nano and molecular electronics handbook …ncs.ethz.ch/pubs/pdf/indiveri_douglas07-covertoc.pdfnano...

NANOand

MOLECULARELECTRONICS

Handbook

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Nano- and Microscience, Engineering,Technology, and Medicine Series

Series EditorSergey Edward Lyshevski

Titles in the Series

Logic Design of NanoICSSvetlana Yanushkevich

MEMS and NEMS:Systems, Devices, and Structures

Sergey Edward Lyshevski

Microelectrofluidic Systems: Modeling and SimulationTianhao Zhang, Krishnendu Chakrabarty,

and Richard B. Fair

Micro Mechatronics: Modeling, Analysis, and Designwith MATLAB®

Victor Giurgiutiu and Sergey Edward Lyshevski

Microdrop GenerationEric R. Lee

Nano- and Micro-Electromechanical Systems: Fundamentalsof Nano- and Microengineering


Nano and Molecular Electronics HandbookSergey Edward Lyshevski

Nanoelectromechanics in Engineering and BiologyMichael Pycraft Hughes


NANOand

MOLECULARELECTRONICS

Edited by



CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government worksPrinted in the United States of America on acid-free paper10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-8528-8 (Hardcover)International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-8528-5 (Hardcover)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Nano and molecular electronics handbook / editor, Sergey E. Lyshevski.p. cm. -- (Nano- and microscience, engineering, technology, and

medicine series)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN-13: 978-0-8493-8528-5 (alk. paper)ISBN-10: 0-8493-8528-8 (alk. paper)1. Molecular electronics--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Lyshevski, Sergey Edward. II. Title. III. Series.

TK7874.8.N358 2007621.381--dc22 2006101011

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The Editor

Sergey Edward Lyshevski was born in Kiev, Ukraine. He received his M.S. (1980) and Ph.D. (1987) degreesfrom Kiev Polytechnic Institute, both in electrical engineering. From 1980 to 1993, Dr. Lyshevski heldfaculty positions at the Department of Electrical Engineering at Kiev Polytechnic Institute and the Academyof Sciences of Ukraine. From 1989 to 1993, he was the Microelectronic and Electromechanical SystemsDivision Head at the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. From 1993 to 2002, he was with Purdue School ofEngineering as an associate professor of electrical and computer engineering. In 2002, Dr. Lyshevski joinedRochester Institute of Technology as a professor of electrical engineering. Dr. Lyshevski serves as a FullProfessor Faculty Fellow at the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratories and Naval Warfare Centers. He is theauthor of ten books (including Logic Design of NanoICs, coauthored with S. Yanushkevich and V. Shmerko,CRC Press, 2005; Nano- and Microelectromechanical Systems: Fundamentals of Micro- and Nanoengineering,CRC Press, 2004; MEMS and NEMS: Systems, Devices, and Structures, CRC Press, 2002) and is the author orcoauthor of more than 300 journal articles, handbook chapters, and regular conference papers. His currentresearch activities are focused on molecular electronics, molecular processing platforms, nanoengineering,cognitive systems, novel organizations/architectures, new nanoelectronic devices, reconfigurable super-high-performance computing, and systems informatics. Dr. Lyshevski has made significant contributionsin the synthesis, design, application, verification, and implementation of advanced aerospace, electronic,electromechanical, and naval systems. He has made more than 30 invited presentations (nationally andinternationally) and serves as an editor of the Taylor & Francis book series Nano- and Microscience,Engineering, Technology, and Medicine.

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Contributors

Rajeev AhujaCondensed Matter Theory

GroupDepartment of PhysicsUppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden

Richard AkisCenter for Solid State

Engineering ResearchArizona State UniversityTempe, Arizona, USA

Andrea AlessandriniCNR-INFM-S3NanoStructures and

BioSystems at SurfacesModena, Italy

Supriyo BandyopadhyayDepartment of Electrical and

Computer EngineeringVirginia Commonwealth

UniversityRichmond, Virginia, USA

Valeriu BeiuUnited Arab Emirates

UniversityAl-Ain, United Arab Emirates

Robert R. BirgeDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut, USA

A.M. BratkovskyHewlett-Packard LaboratoriesPalo Alto, California, USA

J.A. BrownDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, Canada

K. BurkeDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of CaliforniaIrvine, California, USA

Horacio F. CantielloMassachusetts General HospitalandHarvard Medical SchoolCharlestown, Massachusetts,

