moon mining negative ndi 2011

8/9/2019 Moon Mining Negative NDI 2011

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Northwestern Debate Institute 12011 File Title

Lunar Mining Neg

Lunar Mining Neg.......................................................................................................................................................................................

***Multilateral/Cooperative Regime C***..................................................................................................................................................Cooperative Regime C"""1NC"""#olves the Case.....................................................................................................................................

Cooperative Regime C"""#a% &es"""2NC..................................................................................................................................................

Cooperative Regime C"""Net"(ene)it ni+ueness"""No Coop Now........................................................................................................

Cooperative Regime C"""Net"(ene)it"""Resour-e Con)li-ts.....................................................................................................................

Cooperative Regime C"""#olves the Case"""eneral................................................................................................................................

Cooperative Regime C"""#olves the Case"""Resour-e Development.......................................................................................................

Cooperative Regime C"""#olves the Case"""rivate Investment...............................................................................................................

Cooperative Regime C"""#olves the Case"""lobal Mining (ene)its.......................................................................................................

nilateral #trateg% oes not solve"general..................................................................................................................................................

nilateral #trateg% oes not solve"resour-es..............................................................................................................................................

nilateral #trateg%Con)li-ts......................................................................................................................................................................

nilateral #trateg%China .#. Con)li-t.....................................................................................................................................................

#olven-% Me-hanism"New 3#4.................................................................................................................................................................2

#olven-% Me-hanisms"Ranom..................................................................................................................................................................

#olven-% Me-hanism"I##I5.......................................................................................................................................................................

#olven-% Me-hanism"Moi)ie Leashol...................................................................................................................................................2

#olven-%"Re6e-t Moon 4reat%.....................................................................................................................................................................

#olven-%"Legal Issues.................................................................................................................................................................................

#olven-%"Dis-ussions..................................................................................................................................................................................!0

C7M (a.....................................................................................................................................................................................................

***D5 Lin8s***.............................................................................................................................................................................................N5#5 4raeo)) D5 Lin8.............................................................................................................................................................................

nilateral 5-tion (a..................................................................................................................................................................................

#pening Lin8s............................................................................................................................................................................................

oliti-s Lin8s...............................................................................................................................................................................................

***5steroi Mining***...................................................................................................................................................................................No #olven-%................................................................................................................................................................................. ............ ...$

***Lunar Mining***.......................................................................................................................................................................................No #olven-%................................................................................................................................................................................. ............ ...$

***R::***......................................................................................................................................................................................................$2Nu-lear rima-%..........................................................................................................................................................................................$

reen 4e-h...................................................................................................................................................................................................

#tatus ;uo #olves........................................................................................................................................................................................

No #olven-%................................................................................................................................................................................. ............ ...$

No Lunar Mining.........................................................................................................................................................................................

***7e"!***.....................................................................................................................................................................................................'0


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Non ni+ue..................................................................................................................................................................................... ............

No #olven-%................................................................................................................................................................................. ............ ...'

5lternate #our-es.........................................................................................................................................................................................

***=ater 5vantage***..................................................................................................................................................................................No =ater =ars.............................................................................................................................................................................................

***#pa-e Ra-e 5vantage***........................................................................................................................................................................M%th............................................................................................................................................................................................................91

Moon not 8e%...............................................................................................................................................................................................

52 China......................................................................................................................................................................................................

52 erman%................................................................................................................................................................................................


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***Multilateral/Cooperative Regime CP***


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Cooperative Regime CP---1NC---Solves the Case

Lunar Resource Regime Good T!e cloc" is tic"ing #or t!e $% to move #or&ard and pus! #or t!e

development o# an LRR to produce an environment conducive to pu'lic and private international

investment #or t!e development o# a relia'le energ( source)

ilder 1+" Ri-har (. (iler> @anuar% 2010> A5Legal Regime i# t!e $nite %tates seriousl% contemplates t!e possi'le development o# 0e-3-'ased #usion energ(, it is initsnational interest to ta"e steps to esta'lis!what it woul -onsier as an accepta'le and agreed-upon international lunar

resource regimeFand to do so relativel( soon.G
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1611202_code546503.pdf?abstractid=1486273&mirid=2http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1611202_code546503.pdf?abstractid=1486273&mirid=2


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Cooperative Regime CP---Say Yes---2NC

