mulka's cave aboriginal rock art site: its context and...

Records of the Western Austrahan l\1useuJl1 23: 19-41 (2006).

Mulka's Cave Aboriginal rock art site: its context and content

R.G.Gunn

329 Mt Dryden Road,Lake Lonsdale, Victoria 3380, Australia

email: [email protected]

Abstract - The Mulka's Cave Aboriginal site, within "The Humps" NatureReserve near Hyden, Western Australia, was recorded in detail prior to anoverall tourist-orientated development of the Reserve. The site features 452motifs, an extremely high number for the region where most sites have fewerthan 30 motifs. The artwork is dominated by 275 handstencils, with 40sprayed areas, 23 handprints, 23 paintings, 3 drawings and a single objectstencil produced with a wide range of colours. The high diversity of artattributes is unusual in a region where the rock art is dominated by redhandstencils. The site appears to have been of considerable importance to theNoongar people in the past and remains significant to them today. Itssignificance to the broader Western Australian community is evidenced bythe high number of tourists it currently receives.

INTRODUCTION

The Mulka's Cave Aboriginal site is a decoratedrock shelter with an occupation deposit within "TheHumps" Nature Reserve near Hyden, WesternAustralia. The site's management is to be upgradedas part of an overall tourist-orientated developmentof the Reserve. In line with this upgrade, the site'srock art has been recorded in detail for research,interpretation and conservation needs. The name"Mulka's Cave" derives from the associatedAboriginal myth (see below). The site is currentlypromoted to the general public and is estimated toreceive around 80,000 visitors per year, a very highlevel of visitation for an Australian rock art site(excluding the exceptionally popular tourist sites atUluru and Kakadu; Gale and Jacobs 1987). Therecording was undertaken as part of the WheatbeltHeritage Management Strategy of the Departmentof Indigenous Affairs. The strategy aims to developa procedure of consultation with local Noongarpeople with respect to the management ofAboriginal sites within the Noongar Native Titlearea.

THE SITE AND ITS CONTEXT

Mulka's Cave is 18 km north-east of Hvden(Figure 1) and 300 km inland from Perth. It li~s 15km north of Wave Rock, the region's, and one of thenation's, premier tourist attractions. While Mulka'sCave is a promoted tourist attraction, it is largely"riding on the back" of the very successful WaveRock tourism development.

Mulka's Cave has formed beneath a large boulderat the base of an outcrop of Archaean granite now

known as The Humps (Figures 1 and 2). Theoutcrop is some 2 km x 1.5 km in area and rises to80 m above the surrounding plain (Twidale andBourne 2003). It is the highest of several graniteinselbergs in the region that form notablelandmarks in an otherwise flat landscape. Theseinselberg were important for the Aboriginal peopleas both navigational guides and water reserves(Bindon 1997). The rock consists of "variablytextured, medium and coarse grained seriate graniteand adamellite" (Geological Survey of WesternAustralia 2003). Small, deeply weathered areas ofthe outcrop on the eastern side form linear ridgesand tors, and it is beneath one of these tors thatMulka's Cave has formed.

The mean annual rainfall for the region is 345 mm(Bureau of Meteorology web site for Hyden).Rainfall tends to be heavier in winter (June 52 mm)and lightest in December (mean 14 mm), but canoccur throughout the year. The temperatureextremes range from 48°C in summer to 5°C inwinter. The interior of Mulka's Cave does notreceive any direct sunlight and hence it is notsubject to the extreme temperature changes that area common factor in rock deterioration (Twidale1980: 134). Run-off water flows through the cavemaking the interior floor damp and slippery forprolonged periods after rain. This run-off hasdoubtless also affected the integrity of thearchaeological deposits at the main entrance. Water,both flowing through the shelter and percolatingthrough the rock matrix, is probably the principalagent for the massive exfoliation occurring withinthe shelter that threatens the existing artwork (cf.Twidale 1980: 142; Thorn 2001).

20 R.G. Gunn

Figure 1 Mulka's Cave, The Humps, near Hyden. Main entrance arrowed.

Figure 2 Interior of Mulka's Cave looking down to the main entrance from the main chamber.

The vegetation surrounding The Humps isessentially a mallee scrub with localised stands ofsalmon gums (Eucalyptus salmonophloia)(Bowdler et al. 1989), with pockets of relic

vegetation on The Humps themselves (Twidaleand Bourne 2003). Yams and wattle seeds are theonly plant foods whose use by Indigenoushunter-gatherers is documented in the region

Mulka's Cave rock art site

(Bowdler et al. 1989). Early explorers (e.g., Roe1852) found water and feed for their horses scarcethroughout the region around Hyden, andsandalwood cutters relied upon the water theyfound in "granite rockholes" (Bowdler et a1.1989). As such they would have been ofparamount importance to the Aborigines utilisingthe area (Bindon 1997).

The few early references to Aborigines aroundHyden are scanty at best and have beeninterpreted as suggesting that the area was littlevisited because of its poor natural resources(Bowdler et al, 1989). However, the number anddistribution of Aboriginal sites associated withgnammas across the region (Webb and Gunn 2004)suggests that the area was regularly visitedfollowing suitable rains.

Tindale (1974) placed the area around Hydenwithin the tribal area of the Njaki Njaki people whoshared "overall cultural similarities" with thepeople of south-west Western Australia (Bowdler eta1. 1989). Consequently, they were part of the southwestern cultural group known as the Goreng(Tindale 1974) or, more usually, Nyungar orNoongar (Berndt 1980). The Njaki Njaki were alsoknown by the names Kokor and Kikkar (Tindale1974). Today the site is within the area of the SouthWest Aboriginal Land and Sea Council (SWALSC)which represent the various Noongar groups of theSouth-West.

MethodsThe Western Australian Department of

Indigenous Affairs (DIA) contracted the author toproduce a detailed recording of the site, TheDepartment undertook initial consultation for theproject and received permission and approval fromthe local and regional Noongar representatives forit to proceed. DIA subsequently organised an onsite meeting between the consultant and the localNoongar representatives when the recording aimsand methods were fully explained. The Departmentalso gave their permission for the publication of thispaper.

A plan of the site was prepared using handheldCPS, with finer detail mapped by tape andcompass. Arbitrary key points were placed on theart panels and mapped onto the plan. These werelater used to integrate the photographic record intoa photomosaic.

The shelter interior, which is poorly lit on eventhe brightest days, was illuminated using generatorpowered arc lights. l11e artwork was recorded byfreehand sketching and photography, followingpublished procedures (Cunn 1995a, 1995b) and aphotomosaic subsequently prepared from whichdetailed drawings were made. Using the freehandsketches and the photographs, each image and areaof pigment was allocated a discrete motif number.

