Narragansett Bay Summit 2000

White Paper

FISHERIES OF RHODE ISLAND

Working Draft (4/14/00)

Joseph T. DeAlteris Department of Fisheries, Animal, and Veterinary Science

University of Rhode Island

Mark Gibson Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management

Division of Fish and Wildlife

Laura G. Skrobe Department of Fisheries, Animal, and Veterinary Science

University of Rhode Island

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The fisheries of Rhode Island include commercial and recreational segments, utilizing capture, culture (aquaculture), and enhancement technologies. The fishery resources of Rhode Island range from sessile shellfish (oysters and quahogs) that remain in Narragansett Bay through all life history stages, to migratory species that only visit Rhode Island waters on a seasonal basis. Landings of fishery resources have fluctuated widely over the last century, but in the last decade have remained reasonably stable. However, landings and abundances of individual species have changed dramatically in the last two decades. Oyster harvest peaked at 15 million pounds of meats in 1910, and then declined to less than 0.01 million pounds from 1955 to 1996. In the last several years, landings have increases as the resource begins to recover. Landings of the northern quahog peaked at 5 million pounds in 1955 and have declined to less than 1 million pounds in 1998. In contrast to the shellfish, lobster landings have steadily increased from less than 0.1 million pounds in the early 1950s to more than 7.5 million pounds the early 1990s. Winter flounder landings steadily increased from less than 0.5 million pounds in the 1940s to over 9 million pounds in the early 1980s, and have subsequently declined to about 1 million pounds in the late 1990s. Striped bass landings have fluctuated widely in the last 50 years, with the fishery collapsing in the late 1970s, and then increasing to almost 1 million pounds in the mid 1990s. Management of these fishery resources is complex due to the multi-species nature of the fisheries, migratory nature of some species, and our inability to control environmental change. Landings of the commercial fisheries of Rhode Island are valued at approximately $75 and the economic impact of seafood production in Rhode Island is estimated to be approximately $700 million. Recreational fishermen make about 1 million fishing trips annually in Rhode Island waters, valued at approximately $150 million. The principal management issues facing the Rhode Island fisheries are related to resolving conflicts with existing and future users of Narragansett Bay and continental shelf environments, and managing fishery resources in light of environmental change and increased utilization by both recreational and commercial fishermen. Other users of the coastal environment include the following sectors: marine transportation, research, education, and technology, recreation and tourism, and finally aquaculture. As each sector attempts to increase its presence in these environments, it limits temporarily or permanently, the access of traditional fishermen to the area affected by their activity or reduces the fishery production potential of the environment. Additionally, resource managers and fishermen are struggling to manage the fishery resources in a complex ecosystem that is responding to global environmental change and within a management structure that is highly cumbersome and politicized.

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INTRODUCTION The fisheries of Rhode Island utilize a continuum of technologies to harvest seafood in the commercial and recreational sectors. A commercial fishery is defined as a fishery where the product is sold, either for profit or to simply defray the costs of operations. Recreational fishing is an endeavor conducted for sport, where the catch is either landed or returned to the sea. Catch and release recreational fishing generally results in some beneficial economic impact and in some limited mortality of fish, therefore it is included as a fishery. Fisheries may be open-access, that is available to all, or privatized, as in the culture of hatchery produced oysters on leased bottom. Capture fisheries generally harvest wild stocks of resources that belong to state or nation, hence the term common-property resources. These fisheries have traditionally been open-access, but now many fisheries are limited access. In the last decade, there has also been a trend toward property rights in formerly open-access common property fisheries as an alternative form of fisheries management such as in Australia and New Zealand. Rhode Island capture fisheries include commercial trawl, lobster pot, fish traps, quahog fisheries, and recreational hook and line fisheries. Culture fisheries are usually completely privatized and include the hatchery production of young, followed by a grow-out phase in land-based systems or in the natural environment. Oyster gardening practiced by waterfront home-owners in the Mid-Atlantic region is a recreational culture fishery, as is the production of hatchery-reared shellfish from leased bottom. Culture fisheries are also referred to as aquaculture; and an aquaculture white paper follows this report. Enhancement fisheries are defined herein as those fisheries where human-intervention in the life history of the capture fishery resource occurs. This includes the transplanting of shellfish from polluted waters to clean-waters in an open-access, common-property capture fishery, the harvest of wild seed oysters and the grow-out of this seed on public or private leased bottom in a culture fishery, the release of hatchery-reared larvae and juveniles of a species into the environment for a fishery, etc. Thus, enhancement fisheries link capture and culture fisheries. The utilization of the marine fishery resources of Narragansett Bay and the coastal waters of Rhode Island dates to the earliest colonial times. The abundant finfish and shellfish resources were easily harvested along the shore and provided both subsistence and a source of income through the eighteenth century. However, with the nineteenth century came the industrial revolution and the damming of the many rivers in the watershed of Narragansett Bay. These dams interrupted the annually migrations of anadromous fishes, including salmon, herring, alewives, and other species, resulting in the first documented collapse of Rhode Island fisheries in the 1860s (Torell and Olsen 1999). Since that time, the marine resources and fisheries of Rhode Island have experienced many cycles in abundance and have evolved considerably (Kochiss 1974). As we enter the twenty-first century, the fisheries of Rhode Island extend far beyond state waters. The offshore fishing vessels based in Rhode Island hunt fish hundred of miles from their homeports;

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and aquaculturists produce finfish in land-based systems. The fish dealers and processors handle both fish landed and produced in Rhode Island and elsewhere. Seafood is part of the global economy and Rhode Island seafood producers must compete with producers from all over the world. Narragansett Bay, although very important to Rhode Island, is a relatively small estuary along the East Coast of the United States (Figure 1). State waters extend 3 miles from the shoreline and include the waters surrounding Block Island. Federal waters extend form 3 to 200 miles offshore and comprise the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the United States. Therefore, Narragansett Bay fisheries are considered a subset of Rhode Island fisheries and are considered separately when data is available. The management of fishery resources is complex because many species are mobile and migratory, spending various portions of their life history in both state and federal waters. Some species migrate between the waters of adjacent states. This complexity in spatial domains has resulted in a variety of management regimes. Resources that spend the majority of their life history in state waters are managed by individual states that sometimes cooperate through interstate Fisheries Management Plans (FMPs) under the auspices of the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC). Resources that spend the major portion of their lives in federal waters are managed by federal FMPs under the auspices of either the New England or Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Councils (NEFMC or MAFMC). Some species are even managed jointly between ASMFC and either the NEFMC or the MAFMC. The fishery resources of Rhode Island include a wide range of species. Bottom dwelling creatures (demersal) include sessile shellfish (clams and oysters), crustaceans (lobsters and crabs), and finfish. Resources that remain in the water column are referred to as pelagics which encompass finfish and squid, and include small pelagics that provide food (forage) for other fish, bait for other fisheries, and food for human consumption. Large, highly migratory pelagic fish are also landed in Rhode Island, and include tuna, swordfish, and sharks. The principal fishery resources of Rhode Island include: Shellfish: quahog*, American oyster*, soft shell clams Crustaceans: lobster*, cancer crabs Demersal finfish: winter flounder*, summer flounder*, tautog Other finfish: bluefish, striped bass*, scup Small pelagics: squid*, butterfish, menhaden Only selected (*) species are reviewed in this white paper. The purpose of this white paper is to present a brief history, status and trends, economic impacts, and the management issues/challenges facing the capture fisheries of Rhode Island in the year 2000 and beyond. The format of this white paper is as follows:

(1) The Introduction describes the bodies of water and resources upon which the fisheries of Rhode Island are based, and the management regimes that govern the

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Figure 1. Map of Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island.

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fisheries based on geographical and resource life history strategies. Definitions of capture, culture, and enhancement fisheries are presented, so as to provide a framework for the analysis of the fisheries of the last century and into the future.

(2) The Status and Trends provides a summary of the life history, fisheries,

production history, recent trends in abundance, and current management challenges for the principal fishery resources of Rhode Island.

(3) The Economic Implications section provides an overview of the value to the state

of the fisheries of Rhode Island based on commercial and recreational capture fishery statistics and the added value of fish processing and distribution in the commercial fisheries.

(4) The next section presents selected Management Issues: Challenges and

Opportunities facing the fisheries of Rhode Island in the twenty-first century from a scientific and socio-political perspective.

(5) The last section provides an Executive Summary of the report.

STATUS AND TREND OF FISHERIES This section provides a brief synopsis of seven principal fishery resources of Narragansett Bay as mentioned earlier. The life history information is summarized from Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) updated from the recent literature. The production history for each species is taken from the Fisheries Statistics & Economics Division of the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) database of commercial landings in weight and value for 1950 to 1998 and Marine Recreational Fisheries Statistics Survey (MRFSS) database in weight only, for 1981 to 1998. Earlier commercial landings data is from NMFS and was taken from Olsen and Stevenson (1975). The trends in abundance are primarily determined from fishery-independent sources. For most species, the results of research trawl surveys conduced by the University of Rhode Island and Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management (RIDEM). For the shellfish species, an alternative index of abundance is presented based on commercial catch per unit effort (CPUE). The RIDEM conducted hydraulic dredge surveys of Narragansett Bay from 1993 to 1999. Data for shellfish for earlier years was from fishery independent surveys conducted by a variety of methods. The RIDEM, Division of Fish and Wildlife (RIDFW) trawl survey is conducted on a seasonal basis. A spring (April-May) and fall (September-October) cruise are made each year. A total of 42 tows are made each cruise in Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island and Block Island Sounds. The survey is of random stratified design with stratification by depth. Details of survey design, vessel and gear type, and methods may be found in Lynch (1997). Abundance indices are available for years 1979 to 1999. Indices are computed as an arithmetic mean number per tow for spring and fall cruise data combined. The University of Rhode Island, Graduate School of Oceanography (URIGSO) Jeffries trawl survey consists of weekly bottom trawl samples taken in Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island Sound. The investigation began in 1959 and has run

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continuously ever since (Jeffries and Johnson 1974). For striped bass, the trends in abundance were based on recreational CPUE and the Marine Research Inc. (MRI) trawl survey, which is a company consultant to U.S. Generating. The survey is conducted monthly at 6 fixed stations in Mt. Hope Bay at the Brayton Point discharge area.

American Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) The American oyster, also know as the eastern oyster, is a mollusk which is attached by a left valve which is convex; upper valve nearly flat; irregular and variable shell which is often in folded layers and very thick. It can reach up to 17 inches in length (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). Growth is influenced by temperature, salinity, intertidal exposure, turbidity, and food (Kochiss 1974; Sellars and Stanley 1984). The oyster occurs along the Atlantic coast of North America from St. Lawrence, Canada to Mexico (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). Oysters live best in certain shallow bays, sounds, creeks, and estuaries where the salinity, temperature, food supply, and bottom provide favorable combinations for reproduction or growth. Many areas of Narragansett Bay possess these ideal conditions (Kochiss 1974). Oyster distribution in Rhode Island waters consists of small populations that are found in a number of salt ponds and estuaries. The most productive breeding populations are in Foster Cove in Charlestown Pond, in Quicksand Pond, and in the Pawcatuck River (Russel 1974; Sisson 1974). Long-term abundance of oysters in the Bay is indexed by commercial catch per unit effort (CPUE) (Figure 2a). Oysters were at a low level of abundance from 1959 to 1973. Only sporadic small landings were made between 1974 and 1990 indicating that abundance was very low. The abundance index began to increase in the early 1990’s and jumped sharply from 1995 to 1998 as shellfish harvesters located abundant patches and markets were reestablished. Oysters feed on phytoplankton by filtering it through their gills with as much as twenty to thirty quarts of water an hour (Kochiss 1974). Spawning occurs throughout the summer when temperatures are above 68°F (Galtsoff 1964). Individual females release 14 to 114 million eggs free in the water to be fertilized. After hatching, young drift as veliger larvae for about 2 to 3 weeks until suitable substrate is found. They show a preference for shell, settling to the bottom and attaching themselves to remain for their adult life (Iversen 1996); this has resulted in the formation of large reefs or bars made entirely of oyster shells. Oysters have the ability to change sex and retain this ability throughout their lives. Under natural conditions a large female

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is surrounded by several small males. When the female dies one of the males changes sex (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). Rhode Island oysters used to be considered the best on the market. They were raised in Narragansett Bay on grounds leased from the state. The Rhode Island harvest peaked in 1910 and then began a rapid decline in 1937 and the last Rhode Island oyster dealer closed down in 1957. Many reasons are given for the loss of this industry including pollution, a series of poor sets, destruction of the beds by hurricanes, silting, disease and predation, and poor fishery management (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). There are no recreational landings data for oysters in Rhode Island. Commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1887 to 1998 (Figure 2b). Rhode Island landings were approximately 1.3 million pounds (lbs) in 1887 and 1888. Rhode Islands harvest peaked in 1910 when almost 15 million lbs of oysters were landed. The industry began a rapid decline to 2.6 million lbs in 1924, rose slightly in 1935, and has continually declined to less than 10,000 lbs from 1955 to 1996. In 1997 and 1998, landings increased slightly to roughly 200,000 lbs. Value of commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1950 to 1998 (Figure 2b). In 1950, values started at a peak of almost $500,000 then drastically declined to less than $10,000 from 1954 to 1991 where there was a slight peak of $500,000 in 1991. Values dropped again to less than $10,000 in 1994 and then showed a sharp increase to a peak of $750,000 in 1997. The management of oysters in Rhode Island is regulated by the Rhode Island Marine Fisheries Council (RIMFC). Oysters are managed through licenses. Rhode Island residents are not required to obtain a license provided they do not exceed the daily catch limit for residents and the oysters shall not be sold or offered for sale. Non-resident shellfish licenses are available. Oysters are also managed by a minimum size limit, a catch limit based on user category (resident, licensed non-resident, commercial license holder), and an open season from 15th of September to the 15th of May. There are also designated Management Areas with reduced daily catch limits. In recent years, large advances have been made in oyster culture. Rearing oysters on trays or suspended from rafts on strings greatly decreased the growing time and predation rates and could be used to increase oyster production in Rhode Island (Matthiessen 1970). The Pawcatuck estuary and Little Narragansett Bay are especially favorable for oysters and could become a major producer of oyster seed (Rhode Island Shellfish Advisory Committee 1964).

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Figure 2. (a) Narragansett Bay oyster index of abundance. (b) Rhode Island oyster production history.

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Northern Quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria) The northern quahog is a thick-shelled mollusk with a smooth white with violet margin within and dark brown without (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). There are different names for animals of different sizes. In Rhode Island, the smallest legally sold quahogs are known as “littlenecks,” and intermediate sized and large are known as “cherrystones” and “chowder quahogs,” respectively (Rice 1992). Mean shell length is around 2.5 inches, but some can reach and even exceed 5 inches (Stanley and DeWitt 1983; Ganz et al. 1999). Quahogs are relatively long-lived, as long as forty years (Ganz et al. 1999). Studies by Pratt and Campbell (1956) show that in Narragansett Bay the growth rates of quahogs varies as much as threefold from one location to another, depending on sediment type, temperature, and food abundance. The growing season is from May through October with half of the annual growth occurring before mid-July. Growth is faster in sand than in mud and generally decreases with an increasing silt-clay content of the sediment. Growth increases with mean temperature from 34° to 70°F and is most rapid in young clams. When a quahog is no longer increasing the length of its shell and its soft parts have attained their full development, the shell begins to thicken along the rim and the quahog becomes what is knows as a blunt. This happens at no specific age or size (Pratt and Campbell 1956). The northern quahog geographic distribution is from St. Lawrence, Canada to the Gulf of Mexico (Miller et al. 1970). Quahogs are the most abundant animals of their size living on or in the bottom in Narragansett Bay (Pratt 1953). They are common in many of the salt ponds and in the estuary of the Pawcatuck River. Trawl surveys do not capture quahogs but a commercial catch per unit effort index is available (Figure 3a). This shows that quahog biomass in the Bay is at low levels. Fishing mortality rate on a baywide basis is close to the Fmsy overfishing definition. The decline in CPUE is corroborated by shellfish surveys, which have been done sporadically since the 1950’s. The annual hydraulic dredge survey conducted by RIDFW shows some recent increase but abundance remains low relative to past surveys. Quahogs are heavily exploited in Narragansett Bay but RIDFW assessments show declining effort in recent years. Other factors such as an increase in benthic predators may be responsible for low abundance. Quahogs are found in sand, mud, gravel, and clay from the low tide mark to depths up to 50 feet. The species is principally estuarine and flourishes best at salinities of 18-26 parts per thousand (Merrill and Ropes 1967). Pratt (1953) found that in Narragansett Bay, quahogs are most abundant in fine sediments. However, the coarseness of the minor constituents of the sediment is also important, and quahogs are much more abundant in

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mud containing sand, shell, or small rocks than in mud without these constituents. Quahogs are least abundant in clay sediments. Quahogs are filter feeders and feed primarily on phytoplankton, particularly small diatoms. They flourish best in areas such as the Providence River where food is abundant and conditions of temperature and salinity are well suited for their growth (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). In the closed area of Providence River, based on the RIDEM hydraulic dredge survey, it was determined that there were almost 29,000 mt of quahogs, 15% of the total estimated biomass of quahogs in Narragansett Bay (Gibson 1999). Quahog maturity is usually reached at 2 years of age, however, in the North Atlantic region of their range, maturity is sometimes not reached until 3 years. Size not age determines sexual maturity (Stanley and DeWitt 1983). Spawning is temperature dependent and occurs from mid-June to mid-August when temperatures rise above 68°F. A female releases a total of about 2 million eggs each season. Fecundity is positively correlated with size, but highly variable among individuals of the same size (Bricelj 1993). The planktonic stages last from 10 to 12 days. Quahog larvae apparently do not select the substrate upon which they set although juvenile clams may move limited distances in search of a suitable place to dig in (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). Like many other bivalves, juvenile quahogs are typically males (Mackie 1984). In successive years they may change sex and produce eggs (Rice 1992). The quahog fishery is one of the largest along the Atlantic coast of the United States. Quahogs have been harvested in New England since pre-colonial times (Rice 1992). By the turn of the 20th century, the fishery in New England was well developed and state governments were considering measures to manage the stocks (Belding 1909). Presently, commercial and recreational quahog fisheries are significant in all Atlantic coastal states from Massachusetts to Florida (Rice 1992). Bay quahogs are harvested with tongs, bullrakes, power dredges, clam rakes, and by hand. There are no recreational landings data for quahog in Rhode Island. Commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1887 to 1998 (Figure 3b). From 1887 to 1919, landings averaged 200,000 pounds (lbs). Landings started to increase after 1919 and reached a peak of 5 million lbs in 1955. Landings declined, reaching a low of 840,000 lbs in 1974, and again increased to a peak of 4.3 million lbs in 1983. Since 1983, landings have steadily declined to 880,000 lbs in 1998. Value of commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1950 to 1998 (Figure 3b). From 1950 to 1972, values wavered around $1 million. Values started to rise after 1972 and peaked at almost $16 million in 1986 and 1987, and have steadily declined since to $4 million in 1998. The management of quahogs in Rhode Island is regulated by the Rhode Island Marine Fisheries Council (RIMFC). Quahogs are managed through licenses required for the sale and barter of shellfish and individuals who are not Rhode Island residents. Rhode Island residents do not require a license unless they wish to harvest in excess of the resident limit. There is a daily catch limit set based on user category (resident, license

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Figure 3. (a) Narragansett Bay quahog index of abundance. (b) Rhode Island quahog production history.

