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Municipal, Industrial, and Hazardous Waste

Jonathan M. Links, PhDJohns Hopkins University

Section A

Types of Waste and Waste Management

4

Types of Waste

Waste

Medicalwaste

Municipalsolid waste

Hazardouswaste

Radioactivewaste

Industrialwaste

Spent fuelHigh-levelLow-level

Uranium mill tailings

ManufacturingMining

Agriculture Coal combustion

Oil and gas production

Source: Wagner, T.

5

The Universe of Waste

Industrialwaste93.7%

Hazardous waste 5%

MSW 1.2%

Radioactive waste <0.1%Medical waste <0.1%

Source: Wagner, T.

6

Waste Categories and Generated Amounts (1990 Data)

SourceAmount

( x 106 tons/year)Per capita (lbs/day)

Municipal 164 4.7

Industrial 13,000 285

Hazardous 196 4.3

Medical 0.5 1 oz

Other

Sewage sludge 300 6.3

Dredged material 400

Animal waste 1,325*

*Nationwide, 130 times more animal waste than human waste

Source: Wagner, T.

7

Municipal Solid Waste

Source: Adapted by CTLT from Hill, M. K.

8

Sources and Examples of MSW

Sources Examples of products

Residential, including single-and multiple-family houses

Nondurable paper items (magazines, newspapers, advertising flyers), plastic and glass bottles, aluminum and steel cans, packaging, food wastes, yard wastes

Institutional, including schools, hospitals, prisons, and nursing homes

Food wastes, paper (classrooms and offices), disposable tableware, napkins, paper towels from restrooms and yard trimmings

Source: Moore, G. S.

9

More Sources and Examples of MSW

Sources Examples of products

Commercial, including restaurants, office buildings, and stores

Food wastes, paper products from offices, restrooms and serving tables, disposable tableware, corrugated and paperboard products, yard wastes

Industrial packaging and administrative wastes

Wooden pallets, office paper, corrugated and paperboard products, plastic film and food wastes (from cafeterias)

10

Major Material Components of MSW by Weight, 1996

0

20

40

60

80

Paper

Yard

Food

Other

Plastics

Meta

ls

GlassW

ood

MSW

(mill

ions

of t

ons)

Source: EPA; Moore, G. S.

11

Sources of Household Hazardous Waste

Household hazardous waste: approximately 0.5% of refuse weight

56%

26% 12%

5%

Automotive

Paint products Misc.

Cleaners

Pesticides 1%

Source: Johnson, B. L.

12

U.S. Material Consumption and Population Growth

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Materials Population

Mill

ion

met

ric to

ns/m

illio

n p

eop

le

Source: McKinney, M. L.

13

Waste Generation Rates, 1960–2000

0

60

120

180

240

1960 1970 1980 1990 200000.511.522.533.544.55

Tota

l was

te g

ener

atio

n (m

illio

n to

ns) Per cap

ita generation (lbs/p

erson/day)

Source: Hill, M. K.

14

Annual Municipal Waste Generation per Person

0 500 1000 1500 2000

Portugal

Italy

Germany

U.K.

France

Canada

Australia

U.S.

Annual per capita waste generation (lbs)

Source: McKinney, M. L.

15

Causes for Increased Waste Generation

Demographic changesDegree of urbanizationConsumer preferenceDemand for convenience ahead of the environmentLittle economic incentive for Americans to reduce waste

16

How MSW Is Managed in the U.S.

Landfills67%

17% Recycling

16% Incineration

Source: Pepper, I. L.

17

Arrangement of Cells in a Sanitary Landfill

Source: Adapted by CTLT from Peirce, J. J.

18

Unlined Landfills and Groundwater Contamination

Groundwater contamination as a result of unlined landfill disposal

Source: Adapted by CTLT from Nadavakukaren, A.

19

Diagram of a Sanitary Landfill

Source: Adapted by CTLT from Rogers, J. J.

20

Change in Waste Disposal Tipping Fees

0

10

20

30

40

1980 1984 1988 1992Incinerator Landfill

Ave

rage

fee

in d

olla

rs/t

on

Source: Blumberg, L.

21

The Land Filling Crisis

Changes in the number of municipal waste operating facilities (U.S.)

0

4,000

8,000

12,000

16,000

1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

Mun

icip

al w

aste

op

erat

ion

faci

litie

s

Source: EPA.

22

Sanitary Landfill: Federal Legislation Provisions

Landfills may not be sited on floodplains, wetlands, earthquake zones, unstable land, or airports (birds at site are hazard to aircraft)Landfills must have linersLandfills must have a leachate collection systemLandfill operators must monitor groundwater for many specified toxic chemicalsLandfill operators must meet financial assurance criteria that monitoring continues for 30 years after closure of the landfill

23

Why Are New Landfill Sites Not Being Established?