21

Following Maynard (1977, 1979), a list detailing theattributes of technique, colour, form, type,condition and size for each motif was thencompiled (Cunn 2004), Colour was generalised toorange-red, purple-red, brown-red, orange, yellow,cream and white. For hand stencils and prints, theknuckle size was measured on-site as an indicatorof the size/age of the hand's owner. The maximumlength of other distinct motifs was measured to thenearest half centimetre.

The M ulka DreamingTwo versions of the story of Mulka have been

published. The earliest is very brief:TIle outcast Mulka, driven from the tribe because itwas feared thathis crossed eyes would bringa mrseto those he looked upon, took refuge in the cave atthe Humps (Meeking 1979).

The second comes from a brochure of theDepartment of Aboriginal Sites (DAS 1989):

Mulka was the illegitimate son ofa woman who fellin love with a man to whom marriage wasforbidden. As a result, Mulka was born withcrossed eyes. Even though he grew up to be anoutstandingly strong man of colossal height, hiscrossed eyes prevented him from aiming a spearaCGlrately and becoming a successful hunter. Outof frustration, Mulka turned to catching and eatinghuman children, and he became the terror of thedistrict. He Jived in Mulka's Cave where theimpressions ofhis hands can still be seen muchhigher than those ofan ordinary man. His motherbecame increasingly concerned with Mulka andwhen she scolded him for his anti-social behaviour,he turned on his own mother and killed her. T11isdisgraced him even more and he fled the cave,heading south. Aboriginalpeople were outraged byMulka's behaviour and set out to track down theman who had flouted all the rules. They finallycaught him near Dumbleyung 156 km south-westofHyden, where they speared him. Because he didnot desen'e a proper ritual burial, they lefthis bodyfor the ant.,; a grim warning to those who break thelaw.

Bowdler et a1. (1989) consider this myth to beatypical of Aboriginal myths and consequently theydispute its origin. The author, however, hasrecorded similar myths in Central and NorthernAustralia, and considers this to be quite typical oflocal (non-travelling) myths, although even thelonger version given here is likely to be a very muchabridged rendition of a longer and more complexstory. A myth with close similarities to the Mulkamyth was also recorded by Meggitt (1962: 261-262)from the Warlpiri of Central Australia. [TheWarlpiri are a Western Desert language group whoshare cultural links with the people to the east ofthe Noongar (see Could 1969a; O'Connor et al. 1998,for maps)l.

22 R.G.Gunn

• gnammas 3 • 4~.••. lizard trap

~

MULKA'S CAVE '\\,

\~IPERTt1\~. Mt.,JtXA$

j,;\

"}X',, __ ,l

\."'''<,

gnamma 1

Granite outcrop

500 m

Figure 3 The Humps Reserve showing the location of the features of interest.

Mulka's CaveMulka's Cave is the only known rock art site

within The Humps Reserve. In common with mostAboriginal rock art sites, Mulka's Cave is part of alarger site complex encompassing a range of othersite types (d. Gunn 1997). Here the associated sitesconsist of an adjacent open artefact scatter, a "lizardtrap", five gnammas and a rockhole.

The Cave site lies at the base of the eastern slopesof the steep sided outcrop that forms The Humpshill (Figures 1, 3). The lizard trap, rockhole and fourof the gnammas occur on flat granite pavements300 m to the north of the cave. The fifth gnamma

lies on the northern mid-slope of the hill. Thisdistribution of sites suggests that the principle areaof Aboriginal interest was to the eastern side of theReserve. While no further art sites or water reserveshave been located on The Humps, no survey forstone artefacts has been undertaken to the west ofthe hill.

The first published account of the site was by R.B. Day (1951; quoted at length in Serventy 1952).Day mentioned that the site contained "hundredsof hand-marks done in red ochre ... and theremnants of a large native drawing" but he did notprovide any illustrations. Davidson had previously

Mulka's Cave rock art site 23

recorded the site in 1938-1939 but he did notpublish his findings until the following year(Davidson 1952: 113). He identified seven paintings,92 stencilled hands, and 37 printed or drawn hands.

These are in red, white or yellow pigments.Davidson's study is the most detailed to date and isreferred to further below. Serventy (1952), WolfeOkongwu (1978) and Flood (1990) also briefly

(j/

./~ limilofblack soil deposit

-.-''- _.-.-.

I.

f..

). . /~-< "';i?

..........'- ..... T -r" ~

'-

8 10

metres

246

steepdescent

+

x = 1989 test pit location

o

West East

Entrance

metres

2 3 4 5

Figure 4 Mulka's Cave plan and section.

24

discuss the site but incorporate few new details intotheir descriptions. Internal reports of the thenDepartment of Aboriginal Sites (DAS; now DIA)offer further descriptions of the site including noteof "a recent-looking painting in orange (?ochre)which is probably not Aboriginal" that has not beenmentioned by previous researchers. This large andimposing work of graffiti was almost certainlyproduced between 1952 and 1971 and is excluded

u~mainchamber

I red, dark red

yellow

[I white.::

X =exfoliated surface

o 50 100cm (approx)

Figure 5 Front chamber artwork.

R.G. Gunn

from the following description. A number of rockart conservation and management studies havebeen undertaken at Mulka's Cave (Randolph 1973;Clarke 1976; Haydock and Rodda 1986; Gunn2003a) but these need not be discussed here.

The ShelterMulka's Cave is a tafone cavern underneath a

large granite tor. A tafone (pi. tafoni) is a hollow or


cavern that develops on the underside of a boulder(Twidale and Bourne 1975: 481), while a tor as usedhere, is an Australian term for a "boulder ofweathering" (Twidale 1980: 95-105). The tor here is25 m long by 18 m wide and 5 m high and irregularin plan and section (Figure 4). The top of the torslopes steeply (20°) downhill such that rainwaterrun-off is directed down over the shelter mouth,contributing to the erosion of the deposits in frontof the shelter. The cave is a steeply inclined tunnelbeneath the tor, with low entrances on both thedownslope and upslope. The ground in front of theshelter slopes very gently down to the east, forminga level area that radiates for about 20 m out fromthe downslope (and main) entrance. Behind theshelter, The Humps hill rises rapidly in a series ofvegetated rock benches. A number of large waterretaining pans are at the southern end of one ofthese benches, some 50 m south of, and 20 m above,the shelter.

Mulka's Cave is 15 m deep by 9 m wide, with a

maximum height of 2.5 m above the floor. Theinterior is dark due to the low entrances and, whilelight penetrates through both entries, artificial lightis required to see most of the artwork. Fordiscussion and description, the cave is divided intofive units on the basis of its interior morphology:main entrance, front chamber, main chamber, uppershelter and side tunnel (Figure 4).