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non-resident, and commercial license holder) and a minimum size limit. The RIMFC is authorized to designate certain areas as Shellfish Management Areas for the purpose of enhancing the cultivation and growth of marine species, managing the harvest of marine species, planting, cultivation, propagating, managing, and developing all kinds of marine life (RIGL 20-3-4). Twenty Shellfish Management Areas are currently operating within Rhode Island. Some areas have reduced daily catch limits; some are designated for transplant stocking for either seasonal harvest or as spawner sanctuaries which are periodically restocked with transplanted shellfish and re-opened with reduced catch limits, harvest time restrictions, and short seasons; other are periodically closed due to overfishing. There are a few management areas that were closed due to overfishing but are now superceded by a pollution closure.

American Lobster (Homarus americanus) American lobsters are conspicuous members of the benthic communities in the northeast Atlantic ecosystems. They are believed to exert a significant influence on benthic communities structure and function. The American lobster is a long-lived bottom-dwelling crustacean. It is usually dark green with darker spots above and yellowish underneath. They can weigh up to 40 lbs (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). Lobsters, like all crustaceans, grow incrementally in distinct molting events. Growth rates are affected by two separate components, the size increase per molt or molt increment and the frequency of molting (Fogarty 1995). Lobster growth rates change as a function of maturity and decline as food availability and quality decline. Growth rates are known to be size and temperature specific (Aiken and Waddy 1986). The interval between molts, and therefore the annual probability of molting, increases with increasing size. Increased temperature decreases the intermolt interval therefore increasing the frequency of molting (Aiken 1977; Aiken and Waddy 1995; Cobb 1995). Depending on water temperature, there may be 1 to 2 major molt periods per year. The great majority of lobsters molt in July and August. A lobster usually increases 14% in length and 50% in weight with each molt (Dow et al. 1966). Lobsters molt several times a year during the first 2 years of their lives, once a year from approximately their third to fifth year and once every 2 years or less, thereafter. Lobsters molt approximately 20 times (in 5 to 8 years) before reaching minimum legal size (Olsen and Stevenson 1975; Aiken and Waddy 1995). Minimum legal size in Rhode Island waters and the other Atlantic coastal states is currently 3¼ inches (82.6 mm CL). The American lobster is distributed in the Northwest Atlantic in continental shelf waters from Labrador, Canada to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina from coastal regions out to depths of 700 m (400 fathoms) (Saila and Pratt 1973; Idoine 1998). Inshore, it is most

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abundant from Maine through New Jersey with abundance declining from south of Long Island Sound. Offshore, it occurs from Maine through North Carolina. Lobsters are most abundant in relatively shallow coastal zones. Coastal lobsters are concentrated in rocky areas where shelter is readily available, although occasional high densities occur in mud substrates suitable for burrowing. Offshore populations are most abundant in the vicinity of submarine canyons along the continental shelf edge (Idoine 1998). In Rhode Island waters, lobsters are close to shore and most abundant among rocks where hiding places are plentiful, although high catches from trawls and traps are reported on soft, featureless bottoms. They are found in all salt ponds with permanent breachways (Sisson 1974). For assessment purposes, three stock areas – the Gulf of Maine (GOM), Georges Bank and South (GBS), and South of Cape Cod to Long Island Sound (SCCLIS) – have been recognized, based on differences in biological attributes and exploitation patterns. Six management areas have also been formed to facilitate communication among fishermen. Rhode Island waters fall in Management Area 2, which also encompasses parts of Connecticut, Massachusetts waters south of Cape Cod, and federal waters. Recruit and full recruit lobster abundance in Rhode Island waters has fluctuated considerably over the long term. Very low abundance occurred from 1959 to 1965 followed by an increase to medium levels from 1966 to 1976 (Figure 4a). A second period of low abundance occurred which preceded an impressive increase to high levels. Recent survey data indicates that the increase has leveled off but the resource remains at above average levels. The lobster resource is intensively exploited and regarded as growth overfished and overfished by the EPR10% threshold throughout its range by NMFS and ASMFC. However, the recent stock assessment did not find evidence for recruitment overfishing. Fishing mortality has been high for almost a decade. The federal survey also shows high abundance levels in recent years despite high exploitation rates. How lobster have increased to high abundance levels despite overfishing remains a paradox and may possibly be explained a highly resilient stock-recruitment relationship and environmentally mediated increases in productivity. Pelagic larvae feed largely on copepods and diatoms (Mead 1908). Postlarvae exhibit a predominantly carnivorous food habitat (Olsen and Stevenson 1975; Juinio and Cobb 1992). In coastal waters of Rhode Island, postlarvae feed primarily on larvae of several decapod crustaceans, a variety of copepods, fish eggs, and insect parts (Juinio and Cobb 1992). Marked differences in lobster maturity have been noted on a regional basis. In particular, lobsters mature at a smaller size in relatively warm water locations, such as the Gulf of St. Lawrence and inshore bays and estuaries of the southern New England region (Aiken and Waddy 1980, 1986; Van Engel 1980; Waddy et al. 1995). In contrast, lobsters in offshore regions off the New England coast, in the Gulf of Marine, and in the Bay of Fundy mature at larger sizes (Krouse 1973; Campbell and Robinson 1983; Fogarty and Idoine 1988). Initial spawning size varies from as small as 2.2 inches carapace length (CL) in Long Island Sound to 4.3 inches CL in the Bay of Fundy (Waddy et al. 1995). Lobsters exhibit a complex life cycle in which mating primarily follows molting of the female. Eggs (7,000 to 80,000) are extruded and carried under the female's abdomen

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during a 9 to 11 month incubation period. The eggs hatch during late spring or early summer and spend a month as pelagic larvae and undergo three molts before attaining adult characteristics and settling to the bottom (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). During their first year on the sea bottom, lobsters move little and can be found within a meter of where they settled (Wahle 1992; Palma et al. 1999). As they grow, their daily and annual range of movement increases. In general, mature legal-sized lobsters are proportionately more abundant offshore and in deeper waters (Harding and Trites 1989a, b). However, large sexually mature lobsters are capable of traversing great distances and show a variety of different migration behaviors. Pezzack and Duggan (1986) identified three migratory behaviors which include ground keepers that do not migrate, seasonal migrators – females that move from deep to shallow to thermoregulate for optimal egg development, and long-distance migrators. Migratory behaviors differ geographically and may be under genetic control. In general, migrating lobsters move offshore in the fall and winter, and inshore in the spring and summer. In Rhode Island, lobsters migrate into the Bay and other inshore areas in the spring and return to the Sounds in the fall (Jeffries and Johnson 1974). Saila and Flowers (1968) established that offshore lobsters transplanted into Narragansett Bay tend to return to their original habitat, traveling as much as 136 nautical miles. Prior to 1950, lobsters were taken offshore primarily as incidental trawl catches in demersal fisheries. In 1969, technological advances permitted the introduction of trap fishing to deeper offshore areas. The principal fishing gear used to catch lobsters is the trap. Lobsters are also taken with otter trawls and fish traps. Approximately 98.5% of landings are taken with traps and the remaining 1.5% with trawls. Recreational fishing occurs in coastal waters with pots and by hand while SCUBA diving. Lobster provide a valuable commercial fishery (NEFSC 1996). There are no recorded recreational landings for lobster in Rhode Island but there are restrictions on recreational harvest. Commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1880 to 1998 (Figure 4b). From 1880 to 1905, landings remained under 1 million pounds (lbs). Landings increased from 1905 to 1932 to levels above 1 million lbs, sometimes exceeding 1.5 million lbs. After 1932, lobster landings fell to levels below 1 million lbs reaching a low of 90,000 lbs in 1952. Landings slowly increased until 1964, after which they started to dramatically increase and reached a peak of 5.4 million lbs in 1971. Landings once again declined, however, they only reached a low of 1.8 million lbs in 1981 and then increased and reached a peak in 1991 of 7.5 million lbs. Since 1991, landings have declined and in 1999 are about 6 million pounds. Value of commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1950 to 1998 (Figure 4b). From 1950 to 1963, the value of lobster landings remained fairly constant with an average value of $190,000. Values started to rise in 1964, peaked at almost $7 million from 1975 to 1977 and dropped slightly to $4.5 million in 1981. Values again rose in 1982 and reached a maximum peak in 1992 at $21 million. Values have remained steady since.

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Figure 4. (a) Narragansett Bay lobster index of abundance. (b) Rhode Island lobster production history.