Lunar Resource Regime Good !ile a LRR ma( seem unneeded no&, conducive conditions including lon

lead time, a #avora'le international climate, declining 'argaining po&er, and t!e lac" o# competing space

programs are reasons #or t!e $% to act no&)

ilder 1+" Ri-har (. (iler> @anuar% 2010> A5Legal Regime 6ndia, 7apan, and Russia> whi-h -urrentl% appear to have the -apabilit% to parti-ipate in the potential eEploitation o) lunarresour-es> ma( &ell no& s!are an interest &it! t!e $nite %tates in a more open-access regime and mar"et-'asedmec!anisms.12 4he .N. eneral 5ssembl%Js aoption o) the 1$ implementation agreement nulli)%ing the provisions o) part KIo) the L3#C to whi-h the nite #tates ob6e-te -learl% re)le-ts a broaer international a--eptan-e o) a .#.")avore approa-h tothe eEploitation o) eep seabe -ommon heritage resour-es more )avorable to the parti-ipation o) )ree enterprise> whi-h serves as

persuasive pre-eent )or the similar treatment o) lunar resour-es.12

Inee> there is now growing support in the nite #tates )or.#. rati)i-ation o) the L3#C an a--ession -urrentl% seems in-reasingl% li8el%.1!0 In aition> internationalcooperation among t!e ma5or tec!nologicall(-advanced countries in 'ot! space and #usion po&er development is alread(

ongoing under t!e 6nternational %pace %tation and 6T.R agreementsJ!1an the 3bama aministration appears to loo8)avorabl% on -ooperative multilateral rather than unilateral approa-hes to ealing with broa international issues.1'2 Moreover> there-ent spi8e in oil pri-es1!'an !eig!tened international concern a'out glo'al &arming134 rein#orce t!e pressing need o# t!eglo'al econom( to #ind &a(s to meet t!e &orlds gro&ing appetite #or energ(while still e-reasing greenhouse gas emissions>andthus to rene&e international interest in t!e development o# alternative energ( sources suc! as nuclear #ission and#usion.T!ird> )or a variet% o) reasons> t!e currentin)luen-e an 8'argaining po&er8 o# t!e $nite %tates both as a leader in spaceand nuclear tec!nolog(> an more generall% as an a-tor on the worl stage> is argua'l( declining relative to t!at o# C!ina, t!e.uropean $nion, 6ndia, Russia, and ot!er countries .1!'6# t!is is so, t!e a'ilit( o# t!e $nite %tates to negotiate t!e8in o)lunar resource regimeit wants ma( &ell 'e greater no& t!an later.Finall(> it ma% be easier to esta'lis! t!et%pe o) lunar resource regimethat the nite #tates woul pre)er &!ile t!e #easi'ilit(o# 0e-3 eploitation and #usion po&erFan> inee> the possibilit% that we ma% eventuall% )in valuable resour-es elsewhere inthe solar s%stemFis still un-ertain and 'e#ore potentiall( concerned states !ave developed important sta"es in particularoutcomes)9

6nternational Communit( %a(s :es ; space regime is o# glo'al interest and prevents con#lict over t!e use

space or in space)

Tannen&ald +3" Nina 4annenwal> Dire-tor o) the International Relations rogram an @ou8ows8% 5pril> 200!> ALaw ersus ower on the 7igh


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Northwestern Debate Institute -ommer-ial> an s-ienti)i- a-tivities in spa-e. =ith events o) #eptember11> 2001> an the war against Ira+ ominating the healines> the issue o) national missile e)ense> an with it the larger issue o)the -ontrol an weaponiOation o) spa-e> have re-ee )rom the )ront pages. 7owever> the problem is imminent as the nite#tates moves )orwar with entagon plans to evelop Aspa-e -ontrol an Aglobal engagement -apabilities> whi-h impl% theeplo%ment o) weapons in spa-e. I) -on)li-t over the use o) spa-e> or even a-tual -on)li-t in spa-e> is to be prevente or at leastsigni)i-antl% -onstraine b% general agreement> the international -ommunit% will nee to agree on permitte a-tivit% in spa-e an

more re)ine arrangements )or istributing the bene)its o) that a-tivit%. #u-h a regime woul be in the strong interest o)-ommer-ial> s-ienti)i- an militar% support -onstituen-ies worlwie. =ithout su-h agreement> spa-e will largel% be shape b%the short"term interests o) power rather than the long"term interests o) law.

$% %a(s :es ;merican users o# space, including =;%;, pre#er t!e rule o# la& produced '( an internationa

regime)

Tannen&ald +3" Nina 4annenwal> Dire-tor o) the International Relations rogram an @ou8ows8% 5pril> 200!> ALaw ersus ower on the 7igh those involve in militar% supportoperations> an the s-ienti)i- -ommunit%> in-luing N5#5"""woul pre)er the more stable prote-tion provie b% the rule o) lawrather than the more un-ertain an potentiall% isruptive prote-tion o) unteste an -ompleE weapons s%stems. In sum> thenite #tates an the international -ommunit% have a strong interest in preventing a estabiliOing militar% -ompetition in spa-ethrough the timel% negotiation o) a more elaborate legal regime )or spa-e.