USA

Aldo Di CarloUniversita di Roma

Tor VergataRoma, Italy

G.F. CerofoliniSTMicroelectronicsPost-Silicon TechnologyMilan, Italy

J. CuevasGrupo de Fısica No LinealDepartamento de Fısica

Aplicada IETSI Inform Universidad

de SevillaSevilla, Spain

Shamik DasNanosystems GroupThe MITRE CorporationMcLean, Virginia, USA

John M. DixonMassachusetts General HospitalandHarvard Medical SchoolCharlestown, Massachusetts,

USA

J. DorignacCollege of EngineeringBoston UniversityBoston, Massachusetts, USA

Rodney DouglasInstitute of NeuroinformaticsZurich, Switzerland

J.C. EilbeckDepartment of MathematicsHeriot-Watt UniversityRiccarton, Edinburgh, UK

James C. EllenbogenNanosystems GroupThe MITRE CorporationMcLean, Virginia, USA

Christoph ErlenTechnische Universitat

MunchenMunchen, Germany

F. EversInstitut fur Theorie der

Kondensierten MaterieUniversitat KarlsruheKarlsruhe, Germany

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Paolo FacciCNR-INFM-S3NanoStructures and

BioSystems at SurfacesModena, Italy

David K. FerryCenter for Solid State


Danko D. GeorgievLaboratory of Molecular

PharmacologyFaculty of Pharmaceutical

SciencesKanazawa University Graduate

School of Natural Scienceand Technology

Kakuma-machi KanazawaIshikawa, Japan

James F. GlazebrookDepartment of Mathematics

and Computer ScienceEastern Illinois UniversityCharleston, Illinois, USA

Anton GrigorievCondensed Matter Theory

GroupDepartment of PhysicsUppsala UniversityUppsala, Sweden

Rikizo HatakeyamaDepartment of Electronic

EngineeringTohoku UniversitySendai/Japan

Thorsten HansenDepartment of Chemistry and

International Institute forNanotechnology

Northwestern UniversityArgonne, Evanston,

Illinois, USA

Jason R. HillebrechtDepartment of Molecular and

Cell BiologyUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut, USA

Walid IbrahimUnited Arab Emirates

UniversityAl-Ain, United Arab Emirates

Giacomo IndiveriInstitute of NeuroinformaticsZurich, Switzerland

Dustin K. JamesDepartment of ChemistryRice UniversityHouston, Texas, USA

Bhargava KanchibotlaDepartment of Electrical and



Jeremy F. KoscieleckiDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut, USA

Mark P. KrebsDepartment of OphthalmologyCollege of MedicineUniversity of FloridaGainesville, Florida, USA

Craig S. LentDepartment of Electrical

EngineeringUniversity of Notre DameNotre Dame, Indiana, USA

Takhee LeeDepartment of Materials

Science and EngineeringGwangju Institute of Science

and TechnologyGwangju, Korea

Paolo LugliTechnische Universitat MunchenMunchen, Germany

Sergey Edward LyshevskiDepartment of Electrical

EngineeringRochester Institute of

TechnologyRochester, New York, USA

Lyuba MalyshevaBogolyubov Institute for

Theoretical PhysicsKiev, Ukraine

Thomas MarshUniversity of St. ThomasSt. Paul, Minnesota, USA

Duane L. MarcyDepartment of Electrical

Engineering and ComputerScience

Syracuse UniversitySyracuse, New York, USA

Robert M. MetzgerLaboratory for Molecular

ElectronicsDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of AlabamaTuscaloosa, Alabama, USA

M. MeyyappanCenter for NanotechnologyNASA Ames Research CenterMoffett Field, California, USA

Lev G. MourokhPhysics DepartmentQueens College of the City

University of New YorkFlushing, New York, USA

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Vladimiro MujicaDepartment of Chemistry and


Northwestern UniversityEvanston, Illinois, USAandArgonne National Laboratory

Center for NanoscaleMaterials

Argonne, Illinois, USA

Alexander OnipkoIFMLinkping UniversityLinkping, Sweden

Alexei O. OrlovDepartment of Electrical


F. PalmeroGrupo de Fısica No LinealDepartamento de FısicaETSI Inform Universidad

de SevillaSevilla, Spain

Alessandro PecchiaUniversita di Roma

Tor VergataRoma, Italy

Carl A. PicconattoNanosystems GroupThe MITRE CorporationMcLean, Virginia, USA

Sandipan PramanikDepartment of Electrical and



Avner PrielDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, Alberta, Canada