The "front chamber" is immediately inside themain entrance (Figures 2, 4). It is 6 m wide anddeep, with a domed ceiling up to 2 m high. Artworkcovers most of the ceiling, with the exception of theactively eroding southern wall. The rear of thechamber is taken up with a large sloping block ofgranite. The chamber is divided from the mainchamber by this block and a corresponding drop inthe ceiling height. The floor consists of a flat depositof grey sand in a narrow strip that runs diagonallyback and into the side tunnel chamber. This wasfound to be rich in archaeological material (BawdIeret a1. 1989; discussed below).

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Figure 6 Main chamber artwork detaiL

26

The "main chamber" is 6 m wide by 9 m deep,with a domed and undulating ceiling that rises to amaximum height of 2.5 m above the floor. The floorslopes steeply (c.200) towards the entrance and atits lowest point is 1.5 m above the floor of the frontchamber. Boulders cover most of the floor but thereis a small area of flat soil at the lowest point. Theseboulders are convenient to sit on but there is littleflat area suitable for sleeping. Towards the backentrance, the floor is covered by smaller, loose rocks(c.O.5 m diameter). Artwork covers most areas ofthe ceiling but with a denser concentration on thedownhill side (facing uphill and away from theentrance; figure 2). This area of ceiling is the mostobvious to decorate for people sitting in the cave.

The "upper shelter" is on the uphill side of thetor. Although it is 10 m wide, 5 m deep and 2 mhigh, the floor is both steep and rock strewn,making it unsuitable for occupation. A small panelof artwork occurs directly above this entry.

The "side tunnel" is about 12 m long. Although1.5 m wide and high at its mouth, it decreasesrapidly in width such that despite its flat soil floor,only the first six meters is comfortable to sit in.There is no artwork within the tunnel, whoseceiling and walls are actively deteriorating.

The ArtworkA total of 452 motifs were recorded from three

alcoves within the cave (Figures 5 and 6). [The fulllist of motifs and their attributes is given in Gunn(2004).] The front chamber has 131 motifs, the mainchamber 318, and the rear shelter three. The densestarea is on the downhill face of the main chamberceiling. The northern sidewall is most easily viewed

R.G. Gunn

without artificial lighting. The quantity of artworkon the eastern face suggests that the Aboriginalartists would have worked with artificial lighting.

The absence of motifs within the side tunnel andthe south wall of the front chamber is probablyattributable to moisture and consequent rockdeterioration. The small number of motifs withinthe rear shelter most likely reflects its unsuitabilityfor occupation as well as its water-washed wallsurface, while the total lack of extant artwork on theoutside wall at the main entrance can be attributedto its water-washed surface.

A lack of artwork on the dry wall of an adjacentshelter to the immediate north of the cave, however,is less readily explained. This small shelter has aflat floor with a light scatter of stone artefacts,indicating that it was used in the past, presumablyby the same people who decorated Mulka's Cave.

MatiftypesEighteen distinct motif types were recorded in

Mulka's Cave (Table 1). Visually and numericallythe artwork is dominated by hands (69%); these areprimarily stencils but include a few handprints(Figures 5 and 6). Left hands outnumber right hands108 to 72 (a ratio of 1.5:1). Similar ratios occurthroughout Australia and are thought to reflect theproportion of left and right handed people in thepopulation, as right-handed people tend to stenciltheir left hands and vice versa (Gunn in prep).While most of the hand stencils and prints are ofthe standard type with splayed fingers, a smallnumber of the stencils are variants (cf. Walsh 1979),with the second (middle) and third (ring) fingersheld together (Figure 7). Among the handprints, a

Table 1 Motif types by technique.

Motif Type Print Spray

Unknown object 1Spray area 37Variant hand 9 11Right hand 10 62Unknown hand 14 99Left hand 4 103Band 1Other apex elementArc setBar setLine singleOther elementArc pairV shapeLine pairSimple design k1aSimple design k1bSimple design k3Total 37 314Fragments 75% 8 86

Paint

1121532111]

11

2125

Draw

21

3

<1

Total

1372072

113108

242532111111

37577

100


Table 2 Motif colour by technique.

TechniquesFour art production techniques were recorded in

Mulka's Cave (Table 2): spraying (86%), printing(8%), painting (5%) and drawing «1%).

MonochromeRed (brown-red) 6 2 8 2Yellow 1 18 19 4

Red (purple-red) 8 199 18 225 50White 3 106 2 111 25Red ;:; 28 7 3 43 10

Orange I 3 4 <1

Cream 7 7 2

BichromeWhite+red 32 32 7Yellow+red 2 2 <1White+yellow 1 1 <1Total 23 389 37 3 452

Paint Spray Print Draw Total %Colour

few have all their fingers closed together but withthe thumb splayed, giving the shape of a kangarooor other macropod track (Figure 8; and seeMcDonald 1983), but whether this resemblance wasintentional or fortuitous is unknown.

Solid areas of pigment sprayed onto the wall (inthe manner of a stencil but without stencilled object)are a feature of the artwork. Several are unusuallylarge, up to 40 cm, and involve the use of aconsiderable amount of pigment. No ochre source isknown in the immediate vicinity and hence it isassumed that the ochres used here would have tohave been brought in from some distance away.Consequently the use of large quantities of ochreimplies some particular value in the artworkproduced even though no recognisable image isapparent. It is probable then that the importance wasin the application of pigment to the wall rather thanthe production of any particular image. This wouldthen fall into one of Ross's "associated rock arttraditions" that include other non-image works suchas abraded areas, scribble areas, etc. (Ross 2003: 89).

Two large, linear, simple designs in the frontchamber are the most visually impressive motifs inthe cave (Figure 9). Other motifs consist of small"geometric element" motifs: bars, lines and arcs, ineither sets or other various combinations (Figure10). This graphically simple repertoire is consistentwith the pattern of rock art throughout much ofsouthern Australia (Wolfe-Okongwu 1978; Gunn1981, 1983, 2002).

Small numbers of large linear designs within asuite of numerous handstencils is now becomingapparent throughout south-west Western Australia(Hallam 1972; Gunn and Webb 2003). White all ofthe design motifs are similar in structure (linear),they are unique in their individual designs.

.._-_. ._.__._-----,

Figure 8 Group of red "variant" handpnnts, possiblyimltahng a trail of macropod tracks.

Figure 7 Group of red "variant" handstencils.

28 R.G. Gunn

Figure 9 The major paintings in the front chamber of Mulka's Cave. Motif 68 is in purple-red and overlies motif 67 inan orange-red. Motif 67 is 1270 mm and motif 68 is 830 mm. The colour scale is 10 cm.

