murmis - social sciences in argentina

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Sociology, Political Science, Anthropology: Institutionalization, Professionalization

and Internationalization in Argentina 1

Miguel Murmis1. Introduction

The full institutionalization of Sociology, Political Science and Anthropology and their later development in Argentina has been a discontinuous process, strongly marked by political changes. These political changes often represented breaks in political institutionallife. Activities in the Social Sciences have been also attuned to struggles in Universities,such as those that occurred when private universities were established. More generally, oursciences were always connected to political trends prevailing among students and

professors frequently conducive to strong confrontations. International links and financialcontributions received varied local responses and contributed also a heavy quota of conflictand discontinuity. Differences in disciplinary orientations have often become the source of harsh and sometimes destructive conflicts.

If the general process we will present has been marked by discontinuities, these startwith the relation between the institutionalized disciplines and the disciplinary activities that preceded them. The sign of discontinuity presided over the whole gamut of activities

1 The following text is based upon the experiences and knowledge of the author.As student representative, I participated in the creation of the first Sociology Program in1957. Since then I have been connected to the field of sociology and of the social sciences.The elaboration of these experiences and information was enriched and supplemented bymy work with the texts included in the Bibliography, Thus, the bibliography includes onlytexts about the process studied and not works by the original social scientists considered,excepting texts about the process itself. No theoretical, comparative or general historicaltexts are included. An effort was made to check the accuracy of the references I make in the

text. Some supplementary statistical information was utilized as well as informationgathered in interviews. This means that my text is not strictly a result of a process of scientific sociological research.

This study was made possible by a generous invitation of the Maison des Sciencesde lHomme and by the support and contributions of the colleagues participating in our team as well as by other colleagues who engaged in intellectual dialogue with us during ouParisian stay. These contributions and dialogues played a significant role in thedevelopment of a theoretical and comparative framework for our collective work.

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covering fields as dissimilar as the theoretical and methodological orientations utilized andthe organizational set ups being established.

Our sciences were established and developed within this framework. Perhaps their capacity to grow and generate achievements is a response to the challenge imposed by thedual threat of conflict and discontinuity. Thus, institutionalization has not been theculminating point of a linear process of civilization-like evolution, creating the conditionsfor the establishment of the social sciences. It was not an automatic outgrowth of moreadvanced levels of social development. It has been a process of resurgence and expansionthat kept repeating itself through sometimes destructive experiences. In the final analysis,we see that there is a constant growth, a quantitative expansion that brings to the fore thequestion of quality in teaching and research.

Although there were strong national reasons for the emergence of theinstitutionalized forms, it is clear that the ghost of the social sciences was already travelingthrough Europe and Latin-America, fuelled by the American model. France2 establishes itsfirst undergraduate program one year after the Argentine one, while it took Italy, a latestarter, a few more years. Not too long after the Argentine first program, formalundergraduate program are established in several countries, such as the ones covered in ourProject.

The establishment of undergraduate programs emerges as a combination of scientific concerns and of an intense interest in national politics and social problems. Thefirst University Program in Sociology was created in 1957 as an expression of Illuminist beliefs, with the strong motivation of showing to the whole country and especially to theworking class what was the true nature and condition of national society. They felt that thismission was made possible by the possession of a social science capable of dispelling theemotional illusion that were the basis of the persistent and massive devotion to Peronism.

As many Illuminist endeavors, this endeavor is associated to a historical change in whicharms and violence have a significant say. From that time on, reality and projects changed,got diversified and many times displaced each other.

2 Sainsaulieu, Renaud (1988) ;Orvieto Pinto, (1976) ; Germani (1959).

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We will now present the process of institutionalization and professionalization of three social sciences, i.e. sociology, anthropology and political science. We will distinguishthree time periods, preceded by a short consideration of disciplinary activities previous tothe attainment of full institutionalization and consequent professionalization.

1. 1955-1966 Institutionalization and its problems: breaks, continuity and projection towards the future in a context of military coups andillegitimate elected governments

2. 1966-1983 Break with the past and responses: repression and socialstruggles in the context of military coups and of a popular government..

3. 1983-2003 Expansion and problems of quality in a context of electedgovernments.3

2. Early Disciplinary Work

The beginnings of these disciplines and their early forms of partial institutionalizationappear in the academic field through the growing establishment of university chairs.4

Together with the growing activity of University chairs, we have to pay attention toa second type of activity, linked to the contributions of important studies carried out outsidethe academic milieu. Most of these studies were conducted by technicians working for stateorganizations and also by independent scholars committed to the study of national society.A third form of contact with disciplinary problems derived from political, interpretive andeven literary works.

In Sociology, the first chair was established in 1889 in the Facultad de Filosofa yLetras of the Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA). This was the first chair in Sociology inLatin America. One year after it is established it is discontinued and reappears three yearslater. Afterwards, chairs are well established in different Schools and Universities. These

chairs and even the Institutes that are created later on concentrate their work in the study ofgeneral theories about society.5 The products of these activities are destined to satisfyteaching requirements. By the end of this period there is a failed attempt at establishing a3 The general synthesis presented separately in this volume offers more detailed information about historicalevents.4 J.C.Agulla (1996); A.Povia (1945); E.Zimmerman (1994); R.Levene (1947)5 H.Gonzlez Bollo (1999)

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working relationship with the American Sociological Association.6 During this period GinoGermani initiates some small empirical projects at the UBA, and also offers Sociologylectures in a private association (the CLES) congregating intellectuals displaced form theUniversity by the Peronist government.7

The other approaches to the knowledge of society that we mentioned above arericher and more productive. Technicians hired by the National Government, such as JuanBialet Mass and Juan Niklison publish studies about the condition of the workers and the predicament of the aboriginal peoples. Their studies are based on carefully conductedfieldwork.

At the beginning of the 20th.century, an independent intellectual, Jos Ingenieros, publishes studies about labor regulations and other aspects of labor conditions, later

included in a book entitled Sociologa Argentina. He engages in a lively polemics withanother early analyst, Jos Mara Ramos Meja8, author of a book on the masses inArgentine History. During the 30s Carlos O..Bunge, an economist, publishes La NuevaArgentina, a book assembling a variety of statistical data. About a decade later, this book served as one of the bases of Gino Germanis analyses9.

As for the contributions closer to political life, we have to mention that politicalstruggles and even literature become mobilized by the discussions about the socialquestion, a lively topic since the final part of the 19th century. A feverish concern withsocial reform, gives rise to proposals and also to vibrant criticism from both the right andthe left. Literary works start describing the world of poverty, the problems of migrants andthe crises in the middle class, as it is the case with the plays of Florencio Snchez.

In the case of Anthropology, in 1932 there were seven centers already connected tothe international scene through the Congresos de Americanistas of 1912 and 1932. In thecity of La Plata there was a Museum of Anthropology with a strong commitment toPhysical Anthropology. National and foreign specialists were active in the museum, which

was directed for a long period by the German specialist Robert Lehmann-Nitsche.10

6 H.Gonzlez Bollo & D.Pereyra (2003)7 F.Neiburg (1995), H.Gonzlez Bollo (1999)8 Gonzlez s/d, Gonzlez (2000)9 J.C.Agulla (1996), G.Germani (1968)10 S.Bilbao (2002); R.Guber y S. Visacovsky (2000)

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life. In fact, the Government reacted to the pressures coming to the University community, participant in the overthrow of the Peronist Government, and capable of obtaining a de factof the Universities.12 This active alliance did not last long: as the Government pushed for theestablishment of private Universities, basically Catholic, and an intense conflict erupts. At ttime the process of change includes some cases of displacement of centers engaged in valuwork 13.