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Throughout the range, the fishery has become increasingly dependent on newly recruited animals, those lobsters that have just grown into legal size (in some areas more than 90% of the lobsters landed are newly recruited to the fishery). Concern about lobster harvest levels in the early 1970s prompted the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission to prepare a Fishery Management Plan for American Lobster in 1978. Fisheries within 3 mi of shore are managed by the various states under the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission's Interstate Fishery Management Plan for American Lobster. The offshore fishery, beyond 3 miles, is managed under the New England Fishery Management Council's Lobster Fishery Management Plan implemented in 1983. Since that time, effort in the fishery and concern for the lobster resource have both grown, with a number of amendments added. American lobster populations are regulated primarily by a minimum CL and protection of ovigerous females. Amendment 3 to the American Lobster Fishery Management Plan, approved in December 1997, incorporates effort reduction and area management and contains coastwide regulations on minimum CL, prohibition of berried and v-notched female lobsters, escape vent size, traps sizes and numbers, limits on nontrap fishermen landings, and requirements for biodegradable mesh panels (Idoine 1998; NMFS 1999). Area management plans are pending approval with the ASMFC Lobster Management Board. There has been an increase in shell disease in lobsters in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New York waters. There is evidence that indicate that 71% of animals infected with shell disease die, and they don’t have to be severely infected. There may also be consequences to growth and reproduction (Taylor 1948). Studies done by the RIDFW and URI Fisheries Department indicate that overall, 20% of the Rhode Island lobsters displayed some sort of shell disease in 1999 which has been increasing every year since 1996. The highest infection rate is for egg bearing females with 56% infection rate. Shell disease is now evident in lobsters in the offshore canyons.

Winter Flounder (Pleuronectes americanus)

The winter or blackback flounder is a small-mouthed, right-handed, and thick-bodied fish. Color varies but generally the darkest of the flatfish; adults are commonly 12 to 15 inches long and weigh 1½ to 2 lbs (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The winter flounder is distributed in estuaries, coastal waters, and offshore fishing banks of the Northwest Atlantic from Labrador, Canada to Georgia. Abundance is highest from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Chesapeake Bay (Brown and Gabriel 1998; Anonymous 1995). Studies indicate separate groups of winter flounder north of Cape Cod, east and south of Cape Cod, and on Georges Bank. Recently, three groups have been recognized for assessment purposes: Gulf of Maine, Southern New England–Middle Atlantic, and a Georges Bank group (Brown and Gabriel 1998).

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Winter flounder are found in Narragansett Bay and the Sounds off the Rhode Island coast. For most of the twentieth century, they were by far the most abundant fish species in Rhode Island waters (Jeffries and Johnson 1974; Oviatt and Nixon 1973; Richards 1963). Winter flounder abundance in the Narragansett Bay area has fluctuated considerably over the past four decades (Figure 5a). Abundance peaked in the mid-1960s and the early 1980s. Both peaks were followed by steep declines, the second more pronounced than the first. Recent data show some increase but abundance remains below the long-term average value. Winter flounder are caught over all kinds of bottom in the Sounds and Bay. Inshore, in salt ponds and estuaries, they prefer muddy sand (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953), especially areas with patches of eelgrass. Winter flounder are also common on cleaner sand, on clay, and even on pebbly and gravelly ground. When they are on soft bottom they usually lie buried, all but the eyes, working themselves down into the mud almost instantly when they settle from swimming. Flounders that live on the flats usually lie motionless over the low tide to become more active on the flood, when they scatter in search of food. They keep near the bottom and don’t come up to the surface as the summer flounder so often does. Though they spend most of their time lying motionless, they can dash for a few yards with astonishing rapidity. It is in this manner that they usually feed, not buy rooting in the sand (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Diatoms are the first food taken after the yolk of the larval flounder is absorbed (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Thereafter, the diet consists primarily of benthic invertebrates including primarily polychaetes and larger amphipods (Jeffries and Johnson 1974; Brown and Gabriel 1998). The winter flounder breeds in winter and early spring, spawning from January to May (inclusive) in New England (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). They spawn on sandy bottom in water as shoal as 1 to 3 fathoms (6 to 18 feet). Winter flounder undertake small-scale migrations into estuaries, embayments, and salt-water ponds in winter to spawn, subsequently moving to deeper water during summer (Brown and Gabriel 1998). Tagging studies in Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island coastal salt ponds indicate that winter flounder spawning in these areas make an offshore and easterly migration when estuarine water temperature rise above preferred levels (Powell 1989). Some Rhode Island tagged fish moved as far as the Vineyard Sound and Nantucket, Massachusetts, but more are recovered in Narragansett Bay or coastal waters (Powell 1989; Gibson 1991, 1998). There is evidence of homing behavior in winter flounder in which they tend to return to the same portion of the Bay or the same salt pond where they hatched and return to the same spawning locations in consecutive years (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Brown and Gabriel 1998). It has long been believed that the winter flounder is one of the most stationary of our fishes, apart from seasonal movements of the sorts just mentioned, and apart for a general tendency for the fry that are produced in bays and estuaries to work offshore as they grow older (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Winter flounder support important commercial and recreational fisheries. Winter flounder are typically exploited in coastal locations, although offshore shoal areas,

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particularly Georges Bank and Nantucket Shoals, support important winter flounder fisheries. The principal commercial fishing gear used is the otter trawl. Fish traps take an insignificant portion of the Rhode Island winter flounder catch. Recreational catches are significant, especially in the Southern parts of the range (Brown and Gabriel 1998). Commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1937 to 1998. Landings averaged roughly 500,000 pounds (lbs) in the late 1930s and early 1940s and steadily increased to a peak of approximately 5.5 million lbs in 1970 and 1971. There was a sharp decline in 1976 to 2.6 millions lbs and then landings increased again to the largest peak of 9.3 million lbs in 1981. Landings have been steadily decreasing since 1981 to 1.3 million lbs in 1998. Recreational catches were not estimated before 1981. Recreational catches in Rhode Island increased from approximately 150,000 lbs in 1981 to a peak in 1986 of 1.8 million lbs and have steadily decreased since. Combined commercial and recreational landings in Rhode Island are shown in Figure 5b. From 1937 to 1980 landings shown are only commercial landings. Recreational landings are included from 1981 to 1998. Trends are the same as mentioned above for commercial landings. Value data for Rhode Island is available from 1955 to 1998 and only includes the value of commercial landings (Figure 5b). Values exhibit a similar trend to landings with a steady increase to 1985 where they peaked at $4.2 million and have steadily decreased since to $1.5 million in 1998. U.S. commercial and recreational fisheries are managed under the New England Fishery Management Council’s Multispecies Fishery Management Plan (FMP) and the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission’s Fishery Management Plan for Inshore Stocks of Winter Flounder. Current management measures under the Multispecies FMP include a moratorium on commercial permits, days-at-sea restrictions, time/area closures, gear restriction, and minimum size limits. The most recent stock assessment review (28th SARC Review Panel) indicated that southern New England winter flounder are at a medium level of abundance and fully exploited (NEFSC 1999). However, increases in spawning stock biomass and reductions in fishing mortality were evident. Recovery of winter flounder in Rhode Island is lagging behind that of the regional stock (NEFSC 1999). In Rhode Island, the most recent stock status review indicated that winter flounder abundance in Rhode Island waters of Narragansett Bay remained low with poor recruitment and fishing mortality rates above the fishing mortality rebuilding target (Gibson 1998). Recent examination of the trawl survey abundance trends (Lynch 1997) shows low abundance in Narragansett Bay in both the spring and the fall but increasing abundance in Rhode Island and Block Island Sounds in the spring.

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Summer Flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) Summer flounder or fluke is a large-mouth, left-handed fish. Color varies from nearly white to almost black. Maximum weight is 15 lbs and length is 3 feet (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The summer flounder is distributed along the continental waters of the eastern United States from Maine to South Carolina, possibly to Florida and are chiefly found south of Cape Cod (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Summer flounder are found in Rhode Island waters from June to November in shallow water along the ocean coast and in estuaries. They are most abundant in 8 to 10 fathoms (48 t0 60 feet) of water (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The URIGSO trawl survey indicates that summer flounder have exhibited several periods of high abundance. Abundance was high in 1959 to 1962, 1975 to 1982 and most recently in 1996 to 1998 (Figure 6a). Quite low stock levels occurred in 1967 to 1972 and in 1989 to 1994. The RIDFW survey confirms the most recent increase in abundance. The coast wide NMFS stock assessment also corroborates this pattern, showing a steep decline in spawning biomass from 1982 to 1989 followed by a recovery to former levels. That assessment indicates that the stock was subject to very high exploitation rates during the period of decline. The recent recovery is coincident with intensive management, which consists of increases in minimum size, restrictive commercial quotas, and recreational bag limits. Increasing biomass of summer flounder while biomass of resident flatfish remains low may be a key to understanding fish dynamics in the Bay. Summer flounder are found on hard sand in the summer and often in mud in the fall. They frequently lurk in eelgrass or among the piling of docks; but they are swift swimmers when disturbed (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The summer flounder is a predaceous fish, feeding largely on smaller fish of various sorts, on squids, crabs, shrimps, and other crustaceans, as well as on small-shelled mollusks, worms, and sand dollars. It is very fierce and active in pursuit of prey, often following schools of small fish right up to the surface, to jump clear of the water in its dashes (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Spawning begins at about age two or three and occurs during autumn and early winter while the fish are moving offshore or at the wintering grounds. The larvae are transported inshore by prevailing water currents, entering coastal and estuarine nursery areas from October to May. The fry become bottom-dwelling upon reaching the coast and spend their first year in bays or inshore areas. Young-of-the-year summer flounder occur sporadically in bays from southern New England to New Jersey; however, the principal nursery grounds are in estuaries and bays of Virginia and North Carolina (Poole 1966). At the end of their first year, some of the juveniles join the adult offshore migration (Anonymous 1995; Terceiro 1998).