Of the sprayed motifs, 38 are solid areas ofsprayed pigment, while the others are sprayed overan object, most commonly a hand, that was thenremoved leaving a negative stencil image. Although

most of the stencils were produced on an area ofbare rock wall, 35 were produced by placing thehand on a pre-pigmented surface (Figure 11).Although artworks produced by this technique areknown elsewhere in Australia in small numbers, thenumber of examples here make the technique afeature of the Mulka's Cave art. In some instancesthis appears to be incidental overlap, but in anumber of cases the placement is central to thepigment area and therefore probably deliberate.While it is not possible to determine whether or notthe original pigment was applied immediatelybefore the stencilling (and hence as part of thestencilled motif), or whether a previously sprayedarea was deliberately chosen, a number of examplessuggest the former. In these cases, red pigment wasused as the underlying colour and white as thestencilling colour. Due to some unusual characterof the pigment or the wall surface itself, the whitepigment has dropped off the wall taking with it theunderlying red pigment. What remains is a positivered image, of the negative stencilled hand, within afield devoid of pigment. Superficially theseresemble handprints, yet the character of the handis distinctly in the form of a stencil. Other examplesin the cave demonstrate the intermediary stages ofthis deterioration process and clearly show thewhite overlying the earlier red layer.

In contrast to stencils which produce a negativeimage, printing produces a positive image byimprinting a pigment-laden object, again usually ahand, directly onto the rock surface. Here onlyhandprints occur, both standard splayed hands and

\\

Band

,

Solid sprayed area

Line Line pair

Simple designs

vGeometric elements

Figure 10 Freeform motif types.


Figure 11 White handstencils over red pigment areas in Mulka's Cave. The white pigment and the underlying redhave eroded away leaving a red positive hand on a bare rock surface. The motifs in the upper two photographs retain fragments of white pigment around the red hand.

30

some "variant" hands with non-evenly splayedfingers (Figure 8).

The paintings, due to the lack of any brushstriations, appear to have been executed with adaubed finger rather than any form of brush. Thedrawings were produced using a dry ochre nodule,in the manner of a crayon.

The motifs tend to form two groups (Table 1):• Paintings and drawings: Geometric elements

and simple designs• Sprays and prints Hands, objects and

spray areasThis is a common division in pictogrammic art

(e.g., the "art" and "associated art traditions"divisions of Ross 2003) where "freeform" images(where the shape of the object is determined by theartist's mental image) are distinct from preform"images (where the shape of the image is derivedfrom an actual object or by the technique itself)(seebelow).

ColourSeven distinct colours were recorded (Table 2):

purple-red (50%), white (25%), orange-red (10'1,,),and brown-red, yellow, cream, and orange insmaller numbers. The three reds appear to bedistinctly different hues, but analysis may showthem to be the same colour in various stages ofpreservation. Purple-red is the most common colouramong the sprays, prints and paintings.

Three bichrome colour combinations were alsorecorded: white+red, white+yellow, andyellow+red. These are all handstencils producedover an underlying colour. Cream is restricted toprinting. However, as the number of motifsinvolved in these two groups is small, the

Table 3 Motif type by colour.

R.G. Gunn

distinctions are not considered significant at thisstage. On the other hand, the lack of yellowhandprints and the very small number of whiteprints (two, cf 106 white stencils) appears culturallymotivated, as the pigments were obviously readilyavailable.

A matrix of colour and motif types shows thatwhereas hands and sprayed areas are made with awide range of colours, geometric elements anddesigns use a limited range basically restricted tothe three reds (Table 3). Contrary to Davidson(1952), who found that left and right hands occur inequal numbers with all colours, the author foundthat when all hands are included, left handspredominate over right in all colours in a ratioranging from 1.5:1 to 2:1.

MotifformsSix motif form types were identified (Table 4):

handstencil (73%), solid (11%), handprint (10%),linear (6%), and single examples of an object stenciland an outline+infill painted motif. Motif form canbe subdivided into preforms, where the form isdictated by the technique used, for examplehandstencils, and freeforms, where the form isindependent of the technique, such as paintings.The preforms recorded here account for 93% of themotifs, and comprise hand and object stencils,handprints and sprayed areas. The freeform motifsare dominated by linear types, the most complex ofwhich is a simple outline+infill design. Apart fromthe solid sprayed areas, and a single painted "hand"motif, there is a distinct separation of the motiftypes between freeforms and preforms (Table 4).

The single yellow object stencil is a narrow shaftabout a metre long and 25 mm thick. Its simple

Motif Type rb rp ro w y w+r c o y+r w+y Total

V shapeLine pairArc pairOther elementLine setSimple design klbSimple design k3Arc setBandOther apex elementBar setLeft handUnknown handRight handSpray areaVariant handSimple design klaUnknownTotalFragments

11

12

11

71

111

111

3547243417

16362

11112 12 24 45 6

11 37 58 22 31 21 1

11

33 108 1810 3 1

1498

32

223

7

22

4

1

1

2

1

11123112245

108113

723720

11

37577


Table 4 Motif types by form.

Motif type Prefomls Freefonns TotalObject Hand Hand Linear Solid Outlinestencil stencil print +infill

--"----~- ~,-_._._--""---,----_ .._----

b h s oiUnknown 1 1Variant hand 11 9 20Right hand 62 10 72

Unknown hand 99 14 113Left hand 103 4 1 108V shape 1 1Other apex clement 4 4Arc set 2 2Arc pair 1 1Bar set 5 5Fragments 2 2Line single 3 3Line pair 1 1Simple design k1a 1 1Simple design k1b 1 1Other element 1 1 2Band 2 2Spray area 37 37Simple design k3 1 1Total 1 275 37 23 40 1 3770' <1 73 10 6 11 <10

Table 5 Knuckle size statistics for stencils and prints(mm).

Stencils Prints

min 50 70max 90 90n1ean 80 80median 80 75sd 7.0 7.0n 106 11

shape offers few clues to its identification. It couldbe a spear, a piece of ceremonial paraphernalia, athin digging stick, or simply a straight stick.

6 .,-------------------,

5

CJl 4$E 3::J

Z 2

0'---------'---'-- _

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

Print knuckle size (mm)

Figure 12 !-land stencil knuckle S17e frequencies(n=106).