C!ina %a(s :es C!ina &ill support a space regime &!ic! prevents space &eaponi>ation and militari>ation

Martel ;nd :os!i!ara 3P =illiam C. Martel> ro)essor 3) National #e-urit% 5))airs 5t Naval =ar College> 4oshi &oshihara>Do-toral Caniate 5t


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Northwestern Debate Institute ?2011 File Title

Cooperative Regime CP---Net-Benefit Uniueness---No Coop No!

=o Cooperation =o& T!ere remains no commonl( agreed-to de#inition o# C0M principle) .ven 'asic

preconditions are in #lu and producing international pro'lems)

%!ac"el#ord @P #-ott @. #ha-8el)or> 4hir &ear Law #tuent #tan)or Law #-hool 5n h.D. Caniate IR niversit% o)Cambrige> 200> A4he 4rage% 3) 4he Common 7eritage 3) Man8in> 2 #tan)or :nvironmental Law @ournal 10>

LeEisT*110U I. Introu-tion. 4erritorial sovereignt% has in large part e)ine both international relations an international law sin-e the19$ 4reat% o) =estphalia. n1 4he primar% eE-eption to this prin-iple is the international -ommons. In these areas> whi-h in-luethe eep international seabe> the 5r-ti-> 5ntar-ti-a> an outer spa-e> -on-erns over )ree passage outweighe the great =esternpowersJ territorial ambitions an rotiusJs mare liberum triumphe. n2 5s a result> these regions were grauall% regulate to agreater or lesser eEtent b% the Common 7eritage o) Man8in XC7MY prin-iple> in whi-h theoreti-all% all o) humanit% be-ame thesovereign over the international -ommons. n! &et there remains no -ommonl% agree"to e)inition o) the C7M amongst legals-holars or poli-%ma8ers. Developing an evelope nations isagree over the eEtent o) international regulation re+uire toe+uitabl% manage -ommons resour-es. 4hese isagreements have pla%e out in the iverse legal regimes T*111U o) the 5ntar-ti->eep seabe> 5r-ti-> an outer spa-e> ea-h with its own version o) the C7M prin-iple. 5lthough no universal e)inition eEists>most -on-eptions o) the C7M share )ive primar% points. there -an be no private or publi- appropriation o) the -ommons. n$#e-on> representatives )rom all nations must manage resour-es sin-e a -ommons area is -onsiere to belong to ever%one. 4hir>all nations must a-tivel% share in the bene)its a-+uire )rom eEploitation o) the resour-es )rom the -ommon heritage region. n'

there -an be no weaponr% or militar% installations establishe in -ommons areas. the -ommons shoul be preserve)or the bene)it o) )uture generations. n9 (ut now even these basi- pre-onitions are in )luE> with states -laiming large tra-ts o) the5r-ti-V the nite #tates> Russia> an China pursuing spa-e weaponr%V an oil -ompanies rilling )urther out into the eep seabe.

=o Cooperation =o& %pace la& is 'rea"ing do&n and nations are see"ing 'ilateral and even unilateral

approac!es) Multilateral regime A2 success)

%!ac"el#ord @P #-ott @. #ha-8el)or> 4hir &ear Law #tuent #tan)or Law #-hool 5n h.D. Caniate IR niversit% o)Cambrige> 200> A4he 4rage% 3) 4he Common 7eritage 3) Man8in> 2 #tan)or :nvironmental Law @ournal 10>LeEis

Re-entl%> with the announ-ement o) the N5#5 ision )or #pa-e :Eploration X#:Y> spa-e law has on-e again be-ome a pressingtopi-. 4his time> however> the )o-us is not on nite Nations rulema8ing> but on bilateral agreements between sovereign nations.n1' 4his la-8 o) multilateral -ooperation is now threatening -ore prin-iples o) spa-e law as te-hnolog% leap)rogs eEistinggovernan-e regimes. In a worl organiOe b% an )or sovereign states> negotiation )or a bo% o) legal rules to govern spa-e