Public opposition− NIMBY: Not in my backyard− LULU: Locally unwanted land use− NIMEY: Not in my election year− NIMTOO: Not in my term of office− BANANA: Build absolutely nothing anywhere near

anyone− NOPE: Not on planet earth

Rising costsEPA regulations

24

Does MSW Degrade in a Landfill?

MinimalDesigned to prevent generation of leachate− Liquid containing dissolved solids and toxics that results

from precipitation percolating down through the waste and contaminating groundwater

Oxygen, critical for degradation, has been eliminated by compaction“Biodegradable” advertised products

25

The Lasting Litter Chart

Bottle 1,000,000 years

Plastic 6-pack holder 450 years

Aluminum can 200–400 years

Tin can 80–100 years

Plastic container 20–30 years

Disposable diaper 10–20 years

Woolen cap 12 months

Cotton rag 1–5 months

Banana/orange peel 3–6 weeks

Paper 2–4 weeks

Source: Hill, M. K.

26

Typical Sanitary Landfill Leachate Composition

Component Value

BOD5 20,000 mg/L

Ammonia nitrogen 500 mg/L

Chlorine 2,000 mg/L

Total iron 500 mg/L

Zinc 50 mg/L

Lead 2 mg/L

PCBs 1.5 µg/L

pH 6.0

Source: Peirce, J. J.

27

Incineration

Reduces waste to solid residues, gases, and water vaporProcess reduces waste volume by 80–90%Solid residues need further disposal (landfilling)Emissions have to be closely monitored and controlledEconomic considerations− Incineration costs about $125,000 per ton (cost is affected

by plant capacity)− Typical plant capacity is about 1,000 tons per day

28

Waste-to-Energy Plant with Pollution Control System

Mass burn waste-to-energy plant with pollution control system

Source: Adapted by CTLT from League of Women Voters.

29

Why Recycle?

Resource conservation− Recycling reduces pressure on renewable and non-

renewable resourcesEnergy conservation− Recycling consumes 50–90% less energy than

manufacturing the same item from virgin materialPollution abatement− Reduces level of pollutant emissions

30

Benefits Derived from Using Secondary Materials

Environmental benefits derived from substituting secondary materials for virgin resources

Reduction of: Aluminum Steel Paper Glass

Energy use 90–97% 47–74% 23–74% 4–32%

Air pollution 95% 85% 74% 20%

Water pollution 97% 76% 35% —

Mining waste — 97% — 80%

Water use — 40% 58% 50%

Source: McKinney, M. L.

31

Reasons More MSW Isn’t Recycled: Attitudes

Attitudes− Convenience, conditioned by advertising; throwaway

attitude toward waste; not valued as a resource;out of sight, out of mind

− Some people just don’t care

32

Reasons More MSW Isn’t Recycled: Economic

Economic− Public policy hinders recycling effort− Expense of sorting, transportation− Plastic virgin material less expensive than producing

recycled material

33

Reasons More MSW Isn’t Recycled: Market

Market− Environmental cost is not reflected in market price

We must internalize the environmental costsWe must include environmental cost in commodity pricing

34

Trends in Waste Generation, Recovery, and Disposal

0

60

120

180

240

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Land Disposal Combustion Composting Recycling

Mill

ion

tons

Source: Hill, M. K.

35

Better Than Recycling

Source reduction− Minimize the amount of waste being generated− Use less material per product− Make products last longer− Abandon the planned obsolescence approach− Front-end approach to waste management

Reuse − Repeated use of items prior to disposal− Repair the item

36

MSW Management Hierarchy

Municipal waste management hierarchy ranked in order of increasing impact on the environment− Source reduction− Reuse− Recycling− Incineration with energy recovery− Incineration without energy recovery− Landfill

Section B

Hazardous Waste

38

Hazardous Waste

Legal designation for certain wastes that require special handling because they present a serious threat to human health and the environment if mismanaged

Source: Wagner, T., 129.

39

Hazardous Waste

Source: Adapted by CTLT from Koren, H.

40

Hazardous Waste Characteristics

Ignitability− Substances that catch fire with a flash point of 140

degrees Fahrenheit or lessCorrosivity− Substances that corrode storage tanks (pH <2 or >12.5)

Reactivity− Substances that are chemically unstable and may explode

or generate poisonous gases (cyanide and sulfide)Toxicity− Substances that are injurious to health when ingested or

inhaled (e.g., chlorine, ammonia, pesticides, formaldehyde)

41

Hazardous Waste Sources in the U.S.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Percent

Chemicals

Transportation equipment,motor freight transport

Petroleum refining,fabricated metals

Machinery,electric machinery

Electrical: gas,sanitary services

Source: Holmes, G.