Motif sizeThe width at the knuckles of stencilled and

printed hands was recorded as an indication of thestature and possible age of the hand's owner (Table5, Figures 12 and 13). Hand size can thereforeindicate the population range that decorated thesite. The stencils range in size from 50 mm to 90mm with a mean of 80 mm. The prints range from70 mm to 90 mm, but also with a mean of 80 mm. Ingeneral, the knuckle measurements of stencils are 5mm larger than the knuckles of the hand stencilled,and printed knuckles 5 mm smaller. Hence, the twotechniques represented in Mulka's Cave seem torepresent the same population group. The presenceof two very small hands (knuckle sizes 50 mm and55 mm) amongst the stencils suggests that infants

40 .,------------------,

35

30·

$ 25.0E 20::Jz 15

10

5

ol:===~~

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

Stencil knuckle size (mm)

Figure 13 Hand print knuckle sIZe frequencies (n=11).

32 R.G. Gunn

Table 6 Technique and colour by knuckle size (mm)_

Technique Colour 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 (n)------

Stencils Red-brown 1Red-orange 1 2 1 4Red-purple 1 4 13 14 9 1 44White+red 3 1 5 3 3 15White 5 6 9 3 8 31Yellow 2 2 4White+yellow 1 1Yellow+red 1 1

Prints Orange 1 1Cream 2 1 3Red (or) 1 3 1 1 6Red (pr) 1 1 3

were also present at the site (cf. McDonald 1995;Gunn in prep). At present the age and sex of theother stencillors can only be attributed to a groupthat may :nclude adult women, adult men and/oradolescents. No large stencilled hands (knuckle >95mm), which are exclusively indicative of adultmales, occur at the site (Gunn in prep). None of theprinted hands are of infants or large adult males.The lack of very large hands contrasts with thereported size of Mulka in the story cited above,although the myth may refer to the height of someof the stencils above the floor (>2 m) and hence toMulka's stature rather than the presence of his"large" hands.

There is no preference for particular ages to useparticular colours (Table 6). Purple-red is the mostcommonly used colour amongst the hand stencilsand has the widest spread of knuckle sizes. Therange of hand sizes represented in the other colourscovaries with the number made. A similar trendappears to occur with the handprints but, with thesmaller numbers, this pattern is not as clear.

Sixteen freeform motifs could be measured. Theseranged in overall size from 130 mm to 1270 mm(Table 7). There is no distinction in size between thepainted and drawn motifs. Freeforms are mostly inred, with two in yellow. None are made in white orcream. The largest motif is a "simple design"prominently placed just inside the main entrance. Itis 1270 mm long and 360 mm wide.

CompositionCompositions are defined as a group of

apparently contemporary motifs with one or morecommon traits whose visual impact is greater thanthat of the individual motifs of which they arecomposed (Clegg 1978; Gunn 1997: 55). In rock art,their recognition is necessarily subjective (etic)unless an informed (emic) explanation can be givenby knowledgeable informants. Aggregates of motifscan also be seen as a form of composition.

There are no distinct compositions at Mulka'sCave, although there is a tendency for hand stencilsto occur in rows and to follow the irregularities inthe rock surface. One group of distinctive redhandstencils in the front chamber does, however,form an aggregate. These are stencilled with thesecond and third fingers held together, while theother fingers and thumb are splayed (Figure 7). Thisgroup appears to have been produced at the oneoccasion and is most probably the work of a singleindividual. This form of variant hands is similar tothe "3mf" handstencils from Arnhem Land(Chaloupka 1993: 232), where the three centraldigits are held together. These Arnhem Landhandstencils are one element of an art phase thatwas produced more than 9000 years ago(Chaloupka 1984; Lewis 1988). Those at Mulka'sCave, in contrast, are likely to be much younger,given the apparent faster rate of the graniteexfoliation. Although isolated examples of this

Table 7 Technique and colour by motif size (mm) (freeform motifs).

Technique Colour 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 220 330 390 420 560 780 830 900 1270

Paint

DrawStencil

Purple-redOrange-redBrown-redYellowOrange-redYellow

1

1

1

1

11


variant form will doubtless be found in the vervvaried stencil art of the Carnarvon Range in centralQueensland (Walsh 1979), no other suites of thistype are known from elsewhere in Australia.

Another variant hand in Mulka's Cave is a whitehandstencil in which the thumb and index fingerare splayed and the other three fingers heldtogether. This stencil is amongst a group of otherwhite handstencils with standard splayed fingersand is likely to be the idiosyncratic work of aparticular individual.

A second loose cluster of ten motifs, this time ofhandprints, occurs on the cusp of the ceilingbetween the front and main chambers (Figure 8). Innine of these, the fingers are held together and thethumb splayed. The resultant image is suggestive ofa trail of macropod tracks. These motifs appear tohave been made quite recently andcontemporaneously, and are also most probably thework of a single individual.

Three examples of horizontally placedhandstencils are noteworthy as they occur withinclusters of otherwise vertically orientated hands atwidely spaced locales within both chambers.

The yellow stencil placed centrally within theprominent purple nested "C" shapes is the youngerof the two. Its placement was clearly deliberate,although whether the association was culturallymeaningful is unknown.

The two most distinctive motifs within the shelterare the painted "C" shape just mentioned and anadjacent rambling design in orange-red. They aretwo of the largest motifs within the cave (830 mmand 1270 mm respectively). Their large size andprominent location immediately inside the frontchamber suggests they had considerablesignificance (cf. Cunn 2003c). The "C" shapeddesign overlies the rambling design and hence itsplacement was clearly calculated, to either add tothe significance of the earlier motif or, alternatively,to over-ride it. The rambling design is visuallycomparable to other large maze designs at severalshelters elsewhere in the region (Webb and Gunn2004). They appear to form a distinct stylistic setwhose nature has yet to be explored.

ConditionThe condition of pigment art is assessed on the

basis of the amount of pigment adhering to the

Table 8 Motif condition by techlllque.

Technique good fair poor very p (n)

('}o)

Sprav 4 16 25 55 389Pnnt 11 8 41 41 37NosPall1t '7 4 8 ,7 )'

*-~}

Draw 2 0~)

-~---"-~-- -~--- -'--'_.,---_..,~"~,,_._---_._~

33

Table 9 Motif condition bv colour.------------~

Colour good fair poor very p (n)----"'-"'"----------~-"'_.,-'"

(01<))

White 7 17 38 38 111Red-orange 2 14 35 49 43Red-purple 4 14 20 62 225White+red 34 34 31 32NosCream 3 1 2 7Red-brown 4 2 2 8Orange 1 1 2 4·Yellow+red 1 1 2White+yellow 1 1Yellow 4 2 13 19

rockface. Motifs with a dense coating of pigmentare said to be in excellent condition, while thosewith the merest of traces are allocated a very poorcondition. The motifs in Mulka's Cave ranged fromgood to very poor. No motifs were in excellentcondition, although prints and paintings tend to bebetter preserved than the sprayed motifs (Table 8).This suggests that printing and painting were morefavoured over the recent period of the shelter's use.