a-tivities shoul ta8e pla-e in the prin-ipal intergovernmental organiOation> the nite Nations. (ut this is onl% possible so long asa multilateral politi-al -onsensus on the )uture o) outer spa-e is maintaine. =ith the )all o) -ommunism> the )ailure o) the Moon4reat% as a result o) a renewe )ree mar8et orientation among the worlJs prin-iple spa-e powers> an te-hnologi-al evelopment>states have ta8en it upon themselves to negotiate bilateral a--ors an b%pass the N -onsensus"riven s%stem altogether in )avoro) bilateral agreements. Certain states> su-h as the nite Wingom> o))i-iall% maintain that C33# is not the pla-e to regulate-ommer-ial a-tivit%. It is as telling what is as what is not on the C33# agena> state Ri-har @. 4rema%ne"#mith o) the(ritish National T*1$'U #pa-e Center. 4he position o) the W> an the =est> is to shorten negotiations> not prolong them. 4hespa-e treaties arenJt per)e-t> but the%Jre not suppose to be. n190 4a8en to its logi-al -on-lusion> this sentiment implies that e))ortsto regulate spa-e in the )uture are on the wa% to )ragmenting to the bilateral an even national levels. #imilar out-omes in the5r-ti-> eep seabe> an 5ntar-ti-a woul ultimatel% result in trage% o) the -ommons s-enarios as iniviual nations or smallregional groupings o--up% )ormerl% -ommons territories to maEimiOe gains. 5 new multilateral regime guaranteeing limitepropert% rights to entrepreneurs as well as proviing )or international environmental prote-tion an some egree o) bene)it"sharingis essential i) the trage% o) the international -ommons is to be avoie.


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Northwestern Debate Institute B2011 File Title

Cooperative Regime CP---Net-Benefit---Resour"e Confli"ts

.##ective multilateral cooperation is "e( in t!e contet o# resource competition to prevent international

con#licts)


LeEis5s law in most so-ieties has -learl% e)ine private ownership o) most national territories> the international an omesti--ommons have been shrin8ing. 4his is evient in the global -ommons> both with regar to the transition )rom NCL3# to themore -apitalist 1$ New &or8 5greement> an more -ontroversiall%> the emerging propert% regime in spa-e. 5s global resour-eshort)alls in-rease> it is natural to loo8 towars -ommons Oones )or solutions " to 5ntar-ti-a> the eep seabe> an s8%war.=ithout e))e-tive multilateral -ooperation> resour-e -ompetition an te-hnologi-al progression -oul result in instabilit% anpotentiall% international -on)li-ts over resour-es.

.sta'lis!ing a peace#ul #rame&or" #or lunar governance &ill 'e important to prevent international con#lict

and peace#ull( allocating t!e moons resources in a mutuall( 'ene#icial manner)

Molt> @P @ames Cla% MoltO> 5sso-iate ro)essorV Department o) National #e-urit% #tuies at the Naval ostgrauate #-hool>Montere%> Cali)ornia> 200> A4owar Cooperation 3r Con)li-t 3n 4he MoonB Consiering Lunar overnan-e In 7istori-al erspe-tive>3nlineB httpB//www.au.a).mil/au/ss+/200/ a range o) ma6or powers have plans to parti-ipate in the moons)urther s-ientii- eEploration> -ommer-ial eEploitation> an possible permanent settlement. I) we -ount both manne an roboti-a-tivities> this list -urrentl% in-lues the nite #tates> China> Russia> Inia> erman%> the nite Wingom> the :uropean #pa-e5gen-%> @apan> an #outh Worea. 3ther -ountries are li8el% to 6oin this list in the -oming %ears. :stablishing a pea-e)ul)ramewor8 )or lunar governan-e will be im portant> be-ause hostile international relations on the moon are li8el% to lea to-onli-ts elsewhere in spa-e an> possibl%> on :arth. #u-h patterns regaring new )rontiers have plague the histor% o) internationalrela tions )or -enturies. Inee> espite )re+uent hopes )or -ooperation> most un-laime territories histori-all% have be-omesour-es o) international -onli-t rather than serving as pea-e)ul lebensraum. 4%pi-all%> an -onsis tent with realist prei-tions aboutinternational politi-s> states have ha a built"in pen-hant to pursue relative gains over their rivals an there)ore have sought toseiOe an e)en new resour-es to their own avantage. 3n the other han> su--ess)ul )ormation o) a stable> transnationalgovernan-e s%stemFa me-hanism )or sharing or otherwise pea-e)ull% allo-ating the moons resour-esF-oul open thepossibilit% )or mutuall% benei-ial an sel)"sustaining lunar -ommer-e an settlement> -onsistent with neo"liberal institutionalist

prei-tions. #u-h a moel -oul have positive spin"o) e))e-ts on :arth an set a -ooperative pattern )or )urther human eEplo rationan evelopment o) the rest o) the solar s%stem> spurring states to pool resour-es an engage in 6oint approa-hes to spa-es man%-hallenges. In su-h s-enarios> hopes )or Ahuman8in e)orts in spa-eFrather than state"riven rivalriesFmight be realiOe>something )or whi-h astronauts an -osmonauts who have visite spa-e have o)ten -alle.