42

The “Toxic Soup” of Hazardous Waste

How muchBetween 300 and 700 million tons per year90% is wastewater (which is dilute but contains enough regulated materials)

WhatHeavy metalsSolventsOrganic chemicalsMunicipal wasteInorganic wastePesticidesPaints and oil wastesSludges

Source: Wagner, T.

43

Potential Threats That Led to Listing on the NPL

Potential threats to the environment that led to listing on the National Priorities List (NPL)

85.2

73.1

72.1

50.4

26

10.5

7.8

6.6

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Groundwater impacts

Drinking water impacts

Soil impacts

Surface water impacts

Air impacts

Flora impacts (vegetation)

Animal life impacts

Human health impacts

Percent of sitesSource: Holmes, G.

44

Livestock Production and Animal Waste Production

AnimalProduction

( x 106 per year)Solid manure

( x 106 tons per year)

Broilers 7,600 14.4

Turkeys 300 5.4

Hogs 103 116.4

Cattle (non-dairy) 58 1,229.2

1,365.7

Concerns:(e.g., hogs)

NitrogenPhosphorusPathogens

29 lbs/year/hog18 lbs/year/hog

?

Source: USDA.

45

Number of Hog Farms/Number of Hogs per Farm: NC

Number of hog farms and average number of hogs per farm in North Carolina, 1983–1997

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

1983 1985 1989 1993 1995

0

300

600

900

1200

1500

1800

Hog Farms Hogs/Farm

Hog

farm

sH

ogs per farm

46

Broiler Numbers and Production Farms, 1975–1995

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

10

15

20

25

30

35

Farms Broilers

Thousands of farmsM

illio

ns o

f pou

nds

Source: USDA.

47

Environmental Impacts of Hog Farming

Nutrient pollution of soil, rivers, and shorelines− Nitrogen and phosphorus

Stimulate algal growth leading to low dissolved-oxygen levels

Air pollution− Nitrogen

Contaminated groundwater and drinking wellsOdor pollution− Ammonia

48

Potential Threats to Public Health

Lists of recognized toxicantsLists of suspected toxicantsPathogensAntibiotic resistanceHeavy metals in waste lagoonsGreenhouse gases

49

Comparison

Comparison between municipal and hog farm waste treatment regulations− Municipalities are subject to strict waste control

technologies− Hog farms are not− Municipalities must monitor their environmental

performanceHog farms have no obligation to monitor or report runoff, discharges, or groundwater contaminationInstead, they are inspected by state officials only two times per year

50

The U.S. Generates How Much Hazardous Waste?

EPA estimates− 300–700 million tons per year

~ 90% (by weight) is wastewater− Used in industrial processes and becomes contaminated− Often is fairly dilute but contains enough regulated

constituents to render it hazardous

Source: Wagner, T., 133.

51

The U.S. Generates How Much Hazardous Waste?

~ 10%− Inorganic solids (heavy metals, contaminated soil)− Organic liquids (solvents)− Sludges (treatment residues) from air- and water-

pollution control devices

52

Hazardous Waste Generators

21,575 large-quantity generators190,431 small-quantity generators2,389 treatment, storage, and disposal facilities acting as waste generators

Source: Johnson, B. L., 9.

53

Uncontrolled Dumping of Hazardous Waste

Contamination from uncontrolled dumping of hazardous waste− Chemical waste stored in barrels—either stocked on

ground or buried—eventually corrode and leak, polluting surface water, soil, and groundwater

− Liquid chemical waste dumped in an unlined lagoon from which contaminated water percolates though the solid and rock to the groundwater table

− Liquid chemical waste illegally dumped in deserted fields or even along roads

54

“Top 20” Toxic Substances Found at NPL Sites

“Top 20” most prominent toxic substances found at NPL sites (total list = 275)

Lead Trichloroethylene

Arsenic DDT

Mercury Arachlor 1254

Benzene Hexachlorobutadiene

Vinyl chloride Arachlor 1260

Cadmium DDE

PCBs Arachlor 1242

Benzo(a)pyrene Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene

Chloroform Hexavalent chromium

Benzo(b)fluoranthene Dieldrin

Source: Nadavakukaren, A., 670.

55

Health Effects of Selected Hazardous Substances

Chemical Source Health effect

DDT InsecticideCancer; damages liver, embryo, bird eggs

BHC Insecticide Cancer, embryo damage

BenzeneSolvents, pharmaceuticals, detergent production

Headaches, nausea, loss of muscle coordination, leukemia, bone marrow damage

Vinyl chloride Plastics productionLung and liver cancer, depresses CNS, suspected embryotoxin

Source: McKinney, M. L., 549.

