes in populations 479

Math in biology: Hardy–Weinberg in action 481

Change agents in populations 483

Migration as an agent of change 490

Chance as an agent of change 491

Evolution within a species 492

Biologists at work: David Westcott and Peter Latch —

wild populations 493

Studying populations using mtDNA 494

Biochallenge 499

Key words 500

Questions 500

14 Evolution: changes over time 505Evolution: history of ideas 506

The Darwin–Wallace view 508

The Oxford debate of 1860 510

The travels of Darwin and Wallace 516

Time scales in evolution 517

Organising the past: the geologic time scale 519

How old is it? 520

Evidence of evolution 525

The ‘molecular clock’ concept 544

Patterns of evolution 546

Speciation 553

Evolution: gradual or intermittent? 553

Extinction 554

Evolutionary relationships 555

Biochallenge 559

Key words 560

Questions 560

UNIT 4

Continuity and change

AREA OF STUDY 2Change over time

x CONTENTS

15 Hominin evolution 565

Fossil 1: The child from Taung 566

Fossil 2: Lucy from Afar 569

Classifi cation of the human species 572

Classifi cations can change 577

Evolution of the primates 579

Hominin evolution: where did it begin? 581

Ancestral players in human evolution 585

The genus Homo: human at last! 591

Geologist at work: Professor Ian McDougall 594

Views of human evolution 602

Out of Africa or not? 604

Changing lifestyles of H. sapiens 605

Changes in human population 607

Human biological evolution 607

Human cultural evolution 611

Technological evolution 613

Biology, culture and technology interact 614

Developments in tool making 614

Meet a fossil hunter: Sue Hand — Palaeontologist 616

Biochallenge 617

Key words 618

Questions 618

16 Human intervention in evolution 620

Lambs in spring 621

Selective breeding in action 622

Reproductive technologies 624

No sex at all! Cloning 629

Transferring genes between species 636

Is it a GMO or a TGO or both? 637

Gene therapy 639

Cystic fi brosis and gene therapy 640

Stem cells: a new approach 640

Genetic screening 644

Technology in human reproduction 645

Biotech: Assisting reproduction in humans 648

Biotech: Reducing the chance of implanting

a defective embryo 649

Personal story: Maggie Kirkman — parenthood through biology,

technology and generosity 650

Biochallenge 652

Key words 653

Questions 653

Appendix 656

Glossary 657

Index 674

CONTENTS xi

PREFACE

This third edition of Nature of Biology Book 2 builds on previous editions that were positively received by

teachers and students of biology. It has been thoroughly revised and updated and refl ects current curriculum decisions with regard to key knowledge and skills expected of biology students.

This book continues to seek to convey a multifaceted sense of biology: as a rigorous scientifi c discipline with explanatory models that organise the living world for us in a meaningful way; as a dynamic science whose explanations are subject to change, rather than as a fi xed and unchanging body of knowledge; as a science that impacts on everyday life, at the level of the individual where it can inform personal choices and at a societal level where it can inform community and government decisions.

The domain of biology does not stand still and new technologies provide additional insight to our understanding of this science. In the third edition of Nature

of Biology Book 2, we have included new topics that refl ect both the changing curriculum and advances in knowledge. These additions include:

• transduction, the process by which cellular messages are translated into action

• expanded details of apoptosis, the programmed death of a cell, which can be initiated from inside or outside a cell

• details regarding the role of Australian scientists in a range of developments, such as rational drug design, new ways of preparing and delivering vaccines, and new vaccines, including one against the papilloma virus that may reduce the incidence of cervical cancer by 90 per cent

• new hominin fossil species discoveries such as that of Homo fl oresiensis, an announcement that excited the world in October 2004

• latest data, announced in February 2005, on the age of the oldest well-dated fossils of modern humans.

In the molecular and technological domains, additions include comparative genomics; microarray technology, which can identify active genes; RNA interference (RNAi), which enables genes to be selectively switched off; DNA profi ling and databases; and stem cell technology.

In this book, we have used the latest classifi cation of the human species that uses the term ‘hominin’ rather than ‘hominid’ to describe humans and their extinct, erect-walking relatives. We have also chosen to remove the peppered moth as an example of a well-understood case of natural selection in action with bird predation as the agent of selection. Because bird predation is apparently not the sole agent of selection, we have used other examples, although change in peppered moth populations is still an undisputed case of evolution within a species.