In 1958, the new University authorities are elected following the procedure establishthe new by-laws, that were the product of the participation of professors, alumni and studen14

The new regulations followed the principles of the University Reform movement of 1918, balso made legal the establishment of primate Universities, at the time only confessional. Thconfessional character of the projected private Universities made them deeply antagonistic

respect to the secular commitment of Reformismo. Some of these Catholic Universities imestablished careers in the areas we are studying. At the same time, in most National Univers process of organizational reform took place, establishing the election of authorities by profestudents and alumni, crating Departments and revitalizing Institutes with the aim of makingcentral in University life. At the same time the Universities tried to establish creative connewith different sectors in society and trying to provide academic contributions to the solution problems,

The Reform of the University system, that the National academic institutions expecteinstitute the principles of the University Reform movement, unexpectedly opened the questlegal recognition of private Universities and of their right to grant professional degrees. Thiquestion was rapidly closed against the vigorous opposition of the secular academic forces,line of rupture in the academic world. More that a process of reconciliation between both tuniversities, the initial confrontation moved towards a plateau of silent separation. The harsof conflict became weakened, a situation that was enhanced by the creation of non confessi private Universities, in many cases oriented towards the profitability resulting form the exp

the demand for education at the University level..The first Sociology undergraduate program was created as the Reform pact with the

Government was disintegrating. Within this framework, the project emphasized its break w

12 R.Almaraz, M.Corchn y R.Zemborain (2001)13 R:Richard-Jorba (2004)14 T.Halperin Donghi (2002); C.Rotunno y E.Daz de Guijarro (comps) (2003)

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past and its commitment to the establishment of new models of theoretical orientation and r practices.

This was not the case in the other two disciplines, Anthropology and Political Sciencwe find forms of connection with preexisting traditions and institutional apparatuses.

This process of expansion was somewhat confined to the area of the capital city andneighboring cities. It took time before new degree programs were established in the interiorcountry.

At this time a rupture developed between the Sociology Chairs of the interior of the c basically oriented towards formalistic analysis of society and the new programs, with their empirical orientation. This differences became the basis for an intense confrontation whenopportunities of financial support started to become available.

Activities in our discipline were present outside the area of Buenos Aires and its surrsuch as a traditional Chair of Sociology in Cordoba, a career in Political Science, in fact a flegal analysis, while an attempt at the creation of an Institute of Anthropology in Tucuman 15.

From now on Sociology in Buenos Aires plays the role of the dynamic social scienceof attracting students and of producing research results. The intellectual attraction and creatthe Buenos Aires program is linked to the role in the teaching and research activities of sochistorians, grouped around Jos Luis Romero, and active in interdisciplinary work with socSocial Anthropology and Social Psychology were also new areas opened by the G.Germaniapproach, attracting interested researchers and students.

We will now look more closely at each of our disciplines and then we will look at soinstitutional developments relevant to the processes of institutionalization and professionali

3.1.1 Sociology as an undergraduate Program.Sociologys undergraduate program was created as part of the activities of a preexisting inthe Facultad de Filosofa y Letras of the Universidad de Buenos Aires. The institutionalizatteaching activities conducting to the Bachelors degree went together with revitalization of

Institute of Sociology. making of it an active research center. Students had to become conneresearch projects because the fulfillment of a quota of 200 hours in research was a prerequithe Bachelors degree. Graduates of other disciplines were encouraged to become connecteInstitute by offering them a special curriculum conducive to a degree of Specialist in Sociol

15 S.Bilbao (2002)

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there were no Sociology graduates this channel of incorporation was vital to satisfy the neeTeaching and Research Assistants to take care of the growing number of students. The carewith 67 students and in 1966, a t the end of our period it had 2000.. The Institute organizedresearch projects, linked to the study of the national social structure, and quite soon many WPapers and books were published. As part of the goal to make Sociology a field connected tnational culture and open to public opinion, Germani engaged in an intense editorial activitchanneled through a new publishing house organized by himself and other social scientists,editorial Paids. Editorial activities expanded later on when the University organized the EdEudeba.16

The creation of the new Sociology Program was a clear case of cooper between professors and students, within the spirit of the new academic framew

Gino Germani played a decisive role in the design of the degree program and research program and student delegates to Governing Council of the Facultad

fundamental role in the process of obtaining the support of the Governing bodies of the and of the University for the initiative.

Soon after the establishment of the new institutions, Germani took steps to supplethe funds allocated to the Department in the Facultads budget with support from the FoFoundation. At the same time Conicet (the National Council for Scientific Research andTechnology) began its Scholarships and Subsidies program. Germani organized a prograscholarship for University teachers interested in engaging in specialized studies in Socioforeign Universities. American and French sociologists were invited to visit the School collaborate with its activities: some of these scholars stayed for several periods, made mone visit and organized research projects. In 1961 the Institute organized the Jornadas Ay Latinoamericanas de Sociologa which took place in Buenos Aires.

In 1959, the Universidad Catlica Argentina establishes bachelors degree in SocIn 1963, the Universidad del Salvador establishes a similar program. By this time, there

chairs and Institutes in five universities located in the interior of the country.17

When moving from Sociology to Political Science and Anthropology we have to mind that these disciplines were institutionalized following scientific and ideological modifferent from the ones inspiring the creation of Sociology in the UBA:

16 E.Vern (1974), G.Germani (1968)17 Ministerio de Educacin (2003)

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3.1.2 Undergraduate Programs in Political Science. Some Catholic private Universities orga bachelors programs before the approval of the law that granted them the right to conf professional degrees. It is so that appears the Political Science career in the UniversidaSalvador, the Jesuit University. This affiliation implies that there is a connection withtraditional ideological pattern, which includes theology as part of the required curriculalso is associated to the aim of connecting with elites en different power areas. The JesUniversity tended not to hire full-time professors and in some occasion they were affefinancial crises and the payments to professors were discontinued. Thus, the institutionapparatus was more fragile than it was the case in Universities more committed to reseteaching, but at the same time it had the robustness derived form the fact of being partactivities of a religious order. It also inherited the active life typical of the formalistic

orientation. The Asociacin Argentina de Ciencia Poltica was created in 1957 and it bmember of the international association (IPSA).

Political Science as a general area had a long history of teaching, text production and connewith the state apparatus, as it was especially the case with the field of diplomacy traditionaincluded in the area of Political Science. But the activities that defined the area were always basically juridical approaches.

The oldest academic center of teaching was reorganized in 1968 The original programunit of the Universidad Nacional del Litoral included the granting of Doctoral degrees in PoScience and Diplomacy. The reorganization had the goal of diminishing the dominant role oand International Law and increase the attention paid to political systems and institutions. Dthis period this traditional school keeps changing its institutional location y its foci of intereat the end of the 60s it acquires and eclectic profile incorporating sociological, philosophiother up-to-date approaches.

Meanwhile, practitioners applying the more traditional approach stayed quite activeArgentine Political Science Association. organized its Second Congress in 1960.18

3.1.3 Anthropology careers. The two bachelors degree programs created in 1958 wclearly following disciplinary traditions and represented extensions of existinginstitutional setups. Both careers are created in National Universities, one in thFacultad de Humanidades of the Universidad de La Plata, and the other in the

18 P.Bulcourf y M.DAlessandro (2002) ; A.Fernndez (2002)

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Facultad de Filosofa y Letras of the Universidad de Buenos Aires. The discip present in different points in the interior of the country, basing itself in many cindependent explorers who became anthropologists.

In La Plata the preexisting activities of the museum expand and the same prevailingorientation persistss. The second program, established in Buenos Aires has a base in Museo Etnogrfico and in the activities of preexisting chairs. The resources that arechanneled towards the new program are quite diverse in terms of areas of specializatapproaches. There was Physical Anthropology tainted with racism: an Austrian scholsignificant Nazi past has a major role in the areas, cultural anthropology oriented towdescription of the spirit of the Volk, archeology and modest tradition of fieldwork inEthnology.

