myers’ exploring psychology (4th ed) chapter 6 learning james a. mccubbin, phd clemson university...

Myers’ EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY (4th Ed)

Chapter 6

Learning

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

Learning

Learning relatively permanent change in

an organism’s behavior due to experience

experience (nurture) is the key to learning

Association

We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that

occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 yrs ago

Associative Learning learning that two events occur together

two stimulia response and its consequences

Association

Learning to associate two events

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli

Two related events:

Lightning

Stimulus 1

Thunder

Stimulus 2

Result after repetition

We see lightning

Stimulus

We wince anticipatingthunder

Response

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence

Response

Response: Pushingvending machine button

Stimulus

Consequence:Receivinga candy bar


Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian physician/

neurophysiologist Nobel Prize in 1904 studied digestive

secretions


Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two stimuli

lightning and thundertone and food

begins with a reflex a neutral stimulus is paired with a

stimulus that evokes the reflex neutral stimulus eventually comes to

evoke the reflex


Pavlov’s device for recording salivation


Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) effective stimulus that unconditionally-

naturally and automatically - triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response

to the unconditioned stimulussalivation when food is in the mouth


Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally neutral stimulus that, after

association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus


Acquisition the initial stage of learning, during

which a response is established and gradually strengthened

the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response


Extinction diminishing of a

conditioned response in classical conditioning,

when a unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus


Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR


Spontaneous recovery reappearance, after a rest period,

of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization tendency, once a response has

been established, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses


Discrimination in classical conditioning, the

ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

GeneralizationDrops of salivain 30 seconds

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Hindpaw

Pelvis Shoulder Frontpaw

Thigh Trunk Foreleg

Part of body stimulated

Nausea Conditioning among Cancer Patients

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

BehaviorismJohn B. Watson

viewed psychology as objective sciencegenerally agreed-upon consensus

today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processesnot universally accepted by all

schools of thought today

Little Albert’s Fear Conditioning

UCS(loud noise)

UCR(fear)

CS(rat)

CS(rat)

CR(fear)

UCS(loud noise)

UCR(fear)

Stimulus similarto rat (such as rabbit)

Conditioned fear(generalization)


Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors

followed by favorable consequences become more likely


Operant Behavior complex or voluntary behaviors

push button, perform complex task

operates (acts) on environment produces consequences

Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic response to

some stimulus


B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated Thorndike’s Law of

Effect developed behavioral

technology


Skinner Box soundproof

chamber with a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains a device to record responses


Reinforcer any event that strengthens the

behavior it followsShaping

operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

Principles of Reinforcement

Primary Reinforcer an innate reinforcer satisfies a biological need

Secondary Reinforcer a conditioned reinforcer an event that gains its reinforcing

power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Schedules of ReinforcementContinuous Reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs

learning occurs rapidly extinction occurs rapidly

Partial Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR) schedule that reinforces a response

only after a specified number of responses

the faster you respond, the more rewards you get

different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay


Variable Ratio (VR) schedule that reinforces a

response after an unpredictable number of responses

like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because

of unpredictability


Fixed Interval (FI) a schedule that reinforces a

response only after a specified time has elapsed

response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near


Variable Interval (VI) schedule that reinforces a

response at unpredictable time intervals

produces slow steady responding like pop quiz

Punishment

Punishment aversive event that

decreases the behavior that it follows

powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Problems with Punishment

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed- behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent

Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

Problems with Punishment

Creates fear that can generalize to desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression

Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do--punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone

Punishment teaches how to avoid it

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Map mental representation of the layout of one’s

environment example- after exploring a maze, rats act

as if they have learned a cognitive map of itLatent Learning

learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Operant vs Classical Conditioning

Comparison of Classical and Operant ConditioningClassical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

The Response Involuntary, automatic “Voluntary,” operates on environment

Acquisition Associating events; CS announces Associating response with a consequen- UCS. ce (reinforcer or punisher).

Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly Responding decreases when reinforce- presented alone. ment stops.

Cognitive Subjects develop expectation that Subjects develop expectation that a processes CS signals the arrival of UCS response will be reinforced or punished;

they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

Biological Natural predispositions constrain Organisms best learn behavior similar to predispositions stimuli and responses can easily be their natural behaviors; unnatural be- associated. haviors instinctively drift back toward

natural ones.

Observational Learning

Observational Learning learning by observing and imitating the

behavior of othersModeling

process of observing and imitating behavior

Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior

myers’ exploring psychology (4th ed) chapter 6 learning james a. mccubbin, phd clemson university...

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