We have enjoyed writing this book and we hope that our readers will also enjoy reading the text and exploring the visual images. This project was greatly enhanced by the generous cooperation of many colleagues, friends and acquaintances. In particular, we owe a special debt of

gratitude to the following:

Professor Suzanne Cory, Director, and Dr Margaret Brumby, Manager (Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research), Associate Professor Leigh Ackland (Deakin University), Dr Michael Ackland (Public Health Division, Department of Health Services), Rachel Altemus (Editorial Offi ce, Molecular

Biology of the Cell), Jamie Alvarez (USA), Margaret Anderson, Professor Mike Archer (UNSW), Dr Peter Beech (Deakin University), Sarah Bell (Andrew Gaddes Optometrists Pty Ltd), Suzanne Bennett (Burnet Institute), Drew Berry (Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research), Mauro Bolin, Nicole Bolin (President, Chromosomal Labs, USA), Joanne Broughton (Invitrogen), Dr Lynda Campbell (St Vincent’s Hospital), Terry Carmichael (GeneTree DNA Testing Center), Gillian Chamberlain (Burnet Institute), Paul Charteris (MMI Genomics Inc.), Mary Cotronis, Dr Jenny Cox (University of Sydney), Lisa Curnow (Murdoch Childrens Research Institute), Hilary Taylor Deayton, Dr Martin Delatycki (Murdoch Childrens Research Institute), Eddie Dixon (Premier Genetics NZ Ltd), Professor Trisha Dunning (St Vincent’s Hospital and The University of Melbourne), Dr Sue Forrest (Australian Genome Research Facility), Joyce Francis, Doug Gale (CSIRO Molecular Science), Christine A. Gigliotti (Applied Biosystems), Associate Professor Dawn Gleeson (The University of Melbourne), Professor Sue Hand (UNSW), Cathy Harcourt (Alexandra District Hospital), Jethro Harcourt, Harcourt family, Dr Jane Halliday (Murdoch Childrens Research Institute), Katrina Harrison (Biota Holdings Limited), Anders and Maj Britt Hedlund (Sweden), Drs Jane and Gene Heinz-Fry, John and Tania Hulskamp, Professor Jeremy Hyams (Massey University), Claire Jackson (Andrew Gaddes Optometrists Pty Ltd), Clem Kandiliotis, Sandra Kay (CSIRO Tropical Forest Research Centre), Dr Josephine Kenrick (The University of Melbourne), Dr Maggie Kirkman and family, Dr Silvia M Kreda (MH Microscopy Facility, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill), Professor David Lambert (Massey University), Rachel Lea, Jean-Marc Lefebvre-Despeaux (BLUESTAR Forensic), Ruth Leslie (Chisholm Institute of TAFE), Sue Macauley (St Vincent’s BreastScreen), Dr John G Mason (Manager R&D, Florigene Ltd), Jane McCooey (La Trobe University), Dr Ian McDougall (ANU), Dr Brian McStay (Biomedical Research Centre, University of Dundee), Dr Marilyn Menotti-Raymond (National Cancer Institute, MD, USA), Professor Julian Mercer (Deakin University), Dr Agnes Michalczyk (Deakin University), Margaret Perring, Julia Quince (Massey University), Dr Tariq M. Rana (Professor and Director of Chemical Biology Program, University of Massachusetts Medical School), Mary and Jane Rice, Dr Hugh Robinson (Monash Medical Centre), Professor Al Rowland (Massey University), Maggy Saldais, M. Suzanne Searls, Elaine and Michael Sewell, Mardi and Joel Sheahan, Kerrie Simonsen (Massey University), Dr George Sofronidis (Animal Diagnostics, Genetic Science Services), Soltirios, Sophie Stone, Peta Stringer (Victoria Police Forensic Services Centre), Kelly Stubbins, Dallis Sturtevant, Ros Tassiker (Murdoch Childrens Resarch Institute), Professor Peter Timms (Queensland University of Technology), Dr Anneke Veenstra-Quah (Deakin University), Verity family, Associate Professor Alister Ward (Deakin University), Fiona and Trent Wedding, Dr David Westcott (CSIRO Tropical Forest Research Centre), Christopher Wilson (Monash University), Linzi Wilson-Wilde (Coordinator Laboratory Services, Forensic Services, AFP), David Wiltshire (Massey University).

xii PREFACE

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ABOUT THE CD-ROM xiii

CROSSWORD

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors and publisher would like to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and

individuals for their permission to reproduce copyright material in this book.