22

Summer flounder are concentrated in bays and estuaries from late spring through early autumn, when an offshore migration to the outer continental shelf is undertaken to depths of 20 to 100 fathoms (120 to 600 feet) of water during the fall and winter (Terceiro 1998; Anonymous 1995). The migratory patterns of summer flounder vary with latitude with fish spawning and moving offshore earlier in the northern part of the range. There is indication that summer flounder migrate south and offshore in the fall from summering areas in New Jersey and New York, and migrate inshore to the north and east in the spring (Anonymous 1995). Summer flounder are a highly prized food fish sought by both recreational and commercial fishermen throughout their range. Summer flounder support commercial fisheries along the Atlantic coast, principally from Massachusetts south to North Carolina. There are two major commercial trawl fisheries, one offshore during the winter and the other inshore during the summer. The principal gear used in commercial fishing for summer flounder is the otter trawl. Summer flounder are also taken by pound net and gill nets in the estuarine waters of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina (Anonymous 1995). Summer flounder also support a substantial recreational fishery in which they are primarily caught by hook-and-line in bays and inshore waters from April/May to October/November. Recreational landings typically account for 45 to 70 percent of the total landings and in some years recreational landings have exceeded the commercial total (Terceiro 1998; NMFS 1999). Recreational fishing directed for summer flounder typically accounts for nearly 12 percent of all marine recreational fishing trips coastwide (Anonymous 1995). Commercial landings data for Rhode Island are available from 1937 to 1998. Landings data exhibits a trend of lows and highs. Landings averaged roughly 300,000 pounds (lbs) in the late 1930s and 1940s. There was a small peak in 1954 and 1955 of approximately 2 millions lbs followed by a steady decline in landings from 1955 to 1972 reaching a low of approximately 250,000 lbs. After 1972, landings increased to a peak in 1976 of almost 7 million lbs and then again decreased to a low of 1.2 million lbs in 1980. In 1985, landings reached the highest peak of 7.5 millions lbs and then dropped off and have remained around 2 million lbs since 1990. Recreational catches in Rhode Island were not estimated before 1981. There was a peak in landings of 600,000 lbs in 1982, landings decreased until 1986 where there was a large peak of 2.6 millions lbs in 1986. Landings again decreased to a low of 91,000 lbs in 1990 and have steadily increased since and were 785,000 lbs in 1998. Combined commercial and recreational landings in Rhode Island are shown in Figure 6b. From 1937 to 1980, landings shown are only commercial landings. Recreational landings are included from 1981 to 1998. Trends are the same as mentioned above for commercial landings, however, the highest peak was in 1986 at 9.7 million lbs due to the inclusion of recreational landings. Value data for Rhode Island is available from 1955 to 1998 and only includes value of commercial landings (Figure 6b).

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The trend is similar to the landings data, i.e., the peaks and valleys occur in the same years. The value of landings average around $200,000 from 1955 to 1974. After 1974, the value of landings started to increase to a peak of $3.5 million in 1976 and declined to $1.1 million in 1980. Values increased steadily to a maximum peak of $9.0 million in 1986 and again decreased to $3 million in 1990 and 1991. Since 1991, the value of landings has fluctuated up and down between $3 million and $5 million. The summer flounder resource is managed under a joint Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) – Mid-Atlantic Fisheries Management Council (MAFMC) Summer Flounder Fishery Management Plan which was initially approved in 1988 but subsequently modified by a series of amendments (NMFS 1999). Amendment 2 to the FMP made several major regulatory changes including annual commercial quotas, recreational harvest limits, a commercial vessel permit moratorium on entry to the fishery, minimum fish size and gear restriction (i.e., minimum mesh requirements for trawls), and a recreational fishery possession limit. Other recreational management measures include minimum size limits, creel limits, and seasonal closures (Anonymous 1995). The summer flounder stock is at an intermediate level of historical (1968-1996) abundance and is overexploited (Terceiro 1998). Stock abundance, and hence the catches, are currently being sustained by fish age two and younger. This situation puts recruitment at risk because older and larger spawning adults can produce many more offspring than those just reaching maturity (Anonymous 1995).

Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis) The striped bass, also known as striper and rockfish, is relatively deep-bodied with a broad tail. It is dark olive green to bluish above, silver sides barred with narrow dark stripes. It usually ranges from 3 to 40 lbs with lengths of 18 to 48 inches (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). In general, female striped bass grow considerably larger than males (ASMFC 1990). This fish is long-lived (at least up to 29 years of age) (Anonymous 1995). They are powerful fish that live in small groups during their first 2 years, then congregate in larger schools, and later are more often found single or only a few together (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The striped bass is distributed along the Atlantic coast from the St. Lawrence estuary, Canada to northern Florida (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Shepard 1998). It has been successfully introduced in numerous inland lakes and reservoirs and to the Pacific coast, where it now occurs from British Columbia, Canada to Ensenada, Mexico (Shepard 1998). Four primary stocks of striped bass occur along the Atlantic coast: Hudson River

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(New York), Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay (Maryland), and Roanoke River (North Carolina) (NMFS 1999). Striped bass are found in Rhode Island waters from June through November. The coast wide striped bass stock collapsed in the early 1980’s under heavy exploitation and failing recruitment (Figure 7a). Both commercial and recreational fisheries harvested excessive numbers of small fish. An extensive stock rebuilding program, which continues today, has allowed for a recovery of the coast wide stock. Both trawl surveys and recreational catch per unit effort (CPUE) indices show the recent rebound in the stock. Very recent indices have declined again and this may be indicative of exploitation rates exceeding management plan targets. The great majority of the total population of bass frequent the coastline, except at breeding season. Among these, the smaller sizes, up to 15 lbs or so, are found within enclosed bays, in small marsh estuaries, in the mouth of rivers, and off the open coast. Bass off the open coast are most likely to be found along sandy beaches, in shallow bays, along rocky stretches, over and among submerged or partially submerged rocks and boulders, and at the mouths of estuaries. Striped bass remain in near offshore waters and are usually found no more than 6 to 8 km offshore (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). The bass is very voracious, feeding on smaller fishes of whatever kind may be available, and on a wide variety of invertebrates, particularly crustaceans (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Most striped bass along the Atlantic coast are involved in two types of migrations: an upriver spawning migration from late winter to early spring and coastal migrations that are apparently not associated with spawning activity (Shepherd 1998). The bass is an anadromous species; that is, they spawn in fresh or nearly fresh waters at the heads of estuaries or in fresh rivers, never off the open coast in salt water, and migrate to coastal waters to mature. Along the Atlantic coast, the spawning season occurs from mid-February in Florida, late April to early May in North Carolina, in May in the Chesapeake Bay regions and waters of New York. In the northern areas of their region, such as the southern shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the lower St. Lawrence River, spawning occurs in June and July (Raney 1952; Bigelow and Schroeder 1953; Barkuloo 1970). The number of rivers with spawning populations of striped bass have been greatly decreased over the past several hundred years by pollution and dams (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). As mentioned earlier, the Atlantic coastal stocks of striped bass are primarily the product of four distinct spawning stocks (ASMFC 1990; NMFS 1999). Atlantic coastal fisheries for striped bass rely primarily on production from populations spawning in the Hudson River and in tributaries of Chesapeake Bay (NEFSC 1998). The largest producer area is the Chesapeake Bay and includes most of the rivers and estuaries within the Bay (ASMFC 1990) and fish spawning in rivers that empty into it form a large portion of those that migrate to New England waters every spring (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953). Historically, dominant year-classes from the Chesapeake Bay stock supported the coastal fisheries from Maine to North Carolina (Grove et al. 1976;

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Berggren and Lieberman 1978), although in more recent years fish from the Hudson River stock have contributed a substantial proportion of the catch in some coastal areas (Fabrizio 1987a, 1987b; Wirgin et al. 1993) including the waters of Rhode Island where the fall coastal fishery relies upon large contributions from the Hudson River stock (Fabrizio 1987a). In March to April, mature striped bass migrate to estuarine spawning grounds where spawning occurs over the course of several weeks. After spawning, they return to coastal waters and the feeding migration begins (NEFSC 1998). The migration of the striped bass is complex. Coastal migrations, which apparently are not associated with spawning activity (Merriman 1937, 1941; Vladykov and Wallace 1938), begin in early spring. The migratory segment of the adult population is made up of several year classes, or generations, of bass (Fabrizio 1983). From Cape Hatteras, NC north to New England, striped bass undergo seasonal migrations between their estuarine spawning grounds and the Atlantic coast. Coastal migrations generally proceed northward during the spring and summer, occurring from the mid-Atlantic area to New England (ASMFC 1990) with larger fish moving as far north as the Bay of Fundy. In the fall, the direction of migration reverses and there is a general southward movement with fish overwintering in deeper portions of mouths of estuaries from New England to North Carolina (Vladykov and Wallace 1938, 1952; Merriman 1941; Chapoton and Sykes 1961; Clark 1968; ASMFC 1990). Although overwintering striped bass have been found from the Gulf of Maine to North Carolina, the major areas of concentration appear to be in the New York Bight and along the coast of North Carolina (NEFSC 1998). In general, sexually immature fish of both sexes remain in their natal estuary until about age 2. However, seasonal movement and location of fish is related to age, sex, degree of maturity, and natal river. The migratory pattern is important in management issues (ASMFC 1990). On the Atlantic coast, the male striped bass tend to remain on the coast near their natal and spawning grounds even after they mature (Raney 1952), whereas female striped bass tend to migrate much greater distances than males (Merriman 1941; Raney 1952). Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) found that approximately 90% of all striped bass captured in northern waters were females. There seems to be a dominance of males in the earlier years, years 2 and 3, which changes to a female dominance at ages 5 to 7 (Setzler et al. 1980). Female striped bass on their feeding migration in coastal Rhode Island waters were all mature by age-class 7 (Berlinsky et al. 1995). Commercial fisheries are managed by size limits and quotas. Recreational fisheries are currently controlled by a combination of size limits, bag limits, and fishing seasons (Anonymous 1995). Commercial fisheries use a variety of gear including haul seines, trawls, pound net, gillnets, and hook-and-line (NMFS 1999). Commercial landings for Rhode Island for striped bass are available from 1930 to 1998. Since 1930, landings mostly remained below 100,000 pounds (lbs) until 1971. From 1971 to 1977, landings were greater than 100,000 lbs with a peak of over 600,000 lbs in 1973. From 1978 to 1980, landings declined to a low of 20,000 lbs, rose again from 1981 to 1983 to over 250,000 lbs and again declined to 500 lbs in 1987. Landings started to increase after 1989 to roughly 100,000 lbs from 1995 to 1998. Recreational landings for