The data for condition by colour is limited formost colours due to low numbers (Table 9). Itappears that cream, brown-red, and whitepigments, being among the best preserved colours,represent the most recent colours used at the site. Incontrast, purple-red and orange-red have thehighest proportion of very poor motifs, suggestingthat they were more commonly used in the earlierperiod of the shelter's use.

SuperimpositionSuperimposition (the overlying of one motif by

another) provides a sequence that can be a guide tochronology, if not age. Underlying motifs must beolder than overlying ones. Eighty-seven examplesof superimposition were interpreted. Many otherexamples of overlapping motifs also occur but theirsequences could not be reliably elucidated. Not allof the aspects of the sequence (colour, techniqueand motif type) were clear and consequently thetallies in Tables 9-11 are not the same.

It appears that purple-red was more frequentlyused during the earlier period of art production,with white, cream and orange used during the latestperiod (Table 10). Civen that white preserves verypoorly (Clark 1978), it is again stressed that whitemay have been used during the earlier period butthat the motifs have since deteriorated beyondrecognition. The same may be said for creampigments, which tend to have a white base. The lackof purple-red in the recent layers, however, doesseem to be evidence of a real change in pigmentpreference.

34 R.G. Gunn

Table 10 Colour superimposltioning.

OVERLAYER White Red-UNDERLAYER purple

Purple-red 18 15White 9 2Yellow 4 1Orange-red 4White+redTotal 31 22

White+red

81

10

Cream

4121

8

Red- Orange Yellow Red-orange brown

6 2 11

2

7 3 3 1

Yellow Total+red

551579

1 12 87

OVERLAYERUNDERLAYER Left Right Unknown Fragment

Age and chronologtjCondition by technique and colour suggest that

cream, brown-red and white prints, paintings andsprayed motifs are more recent than purple-redsprayed motifs. However, as there is considerableoverlap of the two groups, no clear division can bemade on the basis of preservation alone. Further,red pigments (ochres) usually preserve better inrock art than white (kaolin or other pipeclays) (e.g.,Clarke 1978). Also, it is possible that white pigmentwas used during the earlier period of shelter usebut that these motifs have completely deteriorated,leaving no archaeological evidence of their earlierpresence. The picture is further complicated by theunusual situation of the apparent placement ofwhite stencils over a prepared or incidental redground. On those few of the motifs that retain whitepigment, the white appears to be relatively recent.This suggests that some particularly rapiddeterioration process is occurring to these motifs,masking their recent production. Consequently,condition here is not a reliable indicator of motifage.

Similarly, superimpositioning of techniquessuggests that, of the surviving techniques, sprayingwas the first used at the site, and that printing,painting and drawing were introduced into the

Left 12 3 6Right 7 4 3Unknown 8 3 4 2Fragment 1 1 1Variant 2Spray area 4

Table 11 Technique superimpositioning.

The floor deposits and surface scatterA team from the University of Western Australia

excavated a test pit in the floor of the lower shelterin 1989 (Bowler et al. 1989). The pit, one metresquare and excavated to bedrock at a depth of 1.10m, was placed about half a metre inside the dripline(Figure 4). A limited stone artefact assemblage wasrecovered, along with faunal remains representativeof several genera native to the region (principallysmall mammals such as bettong and possums, butno large kangaroos). The artefacts were dominatedby rock types of quartz, with small numbers of

repertoire at a later time (Table 11). Also, there wasno change in the preference for hands over time,with right and left hands occurring in similarproportions in both the earlier and the more recentperiods of artwork (Table 12). Taken together, motifcondition and superimposition indicate a bipartiteart sequence in which purple-red sprayed motifspredate sprays, prints and paintings in cream,brown-red, and white.

The presence of many superimposed motifsindicates that the site has been used for aconsiderable period of time, most likely a fargreater period than is represented by the 500 yearold carbon date (Bowdler et al. 1989). In commonwith many other rock art sites throughoutAustralia, it is likely that the artwork here wasproduced over the past two or three thousand years(Mulvaney and Kamminga 1999, David 2002).Handstencils are amongst the earliest rock artthroughout Australia (Morwood 2002) andexcavations around the rim of the Wheatbelt havedemonstrated Pleistocene occupation of southwestern Australia (Bordes et al. 1983; C. Dortch1979; J. Dortch 1996). However, apart fromwalganha, the few decorated shelters that have beenexcavated are in broad agreement with the youngerage. For example, Frieze Cave, an art site some 200km to the west of Mulka's Cave and 100 km inlandfrom Perth, produced an occupation phase datingfrom <3000 BP to the ethnographic present (Hallam1972). In the Murchison District, 600 km to the northof Mulka's Cave, most decorated shelters haveoccupation similarly limited to the last 4500 years(Webb in prep.).

22

Draw

94

17

OVERLAYERPrint Paint

43

UNDERLAYER Spray

Table 12 Hand superimpositioning.

SprayPaintPrint


accounted for 96°/', of the artefacts, with silcrete,banded ironstone, an unidentified siliceous stoneand ochre making up the remainder (Table 13).Quartz is readily available from a major outcropnear Captain Roe Rocks, 25 km south-west of TheHumps, and in smaller seams on The Humps itselfand other granite domes in the region. Bandedironstone outcrops occur in the rises of the SouthernMineral Field north of Lake Cronin, 70 km to theeast (Geological Survey of Western Australia 2003).A source for the silcrete is unknown. One of the redochre nodules is an orange-red and has a flat facetwith striation marks, consistent with being groundfor use. The other piece is brown-red andunmarked. Both colours are represented in theartwork.

The artefacts were mostly (95%) small: <25 mm.They consisted of debitage fragments (withoutplatform or bulb; 110 or 83%), flakes (with platformand/or bulb; 16 or 12%), backed flakes (3 or 2%),one retouched flake (unifacial and uni-marginalscraper) and two nodules of red ochre (Table 14).Four geometric microliths were located near themain entrance, away from the gutter (Figure 14).These tool types are characteristic of the AustralianSmall Tool Tradition and are therefore likely to beless than 6000 years old (Mulvaney and Kamminga1999).

dolerite, sedimentary rock, and granite. Red andyellow ochres were also present. Apart from thefew dolerite, sedimentary artefacts and the ochres,which would have to have been imported into thesite from some distance, the granite andpredominant quartz could be obtained locally fromoutcrops on the hill. The lowest artefact wasrecovered at 0.7 m, from a pit-like featureinterpreted as a drainage channel. Charcoalrecovered from a depth of 0.65 m was dated to420+50 BP.