The establishment of these two careers is the institutional novelty of the periodtheir expansion to become bachelors program a polemical issue comes to the fore, thacceptance or rejection of Social Anthropology.19

3.2 Other components of the institutional apparatus. The creation of two types of governmental agencies was of paramount importanthe construction of an institutional set-up capable of providing support to the neacademic disciplines. The first type consists of Centers for financial support ofresearch. The major creation in this area was the Consejo Nacional de InvestigCientficas y Tcnicas (1958). It was designed following the model of the FrencCNRS. A Researcher Career was established, as well as a subsidies program foresearch and a program of grants for studies and projects in foreign Universitiesinstitution.The second type of supporting institutions were those oriented towards develop programs and requiring the help of experts and assistants.

As the period advanced, there also were important developments in the p

sector. The Di Tella Foundation created a Sociology Center, which quite soon alGermani and other researchers to distance themselves form the University. A CeSociopolitical studies connected to the Socialist Youth and financed by a Maece

19 R.Guber y S.Visacovsky (2000)

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the same orientation was another indication of the hope about the practical relevSociology.Publishing Houses also play a significant role, publishing mainly classical workincluding also some studies by national researchers. The editorial organized by Universidad de Buenos Aires published classic and contemporary works and stuAmerican, French and German scholars. We have already mentioned a private Paids, with a very influential catalogue.20

Given the existence of an institutional apparatus, partly new but also partly pree besides the professional demand of the University there is also a growing demaoutside Academia. Conicet expands the labor market in so far as it offers opport

to engage in research work or to spend a longer time in professional studies. PuDevelopment Agencies start defining a new type of demand as they hire peopleto engage in applied research and project design. A different type of link-generaoccupations is the one we find in the Universidad del Salvador, where the concethe public sector is oriented towards International Relations and centers of state

Not too long after the first graduations, jobs in private mercantile activitimade its appearance and started to expand.

3.3 Relationships between disciplinesIn this period we the beginnings of a process that becomes strong during the n period. Sociology becomes the basic point of reference and orientation or, at leacts as an interdisciplinary bridge. In the case of Political Science the influencsociological approach is manifested by the attention people working in this dislend to the work of political sociologists. Classical works a re published, such books by Michels and Lipset and they act as conceptual and research inspira

In Anthropology, students start pushing for the study of topics such as smovements, migratory flows o political processes. They exert pressure towardcreation of a degree in Social Anthropology. Topics traditionally studied bysociologists were seen as being a basic concern for practicing anthropologist.

20 A.Blanco (2002) y (2003)

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factor for the interdisciplinary connection was the existence of a common langderived from the early interest in Social Anthropology that was present in Soc programs. A common course in Introductory Sociology created a connection bstudents in the two disciplines. This disciplinary commitment was also linked social and political commitment that led to the participation of Anthropology together with a Sociology students, in one of the first armed organizations, loa remote area that was one of the loci of anthropological studies.

3.4 InternationalizationTwo big grants of American Foundations are obtained by Instituto de SociologFord Foundation grant (U$S 210.000) and the Rockefeller foundation grant (U$

35.000) Almost half of the Ford grant was destined to contracts for foreign expe professors, while de second item in importance, representing a quarter of the totto be used for scholarships for graduate studies and specialization in foreignUniversities.

Connections were established with international organizations suchUnesco, Cepal, Flacso, OEA and some formal links permitted the organization o participation in seminars as well as some publishing ventures and small researc projects. A multi-country research project on Social Stratification was set up byGermani in collaboration with Sociology chairs in Chile, Uruguay and Brasil. Simportant documents and texts resulted fro the project, but the comparative comwas not thoroughly completed. Another example of a research project giving riintercountry collaboration was the study of types of workers in Chile, with the participation of Alain Touraine and Lucien Brams froms and a professor of the of Sociology.

In Anthropology, projects of this type seem not to have existed.

Meanwhile, in Political Science , as we have already mentioned there weregular contacts with foreign scholars and international academic venues, establthrough the agency of the local professional organization. The French political sG.Burdeau and the American Dahl were invited to the national congress. The

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Argentine Association sent a big group of Argentine participants to the V WorldCongress of Political Science.Cepal (Ecla), a UN organization was created and inspired by an Argentine econRal Prebisch, and had among its staff quite a few Argentine experts and scholaCepals study of Argentine development was one of the most influential works this period, becoming a basic source for Argentine social scientists

During this period, in Argentina there were no graduate schools in modersciences. Thus, studies in other countries played a decisive formative role. At ththere were two main types of destination. One, was Flacso in Chile, where maninternational organizations were located, and the other were the major Universitthe USA and France. Courses at Flacso brought with them solid contacts betwee

students from different Latin American countries as well as Latin American isnEven, studies in the USA and Europe brought contacts with Latin-American stu previously non existent i Argentine: for some Argentine students this was the firexposure to people of Latin American countries. Needless to say these exposurshaped the future researchers and instructors and served to establish enduring lin

Visits and lectures and joint activities by visiting scholars of differentorientations and coming from different countries expanded the cultural and dischorizons of instructors and students, especially in Sociology. Although there waamong the invited professors, the standard type of American approach was prev

Translations of foreign works by Publishing Houses and even for ad hocreproductions for courses were a quite intense and influential form of connectioforeign approaches.

A major element in these developments were the subsidies originating inAmerican Foundations. These subsidies made it possible to have a quantitative qualitative expansion of sociological activities. At the same time they helped m

different types of American approaches the key element in local teaching and reThe acceptance of these subsided generated one of the major conflicts to be facthe new sociological institutions.21 The opposition of students and of part of the

21 E.Vern (1974)

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professors and researchers made of this question a major issue in different areasuniversity life.

3.5 OrientationsThe creation of the Sociology program brought with it the prevalence of Americ bibliography, not only in the field of Sociology but also in the related fields of SPsychology and Social Anthropology. French bibliography was used the SocioloLabor and in Social History. Beyond the use of course bibliography there use acommitment to the idea of theoretical empirical knowledge, connected to modeAmerican Sociology. The encounter of this model with Marxism, fostered by so professors and students, took place with Marxists feeling that the new orientatio

provide a basis for verification and for a more rigorous application of Marxist teThe ideal of scientific knowledge was accepted by some Marxists. Such a connewas soon denounced by currents of thought rejecting the scientific ideal.

There was interest in transcendental humanism, although it only became operavery few cases.

These developments took place, as we already indicated, without connecwith studies and interpretations originated in the pre-institutionalization period,with a certain degree of confrontation with the Sociology of the chairs.

At the same time there was growing dissatisfaction with the process of institutional construction. The critique of forms of organization such as thedepartmental model merged with the opposition of foreign financing.

As we already indicated, in Anthropology we find more continuity with pforms of academic activity characterized by more diversity. Nevertheless,

there was disconnections with field work and ethnological studies and search new social anthropological approach.

Political Science starts the period with the reaffirmation of a traditional formalistic apwhich is soon subject to critique and to a process of displacement by American oriented ansociologically based doctrines.

Thus, in both disciplines we find a movement towards research oriented styles of woto theoretical approaches based in sociological issues.

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Second period 1966-83: Breaking currents and responses, repression and social

struggles.

4.1 The National ContextThis second period is a time of pressures towards the breaking up of the model of em

research and theoretical accumulation build during the first period. The breaking up process place through different mechanisms and processes that go from the political critique to milirepression. There is heavy State control of teaching, research and applied uses of social scithe public sector. The major point of rupture is located in public universities. At the same tiattack gives rise to a response. There is displacement of the empirical-theoretical style towa

private institutions, the Centros de Investigaciones. Those Centers represent an institutional but they maintain the continuity in the style of research work.