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Rhode Island are available from 1981 to 1998. Landings in 1981 were approximately 46,000 lbs and decreased steadily to 1985. From 1986 to 1998, landings increased to a maximum peak of 950,000 lbs in 1996. Recreational landings from 1986 to 1998 were greater than commercial landings. Combined commercial and recreational landings are shown in Figure 7b. From 1930 to 1981, only commercial landings are included. Landings fluctuated from 11,000 lbs to over 300,000 lbs until 1973 where there was a peak at over 600,000 lbs. Landings decreased with a few peaks in between and from 1986 to 1998 landings data were significantly influenced by recreational landings. The maximum peak from 1996 to 1997 was over 1 million lbs which was almost entirely recreational landings. Value data for Rhode Island is from 1955 to 1998 and only includes commercial data (Figure 7b). The trends are similar to the landings data with corresponding peaks and valleys. The maximum peak occurred in 1982 with landings valued at almost $400,000. During most of the 1970s and 1980s, juvenile production in the Chesapeake Bay was extremely poor, causing a severe decline in commercial and recreational landings during the mid-1970s (Boreman and Austin 1985). Poor recruitment for Chesapeake Bay was probably due primarily to overfishing; but poor water quality in spawning and nursery habitats also likely contributed (NEFSC 1998). The declining landings coupled with consistently poor recruitment indices in the Chesapeake Bay provided the impetus for highly restrictive management actions taken by ASMFC in the 1980s (NMFS 1999). Stringent management measures were adopted by states from North Carolina to Maine in an attempt to rebuild the Chesapeake stocks. In 1981, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) developed and adopted the Fishery Management Plan for the Striped Bass of the Atlantic Coast from Maine to North Carolina. The Plan has been amended five times since then. Under this program, Atlantic striped bass have made the most significant recovery ever experienced for a coastal finfish species. The Commission declared that the Chesapeake Bay stocks of Atlantic striped bass which support the greatest portion of the coastal stock, was recovered as of January 1, 1995. The Roanoke River/Albemarle Sound, NC stock of striped bass was declared recovered by the Management Board in October, 1997, with data suggesting that spawning stock biomass has recovered to historical levels observed in the 1960s. The Delaware River stock of striped bass may also have recovered to historical levels (NEFSC 1998). Amendment 5, currently in effect, completely replaces the original Plan and all subsequent amendments and addenda. The goal of Amendment 5 is “to perpetuate, through cooperative interstate fishery management, migratory stocks of Atlantic striped bass so as to allow a commercial and recreational harvest consistent with the long-term maintenance of self-sustaining spawning stocks and to provide for the restoration and maintenance of their critical habitat.” To accomplish this goal, states are required to implement a variety of regulations and monitoring programs within their jurisdictions.

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ASMFC has begun development of Amendment 6 to address technical stock sustainability and social issues of fairness and equity resulting form the dual size limit underlying Amendment 5.

Longfin Squid (Loligo pealei) The longfin squid has a flattened cylinder body with fins more than half the length of the trunk; it has eight long arms and two longer tentacles. Commonly 8 inches long; dark grey with reddish spots (Olsen and Stevenson 1975). They are jet propelled, moving by means of a siphon that takes water in and expels it (Iversen 1996). Growth rate is thought to be highest during the first few months after hatching and is dependent upon the sex, the season, and the data of hatching (Hixon et al. 1981). This species is sexually dimorphic with males growing faster than females (Hixon et al. 1981; Cadrin 1998). Maximal size is dependent upon geographic locations, sex, and the size at which sexual maturation occurs. Males grow 16 to 24 mm per month in length and females 15 to 23 mm per month in length in Rhode Island waters. The life span of L. pealei is 14 to 24 months (Summers 1971). The largest specimens of L. pealei have been reported from New England coastal waters (Hixon et al. 1981). Some males attain dorsal mantle lengths of more than 16 in, although most squid harvested in the commercial fishery are less than 12 in long (Cadrin 1998). The longfin squid is distributed from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras (Summers 1969). It can be found in Rhode Island waters from April through October. There is a strong correlation between abundance and bottom temperatures over 46°F. The largest biomass is at depth between 55 to 92 fathoms (Summers 1969). The longfin inshore squid school in continental shelf and slope waters from Newfoundland to the Gulf of Venezuela (Cadrin 1998). Adults are demersal during the day and disperse vertically at night (Summers 1969), however, newly hatched squid actively maintain position at the surface under all conditions of illuminations (McMahon and Summers 1971) and move deeper in the water column as they grow larger (Vecchione 1981). Longfin squid were in very low abundance until about 1982 at which point a steep increase began (Figure 8a). Rhode Island commercial landings increased by an order of magnitude from 1981 to 1992. Abundance has leveled off in recent years in both trawl surveys. The federal survey also shows stable and high abundance levels but the transition from lower to higher abundance occurred earlier. The resource is considered fully exploited by the National Marine Fisheries Service. They are voracious feeders; juveniles feed principally on small crustaceans; adults on small fish (Rathjen 1973). Squid spawn from June through September in inshore waters

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(Summers 1968) at depths not exceeding 45 fathoms. North of Cape Hatteras, individuals migrate seasonally, moving offshore during late autumn to overwinter in warmer waters along the edge of the continental shelf. Since the northern limit of squid in the winter is some 375 miles south of the summer limit there must be a north-south component to migrations. The bulk of the population is found just below the break in the continental shelf in the late winter and migrates some 200 kilometers to inshore waters in the spring (Summers 1969). The U.S. squid fishery began in the late 1800s as a source of bait and a valuable market for human consumption developed in the 1960s. A directed foreign fishery developed in the late 1960s, and distant water fleets exploited longfin squid throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. Annual landings fluctuate widely, because squid generations have minimal overlap from year to year and seasonal dynamics are sensitive to environmental factors. Since 1986 there have been no allocations to foreign nationals and foreign landings have been negligible (Cadrin 1998). Within its range of commercial exploitation longfin squid compromise a unit stock and form commercially significant aggregations that sustain otter trawl and trap fisheries from Georges Bank to Cape Hatteras, N.C. (NMFS 1999). Most landings are taken from Southern New England, New York, and Mid-Atlantic waters. Fishing patterns reflect seasonal distribution of the stock; most effort is directed offshore from October to March and then inshore from April to September. The fishery is dominated by small-mesh otter trawlers, but substantial landings are also taken from pound nets and fish traps in spring and summer. Since 1987, winter fishing effort has increased, and offshore landings have generally been three-fold greater than inshore landings (Cadrin 1998). There are no recreational landings data for squid in Rhode Island. Rhode Island commercial landings are available from 1898 to 1998 and include both the longfin squid (as discussed here) and the northern shortfin squid (Figure 8b). From 1898 to 1978, Rhode Island landings averaged 850,000 pounds (lbs) and only reached levels greater than 2 million lbs in 1976. Landings steadily increased and reached a peak of almost 44 million lbs in 1993, then dropped slightly to 28.7 million lbs in 1997, and increased in 1998 to almost 40 million lbs. Value of commercial landings data for Rhode Island is available from 1950 to 1998 (Figure 8b). The trend is similar to the landings trend. Values remained below $1 million from 1950 to 1982. From 1983 to 1994 values increased to a peak of $21 million in 1994. Values dropped again to a low of $15 million and rose again in 1998 to $20 million. The longfin squid stock is managed by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council under the Atlantic Mackerel, Squid, and Butterfish Fishery Management Plan. Management measures include use of moratorium permits, annual quota specifications and gear restrictions (Cadrin 1998).

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In 1996, management targets for the longfin squid stock were reevaluated to reflect recent research on its life history. The short lifespan of longfin squid combined with their rapid growth capacity to spawn year-round leads to a seasonally dynamic resource. The potential for recruitment overfishing of the stock is substantial because longfin squid recruit to the fishery and to the spawning stock in the same year. This resource is considered to be fully exploited. Fishing mortality rate corresponding to overfishing definition is FMAX = 0.38 (winter cohort) and FMAX = 0.36 (summer cohort) (Cadrin 1998).