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Northwestern Debate Institute @2011 File Title

Cooperative Regime CP---Solves the Case---#eneral

Cooperation in space generall( is good-multiple reasons

Delino +-R%an Selnio>=or8e )or 9 %ears in the spa-e inustr% in various roles with in-rease responsibilit% an then e-ie toleave the private se-tor to pursue a passion )or the poli-% impa-ts on #-ien-e an 4e-hnolog% innovation on the global worl b% pursuina hD in ubli- oli-% at eorge Mason niversit%> De-. '> 0'> A5 moel )or the international evelopment o) the Moon

httpB//www.thespa-ereview.-om/arti-le/'10/13bservers have -on-lue that as per"partner -osts e-rease> the per"partner utilit% o) international -ooperation in-reases.1'Cooperation reu-es eEposure b% spreaing the ris8 o) )ailure an allows a spa-e)aring state to raw in outsie resour-es. 4his isespe-iall% -ompelling )or nations whose resour-es are insu))i-ient to attain an% substantial spa-e operational an te-hni-al goals.:ven the well"enowe :#5 has engage the #5 an @apan to 6oin what were previousl% traitional :uropean s-ien-e missionsas a wa% to res-ue its mission port)olio )rom in-rease -ost"growth.19 #imilarl%> Chanraa%an> Inias )irst satellite to the Moon>was laun-he in 200 -arr%ing two primar% instruments to help lo-ate water an other resour-es. 4he #5 -ontribute these to themission. 4he% -ost more than the amount Inia spent builing an integrating the balan-e o) the spa-e-ra)t an the laun-h vehi-le.International -ooperation o))ers the opportunit% to improve the e))i-a-% o) the eEpenitures. Resour-es -an be rationaliOe>stanariOe> an mae interoperable to bring about the best an most e))i-ient use o) resear-h> evelopment> pro-urement>support> an prou-tion resour-es. 4his )osters e))e-tive operations. #o i) a h%potheti-al spa-e partnership involves two nations>one with sophisti-ate remote sensing engineering -apabilities> an the other> spa-eli)t> a rational approa-h woul allo-ate programa-tivities in a--or with these strengths. International -ooperation -an provie a strong an essential bene)it b% proviing

programmati- reunan-%> as happene when Russian #o%uO -ra)t were able to provie transportation to the I## )ollowing the losso) the #huttle Challenger. #tanariOation o) harware> so)tware> pro-eures> an the li8e helps to a-hieve a -loser pra-ti-al-ooperation among partners. It oes this through an e))i-ient use o) resour-es an reu-tion o) operational> logisti->-ommuni-ations> te-hni-al> an pro-eural obsta-les. It is telling that international partnerships usuall% begin their e))orts b%stanariOing aministrative> logisti-> an operational pro-eures. 3riginators o) stanariOing s%stems an pro-eures o)tenbe-ome the e )a-to leaers o) -ollaborative e))orts. interoperabilit% is essential.ADesigning )or programmati- reunan-% provies a strong argument )or interoperabilit% between nations spa-e eEplorationassets> as this woul allow nations to substitute ea-h others -riti-al -apabilities with relative ease.1, Nations whose spa-es%stems are interoperable -an operate together more e))e-tivel%. Designing )or interoperabilit% enables them to substitute ea-hothers -riti-al -apabilities with relative ease>1 an provies mu-h neee reunan-% in the event one nation -annot suppl% a 8e%servi-e or -omponent )or an% number o) reasons. #pa-e programs -an use the important -apabilities provie b% rationaliOation>stanariOation an interoperabilit% toB -ommuni-ateV e))i-ientl% integrate an s%n-hroniOe operationsV enable ata an in)ormationeE-hangesV share -onsumables an resour-esV enhan-e e))e-tiveness b% optimiOing iniviual an -ombine -apabilities o)e+uipmentV in-rease e))i-ien-% through -ommon or -ompatible support an s%stemsV an assure te-hni-al -ompatibilit% b%eveloping stanars )or e+uipment esign> emplo%ment> maintenan-e> an upating them. =ith rationaliOation stanariOation>an interoperabilit%> nations that are li8el% to 6oin a partnership -an properl% prepare to per)orm their responsibilities


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Northwestern Debate Institute 1+2011 File Title

Cooperative Regime CP---Solves the Case---Resour"e $evelopment

T!e s!ape o# t!e legal regime #or space development determines !o& uic"l( and e##ectivel( resources can