The period opens and finishes with military interventions (1966-73 and 1976-83). Thinterventions differ in terms of the degree and radicalism of the repression they impose. Bethem there is a short period of constitutional government (1973-76) during which there are changes in orientation, as it starts as nationalist and-socialist and ends as extreme right. Ma popular mobilizations occur during this period and armed organizations expand, engage in and varied forms of activity and are finally destroyed.

Each of these governments had a different relationship with activities in the field of ssciences.

The prevalence of times during which constitutional institutions did not exist brings direct, not mediated, forms of connection with political life on the part of intellectuals and oinstitutions such as the University.

The elimination of University autonomy and the repressive traditionalist policies in rthe cultural world put into practice by the 1966-73 Dictatorship, accompanied by popular

mobilizations of a previously unknown extension and intensity (Cordobazos 1969 and 1971 provokes a move towards direct action. Intellectuals work in contact with popular organizatCGT de los Argentinos) and study forms of popular struggle. During the Peronist interlude opening of the State towards forms of social mobilization accompanies the more militantconnections of intellectuals. Theses connections are mediated by the identification with the

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party in power and its fractions present in the State apparatus. At the same time other politiorientations independent of the government continue organizational work started during thedictatorship. With the new dictatorship, which employs a strategy of annihilation, mobilizatdisappears spaces of social action with the State apparatus are cleansed and contact with arorganizations remains one of the few forms of political participation, often conducive to dedisappearance.4.2 The institutional context and the intellectual field.

In all three governments of this period, University autonomy as established in 1958 wabsent from public Universities, although in clearly different degree. During both militarydictatorships and during the last part of the interlude, right wing University presidents were by the State. During most of the interlude Rectors are Peronists. A well known intellectual w

became Rector of the University of Buenos Aires expressed his conviction that a new natio popular approach required strict ideological control to eliminate ideological penetration.

In fact, the frontier between our first period and the second one is clearly delineated highly symbolical decision of the governing council of the Universidad de Buenos Aires wh brands the military government as illegal. After a public meeting at one of the Faculties, theattacks professors and students: this episode is know as the Noche de los bastones largos the long sticks). Thousands of university professors resign. A few Sociology professors whnot to resign and resist by maintaining their scientific standards were soon fired. In the Depof Sociology, only four professors were left. There was a reaction of solidarity in the DeparSociology of the Universidad Catlica. Reprimanded by the ecclesiastic authorities , the Di33 professors resign. Only 5 professors are left.

In Universities of the interior of the country were there were Institutes or Chairs of S(Tucumn, Cuyo and Crdoba), there were no changes.

Finally, in Sociology at the UBA, the most important chairs and directive positions aoccupied by a group defining themselves as practitioners of the national sociology, based

Peronist thinking. The incorporation of this group showed that the authorities were willingmaintain the Department as a functioning unit, but with the further political aim of finding alternative to Sociology as it was practiced and to leftwing forms of commitment. At the sa possibility of ideological legitimation of the regime was opened.

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Private universities, confessional and secular, were already important. Some of themthe Jesuit university (Universidad del Salvador) and the Universidad de Belgrano hired form professors of public Universities.

The consolidation of the social sciences during the first period made it possible for ssocial scientists occupied governmental positions during one of phases of the 1966-73 dictaDuring the Peronist interlude many social scientists and University professors occupied imp positions in the government.

Student organizations provide the only form of critical expression during this period.was a lethal change after the 1976 coup: 8 out of 11 members of the Governing committee the major student unions, the Engineering union, disappeared soon after the coup. This couwith it massive repression and expulsions of professors and researchers, some of whom dis

Towards the end of this dictatorship, some students organizations are reorganized in condiclandestine work.22

Meanwhile several developments were activating the role of the private sector in theSciences. Ideological developments mentioned above reached the Jesuit University, the Undel Salvador. By the beginnings of the 70s students and some instructors at the University defining themselves as committed to the national and popular line, thus following the pacestablished by intellectuals of the Jesuit Order, although the Order was sharply divided betw progressive and reactionary wings. The 1976-83 dictatorship hits with particular violenceUniversities of the interior of the country, some of them new and seen as outposts of moderin many cases very active during the time of the interlude. Professors and students became vthe repressive process, especially those in the social sciences that by the time included manscholars who were graduates of the careers established during the first period. In the SchoolSociology of UBA, the new Director is the old Professor of Sociology of the Peronist periowing lawyer and politician. Sociology professors are replaced with Navy officers teachingGeopolitics, or with right wing historians or geographers.

The private creation that that is one of the defining features of this period is thestablishment of private centers of research and teaching. The process started during the firWe have mentioned the biggest and most powerful institution, the Instituto di Tella, that incseveral Centers and also gave shelter to some which were independently created.

22 M.Toer (1988)

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The existence of private Centers redefined the context in which social scientisconducted their activities, so that a new professional structure emerged, different from the o present in central countries as well as in most of the countries where these sciences are acti

The persistence of state organisms devoted to work on programming anddevelopment, with lower restrictions to entry than it was the case in universities was a majodeterminant in shaping the professional set up of the discipline. In most cases, social scientacademic jobs and applied activities at the same time. The repressive rigor of the 1976-198dictatorship reached the State agencies and thus professionals working in theses institutions jailed and were also among the disappeared.

Armed organizations developed a complex institutional apparatus with the aimrecruiting or attracting people from different areas of specialization and activity, among the

intellectuals and academic workers.Journals, scientific and cultural centers attempted to maintain continuity in the

fields: they laso were subject to repression. The Revista Latinoamericana de Sociologa, fouthe previous period, is published during part of the second period. After an interruption in 1finally disappears in 1974. A central point of reference in the social sciences is the JournalDesarrollo Economico published by the Instituto de Desarrollo Econmico y Social (IDES)Journal and the Institute maintain their activities. Among publishing houses Paids is activeis subject to the avatars of the Universidad de Buenos Aires and a major publishing house, opens a branch in Argentina, based on a previous small house, Signos. Although there are vterms of rupture and continuity, both repression and electoral victory push academics towarsearch for commitment to activities linked to the people.

The 1966 military government starts with a strongly repressive policy towardsacademia and intellectuals. It proclaims its commitment to the Catholic faith and to the morof culture. An artistic show at the diTella Institute is closed by the police, a humoristic journforbidden, the nation is consecrated to Marias Sacred Heart, the postal circulation of the U

journal Marcha as well as the circulation of all sorts of books, including books in the sociaare also forbidden.

Silvia Sigal 23sees this period as characterized by a fragile cultural field, whosefragility is increased by the combination of governmental repression and politicization of cu

23 S.Sigal (2002)

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criteria by the intellectuals themselves. Fragility and politicization did not result in the suboof intellectuals to politics, but on the contrary to a demand of centrality, based on the assum primacy of ideology. Different types of pressure were, in fact, at work: in some cases there demand for militancy, in others social scientists were asked to make relevant and useful procontributions.

4.3 Continuity and breaks in the three disciplinesThe defining feature of this period is the establishment in sociology, and more genera

the social sciences of at least two different styles of work. While in the Universidad de Buethe style of work that Germani introduced was dismissed and condemned, that style of workcontinuity through the creation and development of private Centers24. Some private Universities al

accept the approach that characterized the Universidad de Buenos Aires during the period institutionalization.

The breaking up within the social sciences took different forms. During the 1966-73 dictatorship the national sociology we already mentioned tried to build a national-popular AMarxist, or at least A-Marxist orientation. As it was said, instead of explaining peronism on basis of sociology this group decided to explain sociology on the basis of Peronism. Duringinterlude, there was a search for a national sociology, but with a stronger Marxist thread.25 Towardsthe end of the Peronist government the rejection of empirical theoretical Sociology becameradicalized, as Sociology was moved to the School of Law and then temporarily closed. Lat program was opened, the professors being committed to routine types of teaching and belonsome cases to the Armed Forces. All classic critical elements were excluded from the teachSociology.

