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Mr. Finnigan’s Latin Grammar Review | 1

Mr. Finnigan’s Latin Grammar Review I. NOUNS

A. Characteristics & Terminology

• Latin nouns have three characteristics: gender, number, and case. o Gender: masculine, feminine, or neuter. The gender of a noun is fixed. Nouns that are said to be common gendered can be either

masculine or feminine. o Number: singular or plural. Number indicates how many of the noun, i.e. 1 (singular) or more than 1 (plural). Changes in number

are indicated by case endings. o Case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative, and locative. Case indicates the use, or grammatical function, of

a noun in a sentence. Changes in case are indicated by various case endings. • All nouns belong to a declension, which is a group of nouns that share common case endings. There are five declensions. The genitive

singular ending in the dictionary entry indicates the declension to which a noun belongs. B. Forms & Translations

• The base case translations are as follows: Case Translation

Nominative –––––– Genitive of Dative to/for Accusative –––––– Ablative by/with/from/in/on/at

• The endings for all declensions are as follows:

1st Decl. [-ae] SG PL Nom. a ae Gen. ae ārum Dat. ae īs Acc. am ās Abl. ā īs

2nd Decl. (Masc.) [-ī] SG PL Nom. us ī Gen. ī ōrum Dat. ō īs Acc. um ōs Abl. ō īs

2nd Decl. (Neut.) [-ī] SG PL Nom. um ī Gen. ī ōrum Dat. ō īs Acc. um ōs Abl. ō īs

3rd Decl. Cons. Stem (M/F) [-is] SG PL Nom. ––– ēs Gen. is um Dat. ī ibus Acc. em ēs Abl. e ibus 3rd Decl. Cons. Stem (Neut.) [-is] SG PL Nom. ––– a Gen. is um Dat. ī ibus Acc. ––– a Abl. e ibus

3rd Decl. i-Stem (M/F) [-is] SG PL Nom. ––– ēs Gen. is ium Dat. ī ibus Acc. em ēs Abl. e ibus 3rd Decl. i-Stem (Neut.) [-is]

SG PL Nom. ––– ia Gen. is ium Dat. ī ibus Acc. em ia Abl. ī ibus

4th Decl. (M/F) [-ūs]

SG PL Nom. us ūs Gen. ūs uum Dat. uī ibus Acc. um ūs Abl. ū ibus

4th Decl. (Neut.) [-ūs] SG PL Nom. ū ua Gen. ūs uum Dat. ū ibus Acc. ū ua Abl. ū ibus

5th Decl. [-eī/ēī] SG PL Nom. ēs ēs Gen. eī/ēī ērum Dat. eī/ēī ēbus Acc. em ēs Abl. ē ēbus


C. Cases & Uses (most examples are taken from Caesar’s Bellum Gallicum, Cicero’s Oratiō Prīma in Catilinam, and Vergil’s Aeneid)

a) Nominative 1. Subject: a noun, pronoun, or substantive adjective in the nominative case can be the subject (doer) of a finite verb.

• Ea rēs est Helvētiīs ēnūntiāta. (Caes., BG 1.4) ! This matter was reported to the Helvetians.

2. Predicate: a subject nominative used with a linking verb (esse, fierī) may be completed with a predicate nominative (also called subject complement); verbs of naming, calling, and appointing when used in the passive voice can also take a predicate nominative. • Horum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae. (BG 1.1) ! Of all these, the bravest are the Belgae. • quī ipsōrum linguā Celtae, nostrā Gallī, appellantur. (BG 1.1) ! who in their own language are called Celts, in our language,

Gauls. b) Genitive [N.B.: The basic use of the genitive case is to make one noun qualify or modify another noun (i.e., act like an adjective).]

1. Possession: a noun in the genitive often indicates the possessor of another noun. • decimae legiōnis aquilam (BG 4.25) ! the eagle of the tenth legion

N.B.: The possessive genitive may be used idiomatically with causā or gratiā (for the sake of), prīdiē (the day before) or with postridiē (the day after)

2. Subjective: used with nouns that contain a verbal idea to denote the doer of the action implied. • patrum nostrōrum memoriā (BG 1.12) ! in the memory of our fathers (i.e., our fathers remember) • pars…in conspectū nostrōrum mīlitum cum cruciātū necābātur (BG 5.45) ! some were being killed with torture in the sight of

our soldiers (i.e., our soldiers saw)

3. Objective: used with nouns that contain a verbal idea to denote the object of the action implied; common with nouns expressing feelings or emotions; often best translated using “for” instead of “of.” • regnī cupiditāte inductus (BG 1.2) ! having been influenced by the desire of (for) royal power (i.e., he desired royal power) • domum reditiōnis spē sublātā (BG 1.5) ! with the hope of (for) a return home having been taken away (i.e., they hoped for a

return home)

4. With Adjectives: certain adjectives take an objective genitive to complete their meaning; these adjectives express the idea of desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory, power, fullness, and their opposites; common examples are cupidus (desirous), perītus/imperītus (experienced/inexperienced), plenus (full), memor (mindful). • hominēs, bellandī cupidī (BG 1.2) ! men, desirous of waging war

5. Partitive (of the Whole): used to express the whole of which something is a part; common with superlative adjectives, the noun

pars, partis (f.: part), nouns in Latin that are adjectives in English [mīlia (thousands), nimis (too/very much), plūs (more), satis (enough)], and pronouns. • Horum omnium fortissimī sunt Belgae. (BG 1.1) ! Of all these, the bravest are the Belgae. • magnam partem eōrum concidit (BG 1.12) ! He destroyed a great part of them. • nē quid rēs publica detrimentī caperet (Cat. 1.4) ! lest the state suffer anything of harm.

N.B.: with cardinal numbers (except mīlia), paucī (few), and the words complūrēs (several) and quīdam (certain), ē/ex (or sometimes dē) + abl. is used, not the partitive genitive. E.g.: • ē plūribus unum ! one (out) of many • complūrēs ex eīs (BG 4.37) ! several of them • quīdam ex mīlitibus (BG 1.42) ! certain ones (some) of the soldiers

6. Quality/Description: used to describe a noun, but only when the genitive is itself modified by an adjective.

• Belgae erant magnae virtūtis. ! The Belgae were (men) of great courage.

7. Measure: when a genitive of quality/description is modified by a numeral, it is called the genitive of measure. • mūrum in altitūdinem pedum sēdecim fossamque perducit (BG 1.8) ! he extends a wall of sixteen feet in height and a ditch

N.B.: the genitive and ablative of description are very similar, but when a number is used, you must use the genitive.

8. Predicate: the genitive of quality/description may be used as a predicate with a form of esse. • Tantae molis erat Rōmānam condere gentem! (Aen. 1.33) ! Of so great difficulty it was to found the Roman race!

9. (Indefinite) Value: expresses the general value of something (abl. of price is used for specific value).

• cuius auctōritās in hīs regiōnibus magnī habēbātur (BG 4.21) ! whose prestige in these regions was considered of great value

10. With Verbs i. Intransitive Verbs: some intransitive verbs, such as meminī (to remember), misereor (to pity), obliviscor (to forget), and

potior (to get control) take an object in the genitive. [N.B.: potior may also take an abl. object] • miserēre domūs lābentis (Aen. 4.318) ! take pity on (my) failing house

ii. Impersonal Verbs of Feeling: impersonal verbs expressing feelings use the genitive to show the source/cause of the feeling, with the person who feels it in the accusative.

• cōnsilia quōrum eōs paenitēre necesse est (BG 4.5) ! plans of which it is necessary that they repent. iii. Genitive of the Charge: verbs of accusing, convicting, and acquitting take the genitive; verbs of condemning may take either

the genitive of the charge or the ablative of the penalty. • mē ipse inertiae nequitiaeque condemnō (Cat. 1.4) ! I, myself, condemn myself of inactivity and laziness


c) Dative 1. Indirect Object: a word or phrase in the dative may indicate the indirect object of transitive verbs, especially those that denote

“giving,” “showing,” and “saying/telling.” • Is sibi legātiōnem suscēpit. (BG 1.3) ! He undertook a diplomatic mission for himself. • lēgātīs respondit (BG 1.7) ! he answered (to) the ambassadors.

2. with Special Verbs: special intransitive verbs such as cōnfīdō (to trust), crēdō (to believe), faveō (to favor), imperō (to command),

noceō (to harm), parcō (to spare), pāreō (to obey), persuādeō (to persuade), placeō (to please), resistō (to resist), studeō (to be eager for), and others with similar meanings take their object in the dative. • cīvitātī persuāsit (BG 1.2) ! he persuaded the tribe • Rōmāne, memento…parcere subiectīs (Aen. 6.851-53) ! Remember, Roman, to spare the defeated.

3. with Impersonal Verbs: impersonal verbs such as libet (it is pleasing), licet (it is allowed/permitted), necesse est (it is necessary, it

must), opus est (there is a need), placet (it is pleasing) take a dative object. • ut id sibi facere liceat (BG 1.7) ! that it be allowed for them to do this

4. with Compound Verbs: many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, dē, in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, and super take a dative

object; this is common with compounds of ferre, and is true of all compounds of esse. • cum omnibus virtūte praestārent (BG 1.2) ! since they surpassed all with respect to courage • hostibus appropinquārunt (BG 4.25) ! they approached the enemy • eīs mīlitibus praeesse (BG 5.24) ! to be in charge of these soldiers

5. with Adjectives: certain adjectives require a dative to complete their meaning; some of these are amīcus/inimīcus

(friendly/hostile), facilis/difficilis (easy/difficult), fidēlis (faithful), fīnitimus (neighboring), grātus (pleasing), idōneus (suitable), nōtus (famous), pār (equal), propior (nearer), propinquus (near), proximus (nearest), similis/dissimilis (similar/unlike), ūtilis (useful). • proximī sunt Germānīs (BG 1.1) ! they are closest to the Germans • Dumnōrix…Helvētiīs erat amīcus (BG 1.9) ! Dumnorix was friendly to the Helvetians

N.B.: With pronouns, the genitive is used, not the dative. E.g., meī [not mihi] similis ! similar to me

6. Purpose: a noun in the dative can be used to express purpose; this is common with the verb esse; the most common nouns used as datives of purpose are auxiliō (for an aid), cūrae (for a care), impedīmentō (for a hindrance), praesidiō (for a guard), subsidiō (for a support), and ūsuī (for a use/advantage). • quae ad reficiendās nāvēs erant ūsuī (BG 4.29) ! which were for a use (of use) for rebuilding the ships • rem esse testimōniō (BG 5.28) ! (he said that) the fact was for a proof (i.e. for the purpose of providing proof)

7. Reference: the dative may indicate the person or thing to whom events refer, or to whose advantage or disadvantage the action of

the verb is performed. • intellegēbat magnō cum perīculō Prōvinciae futūrum [esse] (BG 1.10) ! he understood that it would be with great danger

to/for the Province

8. Double Dative: two datives (purpose and reference) may be combined to form a construction called the double dative. • quae rēs magnō ūsuī (purp.) nostrīs (ref.) fuit (BG 4.25) ! which action was of great use (purp.) to our men (ref.) • populum ventūrum excidiō (purp.) Libyae (ref.) (Aen. 1.21-22) ! that a people would come as a destruction (purp.) for Libya

(ref.)

9. Possession: with a form of esse, the dative may express possession; the item possessed is the subject and the possessor is in the dative. • sibi esse in animō iter facere (BG 1.7) ! that it was in mind to them (they had it in mind) to march

10. Agent: with the passive periphrastic, the agent is expressed by the dative without a preposition, not the ablative; if the verb in the

periphrastic construction takes a dative object, the abl. of agent will be used to avoid confusion. • mīlitibus…dē nāvibus dēsiliendum erat (BG 4.24) ! It had to be jumped down from the ships by the soldiers • Caesar nōn expectandum [esse] sibi statuit (BG 1.11) ! Caesar thought that it must not be awaited by him

N.B.: in poetry, the dative of agent is also used instead of the abl. of agent with regular passive verbs. • nec cernitur ūllī (Aen. 1.440) ! nor is he seen by anyone

d) Accusative

1. Direct Object: a word or phrase in the accusative may be the direct object of a transitive verb. • coniūrātiōnem nōbilitātis fēcit (BG 1.2) ! he made a conspiracy of the nobles

2. Subject: the subject of an infinitive is always in the accusative case

• cum nūntiātum esset eōs per Prōvinciam nostram iter facere cōnārī (BG 1.7) ! when it had been announced that they were trying to march through our Province

3. Predicate: verbs of naming, calling, and appointing take a predicate accusative (object complement) when they are used in the

active voice (in the passive, these verbs take a predicate nominative); in an indirect statement, the predicate with a linking verb will in the accusative (like the subject); verbs of making and asking may also take a predicate acc. • sē…de populo Romano meritos esse (BG 1.11) ! (they say that) they had always been loyal to the Roman people


• Caesarem certiōrem faciunt (BG 1.11) ! they make Caesar more certain

4. Greek Accusative: the accusative may tell in respect to what something occurs; this is sometimes called the accusative of respect; this is especially common with body parts. • lacrimīs oculōs suffūsa nitentēs (Aen. 1.228) ! filled with tears in respect to her shining eyes • nuda genū (Aen. 1.320) ! nude as to her knee

5. Duration of Time: words in the accusative without a preposition may denote the duration of time, i.e. for how long something

happens (N.B.: time when and within which are indicated by the ablative). • cuius pater regnum in Sequanīs multōs annōs obtinuerat (BG 1.3) ! whose father had held power among the Sequani for

many years

6. Extent of Space: words in the accusative without a preposition may denote the extent of space • mīlia passuum XVIII mūrum in altitūdinem pedum sēdecim fossamque perducit (BG 1.8) ! he extends a wall of sixteen feet in

height and a ditch for 18 miles

7. Place to Which: after a verb of motion, the accusative with the prepositions ad (to, toward), in (into, onto), and sub (up to) indicates the place toward which the action is directed; the preposition is omitted before the names of cities, towns, and small islands, as well as the nouns domum (home) and rūs (country) • in Galliam ulteriōrem contendit (BG 1.7) ! he hurries into further Gaul • Rōmam ad senātum vēnisse auxilium postulātum (BG 1.31) ! (he said that) he had come to Rome to the senate to ask for help

8. Exclamation: the accusative is used to make exclamations; usually this acc. will be modified by an adjective, but not always.