'e developed---means onl( t!e CP solves t!e case


LeEis(. ropert% Rights an Resour-e Competition. 4he worl is in ire nee o) the resour-es )oun in international -ommons. (% 20'0the worlJs population ma% eE-ee nine billion while inustrial output will +uaruple. Developing -ountries with over three+uarters o) the global population will see the most ramati- population in-reases> %et the% a--ount )or 6ust twent%")ive per-ent o)energ% -onsumption an -ontribute less than siEteen per-ent o) global ross Domesti- rou-t XDY. n1, (% 20!0> energ%-onsumption in eveloping -ountries su-h as China an Inia -oul ouble or even triple. n1 In the evelope worl> energ%eman will li8ewise soar to unpre-eente heights> straining eEisting energ% in)rastru-ture an spurring eman )or newnonrenewable an renewable energ% sour-es. Current resour-es are inae+uate to meet this surging eman. n1 T*1'9U(etween one to three trillion barrels o) oil remain on :arth. Current estimates suggest prou-tion will pea8 within !' to 100 %ears.n200 3ther resour-es> su-h as silver> tin an -opper> -oul -on-eivabl% be eEhauste within twent% to )ort% %ears epening oneman. 4e-hnologi-al avan-es -oul alter these prei-tions> but the salient point remainsB the :arthJs resour-es are )inite anrunning out. :ven i) it ta8es -enturies> at some point it will no longer be e-onomi-all% )easible to a-+uire neee resour-es )romtraitional sour-es. =hen the marginal -ost is su))i-ientl% high> private an publi- entities will loo8 to new resour-e areas " to the

poles> the eep seabe> an eventuall% the ineEhaustible resour-es o) outer spa-e. 7alle%Js Comet -ontainsh%ro-arbons -omparable in +uantit% to the :arthJs entire reserves. n201 Developing spa-e inustr% woul also help alleviateongoing -on-erns regaring -limate -hange. n202 4he legal regime that the international -ommunit% puts in pla-e now will governthe manner an rate at whi-h the -ommons evelops. 4he +uestion then be-omes whether the -urrent la-8 o) propert% rights in the-ommons )unamentall% impees evelopment.

Complete privati>ation &it!out cooperation &ould lead to resource e!austion '( de#ection as nations see"

to #ul#ill onl( national interests)

%!ac"el#ord @P #-ott @. #ha-8el)or> 4hir &ear Law #tuent #tan)or Law #-hool 5n h.D. Caniate IR niversit% o)Cambrige> 200> A4he 4rage% 3) 4he Common 7eritage 3) Man8in> 2 #tan)or :nvironmental Law @ournal 10>LeEis

(ut )ormaliOe propert% rights are also the starting point )or sustaine e-onomi- growth> as argue b% e #oto. n2!9 5n thatgrowth is best riven b% the Lo-8ean labor prin-iple. Classi- solutions involve the en)or-ement o) -onservation measures or

privatiOation. 4he iea o) iviing the -ommons into private par-els is o)ten avo-ate b% libertarians> who argue that this ivisionshoul be per)orme a--oring to the Lo-8ean prin-iple o) homesteaing. 4his -onsists o) allowing iniviuals to a-+uire propert%on a )irst -ome )irst serve basis> proviing in-entives )or e))i-ien-% b% internaliOing so-ial -osts an bene)its. 4he mar8et woulbetter promote e-onomi- growth> a-hieve optimal levels o) pollution> reu-e ine))i-ien-%> an moi)% the legal regime b%responing to so-ietal nees. n2!, 5vo-ates o) a res nullis approa-h to -ommons areas similarl% )avor privatiOation. 4he trage%o) the -ommons though ma% be no worse than the ire-tl% unprou-tive rent"see8ing a-tivities that -an result )rom privatepropert% establishment as groups lobb% )or the right to eEploit the -ommons. n2! @ust as this argument applies to publi- poli-%)ormation in national legislatures> it is also relevant on the global stage as nations petition )or the right to eEploit -ommonsresour-es on behal) o) all humanit%. 4his uners-ores the ne-essit% o) having a simple au-tion> or awaring a leasehol to the )irstentit% to arrive at a region in the international -ommons. #u-h pro-eures will assist in avoiing ire-tl% unprou-tive rent"see8inga-tivities an other -on)li-t. =ithout the t%pe o) multilateral -ooperation es-ribe in this proposal> the trage% o) the international-ommons -oul easil% turn into a -olle-tive prisonerJs ilemma in whi-h ea-h government a-ts in its own best interest without-oorination. 4his is alrea% arguabl% o--urring in outer spa-e. 4here are two optionsB -ooperate with the group or e)e-t. n2! It

is this latter out-ome o) resour-es being prematurel% eEhauste through T*199U e)e-tion that eveloping -ountries )ear most.ame theor% n2$0 emonstrates that e)e-tion is iniviuall% bene)i-ial even though ever%one woul be best o)) through-ooperation.


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=ithout -olle-tive a-tion> se-urit% an environmental -on-erns will proli)erate as sovereigns evelop the -ommons. Regionalmultilateral agreements> su-h as the 54#> shoul be propoune in both the 5r-ti- Xthrough an eEpane 5:# or an 5r-ti-Coun-ilY an in spa-e to limit environmental harm> ensure the prote-tion o) limite propert% rights> an promote multilateral-ooperation over nationalism> thereb% enhan-ing sustainable e-onomi- evelopment. 4he -ommons will li8el% be evelope togarner ne-essar% resour-es in the not too istant )uture. (ut it shoul be one responsibl%> while respe-ting the prin-iples o) theinternational -ommons an avoiing a slie ba-8wars in popular -on-eptions o) sovereignt%. nilateral or bilateral a-tion b%nations will not serve this purpose. Multilateral initiative is ne-essar% to reap e-onomi- bene)its in the short"term> an to ensure

that our -ommon heritage is preserve )or posterit%.