The displacement of the modern sociological approach was less marked in privateUniversities. Within a framework of continuity different forms of diversification were introsome cases, Marxism was introduced in Department and institutions up to then alien to such

orientation.On the other hand, in Political Science, the Jesuit University allowed its progr

maintain a continuity with its previous commitment to diversity.

24 J.J.Brunner y A.Barrios (s/d)25 F.Delich (1977), R.Sidicaro (1992)

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opens its activities during this period by receiving a Ford Foundation emergency grant. Thrlater it receives another grant of greater magnitude. Some of the new Centers started withinInstituto and later became independent, while the opposite process brings centers, looking fcoverage, to the larger structure of the ITDT. The Centro de Estudios de Estado y Sociedad moves away from the mother institution. Other Centers such as the Centro de investigacionla sociedad, el estado y la administracin (CISEA) and the Centro de Estudios urbanos y re(CEUR) are connected to the ITDT at some point of their existence. Thus, the process has a certain flexibility, with Centers moving in and out of the major Institute, throufriendly or conflictive encounters.

A Center with a different origin is the Centro de Investigaciones en ciencias sociales(CICSO) created by former instructors-researchers of the universities of Buenos Aires and C

most of them left outside the National Universities. The aim of the Center was to promote ractivities and courses utilizing the Marxist approach. For several years the Center was financontributions of members and students. Several years later the Center obtained a grant fromthe Swedish agency,

Although most of the Centers were created as research centers, several of them incorteaching activities and a few established formal programs. Ceur established a Specializationthat later became an M.A. program. The Fundacin Bariloche, which also had an active CeSociologia organized M.A. courses for Argentine and other Latin-American students. The Fwas an exception in terms of its location in the interior of the country: researchers, instructostudents moved to a Southern part of the country.

The Centers we have been talking of up to now come from the general matrix of themodernization process at the University, presided by a secular progressive ideology. These served as seats for people returning to the country with graduate degrees

During the period, other centers were organized by people coming from other perspThe Centro de Investigaciones Laborales, that got French support, was organized by Catho

intellectuals.Another variant was the connection with social programs and NGOs: CEPA, Centro

Estudios y Promocin Agraria engaged in research connected to specific development proje

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An original set up was the one within which the Instituto Argentino de Desarrollo Ec(IADE) acted. It was connected to an important national coooperative banking concern andintellectuals of the Comunist Party and of center-left groups of congenial orientations.

With the exception of a couple of centers, almost all Centers were financed by foreigcontributions. They later started selling their services as consultants.

4.4.3 A parallel development in terms of grouping researchers occurred in public ageDuring quite a few years there were social scientists participating in the State apparatus. Ththey conducted had most of the time applied goals, although in some cases they were able tcontribute research oriented towards the definition of large scale plans. The most importantthis type of work were the Consejo Nacional de Desarrollo, el Consejo Federal de InversionMinisterio de Agricultura, la Escuela de Graduados del Instituto de Tecnologa Agropecuari

of the most important studies of the social structure of economic sectors were carried our ininstitutions. Some of the groups enjoyed continuity in their work, as they originated in the p period. The 1976-83 dictatorship established harsh measures of control and in some of the aexperts and technicians disappeared.

4.4.4 It will be interesting to look now at collaborative efforts.An innovative form of joint work involving structural research and practical proposals wasthe study conducted by the Chair of Rural Sociology of the Universidad de Rosario and Naand Provincial Ministries of Agriculture.26

A powerful type of combination was the joint work of National agencies and Internaagencias. A case in point is the collaboration between CIDA (Comit Interameriano de DesAgrario), an agency of the Organization of American States, and Consejo Federal de Invers(CFI) of Argentina. The resulting study, that was started during our previous period, becam piece in the field of theory and practice of land tenure.

4.4.5. Production of research and interpretive works increased significantly during thA list of publications in the social sciences includes 620 studies published during this perio

compared to 120 during the precedent period. Another list, which concentrates on Political located 52 texts as compared to 16 in the previous period27.4.5 Relationships between disciplines.

26 N. Giarracca (1999)27 J.C.Agulla (1996)

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A contact specific to the interlude is the ideological connection between the national soorientation and some academic anthropologists. The common field of work was defined by of national reality from the point of view of a common national popular ideology.

More generally, in Anthropology it occurs a reorientation towards Social Anthropoloimplied a decrease in the interest in geographical areas less integrated into capitalism and atowards the study of urban areas. This approach puts Anthropology very close to Sociology

In Political Science there three developments that point towards closer connection wSociology: 1. the introduction of the so called behavioral orientations, 2. the connection betsociologists and political scientists working in small centers without a definite disciplinary the relevance of works in political sociology to the new style of work in political science, athat makes these texts founding studies for the political scientists.

Among sociologists there is a persistent interest in political sociology. Concern for th political crisis enhances this interest. Field work grows in importance. Areas of different characteristics are covered, while topics such as marginality receive increasing attention. Ttwo factors bring nearer Sociology and Political Science, on the one hand, and Anthropolthe other.

In this period Political Science and Anthropology developed a visibility, that at the beginning of the process of institutionalization was held only by Sociology.

4.6 Internationalization and its Mechanisms4.6.1. National social sciences are connected with external centers through a variety

mechanisms. Subsidies represent the better known connection. In this terraint it is necessarydistinguish between support from private foundations and other types of support such as thecontributions of embassies, organisms of cooperation, international organisms and academiinstitutions.

During this period subsidies to private centers were the most important type of transfsome cases these subsidies were decisive for the existence of the local centers. The research

on Marginality, began at ILPES, a research and training center associated with Cepal, and DCatholic action center, and then located at the di Tella Institute gave rise to polemics and faaccusations that made evident the conflict about foreign financing.

The utilization of foreign funds originated many discussions and conflicts. Besides thnationality of the funding institutions, such type of activity brought up the question of resea

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command. This problem goes beyond the question of financing by foundations: it is also apto work for public agencies, ongs and a great part of research conducted in universities. It the case that both critics and participants expressed their concern for the degree of influenc by the customer. When the funding institutions are foreign the question of internationaliz becomes the problem of the subordination of national concerns and styles of work to formscontacts established by the foreign funding institution..

4.6.2 Another form of contact has to do with participation in an international milieu academic work and applied projects.

Participation in International Congresses taking place out of the country became gradmore frequent. At the same time that it served to allow for the circulation of the results of a

work in an international milieu and to expose local academics to ideas and types of researchin foreign circles, it had the somewhat unexpected result of allowing the reestablishment of beteen local academics, between those working out of Argentina and those who stayed in thcountry.

There was an influential contact for social scientists working in public agencies and international courses at Ilpes in Stgo. de Chile. where they were exposed to the thought of Ccreative form of Latin-American thought.

As for the connection between researchers and research centers, the creation of Clacs1966 was a significant step given its operative nature. The first three Secretaries General wArgentineans and the seat of the organization was Buenos Airs, for a long period. Clacsos aim of encompassing all orientation was marred by conflicts with Marxist researchers. Theorganization was funded by the Ford Foundation, and after an initial period a conflict erupt between both institutions.

The participation of Argentine social scientists in the academic and developmental acof other countries was another creative form of contact. It had a massive and dramatic expr

their participation in Chilean Universities and agencies. The American sponsored coup agaAllende cut these activities and made most of them return to Argentina. As they arrived durinterlude, many of them had to move again a few years later.

The three governments of this period were associated to movements of academics, alin different forms. While the interlude attracted people who were out of the country it ende

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thorough process of University cleansing that pushed many people out of the country. Bothdictatorial governments generated masses of exiles. Although some of the points of destinatthe rich countries such as USA, Canada and European nations, a significant situation occurregard to Latin-American countries. The participation of Argentine social scientists in acadedevelopment institutions in Mexico, Brasil, Per, Ecuador or Venezuela generated links thaexist before and became solid and persistent.