• Ō tempora! Ō morēs! (Cat. 1.2) ! O the times! O the customs! • Ō fortunātam rem pūblicam! (Cat. 2.7) ! O fortunate state!

9. With Prepositions: numerous prepositions have their objects in the accusative case; they are as follows:

• ad: to, toward • ante: before, in front of • apud: among, in the presence of • circum: around • contrā: against, opposite • extrā: outside

• in: into, onto, against • inter: between, among • intrā: within • ob: on account of • per: through • post: after, behind

• praeter: besides, beyond • propter: on account of • sub: up to, under • super: above • trāns: across

e) Ablative

1. Separation: the ablative expresses the idea of separation from; generally, the preposition ā/ab is used with persons or concrete nouns and omitted before abstract nouns; this is common with verbs of keeping from, withdrawing, removing, freeing, depriving, and lacking, as well as their corresponding adjectives. • cum suīs fīnibus eōs prohibent (BG 1.1) ! when they keep them from their territory • quī agrum Helvētium ā Germanīs dīvidit (BG 1.2) ! which separates the Helvetian territory from the Germans

2. Source/Origin: with the participles nātus and ortus (and a few others in poetry) the ablative is used to express the source or origin

from which something comes. • summō locō nātus Tagestius (BG 5.25) ! Tagestius, born from a very high rank

3. Time When: the ablative, without a preposition, expresses the time when something happens

• eādem nocte accidit ut esset luna plēna (BG 4.29) ! on the same night it happened that the moon was full • septimō oppugnātiōnis diē (BG 5.43) ! on the seventh day of the siege

4. Time Within Which: the ablative, without a preposition, expresses the time within which something happens

• paucīs annīs…omnēs ex Galliā pellentur (BG 1.31) ! within a few years, everyone will be driven from Gaul • unā aestāte duōbus maximīs bellīs confēctīs (BG 1.54) ! with two very great wars completed (with)in a single summer

5. Means/Instrument: a noun in the ablative, without a preposition, referring to a physical object (instrument) may express how

something is done. • ferē cotidiānīs proeliīs contendunt (BG 1.1) ! they struggle in almost daily battles

6. Cause: the ablative, without a preposition, may express the cause or reason for which something is done; the phrase quā dē causā

is the only example of an abl. of cause that uses a preposition • hīs rēbus fiēbat ut… (BG 1.2) ! because of these things it was happening that… • namque eius adventū hostēs cōnstitērunt (BG 4.34) ! for indeed the enemy stopped because of his arrival • Quā dē causā Helvētiī…reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt (BG 1.1) ! For this reason the Helvetians surpass the rest of the

Gauls in (respect to) courage

7. Respect/Specification: the ablative, without a preposition, may specify the respect in which something exists or is done. • Hī omnēs linguā, institūtīs, lēgibus inter sē differunt. (BG 1.1) ! All these people differ among themselves in (respect to)

language, customs, laws. • Quā dē causā Helvētiī…reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt (BG 1.1) ! For this reason the Helvetians surpass the rest of the

Gauls in (respect to) courage


N.B.: the adjectives dignus (worthy) and indignus (unworthy) take an ablative of respect.

8. Price: a phrase in the ablative may indicate the price of something. • parvō pretiō redēmpta (BG 1.18) ! redeemed for a small price

9. Manner: with the preposition cum, the ablative may express the manner in which something is done; if the noun is modified by an

adjective, cum may be omitted, but cum must be present if there is no adjective modifying the noun. • pars…in conspectū nostrōrum mīlitum cum cruciātū necābātur (BG 5.45) ! some were being killed with torture in the sight of

our soldiers • intellegēbat magnō cum perīculō Prōvinciae futūrum [esse] (BG 1.10) ! he understood that it would be with great danger

to/for the Province • maximō clamōre (BG 5.43) ! with very great shouting

10. Accompaniment: with the preposition cum, the ablative may express accompaniment; in 1st/2nd person personal and reflexive

pronouns, the cum will attach to the end of the pronoun (i.e. mēcum, nobīscum, tēcum, vobīscum), • ut cum omnibus copiīs exīrent (BG 1.2) ! to set out with all their forces • cum proximīs cīvitātibus pacem et amīcitiam cōfirmāre (BG 1.3) ! to strengthen peace and friendship with the nearest tribes

11. (Personal) Agent: the ablative with the preposition ā/ab is used to tell the person by whom something is done; you must have a

passive verb in the clause and the noun in the ablative must refer to a person (i.e., not a thing) • exercitum…ab Helvētiīs pulsum [esse] (BG 1.7) ! (he remembered) that the army had been beaten by the Helvetians

12. Comparison: to express comparison with a comparative adjective or adverb, a noun in the ablative without a preposition or quam

may be used. • nōn amplius quīnis aut senīs mīlibus passuum (BG 1.15) ! not more than five or six miles

13. Degree of Difference: with comparative adjectives and adverbs, and other words implying comparison (esp. ante and post), the

degree of difference between the things under consideration is expressed by the ablative; common examples are seen with the words multum (much) and paulum (little). • multō facilius atque expedītius (BG 1.6) ! easier and more convenient by much (i.e. much more easy and convenient) • matūrius paulō…in hiberna…exercitum dēdūxit (BG 1.54) ! he led the army into winter quarters earlier by a little

14. Description/Quality: a noun in the ablative, without a preposition, modified by an adjective may be used to describe a quality of

another noun, similar to the genitive of quality/description. • nōndum bonō animō in populum Rōmānum viderentur (BG 1.6) ! they did not yet seem of good mind to the Roman people • hominēs inimīcō animō (BG 1.7) ! men of a hostile mind

15. Place Where: location on or in is expressed by the ablative with the preposition in; with names of cities, towns, small islands,

domus (home), and rūs (country), the locative case is used to express this; often in poetry and occasionally in prose the in is omitted. • erat omninō in Galliā ulteriōre legiō una (BG 1.7) ! altogether there was one legion in further Gaul

16. Place from Which: place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions ā/ab, ē/ex, and dē; with names of cities,

towns, small islands, domus (home), and rus (country), the preposition is omitted. • maturat ab urbe proficiscī (BG 1.7) ! he hastens to set out from the city • quibus itineribus domō exīre possent (BG 1.6) ! by which routes they could go out from home (leave home)

17. With PUFFV Verbs: five deponent verbs, and their compounds, take an ablative of means as their object; these verbs are called

the PUFFV verbs and are as follows: potiōr, potīrī, potitus sum (get possession of), ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (use), fruor, fruī, frūctus sum (enjoy), fungor, fungī, fūnctus sum (to perform, be engaged in), and vescor, vescī, –– (to feed on, eat); note that sometimes potior takes a genitive object, not an abl. • quō genere in proeliīs ūtī cōnsuērunt (BG 4.24) ! which type they are accustomed to use in battles

18. With Prepositions: a noun/noun phrase in the ablative may be used as the object of a number of prepositions; they are as follows:

• ā/ab: by, (away) from • cum: with • dē: (down) from; about,

concerning

• ē/ex: out of, from • in: in, on • prae: before

• prō: in front of, on behalf of, for

• sine: without • sub: under, at the foot of

f) Vocative

1. Direct Address: the vocative is used when addressing a person or group of people directly; in all declensions the vocative form is the same as the nominative except in the 2nd declension, nouns in –us have voc. in –e and –ius have voc. in –ī. • “Dēsilitē,” inquit, “mīlitēs,” (BG 4.25) ! “Jump down, soldiers,” he said

g) Locative

1. Place Where: the locative expresses place where with names of cities, towns, small islands, domus (home), and rūs (country); in 1st & 2nd decl. sg., the voc. is the same as the gen. sg. (e.g. Romae ‘at Rome’); in 3rd decl. and in all pl. names it looks like the dative or ablative (e.g. Athēnīs ‘in Athens,’ Carthāginī or Carthāgine ‘in Carthage’); voc. of domus = domī, and of rūs = rūs.


II. ADJECTIVES

A. Characteristics and Terminology

• Adjectives are words that describe, or modify, nouns. Like the nouns they modify, adjectives have gender, number, and case. • Adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify in all three characteristics (gender, number, and case) • If an adjective stands alone (i.e. without a noun), it is standing in for the noun. These adjectives are called substantives; gender and

number dictate how you must translate. B. Forms a) Regular Adjectives • Adjectives belong either to the 1st & 2nd declension (2-1-2) or to the 3rd declension.

o 1st & 2nd declension adjectives decline regularly like 1st and 2nd declension nouns, e.g. certus, certa, certum: certain

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. bonus bona bonum bonī bonae bona Gen. bonī bonae bonī bonōrum bonārum bonōrum Dat. bonō bonae bonō bonīs bonīs bonīs Acc. bonum bonam bonum bonōs bonās bona Abl. bonō bonā bonō bonīs bonīs bonīs

o 3rd declension adjectives decline like 3rd decl. i-stem nouns, except that the abl. sg. is always –ī, never –e; e.g. fortis, forte: brave

SG PL M/F N M/F N Nom. fortis forte fortēs fortia Gen. fortis fortis fortium fortium Dat. fortī fortī fortibus fortibus Acc. fortem forte fortēs fortia Abl. fortī fortī fortibus fortibus

b) Irregular Adjectives (UNUS NAUTA) • There are 9 irregular adjectives that decline like 2-1-2 adjectives except that they have –īus in the gen. sg. and –ī in the dat. sg. These

adjectives are: o Ūnus, una, unum: one o Nūllus, nūlla, nūllum: no, not any o Ūllus, ūlla, ūllum: any o Sōlus, sōla, sōlum: alone, only

o Neuter, neutra, neutrum: neither o Alter, altera, alterum: the other (of two), second o Uter, utra, utrum: which (of two)? o Tōtus, tōta, tōtum: entire, whole o Alius, alia, alium: other, another

• UNUS NAUTA adjectives decline like tōtus, tōta, tōtum:

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. tōtus tōta tōtum tōtī tōtae tōta Gen. tōtīus tōtīus tōtīus tōtōrum tōtārum tōtōrum Dat. tōtī tōtī tōtī tōtīs tōtīs tōtīs Acc. tōtum tōtam tōtum tōtōs tōtās tōta Abl. tōtō tōtā tōtō tōtīs tōtīs tōtīs C. Comparison of Adjectives a) Basics & Degrees of Comparison

• All adjectives have three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative. • Positive degree shows the basic quality of the adjective

o positive degree is the dictionary form of all adjectives, e.g.: certus, -a, -um (certain), fortis, -e (brave) • Comparative degree shows more of the quality of the adjective • Superlative degree shows the most quality of the adjective

b) Regular Comparison of Adjectives


i. Comparative Adjectives: • Translate using “more __________,” “rather __________,” “too __________,” “__________er” • Formed by adding –ior (M/F) and –ius (N) to the adjective stem (gen. sg. = –iōris) and declining like a 3rd declension consonant stem

noun; e.g. certus, certa, certum: SG PL M/F N M/F N Nom. certior certius certiōrēs certiōra Gen. certiōris certiōris certiōrum certiōrum Dat. certiōrī certiōrī certiōribus certiōribus Acc. certiōrem certius certiōrēs certiōra Abl. certiōre certiōre certiōribus certiōribus

ii. Superlative Adjectives: • Translate using “most __________,” “very __________,” “__________est” • Formed by adding –issimus, –issima, –issimum to the adjective stem and declining like a 2-1-2 adjective; e.g. fortis, forte:

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. fortissimus fortissima fortissimum fortissimī fortissimae fortissima Gen. fortissimī fortissimae fortissimī fortissimōrum fortissimārum fortissimōrum Dat. fortissimō fortissimae fortissimō fortissimīs fortissimīs fortissimīs Acc. fortissimum fortissimam fortissimum fortissimōs fortissimās fortissima Abl. fortissimō fortissimā fortissimō fortissimīs fortissimīs fortissimīs

c) Comparison of Adjectives in –ER, –EUS/IUS, and some in –ILIS

i. Adjectives in –ER: • Adjectives that have a nom. masc. sg. form ending in –ER form the comparative regularly but form the superlative by adding –rimus,

–rima, –rimum to the nom. sg. masc. form (-er), NOT the stem. The superlative of these looks like celer, celeris, celere: SG PL M F N M F N Nom. celerrimus celerrima celerrimum celerrimī celerrimae celerrima Gen. celerrimī celerrimae celerrimī celerrimōrum celerrimārum celerrimōrum Dat. celerrimō celerrimae celerrimō celerrimīs celerrimīs celerrimīs Acc. celerrimum celerrimam celerrimum celerrimōs celerrimās celerrima Abl. celerrimō celerrimā celerrimō celerrimīs celerrimīs celerrimīs

ii. Adjectives in –EUS/IUS: • Adjectives that have a nom. sg. masc. form ending in –EUS or –IUS form the comparative and superlative by adding an adverb before

the positive degree of the adjective. The positive is declined regularly.