Mark A. RatnerDepartment of Chemistry and


Northwestern UniversityEvanston, Illinois, USA

Mark A. ReedDepartments of Electrical

Engineering, AppliedPhysics, and Physics

Yale UniversityNew Haven, Connecticut, USA

R.A. RomerDepartment of Physics and

Centre for ScientificComputing

University of WarwickCoventry, UK

F.R. RomeroGrupo de Fısica No LinealDepartamento de FAMNFacultad de FısicaUniversidad de SevillaSevilla, Spain

Garrett S. RoseDepartment of Electrical

and Computer EngineeringPolytechnic UniversityBrooklyn, New York, USA

Anatoly Yu. SmirnovQuantum Cat Analytics Inc.Brooklyn, New York, USA

Gregory L. SniderDepartment of Electrical


Gil SpeyerCenter for Solid State


Jeffrey A. StuartDepartment of ChemistryUniversity of ConnecticutStorrs, Connecticut, USA

William TetleyDepartment of Electrical

Engineering and ComputerScience

Syracuse UniversitySyracuse, New York, USA

James M. TourDepartment of ChemistryRice UniversityHouston, Texas, USA

Jack A. TuszynskiDepartment of PhysicsUniversity of AlbertaEdmonton, Alberta, Canada

James VesenkaUniversity of New EnglandBiddeford, Maine, USA

Wenyong WangSemiconductor Electronics

DivisionNational Institute of Standards

and TechnologyGaithersburg, Maryland, USA

Bangwei XiDepartment of ChemistrySyracuse UniversitySyracuse, New York, USA

Bin YuCenter for NanotechnologyNASA Ames Research CenterMoffett Field, California, USA

Matthew M. ZieglerIBM T. J. Watson Research

CenterYorktown Heights, New York,

USA

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Contents

Section I Molecular and Nano Electronics: Device- andSystem-Level

1 Electrical Characterization of Self-Assembled MonolayersWenyong Wang, Takhee Lee, and Mark A. Reed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

2 Molecular Electronic Computing ArchitecturesJames M. Tour and Dustin K. James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

3 Unimolecular Electronics: Results and ProspectsRobert M. Metzger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

4 Carbon DerivativesRikizo Hatakeyama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

5 System-Level Design and Simulation of Nanomemories and NanoprocessorsShamik Das, Carl A. Picconatto, Garrett S. Rose, Matthew M. Ziegler,and James C. Ellenbogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

6 Three-Dimensional Molecular Electronics and Integrated Circuits for Signaland Information Processing PlatformsSergey Edward Lyshevski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-1

Section II Nanoscaled Electronics

7 Inorganic Nanowires in ElectronicsBin Yu and M. Meyyappan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

8 Quantum Dots in Nanoelectronic DevicesGregory L. Snider, Alexei O. Orlov, and Craig S. Lent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

9 Self Assembly of Nanostructures Using Nanoporous Alumina TemplatesBhargava Kanchibotla, Sandipan Pramanik, and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

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10 Neuromorphic Networks of Spiking NeuronsGiacomo Indiveri and Rodney Douglas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

11 Allowing Electronics to Face the TSI Era—Molecular Electronics and BeyondG. F. Cerofolini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

12 On Computing Nano-Architectures Using Unreliable NanodevicesValeriu Beiu and Walid Ibrahim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

Section III Biomolecular Electronics and Processing

13 Properties of “G-Wire” DNAThomas Marsh and James Vesenka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1

14 Metalloprotein ElectronicsAndrea Alessandrini and Paolo Facci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

15 Localization and Transport of Charge by Nonlinearity and Spatial Discretenessin Biomolecules and Semiconductor Nanorings. Aharonov–Bohm Effectfor Neutral ExcitonsF. Palmero, J. Cuevas, F.R. Romero, J.C. Eilbeck, R.A. Romer, and J. Dorignac . . . . . . 15-1

16 Protein-Based Optical MemoriesJeffrey A. Stuart, Robert R. Birge, Mark P. Krebs, Bangwei Xi, William Tetley,Duane L. Marcy, Jeremy F. Koscielecki, and Jason R. Hillebrecht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1

17 Subneuronal Processing of Information by Solitary Wavesand Stochastic ProcessesDanko D. Georgiev and James F. Glazebrook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1

18 Electronic and Ionic Conductivities of Microtubules and Actin Filaments,Their Consequences for Cell Signaling and Applications to BioelectronicsJack A. Tuszynski, Avner Priel, J.A. Brown, Horacio F. Cantiello,and John M. Dixon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