6nternational cooperation needed #or moon-no one can carr( 'udgetar( 'urden

;vnet, Gallo, and roniato&s"i +4"Mar8 5vnet is a -aniate )or an M.5. in International #-ien-e an 4e-hnolog% oli-%with a )o-us in spa-e poli-% at 4he eorge =ashington niversit%> Min% allo is a rin-ipal #%stems :ngineer in the 5van-erograms roup at 3rbital #-ien-es Corporation an is -urrentl% the Re+uirements Lea )or N5#5s Con-ept :Eploration anRe)inement stu%> Davi 5nrZ (roniatows8i is a -aniate )or Masters egrees in 5eronauti-al ? 5stronauti-al :ngineering an4e-hnolog% an oli-% at the Massa-husetts Institute> 200$> A5n International 5pproa-h to Lunar :Eploration in reparation )or Mars>httpB//web.mit.eu/aamross/www/(R3NI543=#WIQI:::0'.p)

#uggeste Cooperative whi-h -ontains no spe-i)i- mention o)# interest in the Moon. 7owever> the o-ument oes state that b% 202' the #5 shoul began -rewe missions be%on the Moonan> b% mi"20!0> sen humans to orbit Mars an return them sa)el% to :arth T$,U. 4he same poli-% also states that a goal shoulbe eEpaning international -ooperation on mutuall% bene)i-ial spa-e a-tivities. Loo8ing at # relations parti-ularl% with @apan anInia> it seems li8el% that the #5 -oul engage these two nations in an ambitious human eep spa-e programme. it woul be eEtremel% i))i-ult )or the #5 to unerta8e a [soloprogramme. @ust as happene with the I## it is li8el% to pre)er to have an international programme )or this purpose an Inia an@apan -oul be the obvious -hoi-es . #in-e 3bamas spa-e poli-% also promises to Apursue bilateral an multilateral transparen-%an -on)ien-e"builing measures to en-ourage responsible a-tions in> an the pea-e)ul use o)> spa-e> it ma% also attempt toengage China. Doing so Xan> i) possible> isolating/-ontaining RussiaFwhi-h has issues with the missile e)en-e programmeY is

ver% important to start the pro-ess o) the evelopment o) a 21st -entur% spa-e regime. 4he eep spa-e arena -oul be the best arenain whi-h to start su-h -ooperation> be-ause it will ta8e a minimum o) two to three e-aes to 6uge eEa-tl% how man8in stans toreap bene)its )rom these planets an evelop human -olonies on them.


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Cooperative Regime CP---Solves the Case---Private %nvestment

Cooperation Ae( Private 6nvestment - ; regime &!ic! provides a clear de#inition o# C0M can promote

private investment in space &!ile up!olding t!e C0M)

Dell @.D. Caniate> 200,> niversit% o) Minnesota Law #-hoolV (.5.> 200$> niversit% o) #outh Da8ota>#ummer> 2009> Autting 5 Mine 3n 4he MoonB Creating 5N International 5uthorit% 4o Regulate Mining Rights In 3uter #pa-e> 1'

Minnesota @ournal o) International Law $> LeEis

5 su--ess)ul #R5 must promote inepenent investment in outer spa-e while upholing the -ore o) the Common 7eritageCon-ept. 4his is an onerous balan-e to stri8e an )ew> i) an%> international agreements have been able to o so. n229 4he propose#R5 woul ae+uatel% promote private investment in outer spa-e in at least )our wa%s. giving meaning to the Common7eritage rin-iple provies a stable legal )ramewor8> whi-h in turn allows )irms an nations a stable )ootwor8 )rom whi-h to6uge the )easibilit% o) mining outer spa-e. Mining> almost more than an% other inustr%> is an eneavor whi-h re+uires atremenous amount o) initial -apital. n22, 3ne oes not 8now where to )in resour-es to mine without )irst prospe-ting. n22rospe-ting -an en-ompass several sites> millions o) ollars> an -ountless hours an still T*'1'U %iel little. n22 4he mone% anenerg% spent prospe-ting is 6usti)ie b% the belie) that sooner or later the prospe-tor will )in su--ess an the prospe-tor willre-eive an ae+uate return on his or her investment. n2!0 4his pro-ess has been es-ribe as bu%ing a lotter% ti-8et be-ause thepa%o))s are ranoml% aware. n2!1 It is nearl% impossible )or a )irm or nation to -al-ulate potential returns on investment )ormining outer spa-e i) the legal status o) its -laim is un8nown. Currentl%> the ebate over the Common 7eritage Con-ept leaves