• Comparative: add magis (more) before the adjective, e.g. idōneus, idōnea, idōneum (suitable): SG PL M F N M F N Nom. magis idōneus magis idōnea magis idōneum magis idōneī magis idōneae magis idōnea Gen. magis idōneī magis idōneae magis idōneī magis idōneōrum magis idōneārum magis idōneōrum Dat. magis idōneō magis idōneae magis idōneō magis idōneīs magis idōneīs magis idōneīs Acc. magis idōneum magis idōneam magis idōneum magis idōneōs magis idōneās magis idōnea Abl. magis idōneō magis idōneā magis idōneō magis idōneīs magis idōneīs magis idōneīs

• Superlative: add maximē (most) before the adjective, e.g. egregius, egregia, egregium (outstanding):

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. maximē egregius maximē egregia maximē egregium maximē egregiī maximē egregiae maximē egregia Gen. maximē egregiī maximē egregiae maximē egregiī maximē egregiōrum maximē egregiārum maximē egregiōrum Dat. maximē egregiō maximē egregiae maximē egregiō maximē egregiīs maximē egregiīs maximē egregiīs Acc. maximē egregium maximē egregiam maximē egregium maximē egregiōs maximē egregiās maximē egregia Abl. maximē egregiō maximē egregiā maximē egregiō maximē egregiīs maximē egregiīs maximē egregiīs


iii. Some Adjectives in –ILIS: • Some adjectives with a nom. sg. masc. form ending in –ilis form their superlative by adding –limus, –lima, –limum to the adjective stem • These adjectives are facilis, -e (easy), difficilis, -e (difficult), gracilis, -e (slender), humilis, -e (humble), similis, -e (similar), and

dissimilis, -e (unlike); these all form their superlative like facilis, facile:

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. facillimus facillima facillimum facillimī facillimae facillima Gen. facillimī facillimae facillimī facillimōrum facillimārum facillimōrum Dat. facillimō facillimae facillimō facillimīs facillimīs facillimīs Acc. facillimum facillimam facillimum facillimōs facillimās facillima Abl. facillimō facillimā facillimō facillimīs facillimīs facillimīs

• The comparative of these adjectives is formed regularly • Note that all other –ilis adjectives (e.g. utilis, -e) form the superlative regularly (i.e. utilissimus, -a, -um)

d) Irregular and Defective Comparison of Adjectives

i. Irregular Comparison: Positive Comparative Superlative

bonus, bona, bonum good

melior, melius better

optimus, optima, optimum best

malus, mala, malum bad

peior, peius worse

pessimus, pessima, pessimum worst

magnus, magna, magnum great

maior, maius greater

maximus, maxima, maximum greatest

parvus, parva, parvum small

minor, minus smaller

minimus, minima, minimum smallest

multī, multae, multa many

plūrēs, plūra more

plūrimī, plurimae, plurima most

ii. Defective Comparison: • Lacking a Positive Degree Form:

Positive Comparative Superlative

–––––– exterior, exterius outer

extrēmus, -a, -um most, farthest, last, end of

–––––– īnferior, īnferius lower

īnfimus, -a, -um OR īmus, -a, -um lowest, bottom of

–––––– interior, interius inner

intimus, -a, -um inmost

–––––– prior, prius former, earlier

prīmus, -a, -um first, foremost

–––––– propior, propius nearer

proximus, -a, -um nearest, next

–––––– superior, superius higher

summus, -a, -um highest, top of

–––––– ulterior, ulterius farther

ultimus, -a, -um farthest

• Lacking a Comparative Degree Form:

Positive Comparative Superlative multus, -a, -um

much ––––––––––––––– plurimus, -a, -um most

o To replace the missing comparative of multus, -a, -um, we use the noun plūs, plūris, n.: more with a partitive genitive, e.g.: Da mihi plūs cibī. ! Give me more (of) food.

• Lacking a Superlative Degree Form:

Positive Comparative Superlative senex, senis

old senior older –––––––––––––––

o To replace the superlative of senex, we use maximus nātū: oldest (lit. “greatest with respect to birth”) o Maior nātū: older (lit. “greater with respect to birth”) sometimes replaces senior as the comparative of senex, senis o senex has no feminine or neuter forms


III. NUMBERS ūnus, ūna, ūnum: one (sg. only) duo, duae, duo: two (pl. only) trēs, tria: three (pl. only) Case M F N M F N M F N Nom. ūnus ūna ūnum duo duae duo trēs trēs tria Gen. ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus duōrum duārum duōrum trium trium trium Dat. ūnī ūnī ūnī duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus tribus Acc. ūnum ūnam ūnum duōs duās duo trēs trēs tria Abl. ūnō ūnā ūnō

duōbus duābus duōbus

tribus tribus tribus

Numeral Cardinal Number Ordinal Number I ūnus, ūna, ūnum: one prīmus, -a, -um: first II duo, duae, duo: two secundus, -a, -um: second III trēs, tria: three tertius, -a, -um: third IV quattuor: four quārtus, -a, -um: fourth V quīnque: five quīntus, -a, -um: fifth VI sex: six sextus, -a, -um: sixth VII septem: seven septimus, -a, -um: seventh VIII octō: eight octāvus, -a, -um: eighth IX novem: nine nōnus, -a, -um: ninth X decem: ten decimus, -a, -um: tenth XI ūndecim: eleven ūndecimus, -a, -um: eleventh XII duodecim: twelve duodecimus, -a, -um: twelfth XIII trēdecim: thirteen tertius decimus, -a, -um: thirteenth XIV quattuordecim: fourteen quārtus decimus, -a, -um: fourteenth XV quīndecim: fifteen quīntus decimus, -a, -um: fifteenth XVI sēdecim: sixteen sextus decimus, -a, -um: sixteenth XVII septendecim: seventeen septimus decimus, -a, -um: seventeenth XVIII duodēvīgintī: eighteen duodēvīcēsimus, -a, -um: eighteenth XIX ūndēvīgintī: nineteen ūndēvīcēsimus, -a, -um: nineteenth XX vīgintī: twenty vīcēsimus, -a, -um: twentieth L quīnquāgintā: fifty quīnquāgēsimus, -a, -um: fiftieth C centum: one hundred centēsimus, -a, -um: hundredth D quīgentī, quīgentae, quīgenta: five hundred quīngentēsimus, -a, -um: five hundredth M mīlle: one thousand (pl. = mīlia: thousands) mīllēsimus, -a, -um: thousandth

• Cardinal numbers from quattuor to centum do not decline • Mille is indeclinable in the singular, but in the plural mīlia declines like a neuter 3rd declension noun and takes a partitive genitive

IV. ADVERBS

• Adverbs are words that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; they are generally formed from adjectives • Like adjectives, adverbs have positive, comparative, and superlative forms • Positive Degree:

o Adverbs from 1st & 2nd declension adjectives are formed by adding –ē to the stem of the adjective o Adverbs from 3rd declension adjectives are formed by adding –(i)ter to the stem of the adjective; if the stem ends in –nt, simply

add –er • Comparative Degree:

o The comparative form of the adverb is the same as the neut. acc. sg. form of the comparative adjective (–ius) • Superlative Degree:

o To form the superlative of an adverb, form the superlative adjective and change the –us on the end to –ē • Examples:

Positive Comparative Superlative laetē – happily laetius – more happily laetissimē – most happily

audacter – boldly audacius – more boldly audacissimē – most boldly

fēliciter – luckily fēlicius – more luckily fēlicissimē – most luckily

celeriter – swiftly celerius – more swiftly celerrimē – most swiftly

prudenter – wisely prudentius – more wisely prudentissimē – most wisely


• Some adverbs are not formed from adjectives, such as:

Positive Comparative Superlative diū – for a long time diūtius – for a longer time, any longer diutissimē – for the longest time

saepe – often saepius – more often saepissimē – most often • Note also the following irregular adverbs:

Positive Comparative Superlative bene – well melius – better optimē – best

male – badly peius – worse pessimē – worst

facile – easily facilius – more easily facillimē – most easily

magnopere – greatly magis – more maximē – most

paulum – little minus – less minimē – least

multum – much plūs – more plūrimum – most

V. PRONOUNS & THEIR ADJECTIVES A. Personal Pronouns

1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person SG PL SG PL Nom. ego nōs tū vōs Gen. meī nostrī/nostrum tuī vestrī/vestrum Dat. mihi nōbīs tibi vōbīs

Acc. mē nōs tē vōs Abl. mē nōbīs tē vōbīs

is, ea, id is used for the 3rd person pronoun; see demonstratives

below for the forms

• When used in an abl. of accompaniment, the cum attaches to the end of the pronoun (i.e. mēcum, nōbīscum, tēcum, vōbīscum) • The genitive forms of the personal pronoun are never used to express possession; they are either objective (nostrī, vestrī) or partitive

(nostrum, vestrum) • To express personal possession, Latin uses the possessive adjective forms that correspond to each pronoun: meus, -a, -um (my), noster,

nostra, nostrum (our), tuus, -a, -um (your, sg.), and vester, vestra, vestrum (your, pl.). o The 3rd person pronoun (is, ea, id) has no corresponding possessive adjective, so the genitive forms of the pronoun (eius, eōrum,

eārum) are used instead. B. Reflexive Pronouns

1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person SG PL SG PL SG & PL Nom. –––– –––– –––– –––– –––– Gen. meī nostrī/nostrum tuī vestrī/vestrum suī Dat. mihi nōbīs tibi vōbīs sibi

Acc. mē nōs tē vōs sē/sēsē Abl. mē nōbīs tē vōbīs sē/sēsē

• Reflexives refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they appear for their meaning. • The reflexive does not have any nominative forms. • For 1st and 2nd person reflexives, the forms are the same as the personal pronouns, except that there is no nominative • For 3rd person reflexives, the forms for the singular and plural are the same. • Like personal pronouns, the genitive forms of the reflexives are only used as objective (–ī) or partitive (–um) genitives, never as

possessives; to express possession, use the corresponding reflexive possessive adjectives, which are the same as the possessive adjectives (meus, noster, tuus, vester); the 3rd person reflexive possessive adjective is suus, sua, suum o When the adjective is not reflexive (i.e. you’re not talking about the subject of the sentence), the genitive forms of is, ea, id (eius,

eōrum, eārum) are used. • In indirect statement, the reflexive sē (in all its forms) refers to the subject of the head verb.


C. Relative Pronoun

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. quī quae quod quī quae quae Gen. cuius cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quam quod quōs quās quae Abl. quō quā quō quibus quibus quibus

• Translation of the relative pronoun depends on its antecedent:

o For antecedents that are persons, we use “who, whom” o For antecedents that are NOT persons, but are things, ideas, animals, etc., we use “which”

• Use of the Relative Pronoun:

o The relative pronoun quī, quae, quod (who, which) is used to introduce relative clauses, which are subordinate clauses describing or defining a previously stated or understood antecedent

o The relative pronoun in a relative clause MUST agree with its antecedent in gender and number, but its case is determined by its use in the relative clause

D. Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective • The interrogative pronoun quis, quid (who? which?) has the following forms:

SG PL M/F N Nom. quis quid Gen. cuius cuius Dat. cui cui Acc. quem quid Abl. quō quō

plural forms are the same as the plural of the relative pronoun

• The interrogative adjective quī, quae, quod (which?) is the same as the relative pronoun in the singular and plural, without exception. E. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives • aliquis, aliquid: someone, something (pronoun)

SG PL M/F N M F N Nom. aliquis aliquid aliquī aliquae aliqua Gen. alicuius alicuius aliquōrum aliquārum aliquōrum Dat. alicui alicui aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus Acc. aliquem aliquid aliquōs aliquās aliqua Abl. aliquō aliquō aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus

• aliquī, aliqua, aliquod: some (adjective)

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. aliquī aliqua aliquod aliquī aliquae aliqua Gen. alicuius alicuius alicuius aliquōrum aliquārum aliquōrum Dat. alicui alicui alicui aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus Acc. aliquem aliquam aliquod aliquōs aliquās aliqua Abl. aliquō aliquā aliquō aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus

o Note that after the words sī, nisi, num, and nē, all the ali– prefixes drop away from the indefinite pronoun/adjective


• quīdam, quaedam, quiddam: a certain one (pronoun)

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. quīdam quaedam quiddam quīdam quaedam quaedam Gen. cuiusdam cuiusdam cuiusdam quōrundam quārundam quōrundam Dat. cuidam cuidam cuidam quibusdam quibusdam quibusdam Acc. quondam quondam quiddam quōsdam quāsdam quaedam Abl. quōdam quādam quōdam quibusdam quibusdam quibusdam

o The adjective, quīdam, quaedam, quoddam (certain, some) is declined the same but has quoddam instead of quiddam in the neut. sg. nom. and acc. forms

F. Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives

• Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives have the same forms; they are adjectives if they are modifying nouns, but they are pronouns if they stand alone

• Demonstrative adjectives typically come before the nouns they modify and serve to point out (< dēmonstrō, -āre) these nouns. • Hic, Haec, Hoc: this (pl. these)

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. hic haec hoc hī hae haec Gen. huius huius huius hōrum hārum hōrum Dat. huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs Acc. hunc hanc hoc hōs hās haec Abl. hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs

• Ille, Illa, Illud: that (pl. those) SG PL M F N M F N Nom. ille illa illud illī illae illa Gen. illīus illīus illīus illōrum illārum illōrum Dat. illī illī illī illīs illīs illīs Acc. illum illam illud illōs illās illa Abl. illō illā illō illīs illīs illīs

• Iste, Ista, Istud: that, that of yours (pl. those) SG PL M F N M F N Nom. iste ista istud istī istae ista Gen. istīus istīus istīus istōrum istārum istōrum Dat. istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs Acc. istum istam istud istōs istās ista Abl. istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs

• Is, Ea, Id: this, that (pl. these, those) SG PL M F N M F N Nom. is ea id eī eae ea Gen. eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum Dat. eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs Acc. eum eam id eōs eās ea Abl. eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs

o iī is sometimes found for nom. pl. instead of eī, and iīs for eīs in the dat. and abl. pl.