Another form of connections between social scientists of the region with the incorpograduate students were the MA programs in Rural Sociology organized by Clacso as a sort venture. Each two year program took place successively in a different country: Paraguay, ECosta Rica and Repblica Dominicana.

Together with the general movement of students enrolled in graduate programs in ce

countries, the Latin-American component had at the time an important expression in the Moffered by Flacso in Mexico and in Ecuador. These programs were part of an institutional pexpansion of the presence of Flacso in Latin America. It was coupled with the developmentformation of bodies of instructors and research of different nationalities, mostly Latin Amer

The movement towards foreign Universities offering graduate degrees was funded byConicet. In some cases foreign Universities offered grants.

4.7 The occupational fate of the graduates and the scope of professionalizationFrom 1960 until the 70s the number students getting degrees in social science in the

state universities grew from 85 to 3200 and the share of enrollments in the social sciences w17% to 20%, reaching 32%, its highest point, in 1970, although it is to be taken into accouneconomics is included among the social sciences.28

As usual, universities are the most important field for employment open for graduatefield is severely curtailed by 1976-83 dictatorship. Nevertheless, earlier in the period there but constant expansion of theses areas, with chairs and programs of specialization in univer

located in the interior of the country. The number of students reached a peak during the inteexperimented a precipitous fall during the final period. Nevertheless, a fact that makes thisemployment merely partial is the scarcity of full time positions, especially in the social scieWhile in the UBA, full time positions are close to 80% in the basic sciences, in the social s

28 Ministerio de Educacin (1996)

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is below 15%. In the country as a whole and for all disciplines, only 14% of the teaching stfull time positions. The salaries in part time positions (dedicacin simple) represent less thathe full time salaries.29

Conicets scholarships were an important quasi-occupational field for people who wconduct research of take specialization courses. The emergence of the first MA courses prothe duration of study programs. As preciously mentioned, studies in foreign Universities weother way of making it possible to continue with programs of academic work.

Public agencies offer jobs, with variable degrees of discrimination and repression. Ngrow before the great repression of the 176-83 dictatorship. They become a dynamic area wstudents and specialists in the social sciences work, and the same time engage in forms of sactivism.

Private enterprises grow in numbers and size, although at a modest pace. The initial dlinked to market studies becomes more diversified. In some cases social sciences graduatessmall market studies enterprises, and later some firms conducting electoral studies. Growthfirms brings with it agreements with big foreign firms or firms in neighboring countries, ansometimes straight sellouts.4.8 Orientations

As we have been showing up to now, this period is marked by a strong attack againstsocial sciences of that employed an empirical-theoretical style of work. In some cases the astrong negative forms, such it occurred when the Sociology program was closed. In other catook the form of an attack based on the spousal of an alternative approach geared towards texclusion of the preciously established one. The most important rejection of this type took denomination of national sociology but sometimes it defined itself more sharply as revolutiPeronist.

This approach got some support among anthropologist and in the schools of politicalat the Jesuit University (Salvador) and the state university of Rosario.

Among some of the revolutionary Peronist groups that initiated the criticism and the approach it occurred a move towards Marxist views. This move was particularly important militant groups of a Catholic orientation. In fact these approaches tended to concentrate on

29 M.Kisilevsky (2000)

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construction of interpretations linked to political decisions, without connection with researcanalyses of a social science nature.

The break occurred in many State and private Universities but it did not occur in all oThere were movements in different directions. In the Jesuit University the period started wimovement towards the expansion of the influences coming from American style orientationCatholic University there was a combination of American style sociology and conservative social thought. Even in the Universidad de Buenos Aires Department of Sociology, some ginstructors persisted with orientations defying the prevalent one. In the private UniversidadBelgrano there was a diversity of orientations, mostly of the American type of approach.

The Centers of research, mostly newly created, were the locus of continuity with thework institutionalized in the previous period. In fact, the Centers expanded the scope of res

including new topics and novel orientations but within a basic trend of continuity..While some of the centers were thematically specialized, as it was the case with Cep

rural topics, and Ceil and labor studies, or theoretically committed, as Cicso and Marxism, the centers incorporated a wide range of topics moving beyond the structural studies of thetype. As questions of a political, ideological and communicational content were incorporatemade for interdisciplinary collaboration between our social sciences.

One limitation to continuity and diversity was the weight of repression;many social scientists disappeared or went into exile

Third -period: Expansion and problems of quality in a context of elected governments

5.1 National Context

During this period all governments were elected governments: it is the longest period withconstitutional governments elected by universal suffrage in Argentine history. There was aradical increase in dependence on foreign capital and on imperialist powers.Unemployment and poverty reached the highest rates in recorded history. Social

movements, mostly of the unemployed, were very active.

5.2 Stabilization and expansion of the social sciences.The social sciences became more diversified in terms of institutions and orientations.

Public Universities became autonomous again, and their authorities are elected by professors, graduates and students.

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Some Universities, public and private, developed a commitment to scientific excellence.Public Universities established research subsidies for instructors and students. Quite a fewM.A. programs and some Ph.D, programs were created,30 Private and international Centersare active in research, teaching and consultancy. There is a growing participation in localand international Congresses. Work in state agencies expands considerably.

It is a period of expansion of the social sciences of international style. This implies a break with the previous period of repression or total political immersion.

5.3 Cultural context and cultural institutionsIn the cultural sphere there was a process of revitalization linked to the enthusiasm

generated by the fall of the military dictatorship.Artistic activities, lectures, journals and magazines, films and visits by foreign intellectualsand artists, - favored by the overvalued currency - become part of everyday life. A youthculture, linked mostly to rock, attracts large numbers of youngsters: mass concerts infootball stadiums are very successful,

New themes define a new cultural environment. As the promises of social and economicchange fail, the cultural enthusiasm with which this period starts evolves into a concernwith unresolved issues. Topics such as the disappeared and the punishment of the culpritsmake human rights a central concern. Ngos organize campaigns around these topics thatstay with us until present times. Somewhat later topics related to socioeconomic crisis become central: poverty, unemployment, precarious work and informality attract theactivity of many researchers. With time, topics such as drugs and insecurity establish aconnection between peoples everyday concerns and social science research. Socialscientists are invited to participate in newspapers and TV programs.

Together with stability, came participation of social scientists in state agencies, in

Parliament and in majority and oppositional parties,Research is favored by university subsidies. Conicet continues its sponsorship activities

and a new agency is created, to subsidize long term research projects.

30 O.Barsky y V.Sigal (2003)

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The Institute of Sociology was reorganized and it incorporated many research projects by professors, with assistance of graduates and students. Nevertheless, there are still a good proportion of professors who do not engage in research activities.

Participation in Congresses is made possible by local subsidies and foreign invitations.Congresses become a regular feature not only in the Capital city but also in cities in theinterior of the country. Some international Congresses become almost a must such as is thecase with ones organized by the Asociacin Latinoamericana de Sociologa, or the LatinAmerican Studies Association. There are also more specialized event such as the onesorganized by the Asociacin Latinoamericana de Estudios del Trabajo and AsociacinLatinoamericana de Sociologa Rural.

The expansion in activities goes together with the opening of new programs: in 2003,

The Ministerio lists 12 Bachelors programs in Sociology, with an equal share of public and private Universities. In some cases the program includes studies towards a bachelorsdegree and also studies oriented towards teaching activities, as Sociology is becoming partof the high school curriculum.

Within the growing field of M.A. programs, FLACSO, an international organization hasa leading role; two years ago it opened a Ph.D. program with partial financing from theHewlett Foundation. A private University, the Universidad de Belgrano has maintained aPh.D. program for many years. The Facultad de Ciencias Sociales of the UBA has recentlyopened a Ph.D. program. The local offerings of graduate programs coexist with theattraction of foreign Universities. The USA, Canada, France, the UK attract many students,while Spain is gaining more candidates and Brazil, with an important program of scholarships, is becoming an important center.