56

Health Effects of More Selected Hazardous Substances

Chemical Source Health effect

DioxinHerbicides, waste incineration

Cancer, birth defects, skin disease

PCBsElectronics, hydraulic fluid, fluorescent lights

Skin damage, GI damage, possible carcinogen

Lead Paint, gasoline

Neurotoxic; causes headaches, irritability, mental impairment in children; damages brain, liver, and kidneys

CadmiumZinc processing, batteries, fertilizer processing

Cancer in animals, damage to liver and kidneys

57

Persons at Potential Risk

EPA:− ~ 73 million live within a four-mile radius of an NPL site

ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry):− ~ 11 million live within one mile of an NPL site− 1.3 million children under six years old live within one

mile

Source: Johnson, B. L., 17.

58

Environmental Contamination and PH Assessment

Problems− Residence near HWS does not necessarily translate to

actual exposure to substance released from site− In many cases, no clearly established exposure pathway

leads from source to population− Often, a community assumes exposure and a subsequent

health hazard where neither exposure nor risk exists− A complex issue that requires examination of each site for

its own characteristics

59

Health Impacts

The NRC (1991) conducted a comprehensive review of the published literature on public health implications of hazardous waste sitesThe review concluded that “the overall impact of hazardous wastes in the U.S. environment is unknown because of limitations in identifying, assessing, or ranking hazardous waste exposures and their potential effects on human health.”

60

Cost of Cleanup

Cost ranges depend on who does the estimates: The EPA, GAO, Office of Technology, industrial sector, etc.Non-federal− Between $6 and $12 million per site− 1991 EPA estimate: $30 billion for all sites

Federal sites− DOD: $30 billion− DOE: $240 billion

All sites− ~ $750 billion, with $500 billion the lower estimate and $1

trillion the upper estimate− Will require approximately 50 years of sustained effort

61

Superfund

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund)− Cleanup existing disposal sites

How clean is clean enough?− Liability: “The polluter pays” principle

~ 30% of Superfund paid for legal fees− Cost

Attempt to find the “potentially responsible party”Government (taxpayer) continues to bear much of the financial burden

62

Location of NPL HWS

Source: Adapted by CTLT from Bucholz, R. A.

63

Cleanup Status of NPL Sites

326 sites (25%)

472 sites(34%)

303 sites(22%)

Cleanupcompleted

Cleanupunder way

Site investigationor emergency cleanup

under way

Cleanup remedyselected

82 sites (6%)

Design of cleanupunder way

169 sites (12%)

Source: EPA. (1997).

64

Question

Are accidental toxic waste transportation accidents more of a public health threat than hazardous waste sites?School of thought− Probably more injuries are due to releases from these

events than from waste sites proper

65

Transport of Hazardous Waste

Modes of transport− 337,000 flatbed trucks− 130,000 cargo tanks− 115,000 railroad tank cars− 5,000 barges− 4,000 cargo loads for airplanes

Moving about 10 million tons of hazardous waste per year− ~2,500 spills of 100 gallons or more per year

66

Hazardous Waste Management Options

Recycleand

reuse

Manipulateprocesses

to eliminate orreduce waste

Ocean/airassimilation

Biological PhysicalChemicalThermal

Land-fill

Under-ground

injection

Surfaceimpound-

ments

SaltForma-

tions

Aridregions

Put in perpetual storage

Convert to less hazardous or nonhazardous substances

Produce less waste

Source: Bucholz, R. A.

67

Treatment, Disposal Technologies for Hazardous Waste

General approach Specific technology

Physical/chemicalNeutralizationPrecipitation/separationDetoxification (chemical)

BiologicalAerobic reactorAnaerobic reactorSoil culture

IncinerationHigh temperatureMedium temperatureCo-incineration

Source: Middleton, N., 238.

68

Treatment, Disposal Technologies for Hazardous Waste

General approach Specific technology

Immobilization

Chemical fixationEncapsulationStabilizationSolidification

DumpingLandfillDeep undergroundMarine

Recycling

Gravity separationFiltrationDistillationChemical regeneration

69

Key Points: Types of Waste

“Waste” includes municipal solid waste, industrial waste, hazardous waste, medical waste, and radioactive waste− Industrial waste accounts for 94% of all waste

Animal waste is an important emerging sourceMunicipal waste production is increasing, and landfills are decreasingAlternate management strategies, including recycling, reuse, and mass-to-energy conversion, are becoming important

70

Key Points: Hazardous Waste

Hazardous wastes are classified by their ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicityHazardous waste sites are a potential threat mainly to groundwater and drinking waterThe main obstacles to progress include lack of money (e.g., Superfund), reluctance to accept responsibility, and incomplete science (e.g., epidemiologic studies)