ECONOMIC VALUE OF RHODE ISLAND FISHERIES

The economic value of Rhode Island capture fisheries must be considered at several levels. The primary division is between commercial and recreational fisheries, and secondary division considers the domestic versus export markets for commercial fishery landings, and actual expenses versus willingness to pay for the recreational fisheries. The economic value of the capture fisheries of the state of Rhode Island has been documented in the recent past. Gates and Zucker in 1994 evaluated the commercial fisheries of Rhode Island in a white paper on data, produced for the Office of Systems Planning, Department of Administration, State of Rhode Island. This study considered the natural resource base, harvest sector, processing and distribution sectors; and it superceded a 1975 study by Callaghan and Comerford of the economic impact of commercial fishing in Rhode Island. The value of the recreational fisheries has also been studied previously, Fedler and Nickum (1993) documented the economic impact of sport fishing in Rhode Island in 1991 based on data collected and published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Expenditure information was used in an input-output model to estimate output, earnings, and employment that could be attributed to spending by anglers. A year later, Tyrrell, Devitt, and Smith (1994) further analyzed the impacts of recreational fishing in Narragansett Bay in a report to the RI DEM, Narragansett Bay Project on the economic importance of Narragansett Bay. The analysis presented herein will utilize the methods and results of these previous studies, updated to the year 2000, where possible. Commercial Capture Fisheries Rhode Island commercial landings (millions of pounds) of all fishery resources have grown steadily since the mid 1960s (Figure 9a). Finfish and squid peaked at more than 125 million pounds in the mid 1950s, then declined markedly into the early 1960s, followed by a slow increase back to 125 million pounds in the 1990s. Shellfish landings peaked in the early 1980s, with a large offshore surf clam and ocean quahog fishery contributing more than 50% of the landings. Since 1982 however, shellfish landings have steadily declined. Crustacean landings have steadily increased in the last 50 years, to a level of about 7 million pounds in the last decade.

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The value of fishery resources commercially landed in Rhode Island has grown more than 10 fold in the last three decades (Figure 9b). The increase in value was sharp in the 1970s and 1980s, associated with the increase in fishing vessel capacity and effort following the passage of the Fishery Conservation and Management Act in 1976, but has since leveled off as some fish stocks have declined in abundance. Considering individual species groups, the total landed value of crustaceans and finfish and squid has risen steadily in the last two decades due to the combined effect of increased landings and increased price per pound. In contrast, during the same period, the total landed value of shellfish has declined markedly. The value of Narragansett Bay commercial fisheries have been estimated previously as a proportion of RI state fisheries (Tyrrell et al. 1994). It is believed that Narragansett Bay accounts for 25 to 75% of all RI shellfish landings, 5% of all RI finfish landings, and 10 to 25% of all RI lobster landings. Therefore, in 1999, the total landed value of all Narragansett Bay commercial fisheries was approximately $10 million. Based on 1996 commercial fishery statistics, the Rhode Island Seafood Council estimated that the total value of the Rhode Island seafood industry is in excess of $700 million (m), based on the following distributions (RI Seafood Council 1998):

– Total value of domestically marketed RI landings $146 m – Export sales of fish and shellfish by RI dealers $95 m – Additional economic activity accrued to the state $132 m by exports – Sales to domestic market by RI dealers of products $340 m

not landed in RI In 1996, RI landings were valued at $71.4 m, of which 39% were destined for domestic (U.S.) markets and 61% were destined for foreign export markets. Thus, the $27.8 m value of domestically marketed RI landings results in a $146 m total economic impact based on a multiplier of an additional $4.24 generated by every $1.00 of landed value (Callaghan and Comerford 1977). Recreational Fisheries The economic value of recreational fisheries is determined based on the number of fishing trips and the value assigned to each trip. The National Marine Fisheries Service collects recreational fisheries data using both dockside intercept and telephone surveys, and publishes it by the “Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey (MRFSS) of the Atlantic Coasts.” The intercept survey consists of interviews to gather catch and demographic data from marine recreational anglers who have just completed fishing activity either on a head/charter boat, a private/rental boat, or shore based. The telephone survey is carried out in 2 week periods of interviewing starting the last week of each 2 month period of fishing activity and continuing in the first week of the following month. The value of a marine recreational fishing trip includes both the direct expenses experienced by the angler for that fishing trip, and a consumer surplus associated with the fishing trip based on an estimated net willingness by an angler to pay for a fishing trip.

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Figure 9. (a) Rhode Island commercial landings of all fishery resources. (b) Value of fishery resources commercially landed in Rhode Island.

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The annual number of marine recreational fishing trips during the last two decades has averaged approximately 1 million, peaking at more than 1.6 million in 1979 and 1985 (Figure 10). The Fedler and Nickum study estimated that the average expenditures by all anglers for a fishing trip was approximately $50 in 1991. Tyrrell and Harrison 1999 estimated that the net willingness to pay for a salt water fishing trip was about $72.50. If these individual values are adjusted for inflation to 1999 based on consumer price indices and summed, then the total economic impact of a marine recreational fishing day is conservatively more than $150. Thus, during the last decade, value of recreational fishing to the state has averaged approximately $150 million.

MANAGEMENT ISSUES: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

User Conflicts that Threaten Rhode Island Fisheries Rhode Island fisheries are facing threats from other users of both Narragansett Bay and the continental shelf environments. As the marine transportation, research, education, recreation and tourism, and aquaculture sectors attempt to increase their presence in these environments, they either temporarily or permanently reduce the access of traditional capture fisheries to the area affected by their activity. Additionally, their actions may also permanently reduce the production potential of the affected environment. An increase in maritime transportation requiring the construction of facilities that impinge on the environment or the dredging of entrance channels, permanently affects the environment reducing both valuable shallow habitat and access to these habitats. Aquaculture requires the privatization of bottom acreage and water column for the industry to develop. Although economically viable, sustainably developed aquaculture will supplement seafood production for Rhode Island fisheries, it will displace or limit access of traditional fishermen. Conflicts that threaten fisheries will also extend far beyond the usual access issues in the twenty-first century. Constituencies concerned with animal cruelty have objected to catch and release recreational fisheries. Constituencies involved with endangered marine mammals, in particular, the right whale, have legitimate concerns with both entanglement problems in fixed commercial fishing gears, but also with ship strikes in critical habitat areas. The need for cooperation and conflict resolution between all interested constituencies is greater than ever. Where Have All the Winter Flounder Gone? As indicated in previous section, the abundance of winter flounder populations has fluctuated considerably in the last 40 years (Figure 5a). Both the URIGSO and RIDFW indices indicate that in the past 15 years the stocks of winter flounder has declined to record low levels, yielding less than 10% of the peak production that occurred in the early 1980s. RIDFW tagging studies indicate that the resource was badly over fished from 1986-1991 when exploitation rates averaged 70%. Other factors must be contributing to recent low abundance since fishing pressure has been greatly reduced. The current RIDFW tagging study estimates that exploitation rate on Bay flounder has been reduced

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to 24%. Winter flounder abundance in the southern New England region in general is increasing (NEFSC 1999). Trawl surveys conducted by Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the National Marine Fisheries Service show increasing abundance to the north, south, and offshore. The regional data suggest that low abundance in Narragansett Bay is related to a local factor. Winter flounder spawning in upper Narragansett Bay have been exposed to a gauntlet type fishing having been exploited in offshore, inshore, and upper bay areas. Research by RIDFW has shown that the winter flounder in Mt. Hope Bay have been adversely impacted by power plants. Habitat degradation and a complex interaction between winter water temperatures and predator efficiency on young of the year is also suspected (Jeffries 1994; Jeffries and Johnson 1974). Other Bay flatfish such as windowpane and hogchoker have also declined, indicating a general loss of productivity by the demersal fish assemblage. Changing Patterns of Abundance in Major Groups of Species Abundance of all species combined in the trawl surveys has been stable despite changes in individual or grouped species trends. Both the URIGSO and RIDFW trawl surveys show above average abundance over the past 10 years. The overall stability masks divergent patterns in major groupings of species. Abundance of demersal fishes has declined while the abundance of pelagic fish and squid has increased (Figures 11a and 11b). Lobster and crab abundance has generally increased while shellfish biomass has declined. These patterns reflect major changes in the Bay production system. They may be related to over-fishing of selected groups, habitat degradation, and critical predator-prey interactions. Long-term trends in environmental factors may also be implicated (Jeffries and Terceiro 1985). That overall abundance has remained stable suggests that there is an overall cap on the productivity of the system. This may have important implications to management efforts to rebuild depleted populations. Rebuilding Fishery Resource Stocks Over fishing has resulted in the decline of many fish stocks off the northeastern United States (NEFSC 1999). With the passage of the Sustainable Fisheries Act (SFA), the US Congress mandated that these valuable resources be rebuilt. Much management activity has followed passage of the Act on both state and federal levels. Myers et al. (1995) performed a meta-analysis of stock and recruitment data for over 100 fish stocks and found little evidence of depensatory mortality. An important implication of this work is that there is no intrinsic reason why stocks cannot be rebuilt. Although subsequent researchers have questioned the universality of the conclusion, there are some clear examples of success stories. As noted earlier, striped bass stocks along the Atlantic coast collapsed in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s. Although many factors were hypothesized, over fishing of small fish in Chesapeake Bay and along the Atlantic coast has been identified as the cause.