Outside of the Universities, private centers maintain a significant role in research,although most of them are active in consultancy, in work with ngos and in teaching.

Another expression of expansion is specialization. Specialized professional associations

are organized. An example of this development is the Asociacin de Estudios del Trabajo,created in 1993: it publishes an interdisciplinary Journal. Desarrollo Econmico is a prestigious Journal which publishes interdisciplinary material. These Journals utilize thesystem of anonimous referees. Other Journals, such as Sociology, of the Department of

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Sociology of the UBA is somewhat irregular in publication. There also Journals published by young sociologists, as El Ojo Mocho which have attained certain continuity.

Publishing has been more limited than in the past as a result of economic problems andcompetition from Spanish publishers, as well as a fall in sales in sociology. Small publishing houses have published books by local scholars.

5.4.2 Political ScienceThe career of Political Science was created in the UBA in 1985, when

Francisco Delich, a social scientist, was Rector of the UBA . Thus, it had to wait more than15 years after Sociology and Anthropology Programs were established. This creation wasaccompanied by certain ceremonial dignity: Norberto Bobbio gave the inaugural lecture. It

started with 137 students. It was set up as an independent program not affiliated to aFacultad. Later it became part of the Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, created in 1988. As adiscipline which might attract young students, it still generated opposition, as it was thecase of one of the major newspapers, La Nacin.

In 1992 there was a change in curriculum to update contents and introduce areas of specialization. Since then there are five areas of study: political theory and philosophy,compared politics, political analysis and studies of public opinion, design andimplementation of public policies and, finally, international relations.

In 1998, there were already 520 graduates. For 2003 there is estimation of 3000 studentand about 300 instructors, 15% appointed by a jury, and 80% having paying jobs.

At the beginning of our period there were 6 bachelors programs in politicalscience, two of them in public universities.

The field of political science acquires visibility and national existence. In 1985 theUBA established a Committee for the Study of the State and its Problems. Then, the Officeof the President of the Republic incorporated the University Committee into a new

consultative organ. Prestigious international scholars, such as Linz, Sartori and Calabresiwere invited to work with the Committee in the elaboration of a report on presidential vs. parliamentarian systems.

The national scope of the discipline is attained through contacts between Universities.The Rosario program establishes common activities with Crdoba and Mendoza.

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The Asociacin Argentina de Ciencia Poltica, which maintained the tradition of utilizinglegal approaches is dissolved. A competing organization, the SAAP takes the role of national organization and becomes a member of IPSA. In 1991 the International Congresstakes place in Buenos Aires. Then, the 1993 Argentine Congress offers an opportunity for the victorious presentation of the modern approach, with the presence of several invitedforeign specialists and more than 100 papers. presented for discussion.

Several private centers are in activity, at least during part of the period, although their major field is international relations. There are also private centers espousing a leftistapproach, such as Eural, directed by A.Born, and Clade, directed by Jos Nun.

The journal Revista argentina de relaciones internacionals makes a short reappearance.The journal Crtica y Utopa directed by F.Delich is published until 1989. More recently

appear publications congregating young graduates and students such as El PoliticlogoFLACSO opens an MA program in international relations. Later on, MA programs in

several Universities initiate their activities. A private University, the Universidad deBelgrano continues with its PhD. Program. In 1983 the Universidad de Belgrano organizeda symposium on the Problems of Democracy.

5,5,3. Anthropology.

The growth of Anthropology is more limited than the expansion in the two other disciplines.

In 2003, there were 11 universities, 2 of them private, with Anthropology programs.Some of these programs were specialized in Archeology or in the formation of technicians

There were 3 bachelors programs in anthropology, 3 of them defining themselves asspecialized in Social Anthropology. The two original programs in Buenos Aires and La

Plata, and the already mentioned Misiones program are joined by undergraduate programs

in Buenos Aires province and in the Northwestern region, a traditional area of anthropological and archeological research. As part of the Facultad de Filosofia y Letras oUBA, the Anthropology program offers also a Ph.D.degree, the doctoral degree being par

of the traditional set of disciplines in the Facultad.

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There is a widening of the discipline, in terms of topics as well as in terms of geographical areas of interest. There isnt anymore a concentration in the study of aboriginal peoples located in marginal areas. A multiplicity of social situations becomeobject of study, such as shanty towns, rural towns, feasts and ceremonials of the lower andthe upper classes, neighborhoods, soccer, polo, millenarian movements, community lifeand voting patterns, migrants and frontiers. Some prestigious anthropologists moved fromfields such as rural anthropology and opened new areas of study like science or culturalidentity, while others persist in the study of classical topics, but introducing newapproaches.

This widening of interests is linked to the growth of social anthropology within thegeneral area of anthropology.

Nevertheless, among anthropologists this expansion coexists with a feeling of loss. Thusit is said that anthropology has been losing areas such as the studies of popular culture andfolklore, now in the hands of other disciplines such as sociology, literature or literarytheory. New areas, more related to the study of society and politics are seen as being onlyin the process of opening additional fields.In 1988 , year of the 30th. Anniversary of the creation of the first undergraduate program,

a national Congress was organized. The process of thematic widening mentioned above isaccompanied by contacts with sociologists and historians, who are often invited to makespecial presentations in anthropological meetings.

Traditional areas of work such as archeology continue active. Although they are mostlynot connected to social anthropology there are attempts at developing a social archeology.

There is an area of work that saw a dramatic development during this period, i.e. legalanthropology. The commitment of national and foreign anthropologists made it possible toidentify desaparecidos.,

5.6 Relationship between disciplines

On the one hand, this period shows the persistence of the already mentioned trend towardsconfluence between sociology and anthropology and between sociology and politicalscience.

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On the other hand, as the disciplines develop they tend to look for specific spaces. Thosespaces are defined by topics, research methods and theoretical points of reference. A furthestep in this direction is the activation of professional communities. In the case of politicalscience there is a conscious search for community, as a rsponse to the conviction that a lackof it is a central obstacle to the solid establishment of the discipline.

5.7 Internationalization

Also in this area we find contrasting tendencies. On the one hand, the relationship of thethree disciplines with centers and agencies of central and Latin-American countries, whileon the other there is a withdrawal of funds.

It is not the case of a complete disappearance of external funds. There is a certain degreeof differentiation, with French funds joining the traditional American sources. Antorchas isan interesting case of the channeling of entrepreneurial funds through a network of groupsin several Latin-American countries. This experiment is about to end, as Antorchas is aboutto discontinue its activities.

The decrease in foreign funds is accompanied by the increase in local public fundsthrough Conicet and the Agencia. Some of these funds come from external agencies.

These agencies have funded graduate studies in foreign countries. The period of economic and labor market crisis changed the nature of the interest in studying in foreigncountries. From a process of improvement and specialization of people interested inreturning to the country of origin we moved to a process of hidden migration. The presenceof Latin American countries in the process of specialization and search for higher degreeshas become significant as it is the case with Flacsos courses in Mxico and Ecuador. Brasiis a very interesting case because it is receiving many Argentine students and offeringscholarships, without obtaining reciprocity from Argentina.

The settlement of Argentine students in countries where they get their degrees or thedefinitive or temporary settlement of exiles establishes professional and intellectual links.

A phenomenon that represents a qualitative change in patterns of internationalization isthe circulation inside the Latin-American area which became very intense. International

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disciplinary Congresses, some of them interdisciplinary as is the case with Lasa, have become regular forms of encounter.