The excavators concluded that the site had beenonly briefly or periodically occupied and suggestedthat the late occupation of the site (c.500 BP) wasconsistent with the "intensification phenomena"associated with the late I-Iolocene use of marginalresource zones. However, given the disturbed andwater-washed nature of the excavated deposits,their conclusions are unlikely to be representativeof the site's overall occupation. Consequently, theirinterpretation of brief or periodic occupation is notseen as definitive. Likewise their c.500 BP date,coming from a refilled drainage line, cannot betaken to represent the initial period of shelter use.Clearly, further excavation at the site would berequired if the period of use of the shelter and itsoutside deposits are to be more precisely dated.

Run-off has eroded a gutter out from the front ofthe main entrance to the shelter, 100 mm deep,exposing numerous stone artefacts. Artefacts arelightly scattered over an area 100 m N-S and 20 mE-W, following around the base of the rockyoutcrop. This distribution suggests that while thecave was a focal point for people coming to the site,most of the occupation occurred on the flat openground outside the cave; a situation commonlyobserved in arid areas but also noted in southernwoodland areas (cf. Gunn 1997, 2003b).

In a sample of 132 artefacts from the gullyanalysed during the present project, quartz

Table 13 Artefact stone types.

Stone type

Milky qzClear (non-crystal) qzSilcreteBanded ironstoneOchre (red)Other siliceousTotal

No

7847

2221

132

0'iO

6036

111

>1100

quartz

x 11 x 5 mm

Crystal quartz

20 x 11 x 4 mm

Grey silcrete

12 x 5 x 4 mm

Grey silcrete

11 x 8 x 2 mm

Figure 14 Field drawings of select geometric mlCroliths.

36 R.G. Gunn

Table 14 Artefact summaries.

Size (mm) 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 81-85 broken TotalArtefact type Stone type

Chips Milky quartz 9 20 29 15 1 74Clear quartz 11 19 5 35Silcrete 1 1

Flakes Milky quartz 2 2 4Clear quartz 1 4 4 1 10Banded iron 1 1Other 1 1

Backed flake Clear quartz 2 2(geometric Silcrete 1 1microliths)

Retouched flake Banded iron 1 1Ochre nodule 2 2Total 23 47 39 17 1 1 1 3 132

OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

Lizard trapsAlthough little documented in the literature (see

Webb and Gunn 2004), "lizard traps" are a widelydistributed and well-known Aboriginal site-type insouth-western Western Australia. Generally theyconsist of a thin granite slab, around 100 cm squareand 10 cm thick (Webb and Gunn 2004), proppedon one end to a height of 10 cm, using one or moresmaller stones (usually around 10 cm diameter).The trap at The Humps is quite large (240 by 120 by

17 cm). It is raised 13 cm off the pavement at itsupslope end by two small rocks (Figure 15). How,indeed if, they were used is unknown. Given theadeptness of traditional desert Aborigines incatching lizards (cf. Gould 1969b, Tonkinson 1978),the raised slab was probably an artificial crevicebeneath which the lizards could retreat to whendisturbed; only then to be caught with nowhere elseto run. There would seem to be no point indropping the rock onto and crushing any hidinganimals, as has been suggested in colloquialdiscussions.

Figure 15 The Humps lizard trap site with support rock arrowed.


Water reservesGnammas, rockholes and pans are different types

of depressions in impermeable bedrock that cancatch and hold water after rain. Although gnammasand pans are formed by the same geological process(Twidale and Corbin 1963), archaeologically adistinction is made between pit gnammas(gnammas) and pan gnammas (pans) as the formerhave a good depth relative to their width and hencehold water for a good deal longer than pans, whichare broad and relatively shallow (up to 20 cm) andare readily evaporated. Gnammas are essentiallyrain-fed. In contrast to gnammas, rockholes formalong creek lines, usually as plunge pools, and arefed by the creek-flow.

Throughout the Murchison/Wheatbelt area,gnammas were a well-known, well-utilised andhighly valued water source for Aborigines and theearly settlers (Bowdler et al. 1989; Bindon 1997;Webb and Gunn 2004). They provided a reliablereserve that could be targeted by people familiarwith the country in which they occur (e.g., Gould1969a, Myers 1991). Rockholes tend to develop atthe base of escarpments, whereas pans develop ontop of suitable rock exposures such as granitedomes and duricrust surfaces on top ofescarpments. Many gnammas, in contrast, occur asnondescript features in a superficially nondescriptlandscape and would be impossible to intentionally

37

locate without detailed knowledge of the country(e.g., Gunn and Webb 2003). Many also had graniteslab "lids" to prevent animals draining the supplyand to reduce evaporation (e.g., Webb and Gunn2004). Traditionally, rockholes and gnammas wouldhave had Aboriginal names and some associatedmythology. Pans, on the other hand, were notregarded as highly because of the more limited lifeof their reserves due to evaporation.

Five gnammas have been located on and aroundThe Humps (Figure 3). Four occur on the granitepediment to the north of the Mulka's Cave. Two arequite large (e.g., Figure 16); whereas the twoadjacent to the lizard trap are very small (Table 15).The fifth occurs on the northern mid-slope of thehill.

A sizeable rockhole has formed within a shallowdrainage line that flows off the hill to the north ofMulka's Cave. The ephemeral stream that feeds thisrockhole is a prominent feature of the hill. Itsupports a number of well-vegetated soil patcheson an otherwise steep and barren rock slope. Thestream flows readily after rain, and continues totrickle for some days after rain (personalobservations). The rockhole measures 8.5 by 2.0 by0.8 m. It has a "v" profile and contains some 650litres of water when full. As the stream leaves thehill it winds into granite sands that quickly becomeboggy. It is likely that small sub-surface soaks

Figure 16 The largest gnarnma at The Humps.

38 R.G. Gunn

Table 15 Gnamma dimensions and approxImate' volumes.

Site Length Width Depth Capacity(m) (m) (m) (I)

Humps 1 1.40 0.85 0.65 77Humps 2 400 2.50 0.60 300Humps 3 0.45 0.20 0.30 3Ifumps 4 0.20 0.15 0.20 1Humps 5 upper pan 0.85 0.60 0.20Humps 5 lower gnamma 0.25 0.20 0.35 13

would be available along the stream's path for sometime after the rockhole had dried.

The pans on top of the hill are numerous andlarge (around 4.0 by 2.0 by 0.1 m) and together,after rain, would probably hold around 1000 litresof water. With another 1200 litres held over in thegnammas and rockhole, and the possibility of subsurface soaks along the stream bed, a goodminimum supply of around 2000-3000 litres couldbe ensured: more than enough for an extendedfamily group's transitory stopover or a largergathering for brief periods. The presence of thesereserves may well explain why Mulka's Cave waschosen for decoration.