Images

• Reprinted with permission from Science vol. 287, no. 5461 24, March 2000 (Drawings are courtesy of the Archives, California Institute of Technology). Copyright 2000 AAAS: 339 • © AAP Image: 141 (right)/Oscar Kornyei; 505/Australian Museum; 633 (lower left)/Pat Sullivan; 634/AP Photo/Advanced Cell Technologies • Reproduced with permission from Dr Ben Agate, Interdisciplinary Centre for Medical Photonics, University of St Andrews: 654 • Reproduced with the kind permission of AHDA (Vic) Inc.: 113 • akg-images, London: 244 • Adapted from M.J. Alfano, www.earthscienceworld.org, American Geological Institute: 520 • Courtesy Jamie Alvarez, Naughty Nature Sphynx: 623 (bottom left) • Reprinted from ‘Molecular Biology of the Cell’ (Mol. Biol. Cell 2005 16: 2154–67; published online before print as 10.1091/mbc.E04-11-1010.) with permission of The American Society for Cell Biology: 2 • © ANTPhoto.com.au: 549 (bottom left)/ANT Photo Library/D. & V. Blagden; 561 (top)/ANT Photo Library/R.J. Tomkins; 549 (centre)/BG Thomson; 469 (centre, far left)/Brian Chudleigh; 549 (bottom right), 573 (orang-utan)/Bruce Thomson; 469 (centre right)/Cyril Webster; 449 (bottom)/D. & M. Trounson; 543 (bottom (a))/Dave Watts; 288 (top centre)/Frank Park; 465 (centre), 626 (upper left)/Fredy Mercay; 492/Jonathan Chester; 470 (left), 550 (top left)/Martin Harvey; 626 (lower left)/Otto Rogge; 469 (upper right)/Pavel German; 469 (upper left)/Ralph & Daphne Keller • Applied Biosystems Pty Ltd: 360, 445 (left) • APL 133, 200 (right), 613 (top left); 606/Corbis; 510 (left)/Corbis/Hulton-Deutsch Collection; 508 (2 images)/Corbis-Bettmann; 600/Gianni Dagli Orti; 206/Grazia Neri; 132/Minden Digital/Michio Hoshino; 200 (left)/Science and Society Picture Library • Reprinted with permission from the Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 50, issue 5, © ASTM International: 452 (top) • Auscape: 301/D. Parer & E. Parer-Cook; 542 (left)/Graham Robertson; 465 (left, right), 550 (bottom)/Jean-Paul Ferrero; 550 (top right)/John Cancalosi • © Australian Institute of Marine Science: 85 • This material has been reproduced with permission of the Australian Postal Corporation. The original work is held in the National Philatelic Collection: 23 (left) • © Australian Synchrotron — State of Victoria: 3 (top), 4; 3 (bottom)/Illustration by Michael Payne • Dr Andrew S Bajer: 384 (centre) • Courtesy Dr Carlo Baroni, University of Pisa: 438 • Courtesy of Dr Peter Beech: 60, 71 (bottom 2 images) • Biota Holdings Limited. Relenza is a registered product of GlaxoSmithKline: 116, 117 (2 images) • Image by R.L. Brinster, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania: 431 • The Burnet