Embassies and agencies of the central countries finance exhanges. During part of this period, the rate of exchange of the Argentine peso made it possible to invite and pay figuresuch as Castel, Touraine, Giddens or Beck. The presence of foreign specialists is also partof many of the new graduate programs. In many cases connections with foreign universitiesand specialists are seen as decisive market weapon. Usually these contacts are notaccompanied by foreign subsidies to local graduate courses

Foreign universities opened branches in Argentina, offering courses to national students(Bolonia) or to their own (NYU)

Contacts with countries of destination are maintained through the establishment of bi-

national institutions. Argentina-Canada centers in different university cities are very activeand help promote contacts between Canadian agencies and local Ngos

The dramatic avatars of Argentine society have brought with them a revival in theinterest of latin-americanists. This traditional form of contact between central anddependent countries has reached an intense expression in the recent Congresos deAmericanistas.

5.8 Professionalization: Graduates and the labor market

A basic determinant to be taken into account is the economic cycle, with its hecticmovements in recent years.

In all three disciplines there has taken place a process of diversification, with a greatgrowth of positions en governmental agencies and, to a lesser degree, in ngos. The creationof many Universities and many programs increased the already major role of Universitiesin the labor market. Nevertheless, we have to take into account the fact that most jobs in

Universities are part time.Holding multiple occupations is a central characteristic of members of these three

disciplines labor marketA more recent form of connection with the state is the activity of consultant to MPs

which is practiced by some sociologists, but especially by political scientists. Beyond this

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professional activity, during this period social scientists have been engaged in politicallysignificant activities, acting as Ministers, consultants and advisers to Ministers and to thePresident of the Republic,. There were also some cases of parliamentarians or provincialgovernors..

The growth of electoral studies generates jobs and made some sociologists familiar figures in TV, newspapers and popular magazines. Several firms formed by local socialscientists are now linked to international chains. Personnel selection, especially at theexecutive level, and market studies are areas of private activity in which social scientistsare very active, both as owners or executives and of grassroots personnel.

Journalism is a field that has offered job opportunities for social scientists, although in alimited degree. Some the problems they encounter and the type of adaptation required for

these types of jobs can be exemplified by the firing of a journalist cum social scientist byone the major newspapers because of his role as trade union organizer.

5.9 Orientations

The third period has been characterized by the development of a diversity of orientations.Whereas some new approaches become consolidated and give rise to actual studies, othersdo not move beyond the level of general statements. The varied experiences of the socialscientists who stayed in the country as well the contributions of those who left and thencame back are an important source of diversity. At the same time, a diversity of socialorganizations, most of them new, and state agencies demand the attention and thecollaboration of social scientists.

Changes and diversity differ according to discipline.

5.9.1 Sociology

The lively sociological landscape can be examined following several dimensions.31

1. Theory is a first dimension. During this period, differing approaches, already presentin previous periods, become consolidated. This is the case with the classic American

31 R.Sautu (comp.) (1999)

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style, the studies based on the so called national thinkers, and the more traditionalMarxists analyses.A European form of analysis of social structure grows considerably. At the same timetheoretically oriented empirical studies become revitalized around specific conceptssuch exclusion, disaffiliation or poverty, closely related to social problems concerns. New Marxist approaches reactivate studies of social classes and stratification.Structural analyses are combined with the study of actors perspectives andsociability patterns.

A form of treating theory that became widespread was precisely not to treattheory as a basic component of research. Many descriptive studies, often generated by state agencies and hortatory pieces using descriptions as illustrations are examples

of attempts at a-theoretical work.

2. A second relevant dimension has to do with the development of data collection andanalysis. The utilization of different quantitative and qualitative methods definediverse styles of work, without creating a more comprehensive methodology capableof favoring complementarity. Recent forms of quantitative analysis, formalizedtechniques of qualitative analysis and the systematic analysis of texts and writtensources became separate alternatives utilized by sociologists of differing theoreticalorientations. As in the case of theory, there are also many studies devoid of anymethodological concerns.

3. A third dimension not as generally applicable as the previous ones, has to do with therelationship with other disciplines. The linkage between sociological studies andtopics and approaches in economics and history is the most notable one. When theselinkages exist, a basic question is the type of relationship established. We often

encounter lines of work where the sociological approach is entirely subsumed by theconcerns and style of work typical of the other discipline.

4. Finally, the dimension linkage with applied sociology modifies significantly thestyle of work of sociologists. Two basic types of applied activities can be

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distinguished: those related to ngos (and sometimes political parties or trade unions),and those related state agencies or international agencies which sometimes operatethrough state agencies. In both cases, there is a set of topics that are prevalent, suchas poverty, exclusion, or more general displacement by the capitalist system. Afurther topic present in the ngos agenda is human rights. Applied studies differ alsoin the degree of closeness to direct intervention.

Thus, the existing diversity is really great. There are Schools and Departments wherediversity means war and a war where losing has serious consequences. We may ask if there are cases where diversity brings with it dialogue. There are impassable frontiers, but there is also communication, albeit limited and not continuous.

Congresses and Symposia provide the loci for communication.There is more dialogue between young researchers and senior sociologists than betweensenior sociologists. Unfortunately these loci are not always loci for the communication ofideas but an occasion for the ritual presentation of papers associated to academicsurvival.

5.9.2 Political scienceDuring this period, a process started during the previous one becomes central in thediscipline. An approach called by its practitioners empirical, strongly influenced by theAmerican behavioral theory reaches a dominant position. The Jesuit University leads the process and is followed by the Universidad de Rosario (previously Universidad delLitoral) which had the oldest program in the field.

The dominance of this approach generates the possibility of a dialogue. Startingfrom this common interest a difficult new step is taken. This step was oriented towardsan enrichment of the achieved commonality, It was favored by confluence on a common

topic, the question of the transition to democracy, prevalent since 1983. An attempt wasmade at linking the political behavioral approach with topics and orientations related tostructural, institutional and ideological themes.

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Although this attempt at a synthesis represents the mainstream, there are also alternativeapproaches committed to develop a style of work linked to the political thought of national political figures or of national thinkers.

5.9.3AnthropologyThe movement towards the dominance of Social Anthropology ,

With a rejection of traditional forms of an anthropology centered in the study of otherness prevails during this period. The VI th. National Congress of Anthropologyconsecrates this move.It the others are still studied: they are not approached as peculiar forms of social lifeseparated from national life, not as folkloric survivals but as groups located in a system

of relations of production and in national political and social organization.In some cases, this view is connected to a search for joint work with popular

action organizations or with governmental promotion plans.Thus, we find in anthropology concerns and styles of action that we mentioned in

looking at sociology. Topics such as poverty, exclusion, lack of infrastructure or crisis of middle class groups become central and are associated with a more activist style of work

These concerns are not separated from an interest in the utilization of stricter research techniques. A search for appropriate methods of qualitative analysis and for more sophisticated quantitative techniques, such as cluster analysis and regression,modify the more traditional ethnographic methodology. In the theoretical field, someapproaches coming from cultural studies and identity theory bear witness to theacceptance of newer theoretical approaches.Thus, we see changes parallel to those occurring in the other two disciplines, mostlysociology.

5.6 Orientations and common features

In all three disciplines and after a series of avatars we reach a point in which the major feature is the existence of great theoretical, methodological and thematic diversity. As aresult we have significant contributions to the understanding of national reality, resulting

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from disciplined research. Nevertheless, we do not have a synthetic view of socialstructure and its movements. There is a somewhat exaggerated dependence on importedtheories, reaching the point of an acceptance of fashions and of the demands of international consumers. Production is plentiful, but the criteria about quality are notclear. Budget scarcity limits the action of public Universities. Internal institutional andintradisciplinary conflicts still define the framework within which intellectual work hasto be carried out.

Bibliography

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Germani, Gino, La sociologa en Argentina, en Revista Latinoamericana de Sociologa,Vol.4 N3, Buenos Aires, 1968Germani, Gino, Desarrollo y estado actual de la sociologa latinoamericana, Boletn delInstituto de Sociologa,

murmis - social sciences in argentina

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