• Īdem, Eadem, Idem: the same

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. īdem eadem idem eīdem eaedem eadem Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem eōrundem eārundem eōrundem Dat. eīdem eīdem eīdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem Acc. eundem eandem idem eōsdem eāsdem eōsdem Abl. eōdem eādem eōdem eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem

G. Intensive Pronoun and Adjective

• ipse, ipsa, ipsum: myself, ourselves; yourself, yourselves; himself, herself, itself, themselves

SG PL M F N M F N Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa Gen. ipsīus ipsīus ipsīus ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum Dat. ipsī ipsī ipsius ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa Abl. ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs

VI. VERBS A. Characteristics and Terminology

• Verbs have FIVE characteristics in Latin: person, number, tense, voice, and mood. o Person: Tells you information about who the subject of the verb is with reference to the speaker; indicated by personal endings.

There are 3 persons – 1st, 2nd, and 3rd. " 1st Person: I, we " 2nd Person: you, you (pl.) " 3rd Person: he, she, it, they

o Number: Tells you how many of the subject there are; indicated by the personal endings. There are 2 numbers. " Singular: 1 subject [I, you, he, she, it] " Plural: >1 subject [we, you (pl.), they]

o Tense: Tells you when/at what time the verb is taking place (< tempus, temporis, n.: time). There are 6 tenses in two systems. " Present System:

• Present: action is happening now. • Imperfect: action is happening in the past, but is ongoing (incomplete). • Future: action is happening in the future.

" Perfect System: • Perfect: action happened at a time in the past and is complete. • Pluperfect: action happened at a time in the past before another past action. • Future Perfect: action that will have been completed at some point in the future after another action

o Voice: Tells you whether the subject is performing or receiving the action of the verb. There are 2 voices. " Active: the subject is performing the action of the verb. The active personal endings are as follows:

Person SG PL 1st ō / m mus 2nd s tis 3rd t nt

" N.B.! The perfect tense uses different active personal endings. They are as follows: Person SG PL

1st ī imus 2nd istī istis 3rd it ērunt

" Passive: the subject is receiving the action of the verb. The passive personal endings are as follows: Person SG PL

1st or / r mur 2nd ris minī 3rd tur ntur


o Mood: Tells you information about the author’s perceived actuality of the events being discussed. There are 3 moods. " Indicative Mood: used to state facts and ask direct questions. " Imperative Mood: used to give direct commands. " Subjunctive Mood: used to express many ideas, but basically is the mood of expressing nonfactual information.

B. Regular Verbs a) Indicative & Imperative Active i. Indicative Active

1st Conj. [-ā] 2nd Conj. [-ē] 3rd Conj. [-e] 3rd Conj. IO [-e] 4th Conj. [-ī] Tense Translations

portō, portāre habeō, habēre mittō, mittere capiō, capere muniō, munīre

1st SG 2nd SG 3rd SG 1st PL 2nd PL

Pres.

3rd PL

portō portās portat

portāmus portātis portant

habeō habēs habet

habēmus habētis habent

mittō mittis mittit

mittimus mittitis mittunt

capiō capis capit

capimus capitis capiunt

muniō munīs munit

munīmus munītis muniunt

________(s),

does _________, is/are ______ing


Impf.

3rd PL

portābam portābās portābat

portābāmus portābātis portābant

habēbam habēbās habēbat

habēbāmus habēbātis habēbant

mittēbam mittēbās mittēbat

mittēbāmus mittēbātis mittēbant

capiēbam capiēbās capiēbat

capiēbāmus capiēbātis capiēbant

muniēbam muniēbās muniēbat

muniēbāmus muniēbātis muniēbant

was/were _______ing


Fut.

3rd PL

portābō portābis portābit

portābimus portābitis portābunt

habēbō habēbis habēbit

habēbimus habēbitis habēbunt

mittam mittēs mittet

mittēmus mittētis mittent

capiam capiēs capiet

capiēmus capiētis capient

muniam muniēs muniet

muniēmus muniētis munient

shall ____ (1st person only),

will _______


Perf.

3rd PL

portāvī portāvistī portāvit

portāvimus portāvistis portāvērunt

habuī habuistī habuit

habuimus habuistis habuērunt

mīsī mīsistī mīsit

mīsimus mīsistis mīsērunt

cēpī cēpistī cēpit

cēpimus cēpistis cēpērunt

munīvī munīvistī munīvit

munīvimus munīvistis munīvērunt

has/have ____ed,

_____ed, did _______


Plupf.

3rd PL

portāveram portāverās portāverat

portāverāmus portāverātis portāverant

habueram habuerās habuerat

habuerāmus habuerātis habuerant

mīseram mīserās mīserat

mīserāmus mīserātis mīserant

cēperam cēperās cēperat

cēperāmus cēperātis cēperant

munīveram munīverās munīverat

munīverāmus munīverātis munīverant

had ______ed


Fut. Pf.

3rd PL

portāverō portāveris portāverit

portāverimus portāveritis portāverint

habuerō habueris habuerit

habuerimus habueritis habuerint

mīserō mīseris mīserit

mīserimus mīseritis mīserint

cēperō cēperis cēperit

cēperimus cēperitis cēperint

munīverō munīveris munīverit

munīverimus munīveritis munīverint

will have _______ed

ii. Imperative Active

1st Conj. [-ā] 2nd Conj. [-ē] 3rd Conj. [-e] 3rd Conj. IO [-e] 4th Conj. [-ī] Translation portō, portāre habeō, habēre mittō, mittere capiō, capere muniō, munīre

2nd SG

Pres. 2nd PL

portā!

portāte!

habē!

habēte!

mitte!

mittite!

cape!

capite!

munī!

munīte!

______!


b) Indicative & Imperative Passive i. Indicative Passive

1st Conj. [-ā] 2nd Conj. [-ē] 3rd Conj. [-e] 3rd Conj. IO [-e] 4th Conj. [-ī] Tense Translations

portō, portāre habeō, habēre mittō, mittere capiō, capere muniō, munīre


Pres.

3rd PL

portor portāris portātur

portāmur portāminī portantur

habeor habēris habētur

habēmur habēminī habentur

mittor mitteris mittitur

mittimur mittiminī mittuntur

capior caperis capitur

capimur capiminī capiuntur

munior munīris munītur

munīmur munīminī muniuntur

is/are ______ed


Impf.

3rd PL

portābar portābāris portābātur

portābāmur portābāminī portābantur

habēbar habēbāris habēbātur

habēbāmur habēbātis

habēbantur

mittēbar mittēbāris mittēbātur

mittēbāmur mittēbāminī mittēbantur

capiēbar capiēbāris capiēbātur

capiēbāmur capiēbāminī capiēbantur

muniēbar muniēbāris muniēbātur

muniēbāmur muniēbāminī muniēbantur

was/were being _______ed


Fut.

3rd PL

portābor portāberis portābitur

portābimur portābiminī portābuntur

habēbor habēberis habēbitur

habēbimur habēbiminī habēbuntur

mittar mittēris mittētur

mittēmur mittēminī mittentur

capiar capiēris capiētur

capiēmur capiēminī capientur

muniar muniēris muniētur

muniēmur muniēminī munientur

shall be ____ed (1st person only),

will be _____ed


Perf.

3rd PL

portātus sum portātus es portātus est

portātī sumus portātī estis portātī sunt

habitus sum habitus es habitus est

habitī sumus habitī estis habitī sunt

missus sum missus es missus est

missī sumus missī estis missī sunt

captus sum captus es captus est

captī sumus captī estis captī sunt

munitus sum munitus es munitus est

munitī sumus munitī estis munitī sunt

has/have been

____ed, was/were _____ed


Plupf.

3rd PL

portātus eram portātus erās portātus erat

portātī erāmus portātī erātis portātī erant

habitus eram habitus erās habitus erat

habitī erāmus habitī erātis habitī erant

missus eram missus erās missus erat

missī erāmus missī erātis missī erant

captus eram captus erās captus erat

captī erāmus captī erātis captī erant

munitus eram munitus erās munitus erat

munitī erāmus munitī erātis munitī erant

had been ______ed


Fut. Pf.

3rd PL

portātus erō portātus eris portātus erit

portātī erimus portātī eritis portātī erunt

habitus erō habitus eris habitus erit

habitī erimus habitī eritis habitī erunt

missus erō missus eris missus erit

missī erimus missī eritis missī erunt

captus erō captus eris captus erit

captī erimus captī eritis captī erunt

munitus erō munitus eris munitus erit

munitī erimus munitī eritis munitī erunt

will have been _______ed

ii. Imperative Passive

1st Conj. [-ā] 2nd Conj. [-ē] 3rd Conj. [-e] 3rd Conj. IO [-e] 4th Conj. [-ī] Translation portō, portāre habeō, habēre mittō, mittere capiō, capere muniō, munīre

2nd SG

Pres. 2nd PL

portāre!

portāminī!

habēre!

habēminī!

mittere!

mittiminī!

capere!

capiminī!

munīre!

munīminī!

be ______ed!


c) Subjunctive Active & Passive

i. Subjunctive Active

1st Conj. [-ā] 2nd Conj. [-ē] 3rd Conj. [-e] 3rd Conj. IO [-e] 4th Conj. [-ī] portō, portāre habeō, habēre mittō, mittere capiō, capere muniō, munīre


Pres.

3rd PL

portem portēs portet

portēmus portētis portent

habeam habeās habeat

habeāmus habeātis habeant

mittam mittās mittat

mittāmus mittātis mittant

capiam capiās capiat

capiāmus capiātis capiant

muniam muniās muniat

muniāmus muniātis muniant


Impf.

3rd PL

portārem portārēs portāret

portārēmus portārētis portārent

habērem habērēs habēret

habērēmus habērētis habērent

mitterem mitterēs mitteret

mitterēmus mitterētis mitterent

caperem caperēs caperet

caperēmus caperētis caperent

munīrem munīrēs munīret

munīrēmus munīrētis munīrent


Perf.

3rd PL

portāverim portāveris portāverit

portāverimus portāveritis portāverint

habuerim habueris habuerit

habuerimus habueritis habuerint

mīserim mīseris mīserit

mīserimus mīseritis mīserint

cēperim cēperis cēperit

cēperimus cēperitis cēperint

munīverim munīveris munīverit

munīverimus munīveritis munīverint


Plupf.

3rd PL

portāvissem portāvissēs portāvisset

portāvissēmus portāvissētis portāvissent

habuissem habuissēs habuisset

habuissēmus habuissētis habuissent

mīsissem mīsissēs mīsisset

mīsissēmus mīsissētis mīsissent

cēpissem cēpissēs cēpisset

cēpissēmus cēpissētis cēpissent

munīvissem munīvissēs munīvisset

munīvissēmus munīvissētis munīvissent

ii. Subjunctive Passive

1st Conj. [-ā] 2nd Conj. [-ē] 3rd Conj. [-e] 3rd Conj. IO [-e] 4th Conj. [-ī] portō, portāre habeō, habēre mittō, mittere capiō, capere muniō, munīre


Pres.

3rd PL

porter portēris portētur

portēmur portēminī portentur

habear habeāris habeātur

habeāmur habeāminī habeantur

mittar mittāris mittātur

mittāmur mittāminī mittantur

capiar capiāris capiātur

capiāmur capiāminī capiantur

muniar muniāris muniātur

muniāmur muniāminī muniantur


Impf.

3rd PL

portārer portārēris portārētur portārēmrs portārēminī portārentur

habērer habērēris habērētur habērēmrs habērēminī habērentur

mitterer mitterēris mitterētur

mitterēmur mitterēminī mitterentur

caperer caperēris caperētur

caperēmur caperēminī caperentur

munīrer munīrēs

munīrētur munīrēmur munīrēminī munīrentur


Perf.

3rd PL

portātus sim portātus sīs portātus sit

portātī sīmus portātī sītis portātī sint

habitus sim habitus sīs habitus sit

habitī sīmus habitī sītis habitī sint

missus sim missus sīs missus sit

missī sīmus missī sītis missī sint

captus sim captus sīs captus sit

captī sīmus captī sītis captī sint

munitus sim munitus sīs munitus sit

munitī sīmus munitī sītis munitī sint


Plupf.

3rd PL

portātus essem portātus essēs portātus esset

portātī essēmus portātī essētis portātī essent

habitus essem habitus essēs habitus esset

habitī essēmus habitī essētis habitī essent

missus essem missus essēs missus esset

missī essēmus missī essētis missī essent

captus essem captus essēs captus esset

captī essēmus captī essētis captī essent

munitus essem munitus essēs munitus esset

munitī essēmus munitī essētis munitī essent


C) Irregular Verbs (sum, possum, volō, nōlō, mālō, ferō, eō, fiō)

a) Indicative & Imperative Active

i. Indicative Active

• sum, possum, vōlō, nōlō, and mālō only exist in the active voice; eō exists primarily in the active but has impersonal passive (3rd sg. neut.) forms; fiō acts like the passive of faciō, so it does not exist in the active.

sum, esse, fuī, futurus

possum, posse, potuī

ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus eō, īre, īvī/iī, itus volō, velle,

voluī nōlō, nōlle,

nōluī mālō, mālle,

māluī to be to be able to bring,

bear, carry to go to wish, want to not wish,

not want to prefer


Pres.