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xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Kinnear and Marjory Martin; 514 (left)/Journal of Researches (now known as Voyage of the Beagle) 1840 • © Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory: 21 • Rachel Lea: 276, 277 • © Lochman Transparencies: 551 (top)/Andrew Davoll; 486/Hans & Judy Beste • Sue Macaulay: 36 • Adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature/Comparative analyses of multi-species sequences from targeted genomic regions, © 2003: 556 • MAPgraphics Pty Ltd Brisbane: 118 (top), 210 (bottom), 237 (2 maps), 502 (2 maps), 512 (right), 516, 561 (bottom), 605 • Marjory Martin: 5 (right), 9, 12 (top), 13 (top left, bottom), 19, 28 (Q1), 37, 61 (top), 70, 77 (2 images), 98, 127 (2 images), 151 (left), 169, 187 (2 images), 201 (bottom), 203, 210 (top), 214 (4 images), 216, 222 (2 images), 223, 225, 229, 265, 270, 279, 288 (top right), 293 (2 images), 296 (2 images), 310, 374, 384 (4 corn images), 404, 416, 436, 526 (bottom right), 650; 332/Courtesy of Jane Halliday; 497 (cartoon)/Courtesy of Jethro Harcourt; 289 (top)/Courtesy of the authors and Margaret Perring; 298/Jane Rice/C- Marjory Martin; 305, 310–11, 311 (4 images), 317, 334, 315 (2 images), 319 (bottom), 386, 435 (2 images)/Judith Kinnear and Marjory Martin; 5 (left)/Maj-Britt and Anders Hedlund; 434/Marjory Martin and Judith Kinnear; 330/Simon; 372 (left)/The authors/Dr Gillian Tucker; 372 (centre, right)/The authors/Dr Graham Webb; 387/The authors/Thalassaemia Society • Courtesy Professor Ian McDougall: 594 • Courtesy Dr Brian McStay, Biomedical Research Centre, University of Dundee: 401 • Courtesy of Dr Marilyn Menotti-Raymond, National Cancer Institute, Frederick MD: 451 (2 images) • Courtesy NASA/JPL–Caltech: 554 • Reproduced from ‘Human neural stem cells differentiate and promote locomotor recovery in spinal cord-injured mice’ by Brian J. Cummings, Nobuko Uchida, Stanley J. Tamaki, Desiree L. Salazar, Mitra Hooshman, Robert Summers, Fred H. Gage and Ailenn J. Anderson, in PNAS vol. 102, issue 39, September 27, 2005, © 2005 National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. Image by Robert Summers: 641 (top) • Courtesy: National Human Genome Research Institute: 368 (top), 394 • D.C Johnson, Institute of Human Origins, Courtesy of National Museum of Ethiopia: 569 • National Portrait Gallery, London: 510 (right), 512 • Newspix: 199; 633 (lower right 2 images)/AFP/Nature Magazine; 633 (top left)/Chris Crerar; 86/Colleen Petch; 369/Jon Hargest; 122/Kelly Barnes; 601 (lower)/Michael Jones; 446 (bottom)/Michael Marschall; 245 (bottom)/Patrick Hamilton; 428 (left)/Russell Millard • Nuclear Medicine, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney: 88, 186 (left) • Courtesy Nutricia Australia Pty Ltd: 103 (2 images) • © Ivan Ovcharenko, Ph.D.: 557 • Adapted from p. 19 of The Viking Atlas of Evolution by Roger Osbourne and Michael Benton (Viking 1996) text © Roger Osbourne and Michael Benton, 1996. Design © Swanston Publishing Ltd, 1996: 548 • PhotoDisc, Inc.: 92 (right), 131, 219, 285, 373, 463, 573 (ape, baboons, man and child, white loris), 575 (2 images), 597 (right), 601 (radiation, yin yang), 608, 614