Section IV Molecular and Nano Electronics: Device-LevelModeling and Simulation

19 Simulation Tools in Molecular ElectronicsChristoph Erlen, Paolo Lugli, Alessandro Pecchia, and Aldo Di Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1

20 Theory of Current Rectification, Switching, and the Role of Defectsin Molecular Electronic DevicesA.M. Bratkovsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

21 Complexities of the Molecular Conductance ProblemGil Speyer, Richard Akis, and David K. Ferry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1

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22 Nanoelectromechanical Oscillator as an Open Quantum SystemLev G. Mourokh and Anatoly Yu. Smirnov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1

23 Coherent Electron Transport in Molecular Contacts: A Caseof Tractable ModelingAlexander Onipko and Lyuba Malysheva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1

24 Pride, Prejudice, and Penury of ab initio Transport Calculationsfor Single MoleculesF. Evers and K. Burke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1

25 Molecular Electronics DevicesAnton Grigoriev and Rajeev Ahuja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1

26 An Electronic Cotunneling Model of STM-Induced UnimolecularSurface ReactionsVladimiro Mujica, Thorsten Hansen, and Mark A. Ratner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1

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Preface

It was a great pleasure to edit this handbook, which consists of outstanding chapters written by acclaimedexperts in their field. The overall objective was to provide coherent coverage of a broad spectrum of issuesin molecular and nanoelectronics (e.g., covering fundamentals, reporting recent innovations, devising novelsolutions, reporting possible technologies, foreseeing far-reaching developments, envisioning new paradigms,etc.). Molecular and nanoelectronics is a revolutionary theory- and technology-in-progress paradigm. Thehandbook’s chapters document sound fundamentals and feasible technologies, ensuring a balanced coverageand practicality. There should be no end to molecular electronics and molecular processing platforms (MPPs),which ensure superior overall performance and functionality that cannot be achieved by any envisionedmicroelectronics innovations.

Due to inadequate commitments to high-risk/extremely-high-pay-off developments, limited knowledge,and the abrupt nature of fundamental discoveries and enabling technologies, it is difficult to accurately predictwhen various discoveries will mature in the commercial product arena. For more than six decades, large-scalefocused efforts have concentrated on solid-state microelectronics. A matured $150-billion microelectronicsindustry has profoundly contributed to technological progress and societal welfare. However, further progressand envisioned microelectronics evolutions encounter significant fundamental and technological challengesand limits. Those limits may not be overcome. In attempts to find new solutions and define novel inroads,innovative paradigms and technologies have been devised and examined. Molecular and nanoelectronics haveemerged as one of the most promising solutions.

The difference between molecular- (nano) and micro-electronics is not the size (dimensionality), but theprofoundly different device- and system-level solutions, the device physics, and the phenomena, fabrication,and topologies/organizations/architectures. For example, a field-effect transistor with an insulator thicknessless than 1 nm and a channel length less than 20 nm cannot be declared a nanoelectronic device even thoughit has the subnanometer insulator thickness and may utilize a carbon nanotube (with a diameter under1 nm) to form a channel. Three-dimensional topology molecular and nanoelectronic devices, engineeredfrom atomic aggregates and synthesized utilizing bottom-up fabrication, exhibit quantum phenomena andelectrochemomechanical effects that should be uniquely utilized. The topology, organization, and architectureof three-dimensional molecular integrated circuits (MICs) and MPPs are entirely different compared withconventional two-dimensional ICs.

Questions regarding the feasibility of molecular electronics and MPPs arise. No conclusive evidence existsof the overall feasibility of solid MICs and there was no analog for solid-state microelectronics and ICs existedin the past. In contrast, an enormous variety of biomolecular processing platforms are visible in nature. Theseplatforms provide one with undeniable evidence of feasibility, soundness, and unprecedented supremacy ofa molecular paradigm. Though there have been attempts to utilize and prototype biocentered electronics,processing, and memories, these efforts have faced—and still face—enormous fundamental, experimental,and technological challenges. Superior organizations and architectures of MICs and MPPs can be devisedutilizing biomimetics, thus examining and prototyping brain and central nervous system functions. Today,many unsolved problems plague biosystems—from the baseline functionality of neurons to the capabilitiesof neuronal aggregates, from information processing to information measures, from the phenomena utilized

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to the cellular mechanisms exhibited, and so on. Even though significant challenges still exist, rapid progressand new discoveries have been made in recent years on both fundamental and technological forefronts. Thisprogress and some of its major findings are covered in this handbook. The handbook consists of four sections,providing coherence in its subject matter. The six chapters of Section I: Molecular and Nano Electronics: Device-and System-Level are as follows:

� Electrical Characterization of Self-Assembled Monolayers� Molecular Electronic Computing Architectures� Unimolecular Electronics: Results and Prospects� Carbon Derivatives� System-Level Design and Simulation of Nanomemories and Nanoprocessors� Three-Dimensional Molecular Electronics and Integrated Circuits for Signal and InformationProcessing Platforms

These chapters report the device physics of molecular devices (Mdevices), the synthesis of those Mdevices,the design of MICs, and devising MPPs. Meaningful results on device- and system-level fundamentals areoffered, and envisioned technologies and engineering practices are documented.