3rd PL

sum es est

sumus estis sunt

possum potēs potest

possumus potestis possunt

ferō fers fert

ferimus fertis ferunt

eō īs it īmus ītis

eunt

volō vīs vult

volumus vultis volunt

nōlō nōn vīs nōn vult nōlumus

nōn vultis nōlunt

mālō māvīs māvult

mālumus māvultis mālunt


Impf.

3rd PL

eram erās erat

erāmus erātis erant

poteram poterās poterat

poterāmus poterātis poterant

ferēbam ferēbās ferēbat

ferēbāmus ferēbātis ferēbant

ībam ībās ībat ībāmus ībātis ībant

volēbam volēbās volēbat

volēbāmus volēbātis volēbant

nōlēbam nōlēbās nōlēbat

nōlēbāmus nōlēbātis nōlēbant

mālēbam mālēbās mālēbat

mālēbāmus mālēbātis mālēbant


Fut.

3rd PL

erō eris erit

erimus eritis erunt

poterō poteris poterit

poterimus poteritis poterunt

feram ferēs feret

ferēmus ferētis ferent

ībō ībis ībit ībimus ībitis ībunt

volam volēs volet

volēmus volētis volent

nōlam nōlēs nōlet

nōlēmus nōlētis nōlent

mālam mālēs mālet

mālēmus mālētis mālent


Perf.

3rd PL

fuī fuistī fuit

fuimus fuistis fuērunt

potuī potuistī potuit

potuimus potuistis potuerunt

tulī tulistī tulit

tulimus tulistis tulērunt

īvī/iī īvistī/iistī/īstī īvit/iit

īvimus/iimus īvistis/iistis/īstis īverunt/iērunt

voluī voluistī voluit

voluimus voluistis voluērunt

nōluī nōluistī nōluit

nōluimus nōluistis nōluērunt

māluī māluistī māluit

māluimus māluistis māluērunt


Plupf.

3rd PL

fueram fuerās fuerat

fuerāmus fuerātis fuerant

potueram potuerās potuerat

potuerāmus potuerātis potuerant

tuleram tulerās tulerat

tulerāmus tulerātis tulerant

īveram/ieram īverās/ierās īverat/ierat

īverāmus/ierāmus īverātis/ierātis īverant/ierant

volueram voluerās voluerat

voluerāmus voluerātis voluerant

nōlueram nōluerās nōluerat

nōluerāmus nōluerātis nōluerant

mālueram māluerās māluerat

māluerāmus māluerātis māluerant


Fut. Pf.

3rd PL

fuerō fueris fuerit

fuerimus fueritis fuerint

potuerō potueris potuerit

potuerimus potueritis potuerint

tulerō tuleris tulerit

tulerimus tuleritis tulerint

īverō/ierō īveris/ieris īverit/ierit

īverimus/ierimus īveritis/ieritis īverint/ierint

voluerō volueris voluerit

voluerimus volueritis voluerint

nōluerō nōlueris nōluerit

nōluerimus nōlueritis nōluerint

māluerō mālueris māluerit

māluerimus mālueritis māluerint

ii. Imperative Active sum, esse,

fuī, futurus possum,

posse, potuī ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus eō, īre, īvī/iī, itus volō, velle,





not want to prefer

2nd SG

Pres. 2nd PL

es!

este!

–––––

–––––

fer!

ferte!

ī! īte!

–––––

–––––

nōlī!

nōlīte!

–––––

–––––


b) Indicative & Imperative Passive i. Indicative Passive

fiō, fierī, factus sum

ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus eō, īre, īvī/iī, itus

to become, be made

to bring, bear, carry

to go


Pres.

3rd PL

fiō fīs fit

fīmus fītis fīunt

feror ferris fertur

ferimur feriminī feruntur

ītur


Impf.

3rd PL

fiēbam fiēbās fiēbat

fiēbāmus fiēbātis fiēbant

ferēbar ferēbāris ferēbātur

ferēbāmur ferēbāminī ferēbantur

ībātur


Fut.

3rd PL

fiam fiēs fiet

fiēmus fiētis fient

ferar ferēris ferētur

ferēmur ferēminī ferentur

ībitur


Perf.

3rd PL

factus sum factus es factus est

factī sumus factī estis factī sunt

lātus sum lātus es lātus est

lātī sumus lātī estis lātī sunt

itum est


Plupf.

3rd PL

factus eram factus erās factus erat

factī erāmus factī erātis factī erant

lātus eram lātus erās lātus erat

lātī erāmus lātī erātis lātī erant

itum erat


Fut. Pf.

3rd PL

factus erō factus eris factus erit

factī erimus factī eritis factī erunt

lātus erō lātus eris lātus erit

lātī erimus lātī eritis lātī erunt

itum erit

ii. Imperative Passive

fiō, fierī, factus sum

ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus eō, īre, īvī/iī, itus

to become, be made

to bring, bear, carry

to go

2nd SG

Pres. 2nd PL

–––––

–––––

ferre!

feriminī!

–––––

–––––


c) Subjunctive Active & Passive

i. Subjunctive Active sum, esse,

fuī, futurus possum,

posse, potuī ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus eō, īre, īvī/iī, itus volō, velle,





not want to prefer


Pres.

3rd PL

sim sīs sit

sīmus sītis sint

possim possīs possit

possīmus possītis possint

feram ferās ferat

ferāmus ferātis ferant

eam eās eat

eāmus eātis eant

velim velīs velit

velīmus velītis velint

nōlim nōlīs nōlit

nōlīmus nōlītis nōlint

mālim mālīs mālit

mālīmus mālītis mālint


Impf.

3rd PL

essem essēs esset

essēmus essētis essent

possem possēs posset

possēmus possētis possent

ferrem ferrēs ferret

ferrēmus ferrētis ferrent

īrem īrēs īret īrēmus īrētis īrent

vellem vellēs vellet

vellēmus vellētis vellent

nōllem nōllēs nōllet

nōllēmus nōllētis nōllent

māllem māllēs māllet

māllēmus māllētis māllent


Perf.

3rd PL

fuerim fueris fuerit

fuerimus fueritis fuerint

potuerim potueris potuerit

potuerimus potueritis potuerint

tulerim tuleris tulerit

tulerimus tuleritis tulerint

īverim/ierim īveris/ieris īverit/ierit

īverimus/ierimus īveritis/ieritis īverint/ierint

voluerim volueris voluerit

voluerimus volueritis voluerint

nōluerim nōlueris nōluerit

nōluerimus nōlueritis nōluerint

māluerim mālueris māluerit

māluerimus mālueritis māluerint


Plupf.

3rd PL

fuissem fuissēs fuisset

fuissēmus fuissētis fuissent

potuissem potuissēs potuisset

potuissēmus potuissētis potuissent

tulissem tulissēs tulisset

tulissēmus tulissētis tulissent

īvissem/īssem īvissēs/īssēs īvisset/īsset

īvissēmus/īssēmus īvissētis/īssētis īvissent/īssent

voluissem voluissēs voluisset

voluissēmus voluissētis voluissent

nōluissem nōluissēs nōluisset

nōluissēmus nōluissētis nōluissent

māluissem māluissēs māluisset

māluissēmus māluissētis māluissent

ii. Subjunctive Passive fiō, fierī, factus sum ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus eō, īre, īvī/iī, itus

to become, be made to bring, bear, carry to go


Pres.

3rd PL

fiam fiās fiat

fiāmus fiātis fiant

ferar ferāris ferātur

ferāmur ferāminī ferantur

eātur


Impf.

3rd PL

fierem fierēs fieret

fierēmus fierētis fierent

ferrer ferrēris ferrētur

ferrēmur ferrēminī ferrentur

irētur


Perf.

3rd PL

factus sim factus sīs factus sit

factī sīmus factī sītis factī sint

lātus sim lātus sīs lātus sit

lātī sīmus lātī sītis lātī sint

itum sit


Plupf.

3rd PL

factus essem factus essēs factus esset

factī essēmus factī essētis factī essent

lātus essem lātus essēs lātus esset

lātī essēmus lātī essētis lātī essent

itum esset


D. Infinitives

a) Forms and Translations

Active Passive Form Translation Form Translation

Present

portāre habēre mittere capere munīre

to ______

portārī habērī mittī capī munīrī

to be ______ed

Perfect

portāvisse habuisse mīsisse cēpisse munīvisse

to have ______ed

portātus, -a, -um esse habitus, -a, -um esse missus, -a, -um esse captus, -a, -um esse munitus, -a, -um esse

to have been ______ed

Future

portātūrus, -a, -um esse habitūrus, -a, -um esse missūrus, -a, -um esse captūrus, -a, -um esse munitus, -a, -um esse

to be about to ______

portātum īrī habitum īrī missum īrī captum īrī munitum īrī

to be about to be ______ed

b) Uses of the Infinitive i. Complementary Infinitives

• Some verbs, depending on how they are used, cannot stand alone and thus require an infinitive to fill out or complete their meaning. These infinitives are called complementary (compleō, complēre, complēvī, completus: to fill out, complete)

• The following commonly take a complementary infinitive: o conor, conārī, conātus sum: to try, attempt, undertake o constituō, constituere, constituī, constitūtum: to decide o dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus: to ought o dubitō, dubitāre, dubitāvī, dubitātus: to hesitate o possum, posse, potuī: to be able o soleō, solēre, solitus sum: to be accustomed o temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus: to try, attempt

o videōr, vidērī, vīsus sum: to seem o volō, velle, voluī: to wish, want* o nolō, nōlle, nōluī: to not wish, not want* o mālō, mālle, māluī: to prefer*

*When volō, nōlō, and mālō have a direct object and an infinitive [i.e. “I want you to do this,” (Vōlō tē hoc facere), the infinitive is not complementary, but objective. See iii below for objective infinitives. If there is no accusative object, the infinitive is compelementary. ii. Subjective Infinitives

• Infinitives can also be the subjects of certain verbs. When used thus, they are called subjective infinitives. • These are sometimes used with 3rd SG forms of sum (usually est) with an adjective or another infinitive in the predicate:

o Errāre est hūmānum. To err is human. [Note that the adjective is neut. sg. nom. because it agrees with the infin.] o Vidēre est crēdere. To see is to believe.

• These are most common in constructions with impersonal verbs (verbs only used in the 3rd SG with the subject ‘it’). • Below is a list of the most common impersonal constructions that take a subjective infinitive. Note that some of them take an object in

the accusative case and others take an object in the dative case: Impersonal Translation Object Case Example

decet it is proper, it suits accusative Tē mēcum manēre decet. It is proper for you to stay with me.

iuvat it is pleasing accusative Forsan et haec olim meminisse iuvābit. (Virgil, Aeneid 1.203) Perhaps one day it will be pleasing to remember even these things.

libet it is pleasing dative Cēnāre apud tē mihi libet. It is pleasing to me to dine at your house.

licet it is allowed/permitted dative Mihi in Cūriam intrāre licet. It is permitted for me to enter the Curia/Senate House.

necesse est it is necessary dative Tibi mē adiuvāre necesse fuit. It was necessary for you to help me.

oportet it is necessary, it ought/must accusative Tē mēcum venīre oportet. It is necessary for you to come with me.

opus est there is (a) need dative Tibi mēcum venīre opus est. There is a need for you to come with me.

placet it is pleasing dative Cēnāre apud tē mihi licet. It is pleasing to me to dine at your house.


iii. Objective Infinitives

• Infinitives can also be the objects of certain verbs. When used thus, they are called objective infinitives. • Objective infinitives seem like complementary infinitives, but an objective infinitive acts as or refers to the direct object of the main

verb, whereas the complementary infinitives refer to the subjects of the main verb. • To distinguish between a complementary or an objective infinitive:

o Can the verb stand alone without the infinitive and make sense? If no, it’s complementary. If yes, it’s objective. E.g.: Natāre dēbēmus. ! We ought to swim.

" Does “dēbēmus.” make sense on its own without natāre? No, so it’s a complimentary infinitive. o Does the infinitive sound like it’s the direct object of a transitive verb? If no, it’s complementary. If yes, it’s objective. E.g.: Rēx

pugnāre amat. ! The king loves to fight. " Does “Rēx amat.” make sense on its own without pugnāre? Yes. It’s not complementary. " What does the king love? The king loves to fight. Pugnāre is acting as the direct object of amat, so it is an objective

infinitive. • The following verbs commonly take objective infinitives, sometimes with subject accusatives: o cōgō, cogere, coēgī, coāctus: to compel o iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussus: to order o patior, patīrī, passus sum: to allow o polliceor, pollicerī, pollicitus sum: to promise o prohibeō, prohibēre, prohibuī, prohibitus: to prevent

o sinō, sinere, sīvī, situs: to allow o vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus: to forbid o volō, velle, voluī: to wish, want, be willing o nōlō, nōlle, nōluī: to not wish, not want, be unwilling o mālō, mālle, māluī: to prefer, be more willing

iv. Indirect Statement

• One of the most common uses of the infinitive in Latin is in an indirect statement • A direct statement is something reported directly, e.g.: This is a direct statement. or Mr. Finnigan said, “This is a direct statement.” • An indirect statement is something reported indirectly, e.g.: Mr. Finnigan said that this is an indirect statement. • An indirect statement is triggered by a head verb, which is in the main clause and is a verb of saying, knowing, thinking, or perceiving • In English, we add the word “that” after our head verb but before we start the indirect statement. Latin has no word for this use of the

word “that.” • Latin then uses a subject in the accusative case • Finally, where English uses an indicative verb, Latin uses an infinitive • In sum: Indirect Statement = Head Verb + (that) + Subject Accusative + Infinitive • Here are some common head verbs used before indirect statements:

Saying Knowing Thinking Perceiving dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus: to say narrō, narrāre, narrāvī, narrātus: to tell negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus: to deny nuntiō, nuntiāre, nuntiāvī, nuntiātus: to announce scrībō, scrībere, scrīpsī, scriptus: to write

intellegō, intellegere, intellexī, intellectus: to understand sciō, scīre, scīvī: to know nesciō, nescīre, nescī(v)ī: to not know noscō, noscere, nōvī, nōtus: to learn

crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditus: to believe existimō, existimāre, existimāvī, existimātus: to think putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus: to think spērō, spērāre, spērāvī, spērātus: to hope

audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus: to hear sentiō, sentīre, sensī, sensus: to feel, realize videō, vidēre. vīdī, vīsus: to see

• Verb Tenses and Indirect Statements:

o The tense of the infinitive does not indicate time absolutely, but relative to the time of the main verb o The following chart shows how infinitive tenses work in indirect statements with reference to the time of main verbs:

Tense of Infinitive Time Relative to Main Verb Present contemporaneously (same time) Perfect before Future after

• Indirect statement infinitives are translated like indicative verbs. The tense of the infinitive is relative to the main verb:

o Present Infinitives = incomplete action happening at the same time as the HV:

" If HV is present, translate the infin. as present “is _________ing” or “__________s”

" If HV is past, translate the infin. “was/were _________ing”

o Perfect Infinitives = completed action happening before the HV.

" If HV is present, translate the infin. “was/were _________ed” or “has/have _________ed”

" If HV is past, translate the infin. “had _________ed”

o Future Infinitives = incomplete action happening after the HV.

" If HV is present, translate the infin. “will _________”

" If HV is past, translate the infin. “would _________”


E. Participles a) Basics

• Participles are verbal adjectives, meaning that they are adjectives that also have properties of verbs. • Like adjectives, participles modify nouns and must agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case. • Like adjectives, participles can be used as substantives, where gender and number indicate how you must translate the substantive (e.g.:

captī = captured men, captae = captured women, capta = captured things or woman) • Like verbs, participles denote action and show tense and voice; additionally, when the verb is active and transitive, participles can also

take direct objects • There are only a few participles: present active, perfect passive, future active, and future passive. • N.B.: the verb sum, esse, fuī, futūrus only has one participle – the future active

b) Forms, Translations, and Uses

i. Present Active Participles (PAP)

• PAPs can be easily recognized by the ending –ns in the nom. sg. and by the infix –nt– in all other forms • N.B.: deponent verbs, despite normally looking passive, actually do have a PAP form (e.g., sequor, sequī, secutus: to follow – sequēns,

sequentis = following) • Use: to denote action happening contemporaneously with (at the same time as) the action of the main verb(s) • Formation: basic rule = present stem + –ns, –ntis [but you must adjust stems of 3rd –io and 4th conj. verbs] • Translation: verbing

Conjugation 1st 2nd 3rd 3rd (-io) 4th

Rule pres. stem (-ā-) + -ns, -ntis

pres. stem (-ē-) + -ns, -ntis

pres. stem (-e-) + -ns, -ntis

pres. stem (-i-) + -ens, -entis

pres. stem (-ī-) + -ens, -entis

Example portāns, portantis vidēns, videntis vincēns, vincentis capiēns, capientis audiēns, audientis Translation carrying seeing conquering seizing hearing

• Declension: like 3rd declension adjectives of one termination (e.g. audāx, fēlix, potēns)

o Exception: when being used substantively (as a noun), the abl. sg. ends in –e, not –ī o Example: audiēns, audientis

SG PL

M & F N M & F N

Nom. audiēns audientēs audientia

Gen. audientis audientium

Dat. audientī audientibus

Acc. audientem audiēns audientēs audientia Abl. audientī (audiente) audientibus

ii. Perfect Passive Participles (PPP)

• PPPs can be easily recognized since they are the 4th principal part in the dictionary entry for Latin verbs; these are also the most popular and frequently used participles in Latin (especially in ablative absolutes).

• N.B.: For deponent verbs, although the final principal part looks like a PPP, it is actually translated as a perfect active participle (e.g., sequor, sequī, secutus: to follow – secutus = having followed, NOT having been followed)

• Use: to denote action that happened before the action of the main verb(s) • Formation: rule = 4th principal part declined like a 1st and 2nd declension adjective (2-1-2) • Translation: verbed, having been verbed


Rule decline the 4th principal part of a verb like a 2-1-2 adjective Example portātus, -a, -um visus, -a, -um victus, -a, -um captus, -a, -um audītus, -a, -um

Translation (having been) carried (having been) seen (having been) conquered (having been) seized (having been) heard

• Declension: like 1st and 2nd declension (2-1-2) adjectives (e.g., bonus, -a, -um)

o Example: audītus, -a, -um

SG PL M F N M F N

Nom. audītus audīta audītum audītī audītae audīta


Gen. audītī audītae audītī audītōrum audītārum audītōrum Dat. audītō audītae audītō audītīs Acc. audītum audītam audītum audītōs audītās audīta Abl. audītō audītā audītō audītīs

iii. Future Active Participles (FAP) and the Active Periphrastic

• FAPs can be easily recognized since they look like the 4th principal part in the dictionary entry for Latin verbs, but with –ur– affixed to the stem before the ending

• N.B.: just like with the PAP, deponent verbs also retain a FAP form (e.g., sequor, sequī, secutus: to follow – secuturus, -a, -um = about to follow)

• N.B.: sum, esse, fuī, futūrus only has a future active participle (futūrus, -a, -um) • Use: to denote action subsequent to (or taking place after) the time of the main verb(s) • Formation: rule = 4th principal part stem (=4th PP without the –us) + –ur– + 1st and 2nd declension (2-1-2) adjective endings • Translation: about to verb, going to verb, intending to verb


Rule 4th PP stem (4th PP - –us) + –ur– + 2-1-2 adjective endings Example portāturus, -a, -um visurus, -a, -um victurus, -a, -um capturus, -a, -um audīturus, -a, -um

Translation about to carry about to see about to conquer about to seize about to hear • Declension: like 1st and 2nd declension (2-1-2) adjectives (e.g., bonus, -a, -um)

o Example: audīturus, -a, -um

SG PL M F N M F N

Nom. audīturus audītura audīturum audīturī audīturae audītura Gen. audīturī audīturae audīturī audīturōrum audīturārum audīturōrum Dat. audīturō audīturae audīturō audīturīs Acc. audīturum audīturam audīturum audīturōs audīturās audītura Abl. audīturō audīturā audīturō audīturīs

• Uses:

o Simple Adjective: the FAP can be used simply as an adjective modifying a noun in any case. o The Active Periphrastic Construction:

" Active Periphrastic = FAP + form of sum " To translate an active periphrastic, simply translate the form of sum followed by the FAP (about to…) " This construction is often used in subordinate clauses to express action happening after that of the main verb. When it is

used thus, it uses the FAP + pres. subj. of sum in primary sequence and FAP + impf. subj. of sum in secondary sequence. iv. Future Passive Participles (FPP) and the Gerundive Construction (including Passive Periphrastic)

• FPPs can be easily recognized by the –nd– infix • Deponent FPP: the FPP of deponent verbs has a passive meaning (e.g., sequor, sequī, secutus: to follow – sequendus, -a, -um = to be

followed) • Formation: general rule = present stem + –nd– + 1st and 2nd declension (2-1-2) adjective endings [but you must adjust stems of 3rd –io

and 4th conj. verbs] • N.B.: FPPs of transitive compounds of the verb eō, īre are formed like that of adeō, adīre: adeundus, -a, um • Translation: to be verbed


Rule pres. stem (-ā-) + -nd- + 2-1-2 endings

pres. stem (-ē-) + -nd- + 2-1-2 endings

pres. stem (-e-) + -nd- + 2-1-2 endings

pres. stem (-i-) + -nd- + 2-1-2 endings

pres. stem (-ī-) + -nd- + 2-1-2 endings

Example portandus, -a, -um videndus, -a, -um vincendus, -a, -um capiendus, -a, -um audiendus, -a, -um Translation to be carried to be seen to be conquered to be seized to be heard

• Declension: like 1st and 2nd declension (2-1-2) adjectives (e.g., bonus, -a, -um)

o Example: audiendus, -a, -um SG PL M F N M F N

Nom. audiendus audienda audiendum audiendī audiendae audienda Gen. audiendī audiendae audiendī audiendōrum audiendārum audiendōrum Dat. audiendō audiendae audiendō audiendīs Acc. audiendum audiendam audiendum audiendōs audiendās audienda Abl. audiendō audiendā audiendō audiendīs


• Uses: o Simple Adjective: the FPP can be used simply as an adjective modifying a noun in any case. o The Gerundive Construction:

" The gerundive can be used as an adjective in various cases to express different notions. " The following chart shows you the most common uses of the various cases when used in gerundive constructions. " Only the accusative is limited to one gerundive construction. " The gerundive construction is not used in the nominative case – if you see a FPP in the nominative case, it is a true FPP

and not a gerundive

Case Use Example

Gen. + causā or gratiā; expressing purpose Domī mānsī librōrum legendōrum causā. I stayed home for the sake of reading books.

indirect object Multum tempus librīs legendīs dedit. She gave much time to reading books. Dat.

with adjectives that take the dative Hic locus librīs legendīs idōneus est. This place is suitable for reading books.

Acc. only + ad (to express purpose) Hūc vēnī ad librōs legendōs. I came here for the purpose of reading books (to read books).

Abl. means Librīs legendīs multum didicit. He learned much by reading books.

o Passive Periphrastic Construction:

" When the FPP is used as a predicate adjective with a form of sum, esse, fuī, it is called a passive periphrastic. " So, passive periphrastic = FPP (used as predicate adj.) + form of sum, esse, fuī " The FPP must agree with its subject in gender, number, and case. " Denotes necessity or obligation, i.e. what must or ought to be done, so your translation must as well.

Example Possible Translations

Hoc faciendum est.

- This is to be done. - This has to be done. - This must be done. - This ought to be done.

" Passive periphrastic constructions take a dative, without a preposition, to express the agent or doer of the action, not an

ablative of agent. This is fittingly called the dative of agent.

Example Possible Translations

Haec mihi facienda sunt.

- These things are to be done by me. / I am to do these things. - These things have to be done by me. / I have to do these things. - These things must be done by me. / I must do these things. - These things ought to be done by me. / I ought to do these things.

o Passive Periphrastic with Intransitive Verbs:

" Intransitive verbs can only be used impersonally in the passive voice " So, the passive periphrastic of intransitive verbs uses the FPP impersonally in the neut. sg. nom. form only

Examples Possible Translations

Fortiter nōbīs pugnandum est. Senātōribus persuādendum erit.

- It must be fought bravely by us. / We must fight bravely. - It will have to be persuaded to the senators. / The senators will have to be persuaded.

" When verbs that take a dative object are used in the passive periphrastic construction, agency is usually expressed by an

ablative of personal agent in order to avoid confusion that would result from two datives.

Examples Possible Translations

Patrī ā tē pārendum est. - It must be obeyed to your father by you. / You must obey your father.

v. Translating Participles as Subordinate Clauses

• Participles, when combined with nouns, adverbs, or prepositional phrases (or any combination thereof), create participial phrases • Participles and participial phrases may be translated literally (see translations above), but it is often better to translate them as a

subordinate clause, namely as a relative, temporal, causal, or concessive clause, by adding appropriate trigger words:

Type of Clause Trigger Words to Add Example

Relative who, which, that Peliās vidēns Iāsōnem timuit. Pelias, who saw Jason, was afraid.


Temporal when, once, while Peliās vidēns Iāsōnem timuit. Pelias was afraid when he saw Jason.

Causal since Peliās vidēns Iāsōnem timuit. Since he saw Jason, Pelias was afraid.

Concessive although Peliās vidēns Iāsōnem nōn timuit. Although he saw Jason, Pelias was not afraid.

• When translating a participle or participial phrase as a subordinate clause, remember that the tense of the participle denotes time relative

to that of the main verb(s), not absolutely: o Present Participles indicate action happening contemporaneously with (at the same time as) that of the main verb. o Perfect Participles indicate action that happened before that of the main verb. o Future Participles indicate action that will happen after that of the main verb.

c) Ablative Absolute

i. Basics and Types

• The ablative absolute is one of the most common subordinate constructions used in Latin. • As the name suggests, the main constituents of the construction are in the ablative case. It is called absolute because it is a phrase unto

itself, standing apart absolutely from the rest of the sentence. • The function of the ablative absolute is usually to provide some kind of background information about the main clause in the sentence. • The ablative absolute never denotes the same person or thing as the subject or object of the main verb. • There may be additional items, such as adverbs or prepositional phrases, contained within the ablative absolute. • There are three types of ablative absolute:

Type Literal Translation Example Literal Translation of Example

noun + noun with noun 1 being noun 2 Caesare dūce with Caesar being leader noun + adjective with noun being adjective Caesare clemente with Caesar being lenient

(PAP) with the noun verbing Caesare dūcente with Caesar leading (PPP) with the noun having been verbed Caesare dūctō with Caesar having been led noun + participle (FAP) with the noun about to verb Caesare dūctūrō with Caesar about to lead

• The most common type of ablative absolute is the noun + participle type, usually a noun + perfect passive participle. • The noun + future active participle is rarely used, but is given for the sake of example.

ii. Translating as a Clause

• Ablative absolutes are best translated by transforming them into a temporal, causal, conditional, or concessive clause by replacing “with” with one of the following words:

Type of Clause Replace “with” with… Example Translation

Temporal when, while (PAP), after (PPP), since Signō dātō, oppidum oppognāvērunt. When the signal had been given, they

attacked the town.