• © photolibrary.com: 286 (left)/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; 151 (right), 173, 176 (left)/Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler/SPL; 82/Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers Inc.; 56 (3 images)/Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers Inc.; 186 (right)/Brookhaven National Laboratory/SPL; 140 (left), 176 (right)/CNRI/SPL; 34–5/David M. Phillips/Photo Researchers Inc.; 150 (bottom), 153/David Scharf/SPL; 202 (2 images), 262 (centre)/Dr Gopal Murti/SPL; 50/Dr Kari Lounatmaa/SPL; 245 (top)/Dr Linda Stannard, UCT/SPL; 359 (top)/Driscoll, Youngquist and Baldeschwieler, Caltech/SPL; 484/Eye of Science/SPL; 549 (top left)/Gary Lewis; 156/Geoff Kidd/SPL; 231/Geroge Bernard/SPL; 185 (bottom left)/GJLP/SPL; 196 (top)/Innerspace Imaging/SPL; 418/James King-Holmes/SPL; 140 (right)/John Bavosi/SPL; 427/Klaus Guldbrandsen/SPL; 185 (top left)/Manfred Kage/SPL; 102/Mark Clarke/SPL; 240/NIBSC/SPL; 543 (bottom (d)), 552 (right), 623 (right)/Oxford Scientifi c Films; 188 (2 images)/Oxford Scientifi c Films/G.I. Bernard; 551 (lower)/Oxford Scientifi c Films/Michael Fogden; 13 (bottom), 141 (left), 124, 233 (left), 288 (bottom), 291, 316, 543 (bottom (b) and (c)), 547 (lower), 547 (top), 620/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 358 (top)/Photo Researchers, Inc./Jennifer Waters; 120 (left)/Phototake Inc.; 652 (bottom)/Phototake Inc/Albert Tousson; 71 (top)/Professor Kenneth R. Miller/SPL; 494/Professors P. M. Motta, S. Makabe and T. Naguro/SPL; 45, 48/Professors P.M. Motta and T. Naguro/SPL; 622 (left)/Rick Strange; 17 (3 images), 44 (2 images), 46, 47 (top), 57, 58, 59, 101, 121, 179 (top), 248 (left), 342 (right), 615/Science Photo Library; 440/SPL/David Parker; 25, 26/SPL/Dr Elena Kiseleva; 1, 12 (centre)/SPL/Dr Jeremy Burgess; 43/SPL/Dr Kari Lounatmaa; 230 (left)/SPL/Jack Clark/AgstockUSA; 342 (left), 365 (left), 429/SPL/James King-Holmes; 423/SPL/Jerry Mason; 54/SPL/John Pacy; 355 (right)/SPL/Pasieka; 355 (left)/SPL/Russell Kightley; 22 (top right)/SPL/Steve Gschmeissner; 13 (right)/SPL/Susumu Nishinaga; 445 (right)/SPL/TEK Image; 236/Simon Fraser/SPL; 378, 506/SPL; 354/SPL/A. Barrington; 294 (lower)/SPL/AJ Photo; 350 (bottom)/SPL/Dr Gopal Murti; 565, 568, 578, 583 (top)/SPL/John Reader; 636/SPL/Makoto Iwafuji/Eurelios; 313/SPL/Philippe Plailly; 162 (top), 164, 185 (right), 196 (lower)/Steve Gschmeissner/SPL; 150 (centre)/Susumu Nishinaga/SPL; 395/Sydney/SPL/CNRI; 359 (bottom)/Tek Image/SPL; 428 (right)/Volker Steger/SPL; 498/Volker Steger/SPL; 183/Zephyr/SPL • R. Arnett 616 • © Pixland: 617 • Premier Genetics NZ Ltd and Ranchola Reforma, Mexico: 625 • Courtesy Professor Tariq M. Rana: 410 • From ‘Karyotype relationships between four distantly related marsupials revealed by reciprocal chromosome painting’, by W. Rens, P.C.M. O’Brien, F. Yang, J.A.M. Graves, M.A. Ferguson-Smith, in Chromosome Research, Vol. 7, Number 6, 1999, pp. 461–74, published by Kluwer Academic Publishers B.V. Reproduced with kind permission from Dr Willem Rens and Springer Science and Business Media: 540 • Courtesy Dr Hugh Robinson: 109

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(2 images) • Courtesy Dr Mariano Rocchi: 538 • Courtesy of the Rockefeller University Archives: 350 (top) • © The Roslin Institute: 631 (2 images) • Courtesy of Dr A.l. Rowland: 294 (top) • By permission of the Royal Mint: 23 (right) • Joel Sheahan: 105 (3 images) • Courtesy of George Sofronidis, Genetic Science Services: 452 (top, bottom), 453 (2 images), 458 • G. & R. Small of Abrona Suffolks and White Suffolks: 622 (right) • Courtesy Dr Arabella Smith, The Children’s Hospital at Westmead: 319 (top), 336, 425 • © Sport The Library/Paul Seiser: 91 • Stock Journal/Rural Press Limited: 627 • Nikki Stubbins: 90 • Courtesy Sydney IVF, www.sydneyivf.com.au: 359 (bottom), 420 • John Thomas, Queensland Government, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries: 211

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bottom right), 263, 273, 284 (2 images), 289 (bottom left, bottom right), 413, 478, 641 (centre, bottom) • Dr David Westcott (CSIRO) and Peter Latch (QPWS): 493 • Courtesy of Linzi Wilson-Wilde: 456 • Courtesy Zoological Society of San Diego: 288 (top left)

Text

• Reprinted with permission from Journal of Forensic

Sciences, vol. 49, no. 5, © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbour Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428: 442 • Immunise Australia Program, Department of Health and Ageing, 2005, © Commonwealth of Australia. Reproduced by permission. By permission also from the Immunisation Program, Department of Human Services Victoria: 268 • The Double Helix by James Watson, published by Weidenfeld & Nicolson, an imprint of The Orion Publishing Group. Reproduced with permission: 377–8

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xvi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS