Naturally Naturally occurring data occurring data

What counts as data?What counts as data?

Data cannot be inherently unsatisfactory: depends what you want to do with it.

No data ‘untouched by human hands’.

Difference between natural & non-natural should be investigated

Data productionData production1 Choices1 Choices

Distant measures vs face-to-faceDistant measures vs face-to-face Research instrument vs researcher as Research instrument vs researcher as

instrumentinstrument Single source vs multiple sources (but Single source vs multiple sources (but

cannot simply aggregate data to arrive at cannot simply aggregate data to arrive at ‘whole’ picture)‘whole’ picture)

Pre-determined data vs ‘everything is data’Pre-determined data vs ‘everything is data’

2 Continua2 Continua context free, acknowledge context context free, acknowledge context

or context boundor context bound wholly, semi- or unstructuredwholly, semi- or unstructured Formality & transparency of data: Formality & transparency of data:

wholly, partly or not at all auditablewholly, partly or not at all auditable Position of researcher in relation to Position of researcher in relation to

researched: informants, researched: informants, participants, co-researchersparticipants, co-researchers

Evaluating samplesEvaluating samples AppropriatenessAppropriateness

Informant characteristicsInformant characteristics

Type of information neededType of information needed

Adequacy of dataAdequacy of dataSufficiency and quality of the dataSufficiency and quality of the data

Informational adequacyInformational adequacy RelevanceRelevance CompletenessCompleteness Amount of information obtainedAmount of information obtained Theoretical saturationTheoretical saturation

Four fundamental tasks Four fundamental tasks Selecting participants/material to studySelecting participants/material to study Interacting with to produce dataInteracting with to produce data Avoiding arbitrary findingsAvoiding arbitrary findings Convincing others of what you have Convincing others of what you have

foundfound

Technical decisions have theoretical Technical decisions have theoretical importimport

Qualitative data productionQualitative data production

HIGHHIGH LOWLOWInterviews--Focus Groups--Participant Interviews--Focus Groups--Participant

ObservationObservation

Control over productionControl over production Specificity of data for research questionSpecificity of data for research question

Scalability of productionScalability of production Amount of data that can be producedAmount of data that can be produced

Intrusiveness of productionIntrusiveness of production Range of addressable questionsRange of addressable questions

Starting reflexive points Starting reflexive points Data: produced in the course of the Data: produced in the course of the

researchresearch Analysis: does this interpretation make Analysis: does this interpretation make

sense in this context?sense in this context? Account: responsibility for creative Account: responsibility for creative

activity marked by use of the first personactivity marked by use of the first person Interpretation of qualitative data: Interpretation of qualitative data:

bringing together two sets of assumptions bringing together two sets of assumptions (guesses of researcher at outset & (guesses of researcher at outset & preoccupations expressed by material)preoccupations expressed by material)

Analytic process: 4 stagesAnalytic process: 4 stages ‘‘Giving a voice’Giving a voice’Stage 1: applies specifically to interview Stage 1: applies specifically to interview

data, retell story with eye to empathy & data, retell story with eye to empathy & empowerment.empowerment.

Generation of categoriesGeneration of categories

Thematic analyses Thematic analyses

Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis

Stage 2: Generation of Stage 2: Generation of categoriescategories

Complete range of qualitative data, look Complete range of qualitative data, look for emergence of categories by careful, for emergence of categories by careful, repeated reading of texts.repeated reading of texts.

Grounded theory Glaser & Strauss 1967 Grounded theory Glaser & Strauss 1967 Works from base up, systematically

builds up conceptions of what issues seem to be important and what categories structure the text.

use categories drawn from respondents use categories drawn from respondents themselves, aim is not to build a different themselves, aim is not to build a different account/uncover hidden motives, but to make account/uncover hidden motives, but to make explicit what is implicit in the text.explicit what is implicit in the text.

Theory developed inductively from corpus of Theory developed inductively from corpus of data: emergent – sets out to find what theory data: emergent – sets out to find what theory accounts for the research situation as it isaccounts for the research situation as it is

Comparative orientation: constant comparison – Comparative orientation: constant comparison – initially comparing data set to data set, then data initially comparing data set to data set, then data set to theoryset to theory

Category Category A theme or variable which makes A theme or variable which makes

sense of what your informant has said, sense of what your informant has said, interpreted in the light of the situation interpreted in the light of the situation

you’re studying, and other interviews, and you’re studying, and other interviews, and the emerging theorythe emerging theory

Core category – emerges with high Core category – emerges with high frequency of mention, & is connected frequency of mention, & is connected with many other emerging categorieswith many other emerging categories

Case orientation: whole case, not Case orientation: whole case, not variable (not additive model, like variable (not additive model, like ANOVA)ANOVA)

Theoretical sampling: to increase Theoretical sampling: to increase diversity in samplediversity in sample

Literature also emergent, not privileged Literature also emergent, not privileged over data, same statusover data, same status

Coding Coding Categories which sum up key underlying ideas Categories which sum up key underlying ideas

of text are generated.of text are generated. Saturate the categories.Saturate the categories. Each category label should operate as a good Each category label should operate as a good

descriptor of each of the instances/quotes descriptor of each of the instances/quotes included.included.

Collapse, drop, split headings.Collapse, drop, split headings. Interrelationships (links & contrasts) between Interrelationships (links & contrasts) between

different headings operate as connections to different headings operate as connections to organise material to be presented in analysis organise material to be presented in analysis section – theoretical sensitivity.section – theoretical sensitivity.

Stage 3: Thematic Stage 3: Thematic AnalysisAnalysis

List set of assumptions underlying research List set of assumptions underlying research alongside categories that emerged in alongside categories that emerged in grounded theory part of analysis.grounded theory part of analysis.

Themes will be an accommodation of text’s Themes will be an accommodation of text’s version to issues investigation set out to version to issues investigation set out to address.address. Accommodation – production of something new – Accommodation – production of something new –

change in category as it absorbs & contains new change in category as it absorbs & contains new material (assimilation – material is fit into pre-material (assimilation – material is fit into pre-established schema)established schema)

Stage 4: Discourse AnalysisStage 4: Discourse Analysis

Discourses = sets of statements which Discourses = sets of statements which construct an object construct an object (any category of thing (any category of thing or person that is spoken about by an interviewee)or person that is spoken about by an interviewee)

Variability; construction; functionVariability; construction; function- how language changes, how it how language changes, how it

works, how it is put together.works, how it is put together.

Definition (Ruth Wodak )Definition (Ruth Wodak )(Greek v) Ana-lyein ‘deconstruct’(Greek v) Ana-lyein ‘deconstruct’(Latin v) Discurrere ‘running back & forth’(Latin v) Discurrere ‘running back & forth’

DA penetrated many disciplines: DA penetrated many disciplines: sociology, philosophy, history, sociology, philosophy, history, literary studies, cultural studies, anthropology, psychology, literary studies, cultural studies, anthropology, psychology, linguistics…linguistics… distinct meanings in each of these, from a distinct meanings in each of these, from a social science methodology to the label for a whole field, a social science methodology to the label for a whole field, a subdiscipline of linguistics, a critical paradigm…subdiscipline of linguistics, a critical paradigm…

Discourse analysts come from a variety of intellectual Discourse analysts come from a variety of intellectual traditions and work in a variety of ways.traditions and work in a variety of ways.

a particular uptake of the ideas within psychology, mostly DP a particular uptake of the ideas within psychology, mostly DP in social psychology.in social psychology.

No single definition of DA as a research method - can be No single definition of DA as a research method - can be characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a problem. problem. 

a manner of questioning the basic assumptions of research a manner of questioning the basic assumptions of research methods, enables access to the ontological and methods, enables access to the ontological and epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a epistemological assumptions behind a project, a statement, a method of research. method of research. 

Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given Every text is conditioned and inscribes itself within a given discourse, thus the term Discourse Analysis. discourse, thus the term Discourse Analysis. 

Will not provide absolute answers to a specific problem, but Will not provide absolute answers to a specific problem, but enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific enable us to understand the conditions behind a specific "problem" and make us realize that the essence of that "problem" and make us realize that the essence of that "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very "problem", and its resolution, lie in its assumptions; the very assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem".assumptions that enable the existence of that "problem".

Discursive Psychology - comprising the set of Discursive Psychology - comprising the set of social constructionist approaches within social social constructionist approaches within social psychology mainly (Potter, Wetherall, Billig) psychology mainly (Potter, Wetherall, Billig)

Various kinds which all share the field of social Various kinds which all share the field of social constructionism: share views on language and constructionism: share views on language and subjectivity, also the very important aim of subjectivity, also the very important aim of ‘carrying out critical research, that is,‘carrying out critical research, that is, ‘‘to investigate and analyse power relations in to investigate and analyse power relations in

society and to formulate normative practices from society and to formulate normative practices from which a critique of such social relations can be which a critique of such social relations can be made with an eye on the possibilities for social made with an eye on the possibilities for social change’ (Philips & Jorgensen).change’ (Philips & Jorgensen).

No longer a marginal perspective, for No longer a marginal perspective, for an increasing number of academics an increasing number of academics discourse analysis is the main way of discourse analysis is the main way of doing social psychological research doing social psychological research (LSE, Cambridge, Loughborough).(LSE, Cambridge, Loughborough).

Also a proliferation of forms of Also a proliferation of forms of discourse analysis - from CA to post-discourse analysis - from CA to post-structural and Foucauldian thinking.structural and Foucauldian thinking.

Antaki, Billig, Edwards & Antaki, Billig, Edwards & Potter 2006Potter 2006

Identify things that might Identify things that might superficially give the appearance of superficially give the appearance of conducting discourse analysis but do conducting discourse analysis but do not in fact do so.not in fact do so.

Burman - list of ‘mistakes and Burman - list of ‘mistakes and errors’ actually highlight with errors’ actually highlight with particular clarity ideological as well particular clarity ideological as well as conceptual and methodological as conceptual and methodological features of the discipline. features of the discipline.

6 non-analyses.6 non-analyses.

1. Under-analysis through summary 1. Under-analysis through summary 2. Under–analysis through taking sides2. Under–analysis through taking sides3. Under-analysis through over quotation 3. Under-analysis through over quotation

or through isolated quotation. or through isolated quotation. 4. Circular identification of discourses 4. Circular identification of discourses

and mental constructs and mental constructs 5. False survey5. False survey6. Analysis that consists in simply 6. Analysis that consists in simply

spotting features. spotting features.

Burman (commenting on Burman (commenting on antaki et al. )antaki et al. )

ElaboratesElaborates Under-analysis occurs when the analysis Under-analysis occurs when the analysis

substitutes detailed examination of the text for substitutes detailed examination of the text for the adoption of a theorized position.the adoption of a theorized position.

A way out of circular reasoning would be to A way out of circular reasoning would be to elaborate the analysis or categories to relate to elaborate the analysis or categories to relate to structures outside the detail of the text, e.g., via structures outside the detail of the text, e.g., via analyses of institutional practices and systemic analyses of institutional practices and systemic patternings. patternings.

Proper analyses should also include consulting Proper analyses should also include consulting theoretical analyses of a historical and cultural theoretical analyses of a historical and cultural kind that inform how such conversational moves kind that inform how such conversational moves come to be possible and how they function. come to be possible and how they function.

Don’t stop at what they say, ask why? Don’t stop at what they say, ask why?

3 further points to add to 3 further points to add to Antaki’s 6:Antaki’s 6:

Under-analysis through Under-analysis through decontextualisationdecontextualisation

Under-analysis through uncontested Under-analysis through uncontested readingsreadings

Under-analysis through not having a Under-analysis through not having a questionquestion

DA is a form of action rather than of reflectionDA is a form of action rather than of reflection

Not only does doing discourse analysis mean Not only does doing discourse analysis mean doing analysis BUT discourse analysis means doing analysis BUT discourse analysis means analyzing discourse. analyzing discourse.

Must have a theory of discourse (or text or Must have a theory of discourse (or text or transcript) as well as of analysis to do transcript) as well as of analysis to do discourse analysis - and this also includes discourse analysis - and this also includes having an analysis of the technologies of one’s having an analysis of the technologies of one’s own analysis.own analysis.

van Dijk (1997)van Dijk (1997)An analysis of discourse is a scholarly analysis An analysis of discourse is a scholarly analysis

only when it is based on more or less only when it is based on more or less explicit concerns, methods or theories. explicit concerns, methods or theories. Merely making “common sense” comments Merely making “common sense” comments on a piece of text or talk will seldom suffice on a piece of text or talk will seldom suffice in such a case. Indeed, the whole point in such a case. Indeed, the whole point should be to provide insights into structure, should be to provide insights into structure, strategies or other properties of discourse strategies or other properties of discourse that could not readily be given by naïve that could not readily be given by naïve recipients. (p. 1)recipients. (p. 1)

Levels of Levels of (discourse)analysis?(discourse)analysis?

Where to draw the boundaries? Or Where to draw the boundaries? Or what should be included? The what should be included? The linguistic, social, political, historical, linguistic, social, political, historical, material, institutional … material, institutional …

What is discursive and what counts What is discursive and what counts as extra-discursive? (Willig’s paper as extra-discursive? (Willig’s paper on critical realism in DA) on critical realism in DA)

What is context?What is context?