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Conservative regulations along the coast and a moratorium on harvest in Chesapeake Bay led to immediate increases in spawning biomass followed by increases in recruitment. Long-term abundance indices indicate that the stock is currently at high biomass levels. Although the age composition of the stock is not yet fully restored, steady recruitment indicates that this is possible in the future if fishing mortality is maintained at modest levels. Management of striped bass presents a formidable challenge as managers have little experience shifting from a collapse and rebuilding mode to a long-term sustainable fishery mode. Atlantic weakfish are in a recovery phase. The Atlantic coast stock declined to low levels in the early 1990’s under intense exploitation of adults and juveniles. The adult stock was exploited from North Carolina to Massachusetts during the seasonal north-south migration. Juvenile weakfish were killed in huge quantities in a directed fly net fishery south of Cape Hatteras and indirectly in the south Atlantic shrimp trawl fishery. Protective regulations on adults, elimination of the fly net fishery south of Hatteras, and requirements for by catch reduction devices in the shrimp trawls has led to an impressive recovery of the stock. Biomass has recovered to high levels and fishing mortality rate has dropped to below the long-term ASMFC target. Like striped bass, there is still a need to fully restore age composition in the spawning stock but much progress has been made. Weakfish were common in Rhode Island in the early 1980’s before the collapse. They have returned as evidenced by catches of young of the year in trawl surveys and increasing commercial catches. Relationship between Narragansett Bay Shellfisheries and Water Quality As noted in the previous section, the oyster and quahog fisheries in Narragansett Bay have each experienced complete cycles in the last two centuries, that is a period of rapidly increasing landings, followed by a period of slowly decreasing landings, and eventual collapse of the resource. There are several potential causes for the declines in both the landings and the abundance of those once abundant species; water quality degradation, loss of habitat, and natural environmental change. However, the decline has been attributed more often than not to degraded water quality (Desbonnet and Lee 1991). Oysters were once so abundant that they were used as animal feed and burned to produce lime (Kochiss 1974). The oyster fishery first collapsed in last 1860s due to a population explosion of the predatory starfish and overfishing. However, with the introduction of predator removal programs and several years of good natural sets, the oyster fishing recovered. In the early 1900s, the oyster fishery was booming on leased bottom using imported seed from Long Island Sound and Chesapeake Bay. However, when the supply of seed oyster declined in the 1920s, the fishery also declined. Finally, the hurricane of 1938, silted over the remaining beds. In summary, the Narragansett Bay oyster fishery initially declined due to natural predators and overfishing, and later declined due to a lack of seed oysters to support enhancement type fishery. Degraded water quality only had minimal impact of the oyster fishery.

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The quahog fishery has experience two major cycles in landings and abundance in the last century. As the oyster fishery declined, shellfishermen turned to the quahog resource and landings peaked at 5 million pounds in 1955, and then declined through 1974 to a low of 840,000 pounds. With the introduction of the bullrake in 1974, shellfishermen were able to work in deeper waters and landings increased to 4 million pounds in 1983, again followed by a decline that continues today. Clearly, while some clam beds are closed to fishing by pollution (high fecal coleform concentrations), these closed beds provide a broodstock that are probably providing larvae to the remainder of the bay. Clearly overfishing is the reason for the cycles in abundance and landings in quahogs in Narragansett Bay, not degraded water quality. Alternative Management Regimes for Rhode Island Fisheries Rhode Island fishermen are overwhelmed with fisheries management issues. The open-access aspect of the RI commercial fisheries has contributed to the overfishing problem. Competition for allocation of resource is a problem in many species taken by both commercial and recreational fishermen. The fisheries management bureaucracy governing RI fishery resources has grown, and now includes the federal agency, two regional councils, a regional commission, and the state agency. Each management bureaucracy has committees that regularly meet, and fishermen that choose to be involved in the process must attend many meetings, reducing their ability to either fish or participate in other personal activities. Despite the good intentions of all involved, the fisheries management bureaucracy has not provided adequate stewardship of the fishery resources. While there are many reasons for the failure, economists and other fishery scientists believe that failure is a predetermined destiny for an open-access system, and that fishery management must be devolved to a resource user, property right-based system, and that government should only have oversight, and not operation decision making capability (OECD 1997). The movement from an open-access fishery management regime to a property rights based system is complicated both socially and politically. Co-management of fishery resources by the state and user groups is an intermediate step in the process. The Rhode Island Marine Fisheries Council system or Advisory Panels provides a venue for discussion to occur between resource managers and users. At the University of Rhode Island, a Fish, Fisheries, and Aquaculture (FFA) Initiative has brought together academics, fishermen, and managers to engage in a discussion about property rights regimes and other innovative strategies for the management of Rhode Island fisheries.

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to the lobster (Homarus americanus). Div. Fish. Oceanogr. Circ. (Aust., CSIRO) No. 7, pp. 41-73.

Aiken, D. E. and S. L. Waddy. 1980. Reproductive biology. Pages 215-276 In J. S. Cobb,

and B. F. Phillips, editors. The Biology and Management of Lobsters Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York. 463 pp.

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American lobster Homarus americanus. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 43: 2258-2270. Aiken, D. E. and S. L. Waddy. 1995. Aquaculture. Pages 153-175 In J. R. Factor, editor.

Biology of the Lobster Homarus americanus. Academic Press, New York. 528 pp.

Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. 1990. Source document for the supplement

to the striped bass FMP – Amendment # 4. Fish. Mgmt. Rpt. # 16. 269 pp. and appendices.

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Potter Printing Co., Boston. 243 pp. Berggren, T. J. and J. T. Lieberman. 1978. Relative contribution of Hudson, Chesapeake

and Roanoke striped bass, Morone saxatilis, stocks to the Atlantic coast fishery. U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service Fishery Bulletin 76: 335-345.

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estimates for Atlantic coastal female striped bass. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 124: 207-215.

Bigelow, H. B. and W. C. Schroeder. 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. Fish. Bull., U.S.,

53(74). 577 pp. Boreman, J. and H. M. Austin. 1985. Production and harvest of anadromous striped bass

stocks along the Atlantic coast. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 114(1): 3-7.

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Bricelj, V. M. 1993. Aspects of the biology of the Northern Quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria, with emphasis on growth and survival during early life history. Pages 29-48 In M. A. Rice and D. Grossman-Garber, editors. Proceedings of the Second Rhode Island Shellfish Industry Conference, Narragansett, RI, August 4, 1992. Rhode Island Sea Grant. 106 pp.

Brown, R. and W. Gabriel. 1998. Winter flounder. In S. H. Clark, editor. Status of

Fishery Resources off the Northeastern United States for 1998. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NE-115, on-line version, http://www.nefsc.nmfs.gov/sos/spsyn/ fldrs/winter.html.

Cadrin, S. X. 1998. Longfin inshore squid. In S. H. Clark, editor. Status of Fishery

Resources off the Northeastern United States for 1998. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NE-115, on-line version, http://www.nefsc.nmfs.gov/sos/spsyn/iv/lfsquid .html.

Callaghan, D. W. and R. A. Comerford. 1977. Commercial fishing has a wide-reaching

economic effect on Rhode Island. Maritimes 21(1): 13-14. Campbell, A. and D. G. Robinson. 1983. Reproductive potential of three American

lobster (Homarus americanus) stocks in the Canadian Maritimes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40: 1958-1967.

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evidenced by fisheries and tagging. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 90: 13-20.

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and the New York Bight. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 97: 320-343.

Cobb, J. S. 1995. Interface of ecology, behavior, and fisheries. Pages 139-151 In J. R.

Factor, editor. Biology of the Lobster Homarus americanus. Academic Press, New York. 528 pp.

Desbonnet, A. and V. Lee. 1991. Links between water quality and shellfisheries in

Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Pages 11-16 In M. A. Rice, M. Grady, and M. L. Schwartz, editors. Proceedings of the First Rhode Island Shellfisheries Conference – August 27, 1990. Rhode Island Sea Grant. 105 pp.

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Atlantic Coast, Leaflet 5, Atl. States Mar. Fish. Comm. 6 pp. Fabrizio, M. C. 1983. Determining the origin of striped bass in Rhode Island waters.

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Fabrizio, M. C. 1987a. Contribution of Chesapeake Bay and Hudson River stocks of striped bass to Rhode Island coastal waters as estimated by isoelectric focusing of eye lens proteins. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 116: 588-593.

Fabrizio, M. C. 1987b. Growth-invariant discrimination and classification of striped bass

tocks by morphometric and electrophoretic methods. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 116: 728-736.

Fedler, A. J. and D. M. Nickum. 1993. The 1991 economic impact of sport fishing in

Rhode Island. Prepared for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service by the Sport Fishing Institute. Washington, D.C.

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based on size to an offshore American lobster population. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 117: 35-362.

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Fish. Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 64: 480. Ganz, A., A. Valliere, M. Gibson, and N. Lazar. 1999. Narragansett Bay quahaug

management plan. A report to the Narragansett Bay Project and Rhode Island Marine Fisheries Management Council. Department of Environmental Management – Division of Fish and Wildlife.

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winter flounder in Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island coastal waters. RI Division of Fish and Wildlife. Report to the Rhode Island Marine Fisheries Council.

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Bay: Technical analyses in support of a bay wide quahaug management plan. Appendix 11.1 Stock Assessment of the Narragansett Bay Quahaug Population In Ganz, A., A. Valliere, M. Gibson, and N. Lazar. 1999. Narragansett Bay quahaug management plan. A report to the Narragansett Bay Project and Rhode Island

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Marine Fisheries Management Council. Department of Environmental Management – Division of Fish and Wildlife.

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spawning stocks of striped bass (Morone saxatilis). Estuarine Processes 1: 166-176.

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Gulf of Maine from Browns Bank. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 46: 1077-1078. Harding, G. C. and R. W. Trites. 1989b. A further elaboration on dispersal of Homarus

americanus larvae in the Gulf of Maine from Browns Bank, in response to comments by D. S. Pezzack. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 46: 1077-1078.

Hixon, R. F., R. T. Hanlon, and W. H. Hulet. 1981. Growth and maximal size of the long-

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