Motivation• Motivation - the process by which activities are started,

directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.

• Biological, Emotional, Cognitive, Social forces– Activation– Persistence– Intensity

Motivation

Extrinsic Motivation Vs. Intrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic– A desire to perform a

behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

• Intrinsic – A desire to perform a

behavior for its own sake.– Interest / enjoyment in

task itself

5 Motivational Theories

• Instinct / Evolutionary Perspective -unlearned• Drive Reduction - homeostasis• Incentive – reinforcement & punishment• Arousal Theory - balance• Humanistic: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs –

psychological needs of those who were psychologically healthy

• Achievement Motivation – overcome obstacles

Evolutionary (Instinct) Theory

• inherited patterns of behavior that are unlearned– Self preservation

• Mostly common in species outside of humans

– Evolutionary programming• Fixed action patterns

– Evolutionary heritage

Evolutionary (Instinct) Theory

• Strengths: – Provides survival value– By studying animals, we

can understand basic human behaviors

• Weaknesses: – Doesn’t meet the complexity of

most human behavior• Many behaviors cannot be

simplified to this degree

– described & labeled behavior, did not explain them.

Biological: Drive Reduction Theory

• Desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs– Hunger – Exhaustion

• Drive: aroused state of psychological / physiological tension caused by some need– Drives motivate us to do something

• Need: - a requirement (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism.

Types of Drive• Primary drives - those drives that involve needs of the

body such as hunger and thirst.• Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives that are

learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval.

Homeostasis• The goal of our body, according to com

psychologist, is to ELMINATE all drives so that we can experience homeostasis– A balanced or constant internal state that the body

regulates

Biological: Drive Reduction Theory

• Strengths – Useful for explaining

biological needs– Primary drives satisfied– Homeostasis for biological

needs

• Weaknesses– Does not account for

secondary motives• Curiosity• Sensation seeking• Play• Achievement• Affiliation• Power

Incentive Theory

• A positive or negative ENVIRONMENTAL (has to be external) stimulus that motivates behavior – Apart from the “need” to reduce drives.– ‘pull’ of external goals– Based on personal & cultural experiences

• Wants & desires

Incentive Theory

• Strengths:– Secondary drives satisfied

• Weaknesses:– Does not account for

primary motives– Fails to explain why people

do things when not receiving an external incentive

Contrasting ApproachesYou are hungry…

• Drive Reduction– “Push”– 5 Hours since last meal– Hunger– Internal

• Incentive– “Pull”– Ice cream truck– Palatability (good tasting)– external

Biological: Arousal Theory

• Based on 2 basic ideas– Individuals perform tasks at different levels of arousal

• Wakefulness / alertness & stress

– Each individual seeks to find its optimal level of arousal to perform tasks & avoid boredom

• Boredom vs. overstimulation

– high levels of optimal arousal = more susceptible to thrill seeking activities

– low = seek out more relaxing & quiet activities.

Biological: Arousal Theory

• Strengths:– Explains the search for

varied & novel activities• Risky behavior

– Adds to the homeostasis idea

• Weaknesses– Not a comprehensive

theory

Biological: Optimal Arousal Theory

• Yerkes-Dodson Principle of Arousal – What level of arousal is optimal for most individuals when they

are completing DIFFICULT/SKILL BASED TASKS?– What level of arousal is optimal for most individuals when they

are completing EASY /EFFORT BASED TASKS?

– States basic/general tasks are completed best with a moderate level of arousal (inverted U graph)

Biological: Zuckerman ~ sensation seeking• Sensation seeking scale

– Some people have an above average need for sensation seeking

• Thrill & adventure seeking• Experience-seeking• Disinhibition• Boredom susceptibility

• http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/sensation/index.shtml

Behavioral: Achievement Motivation

• A desire for significant accomplishments; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard– Self-endorsed (personal or cultural expectations)– Outperforming, excelling, succeeding, control, high standard– People who have LOW achievement motivation prefer very

easy or very difficult tasks.– People with HIGH achievement motivation prefer moderately

difficult tasks.

Behavioral: Achievement Motivation

• Strengths:– High achievement

Correlates well with various areas of success

• Delay gratification• Original thinking• Seek expert advice• Value feedback

• Weaknesses: – Didn’t initially take emotional

factors into account.

• Individualistic cultures– Need to achieve emphasizes

• Personal individual success

• Collectivist cultures– Achievements views as a way

of bringing glory to one’s family, group, or country

Relative Deprivation

• you have the perception that you are worse off than the other people you compare yourself to.

• Having this feeling typically leads to frustration.– How then, does it drive behavior?

Humanism: Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

• Physical Needs at bottom must be met first.• Psychological goals come after… ultimate goal is

self actualization.– Personal potential

• Psychological and cognitive factors

• How good a society does human nature permit? • How good a human nature does society permit? • Self transcendence = focus beyond the SELF~

Humanistic Motivation

• Strengths: – Recognized biological

needs & importance of environment

• Weaknesses: – Too basic of ideas– Self-actualization concept is

vague– Limited samples– The notion that we must

satisfy needs at one level before moving on to the next has not been supported by research

Need to Belong…

• Aiding survival• Wanting to belong• Sustaining Relationships• The pain of ostracism

– Social exclusion– BRAIN heightened

• Anterior cingulate cortex– Physical pain– Ostracism– Regulation of sympathetic

activity

Self actualized characteristics Value privacy Democratic Problem-centered Nonconformists Clear perception of reality Un-hostile sense of humor Autonomous & independent Accept themselves & others Not afraid of success or failure Creative, willing to try new things Spontaneous; open, concentrate on present Develop close relationships with others Realize potential & appreciate potential in others Enjoy the process of doing something as well as the end product

Anorexia• Parents who are high

achieving & protective

Sexual Motivation

• Sexual response:– E =excitement– P = plateau– O = orgasm– R = resolution

• External Stimuli– Viewing images of sexually

attractive people• Devalue own partners

– Salt N Pepa

Adolescent Sexuality

• Why higher rate of teen pregnancy & abortion?– Ignorance– Minimal communication about birth control– Guilt related to sexual activity– Alcohol use– Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

• Predictors of sexual restraint– High intelligence– Religious engagement– Father presence– Service learning programs