AN INTERPRETAnON OF MULKA'S CAVE

In common with other sites in the Wheatbelt(Davidson 1952; Wolfe-Okongwu 1978; Webb andCunn 2004; Dept. Indigenous Affairs, Perth,records), the art of Mulka's Cave is dominated byhandstencils, but it also includes a small number oflarge and visually impressive linear paintings. Thesite also houses a small number of less impressivehandprints, small paintings and drawings. Mulka'sCave, with a total of 452 motifs, has a far higherquantity of rock art than most other Wheatbelt rockart sites, which tend to have fewer than 30 motifs.The artwork also utilises a wider range of coloursthan other regional sites.

As McDonald (1995) inferred for rock art sites inthe Sydney Basin, the presence of infanthandstencils and others that most likely are those ofwomen and adolescence suggests that at some timesfamily groups camped by and used the cave. Theunsuitability of the cave's floor for sleeping suggestthat the cave was used as a wet weather retreat andthat most camping occurred on the level ground infront of the cave. This is supported by the pattern ofsurface artefact distribution.

On the other hand, the painting of large geometricdesigns are almost certainly the work of seniormales and most likely refer to the Dreaming tracksof totemic ancestors, as they do in the WesternDesert and Central Australia (Spencer and Cillen1899; Could 1969b; Bardon 1979; Myers 1991).These paintings and the associated Mulka story

suggest that, at times, the cave was associated withlocal nearby rituals, at which times it would havebeen off-limits to women and children. A similardual-use has been proposed for the denselydecorated shelter at walganha (Walga Rock), whichwas known to have been used for ritual in therecent past but was apparently open to women andchildren at non-ceremonial times (Cunn et al. 1997).

Overall then, it is suggested that Mulka's Cavewas used by the full age-range of the population,although whether at the same time or at differenttimes for different purposes, is yet to bedetermined. This view does not support thesuggestion that the cave was used as a store-housefor ceremonial objects (Serventy 1952), as suchstore-houses were, and in many areas still are,invariably accessed only by senior males and arealways off-limits to women and children (e.g.,Could 1969b, Mountford 1976).

The large area of the campsite in front of theshelter along with the higher number of stoneartefacts relative to other art sites in the regionsuggests that occupation here was indeed recurrent;but whether through short-term, large gatherings orprolonged occupation by small family groups islikewise unknown. The artefacts were made from alimited array of raw materials, all available locally,suggesting that Mulka's Cave was not a focus forlarge inter-regional gatherings when materials fromwell outside the region would be brought in by thevisitors.

Most water sources and granite outcrops withinthe region, particularly those with rock art or stonearrangements, probably had associated mythssimilar to the Mulka story recorded for this site.This was certainly the case elsewhere in Australiawhere such information has been collected (e.g.,Hallam 1972; Berndt and Berndt 1977: 243-256;Strehlow 1978; Myers 1991). Hence, while it istempting to give some special credence to Mulka'sCave because of the survival of the Mulka myth,this should not be seen as particularly unusual. Onthe other hand, some myths were more significantthan others, possibly due to the strengths ofparticular clans or individuals (see Spencer andCillen 1899). Whether the Mulka story was ofregional significance or of only local importance is


unknown. The high quantity of artwork, the widerange of colours used, the size of the campsite andthe extensive area encompassed by the myth,suggest that Mulka's Cave had at least a regionalsignificance. In contrast to this, the restricted rangeof motif types used suggests that the site was not aplace of inter-tribal gatherings or "aggregation site"as defined by Conkey (1980) and Galt-Smith (1997).At most, the Mulka's Cave site complex wouldseem likely to have been a focus for local groupceremonies, such as initiation or maintenancerituals. From what we know of such rituals, theywere invariably focused on open areas away fromgeneral campsites and that rock art use wasgenerally a tangential, albeit important, componentof the main ceremony. It is therefore unlikely thatMulka's Cave itself was the principal focus for theseceremonies. If ceremonies did take place at TheHumps, they would have been held nearby, eitheron the dome or out on the adjacent plains, withvisits to the cave just one aspect of the ceremony. Alikely location for the performance of the mainceremony has not been located.

CONCLUSION

In keeping with the regional profile, the rock artpreserved within Mulka's Cave is dominated byhandstencils but with a small number of geometricdesigns. Typically however, one or two of the latterare the largest and most visually impressive motifswithin the site. The suite at Mulka's Cave is thedensest concentration of rock art yet recordedwithin south-western Western Australia andconsequently must be seen to be one of the mostsignificant archaeological sites within the region.

Similarly, the artefact scatter in front of the shelteris far denser than those noted at most other rock artcomplexes in south-western Australia (Webb andGunn 2004), suggesting that the site was importantas a recurrent focus of occupation. Thearchaeological potential of the deposits here havebeen tested but have yet to be explored to their fulldepth. The importance of this potential must beacknowledged in the future management of the site.

The interpretation of the evidence to date,although based on analogies from other areas,suggests that the site was used both for ritualpurposes related to broader ceremonies held nearbyand, probably at different times, for generaloccupation.

Today, Mulka's Cave is of great significance tothe local Noongar community and also, but fordifferent reasons, to non-Indigenous residents ofthe region and the local tourist industry. It is one ofthe most visited rock art sites in Western Australiaand hence has a broad potential for positiveeducational uses.

The main focus of this study was to document the

39

site and illustrate the importance of its' rock art. Itis hoped that this will ensure that Mulka's Cave,and The Humps Reserve in which it lies, continuesto be managed and interpreted, in a culturallysensitive manner, to the highest standards areavailable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The recording project was funded jointly by theDepartment of Indigenous Affairs (SouthernRegion) and the Hyden-Karlgarin LandcareCouncil, and supervised by Robert Reynolds (DIAMidlands) and Anthony Galante (DIA SouthernRegion). It would not have occurred without thesupport of the native title claimants. RobertReynolds and Brian Blurton (DIA), Monica JimenezLozano, Alana Rossi and Jodee Smith (Honoursgraduates from the University of Western Australia)also assisted in the field. Jane Mouritz (Hyden)organised the essential generator and floodlights. Ialso thank Esmee Webb (Edith Cowan University)for her patience, as the project was undertakenmidway through fieldwork with her on anotherstudy. I also profited from discussions with RowleTwidale regarding geological terminology. SylviaHallam and Charlie Dortch reviewed the paper andmade me rethink several of my propositions, whileEsmee Webb, Leigh Douglas and Sarah Turnbullalso offered suggestions for improving my English.The author however, takes full responsibility for thefinal presentation and the conclusions presented.

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Manuscript received 6 October 2004; accepted 26 July 2005

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