Section II: Nanoscaled Electronics consists of the following six chapters:

� Inorganic Nanowires in Electronics� Quantum Dots in Nanoelectronic Devices� Self Assembly of Nanostructures Using Nanoporous Alumina Templates� Neuromorphic Networks of Spiking Neurons� Allowing Electronics to Face the TSI Era—Molecular Electronics and Beyond� On Computing Nano-Architectures using unreliable Nanodevices or on Yield-Energy-Delay LogicDesigns

These chapters focus on nano- and nanoscaled electronics. Various practical solutions are reported.Section III: Biomolecular Electronics and Processing covers recent innovative results in biomolecular elec-

tronics and memories. The six chapters included are

� Properties of “G-Wire” DNA� Metalloprotein Electronics� Localization and Transport of Charge by Nonlinearity and Spatial Discreteness in Biomoleculesand Semiconductor Nanorings. Aharonov–Bohm Effect for Neutral Excitons� Protein-Based Optical Memories� Subneuronal Processing of Information by Solitary Waves and Stochastic Processes� Electronic and Ionic Conductivities of Microtubules and Actin Filaments, Their Consequences forCell Signaling and Applications to Bioelectronics

Each chapter is of practical importance regarding the envisioned biomolecular platforms, and will help incomprehending significant phenomena in biosystems.

The eight chapters of Section IV: Molecular and Nano Electronics: Device-Level Modeling and Simulationfocus on various aspects of high-fidelity modeling, heterogeneous simulations, and data-intensive analysis.The chapters included consist of the following:

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� Simulation Tools in Molecular Electronics� Theory of Current Rectification, Switching, and the Role of Defects in Molecular Electronic Devices� Complexities of the Molecular Conductance Problem� Nanoelectromechanical Oscillator as an Open Quantum System� Coherent Electron Transport in Molecular Contacts: A Case of Tractable Modeling� Pride, Prejudice, and Penury of ab initio Transport Calculations for Single Molecules� Molecular Electronics Devices� An Electric Cotunneling Model of STM-Induced Unimolecular Surface Reactions

These chapters provide the reader with valuable results that can be utilized in various applications, with amajor emphasis on the device-level fundamentals.

The handbook’s chapters report the individual authors’ results. Therefore, in reading different chapters,the reader may observe some variations and inconsistencies in style, definitions, formulations, findings, andvision. This, in my opinion, is not a weakness but rather a strength. In fact, the reader should be awareof the differences in opinions, the distinct methods applied, the alternative technologies pursued, and thevarious concepts emphasized. I truly enjoyed collaborating with all the authors and appreciate their valuablecontribution. It should be evident that the views, findings, recommendations, and conclusions documented inthe handbook’s chapters are those of the authors’, and do not necessarily reflect the editor’s opinion. However,all the chapters in the book emphasize the need for further research and development in molecular andnanoelectronics, which is today’s engineering, science, and technology frontier.

It should be emphasized that no matter how many times the material has been reviewed, and effort spent toguarantee the highest quality, there is no guarantee this handbook is free from minor errors, and shortcomings.If you find something you feel needs correcting, adjustment, clarification, and/or modification, please notifyme. Your help and assistance are greatly appreciated and deeply acknowledged.

Acknowledgments

Many people contributed to this book. First, I would like to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to allthe book’s contributors. It is with great pleasure that I acknowledge the help I received from many peoplein preparing this handbook. The outstanding Taylor & Francis team, especially Nora Konopka (AcquisitionsEditor, Electrical Engineering), Jessica Vakili, and Amy Rodriguez (Project Editor), helped tremendously, andassisted me by offering much valuable and deeply treasured feedback. Many thanks to all of you.

Sergey Edward LyshevskiDepartment of Electrical Engineering

Rochester Institute of TechnologyRochester, NY, 14623-5603, USAE-mail: [email protected]

Web cite: www.rit.edu/∼seleee

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