Causal since, because Perīculō magnō, Caesar signum dat. Since the danger is great, Caesar gives the signal.

Conditional if Caesare imperātōre, ad victōriam exercitus dūcētur.

If Caesar is general, the army will be led to victory.

Concessive although Multīs mīlitibus āmissīs, oppidum expugnāvimus.

Although many soldiers had been lost, we took the town by storm.

• There is no hard and fast rule for which type of clause you should choose to translate the ablative absolute with; instead, you must use the context of the sentence/passage to determine how to translate.

iii. Translating the Verbal

• As the examples above show, when translating ablative absolutes, it is sometimes better to translate the participle as a finite verb. • How you should do that depends on the type of ablative absolute and the tense of the main verb. • Always remember that the translation of the verbal (expressed or unexpressed) in the subordinate clause is not absolute, but depends on

the tense of the main verb(s) for its translation. • Observe the following chart for how to translate:

Sequence of MV Type of Abl. Abs. Time Expressed by Verbal in Abl. Abs. in Relation to MV Translation of Abl. Abs.

noun + PAP same time noun is verbing noun + PPP time before noun has verbed noun + FAP time after noun is about to verb noun + noun same time noun is noun

PRIMARY SEQUENCE Present Future

Future Perfect noun + adjective same time noun is adjective


noun + PAP same time noun was verbing noun + PPP time before noun had verbed noun + FAP time after noun was about to verb noun + noun same time noun was noun

SECONDARY SEQUENCE Imperfect

Perfect Pluperfect

noun + adjective same time noun was adjective F. Gerunds • Form: The gerund looks like the gerundive but is a verbal noun and only exists in all cases of the neuter singular except the nominative.

[e.g.: legō, legere – legendī, legendō, legendum, legendō] • Distinguishing gerunds and gerundives:

o Remember: gerundive is an adjective, gerund is a noun o If you see a form with an –nd– and it has any ending other than –ī, –ō, or –um, it’s a gerundive o If you see a form with an –nd– and it has the ending –ī, –ō, or –um, and there is a neuter singular noun nearby in the same case,

you probably have a gerundive o If you see a form with an –nd– and it has the ending –ī, –ō, or –um, and there is no other noun around, it’s most likely a gerund.

• Translation: verbing • Use:

o The gerund is used with each case in exactly the same way(s) as the gerundive. o The following chart shows you the most common uses of the various cases of gerunds. o Only the accusative is limited to one gerundive construction.

" The gerund is not used in the nominative case. Latin uses the subjective infinitive instead.

Case Use Example

Gen. + causā or gratiā; expressing purpose Domī mānsī legendī causā. I stayed home for the sake of reading.

indirect object Multum tempus legendō dedit. She gave much time to reading. Dat.

with adjectives that take the dative Hic locus legendō idōneus est. This place is suitable for reading.

Acc. only + ad (to express purpose) Hūc vēnī ad legendum. I came here for the purpose of reading (to read).

Abl. means Legendō multum didicit. He learned much by reading.

G. Supine

• Form: The supine is the 4th principal part declined as a 4th declension noun, but only in the accusative and ablative singular (endings –um and –ū)

• Translation: to verb (similar to infinitives!) • Use:

o Accusative (–um): " The accusative form of the supine is only used to express purpose after a verb of motion. E.g.:

• Lēgātī ad Caesarem grātulātum convenērunt. ! Envoys came to Caesar to congratulate him. " The accusative form of the supine can also take a direct object. E.g.:

• Pācem petītum lēgātōs Rōmam mittunt. ! They send envoys to Rome to seek peace. o Ablative (–ū):

" The ablative form of the supine is only used as an ablative of specification • with adjectives like facilis (easy), difficilis (difficult), incrēdibilis (incredible, unbelievable), iūcundus

(pleasing), mirābilis (wonderful), optimus (best), and others. E.g.: o Hoc est optimum factū. ! This is best to do.

• with fās est (it is right), nefās est (it is not right), and opus est (there is a need) " The ablative form of the supine never takes a direct object " Very few forms of the ablative supine are used. Some of these are: dictū (to say), vīsū (to see), audītū (to hear),

cognītū (to learn, know, recognize), factū (to do). H. Independent Uses of the Subjunctive

• Although the subjunctive is used predominantly in subordinate (dependent) clauses, there are some independent uses. • In independent clauses, the subjunctive is used to express something as willed (volitive), as desired (optative), or conceived of as

possible (potential). a) Volitive Subjunctive • Represents action as willed and always implies authority on the part of the speaker • There are several kinds of volitive subjunctives, the most important of which are: hortatory, jussive (/prohibitive), and deliberative. • Hortatory:

o Expresses an exhortation; limited to the 1st person plural of the present tense; negated by nē; translate using “let” or “may” o Ex. 1: Ad Colchida navigēmus. ! Let us sail to Colchis. o Ex. 2: Nē per Symplēgadēs navigēmus. ! Let us not sail through the Symplegades.


• Jussive: o Expresses a command; limited to the present tense, typically only in the 3rd person (occasionally in the 2nd person); negated by nē

(negative of jussive is technically the prohibitive subjunctive–when negative, the perfect subjunctive is often used but is usually translated as if it were present)

o Ex. 1: Argonautae ab īnsulā navigent. ! Let the Argonauts sail away from the island. o Ex. 2: Nē Argonautae ab īnsulā navigent. ! Let the Argonauts not sail away from the island.

• Deliberative: o Used in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, or the impossibility of an act; limited to the present subjunctive

(indicating present time) or the imperfect subjunctive (indicating past time); sometimes introduced by ut; negated by nōn o Ex. 1: Quid dīcerem? ! What was I to say? (i.e. there was nothing I could have said) o Ex. 2: Tē ut ūlla rēs frangat! ! As if anything could break your spirit! (i.e. nothing can break your spirit)

b) Optative Subjunctive • Used in expressions of wishing; typically preceded by utinam (‘would that’, ‘if only’); negated by nē • The present subjunctive expresses a wish that is possible of attainment.

o Ex.: Utinam tibi istam mentem deī dent. ! Would that the gods give you that intention (if only the gods would…). " The gods could still possibly give you that intention, so the wish could be attained.

• The imperfect subjunctive expresses a wish that is impossible of attainment in the present. o Ex.: Utinam tēcum virōrum fortium cōpiam habērētis. ! Would that you had a number of brave men with you.

" You are here now and don’t have the brave men with you, so the wish cannot be attained in the present. • The pluperfect subjunctive expresses a wish that was impossible of attainment in the past.

o Ex.: Utinam nē mē vīdisset. ! Would that he had not seen me. " He did see you in the past, and since you can’t change the past, the wish can’t have been attainable.

c) Potential Subjunctive • Used as its name suggests–to show that an action is possible or conceivable; present tense is generally used to indicate immediate time,

while the imperfect tense is used to indicate past time; negated by nōn o Ex. 1: Quis mē reprehendat? ! Who can criticize me?

" It’s possible, or conceivable, that someone can criticize you. o Ex. 2: Hoc aliquem cāsum reciperet. ! This might have involved some risk.

" It’s possible, or conceivable, that this might have involved some risk.

VII. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES A. Purpose Clauses • Although Latin has many different ways to express purpose, the purpose of an action is most commonly expressed in Latin by a

subordinate clause using a subjunctive verb. • Purpose clauses tell why or for what purpose someone does something. • There are three main types of subordinate purpose clauses: adverbial purpose clauses, relative clauses of purpose, and substantive

clauses of purpose (indirect commands). • Purpose clauses are limited to the present or imperfect subjunctive, depending on the sequence of the verb in the main clause. • In being limited to the present and imperfect subjunctive, the action in a purpose clause can only be incomplete, happening after the verb

in the main clause. • All purpose clauses adhere to the following sequence of tenses:

Sequence Tense of Main Verb Tense of Subjunctive Verb

Base Translation of Subjunctive Verb

Primary Present Future

Future Perfect Present may verb

Secondary Imperfect

Perfect Pluperfect

Imperfect might verb

a) Adverbial Purpose Clauses

• Introduced by ut (sometimes utī) in the affirmative and nē in the negative • Follow the sequence of tenses for purpose clauses • When translated, they often sound like infinitives in English, but there are many different translations. • Examples:


Primary Sequence Secondary Sequence

Pugnāmus ut urbem defendāmus. We are fighting to defend the city. …in order to defend the city. …so as to defend the city. …for the purpose of defending the city. …so that we may defend the city. …in order that we may defend the city. …that we may defend the city.

Pugnāvimus ut urbem defenderēmus. We fought to defend the city. …in order to defend the city. …so as to defend the city. …for the purpose of defending the city. …so that we might defend the city. …in order that we might defend the city. …that we might defend the city.

b) Relative Clauses of Purpose

• Introduced by the relative pronoun quī, quae, quod instead of ut (when the purpose clause contains a comparative, it is often introduced by quō)

• Follow the sequence of tenses for purpose clauses • Used to express/emphasize the purpose of the antecedent rather than the purpose of the whole clause • Must have an antecedent to refer back to in the main clause • Can be translated several ways. • Examples:


Mittunt militēs Rōmam quī urbem defendant. They send soldiers to Rome to defend the city. …who are to defend the city. …so that they may defend the city.

Mīsērunt militēs Rōmam quī urbem defenderent. They sent soldiers to Rome to defend the city. …who were to defend the city. …so that they might defend the city.

• When the relative clause of purpose contains a comparative or an idea of comparison, quō will be used to introduce it

c) Indirect Commands (Substantive Purpose Clauses; Ut Noun Clauses)

• Purpose clauses used as substantives (aka nouns) acting as objects of certain verbs are called indirect commands. • These occur after verbs of asking, commanding, ordering, warning, advising, persuading, demanding, and encouraging. • Main verb takes one of three cases as its object before the indirect command proper: accusative, dative, or ā/ab + ablative; different

verbs take different cases–you must memorize which case each verb takes (see below). • Introduced by ut in the affirmative and nē in the negative • Follow the sequence of tenses for purpose clauses • When translated, often sound like infinitives, but can translate using ‘that’ also. • Reflexives (sē, etc.) in indirect commands refer back to the subject of the verb in the main clause • Note the verbs that are used with each case:

Case Dative (IMP) Accusative (MOHR) ā/ab + Ablative (PPQ)

Verbs

imperō, imperāre, imperāvī, imperātus: to order, command*

mandō, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātus: to command, instruct

persuādeō, persuādēre, persuāsī, persuāsus: to persuade, convince

moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus: to warn, advise

orō, orāre, orāvī, orātus: to beg, entreat; ask for

hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum: to urge, encourage

rogō, rogāre, rogāvī, rogātus: to ask**

petō, petere, petīvī/petiī, petītus: to beg, demand, ask (for)

postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus: to demand

quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītus: to ask, inquire; seek

Primary Sequence Example

Nōbīs persuādit ut veniāmus. She is persuading us to come. She is persuading us that we come.

Nōs rogat ut veniāmus. He is asking us to come. He is asking us that we come.

Ā nōbīs petunt ut veniāmus. They are asking us to come. They are asking us that we come.

Secondary Sequence Example

Mihi persuāsit ut venīrem. She persuaded me to come. She persuaded me that I come.

Mē rogāvit ut venīrem. He asked me to come. He asked me that I come.

Ā mē petīvērunt ut venīrem. They asked me to come. They asked me that I come.

*imperō may simply take an object in the dative case instead of an indirect command. **Like imperō, rogō may also simply take an object instead of an indirect command, but in the accusative case. When rogō means ‘to ask for,’ it takes two accusatives: one of the person (asked) and one of the object (asked for).


B. Result Clauses • The result of an action happening in the main clause is expressed in Latin by a subordinate clause using a subjunctive verb. • Result clauses tell you what happened as a result of the verb in the main clause • There are two types of result clauses: adverbial result clauses and substantive result clauses. • Just like purpose clauses, the subjunctive verb in the result clause is limited to either the present or imperfect tense • Follow the same sequence of tenses as purpose clauses • Introduced by ut in the affirmative and ut nōn (or ut + some other negative like nēmō, nihil, nūllus, etc.) in the negative–but never by nē • Usually there is a trigger word in the main clause meaning ‘so’ or ‘such’ that indicates a result clause is coming. Common trigger words

include: o sīc (adv.): so, in this way o ita (adv.): so, in such a way, thus o tam (adv.): so o tālis, tāle (adj.): such, of such a kind o tantus, -a, -um (adj.): so large, so great; such a large, such a great o tot (indecl. adj.): so many

a) Adverbial Result Clauses

• These are all result clauses that are not used substantively. (See B. below for substantive result clauses). • Examples:


Tempestās est tanta ut perterreāmur. The storm is so great that (as a result) we are scared. ----- Illud sāxum est tam grave ut nēmō id tollere possit. That rock is so heavy that (as a result) no one can lift it.

Tempestās erat tanta ut perterrērēmur. The storm was so great that (as a result) we were scared. ----- Illud sāxum erat tam grave ut nēmō id tollere posset. That rock was so heavy that (as a result) no one could lift it.

b) Substantive Result Clauses

• Like purpose clauses, result clauses can be used as substantives, acting as either the subjects or objects of certain verbs • After such verbs, the result clauses are still introduced by ut or ut nōn (or another negative that isn’t nē) • A substantive result clause may be the object of a verb of causing or bringing about (e.g. efficiō, faciō, or perficiō). • Note in the examples how the result clause is acting as the object of the verb:

Primary Sequence Secondary Sequence Caesar efficit ut urbs capiātur. Caesar brings (it) about that city is being captured. -----

What does Caesar bring about? That the city is captured.

Caesar effēcit ut urbs caperētur. Caesar brought (it) about that the city was captured. -----

What did Caesar bring about? That the city was captured. • A substantive result clause may be the subject of a verb of causing or bringing about (in the passive) like fiō, of a verb of happening like

accidō*, or of necesse est. • Note in the examples how the result clause is acting as the subject of the verb:


Accidit ut urbs capiātur. It happens that the city is being captured. ----- Necesse est ut maneāmus. It is necessary that we stay (for us to stay).

Accidit ut urbs caperētur. It happened that the city was captured. ----- Necesse erat ut manērēmus. It was necessary that we stayed (for us to have stayed).

*Accidit can be either 3rd person, singular present or perfect tense C. Fear Clauses • In Latin, verbs of fearing are followed by subordinate clauses that have their verbs in the subjunctive mood. • Common verbs of fearing include:

o metuō, metuere, metuī: to fear, dread o timeō, timēre, timuī: to fear, be afraid o vereor, verērī, veritus sum: to fear, dread


• Introduced by nē (that) in the affirmative and by ut (that not) or nē nōn (that not) in the negative o Note that this use of ut and nē is the opposite of purpose and result clauses! Think of it like this: you are so scared that you mix

them up. • The tense of the subjunctive depends on the tense of the main verb. Unlike in purpose and result clauses, we need to be able to express

actions that have happened before the action of the main verb, so fear clauses follow a different sequence of tenses (aka THE sequence of tenses).

Subjunctive Verb

Sequence Main Verb Incomplete Action Same Time As or After

MV

Completed Action Before MV

Primary Present Future Future Perfect

Present Perfect

Secondary Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect

Imperfect Pluperfect

• Examples:

Sequence Main Verb Incomplete Action (Same Time/Time After)

Completed Action (Time Before)

Primary

Timeō – I fear… Timēbō – I shall fear… Timuerō – I shall have feared…

nē veniat. that he is coming/will come. ----- ut veniat. that he is not coming/will not come.

nē vēnerit. that he has come. ----- ut vēnerit. that he has not come.

Secondary

Timēbam – I was fearing… Timuī – I feared… Timueram – I had feared…

nē venīret. that he was coming/would come. ----- ut venīret. that he was not coming/would not come.

nē vēnisset. that he had come. ----- ut vēnisset. that he had not come.

D. Questions – Direct and Indirect a) Direct Questions

• When a question is reported directly, it is usually introduced by an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb and has its verb in the indicative mood.

i. Questions after Interrogatives

• Interrogative Pronoun: quis, quid – who? what? [declines like relative pronoun, except in the SG]

SG PL M. F. N. M. F. N.

Nom. quis quis quid quī quae quae Gen. cuius cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Acc. quem quem quid quōs quās quae Abl. quō quō quō quibus quibus quibus

• Interrogative Adjectives:

o quī, quae, quod: who, which o quantus, -a, -um: how great, how large

o quot: how many (indeclinable)

• Interrogative Adverbs: o cūr – why? o quōmodo – how?

o quandō – when? o ubi – where (at)?

o quō – where (to)? o unde – where (from)?

ii. Yes/No Questions

• Questions that expect yes/no responses are not introduced by interrogative words, but instead are introduced by nōnne, num, or by adding the enclitic –ne to the first word of the sentence.


• Nōnne indicates that the question expects a ‘yes’ answer. • Num indicates that the question expects a ‘no’ answer. • The enclitic –ne added to the first word of the sentence indicates that the question expects a yes/no answer, but does not specify which

of the two responses is expected. Usually the verb is placed at the beginning of the sentence and the –ne is added to it.

Word Answer Expected Example

nōnne yes Nōnne pecuniam cupis? Don’t you want the money?

num no Num punīrī cupis? You don’t want to be punished, do you?

–ne yes/no Vīsne domī manēre? Do you want to stay at home?

b) Indirect Questions

• In Latin, when a question is reported indirectly (after a verb of asking, knowing, thinking, perceiving, etc.), it becomes a subordinate clause that has its verb in the subjunctive mood.

• There are 3 parts of an indirect question in Latin: head verb + interrogative word + subjunctive verb • Common Head Verbs:

o rogō, rogāre, rogāvī, rogātus: to ask o sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus: to know o nesciō, nescīre, nescīvī, nescītus: to not know o intellegō, intellegere, intellexī, intellectus: to

understand/realize

o quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītum: to ask (w/ ā/ab + abl.)

o sentiō, sentīre, sensī, sensum: to sense/realize

• N.B.: The head verb does NOT (and frequently is not) a verb of asking! It just needs to be a ‘mental action’ verb–e.g. a verb of asking, thinking, knowing, perceiving, understanding, realizing, wondering, etc.

• For interrogative words, see the lists above in the direct questions section of this handout. • The tense of the subjunctive verb will depend on the tense of the main verb, and all four tenses of the subjunctive may be used. This is

called the sequence of tenses. • Sequence of Tenses for Indirect Questions:

Subjunctive Verb

Sequence Main Verb Incomplete Action Same Time As or After

MV

Completed Action Before MV

Primary Present Future Future Perfect

Present Perfect

Secondary Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect

Imperfect Pluperfect

• Examples:


Rogābit quis veniat. He will ask who is coming/will come. --- Sciō ubi dracō habitaverit. I know where the dragon has lived.

Discipulī intellexērunt cūr magister quaestiōnēs docēret. The students understood why the teacher was teaching questions. --- Magister ā discipulīs quaerēbat quō herī ivissent. The teacher was asking the students where they had gone yesterday.

E. Cum Clauses

• The word cum is used frequently in Latin, and can be either a preposition or a conjunction. • When used with an object in the ablative case to express accompaniment, cum is a preposition. • In all other instances, cum is a subordinating conjunction introducing a temporal, causal, circumstantial, or concessive clause.

a) Cum Temporal

• Merely establishes the time that the action of the main verb is taking place • Verb is in the indicative mood • Cum translates as ‘when’ or ‘while’ • When the clause begins with cum prīmum (‘when first,’ ‘as soon as’), the verb is usually in the perfect tense, even though the pluperfect

seems more natural in English. [clauses beginning with postquam also follow this rule]


b) Cum Circumstantial

• Describes the circumstances under which the action of the main verb is happening, not just the time • Verb is in the subjunctive for past events and in the indicative for present or future events • Cum translates as ‘when,’ ‘while,’ or ‘after’

c) Cum Causal

• Establishes the cause or the reason for which the action of the main verb is taking place • Verb is in the subjunctive mood • Cum translates as ‘since’ or ‘because’

d) Cum Concessive

• Indicates some kind of concession to the main clause; describes a circumstance that might be opposed to the main clause • Verb is in the subjunctive mood • Cum translates as ‘although’ • Usually the word tamen (‘still,’ ‘nevertheless’) appears in the main clause

e) Examples

Type of Cum Clause Example(s) Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, prīncipēs erant Aeduī. When Caesar arrived in Gaul, the Aedui were the leaders.

Temporal Cum prīmum in urbem pervēnit, turrim vīdit. As soon as he (had) arrived in the city, he saw the tower.

Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnisset, Aeduī permōtī sunt. When/After Caesar had come into Gaul, the Aedui were alarmed.

Circumstantial Cum tālia vidēmus, terrēmur. When/While we see such things, we are frightened.

Causal Cum nōn adessēs, pecūniam Mārcō dedī. Since you weren’t here, I gave the money to Marcus.

Concessive Cum oppidum incendissēmus, hostēs tamen fortiter pugnābant. Although we had set the town afire, the enemies nevertheless were fighting bravely.

N.B.: When the subject of the verb in the cum clause is the same as the subject of the main verb, it comes before the cum, e.g.:

• Mārcus cum fidēlis amīcus sit mē nōn relinquet. ! Since Marcus is a faithful friend, he will not abandon me. F. Relative Clauses

a) Regular Relative Clauses

• Verb is indicative unless the clause is within indirect discourse, in which case it will be in the subjunctive. • See notes on the relative pronoun above for specifics on relative clauses.

b) Relative Clauses of Purpose

• Verb is in the subjunctive, without exception. • See notes on relative clauses of purpose above for specifics on relative clauses of purpose.

c) Relative Clauses of Characteristic

• Verb is in the subjunctive, without exception. • Relative clauses of characteristic state a characteristic of a generalized antecedent • Usually these follow:

o a form of the demonstrative is, ea, id (expressed or unexpressed) o when one of the following is used as the subject of the verb “to be” (sum, esse, fuī) when it indicates existence:

" nemō (no one), nihil (noting), or nūllus, -a, -um (no, not any) " an indefinite (aliquis, aliquid – someone, something) or interrogative (quis, quid – who, what) pronoun " sōlus, -a, -um (only, alone) " ūnus, -a, -um (one)

o after a 3rd person form of sum, esse (e.g. est, sunt, erat, erant, etc.) when the subject is indefinite • Examples:

o Mārcus nōn est (is) quī hoc fēcerit. ! Marcus is not the person who did this.


o Nēmō est quī factūrus sit. ! There is no one who would do this. o Hoc est id quod faciendum esset. ! This the kind of thing which had to be done. o Nūlla est quae eum esse pulchrum putet. ! There is no one who thinks that he is handsome. o Erant quī id facere bonum fuisse putārent. ! They were the type of people who thought that it was a good thing to do. o Ūnus est quī facere id audeat. ! He is one who would dare to do that.

G. Subordinate Clauses within Indirect Discourse • Subordinate clauses that that usually have their verbs in the indicative mood have their verb in the subjunctive if the clause is within

indirect discourse H. Conditions

a) Basics

• Conditions, or conditional sentences, refer to if/then propositions that are hypothetical in nature • Conditions consist of two clauses, the protasis and the apodosis:

o Protasis: The ‘if’ statement. This is a dependent clause expressing the condition proper. Introduced by sī (if), sī nōn (if…not), or nisi (if not, unless).

o Apodosis: The ‘then’ statement. This is an independent clause expressing the conclusion or consequence of the condition. • In English, the word ‘then’ is often unexpressed; in Latin, there is no word for this use of the word ‘then.’ Think of it like the ‘that’

before an indirect statement–it’s not there, but we know to supply it. • The mood of the verbs used in the protasis and apodosis depend on the type of condition used. • There are six types of conditions in Latin, which fall under three main types: general (present and past), future (more vivid and less

vivid), and contrary to fact (present and past). b) Table of Conditions

Type of Condition Sub-Type Verb in Protasis (If…) Verb in Apodosis (Then…) Translate Verbs…

Present General Present Indicative Present Indicative

Imperfect Indicative Imperfect Indicative General Past General

Perfect Indicative Perfect Indicative

normally

Future More Vivid Future Indicative* Future Indicative* present…future Future

Future Less Vivid Present Subjunctive Present Subjunctive should…would

Present Contrary to Fact Imperfect Subjunctive Imperfect Subjunctive were…would Contrary to Fact

Past Contrary to Fact Pluperfect Subjunctive Pluperfect Subjunctive had…would have

*Future More Vivid conditions occasionally use the future perfect tense in either or both clauses, although in these cases it carries the same sense as the future tense.

• Conditions that use the indicative deal with potential facts (present general, past general, future more vivid) • Conditions that use the subjunctive deal with circumstances that are either less likely to become realized (future less vivid) or opposite

to what is actually happening (present contrary to fact) or has actually happened (past contrary to fact). c) Examples

Type of Condition Sub-Type Examples

Present General Sī nōn hīc adest, bene est. ! If she is not here, (then) it is well.

Nisi hīc aderat, bene erat. ! If he was not here, (then) it was well. General Past General

Sī hīc adfuit, bene fuit. ! If he has been (was) here, (then) it has been (was) well.

Sī hīc aderō, bene erit. ! If I am (shall be) here, (then) it will be well. Future More Vivid

Sī hīc adfueris, bene erit. ! If you are (will have been) here, (then) it will be well. Future

Future Less Vivid Sī hīc adsīs, bene sit. ! If you should be here, it would be well.

Present Contrary to Fact Sī hīc adesses, bene esset. ! If you were here, it would be well. Contrary to Fact

Past Contrary to Fact Sī hīc adfuisses, bene fuisset. ! If you had been here, it would have been well.

• Mixed Conditions: o Occasionally you will encounter a condition with a protasis that belongs to one type of condition and an apodosis that belongs to a

different type of condition. o These are called mixed conditions, and you will easily be able to deal with them by using context. o The most common of mixed conditions has a protasis expressing a past contrary to fact condition and an apodosis expressing a

present contrary to fact statement, e.g.: " Sī herī adfuisses, hodiē bene esset. ! If you had been here yesterday, today would be well.

mr. finnigan’s latin grammar review · mr. finnigan’s latin grammar review ... paucī (few),...

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