man% ebating whether it is possible to ma8e -laims on materials in spa-e an who re-eives the bene)its o) the eEtra-te materialan in what proportions. n2!2 4he #R5 woul resolve this -on)usion b% aapting the Common 7eritage Con-ept to spa-e anoutlining a regime that will regulate an appropriate propert% in spa-e. =ith an #R5 in pla-e> nations an )irms woul be able toin-lue propert% rights in their -ost/bene)it anal%ses. In aition> the -urrent un-ertaint% leaves man% potential a-tors hesitant tospen even moest resour-es eEploring the )easibilit% o) spa-e mining. n2!! 4he #R5 woul eliminate that un-ertaint% an )osteran in-rease in the resear-h an evelopment o) spa-e mining programs. #e-on> the #R5Js Coun-il shoul reserve seats )or theworlJs largest mineral prou-ers an -onsumers. n2!$ In this wa% the nations an )irms with the largest investment in outer spa-emining will have a substantial voi-e in -reating the rules that will regulate outer spa-e mining. 4his provies an ae amount o)stabilit% to the legal )ramewor8 be-ause it gives inustrialiOe nations an their )irms a han in their own estin%. Regulationsgoverning spa-e mining will be promulgate b% nations -ontaining the )irms with the greatest to gain an lose in the spa-e mininginustr%. 4hir> the #R5 provies methos through whi-h )irms or nations who invest in eveloping nations -an maEimiOe theirreturn on investment. In the 5CM: illustration> it is possible )or 5CM: to re-eive -omplete )orgiveness o) its )ee an ro%alt%obligations with a large enough investment in eveloping nations. 5CM: woul then be entitle to the entiret% o) the return on itsT*'19U mining operations.


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Cooperative Regime CP---Solves the Case---#lo&al Mining Benefits

Cooperation Ae( Eeveloping =ations nl( a space regime &!ic! su##icientl( ad!eres to C0M can

produce 'ene#its #or developing nations)

Dell @.D. Caniate> 200,> niversit% o) Minnesota Law #-hoolV (.5.> 200$> niversit% o) #outh Da8ota>#ummer> 2009> Autting 5 Mine 3n 4he MoonB Creating 5N International 5uthorit% 4o Regulate Mining Rights In 3uter #pa-e> 1'

Minnesota @ournal o) International Law $> LeEis:. (ene)iting Non"#pa-e)aring Developing Nations =hile su))i-ientl% promoting private investment in spa-e mining a-tivities>the #R5 woul also su))i-ientl% ahere to the Common 7eritage Con-ept. 3perating uner the notion that the Common 7eritageCon-ept vests ownership o) all outer spa-e territories in the international -ommunit%> it be-omes -lear that all nations> whetherinustrialiOe or eveloping> are entitle to bene)it )rom the 6oint tenan-%. 7owever> eveloping nations> b% e)inition> la-8signi)i-ant e-onomi- -apital. 4he -apital"intensive nature o) spa-e travel in general an spa-e mining in parti-ular reners it highl%improbable that a eveloping nation woul be able to enter outer spa-e> let alone harvest its resour-es. 4here)ore> ahering to theCommon 7eritage Con-ept re+uires that eveloping nations re-eive some bene)it )rom the mining a-tivities in outer spa-e. 4he#R5 woul -ontain two provisions whi-h spe-i)i-all% see8 to share the wealth o) outer spa-e with eveloping nations. the)ee an ro%alt% )orgiveness program woul not onl% maEimiOe the return on investment )or those who mine outer spa-e but woulalso -reate strong in-entives )or )irms or nations with the abilit% to mine outer spa-e to invest in the eveloping worl. Moreimportantl%> the investment woul -ome in the )orm o) moerate"to high"te-hnolog% 6obs. 5 )irm or nation T*'1,U -annotestablish an% enterprise in a eveloping nation an eEpe-t to reu-e )ees an ro%alties owe to the #R5> but instea must establish

an enterprise ire-tl% relate to their outer spa-e mining operations. =ithout this re+uirement> a multinational -orporation -oulinvest in an% t%pe o) a-tivit% in a eveloping nation an then appl% )or a reu-tion in )ees or ro%alties. 5n eEample o) this woul bea multinational mining operation that mines in both spa-e an on :arth. I) that operation began mining in a eveloping -ountr%while simultaneousl% mining on the Moon> it woul +uali)% )or a reu-tion in )ees an ro%alties. 4he multinational -ompan% woulre-eive a higher return )rom its outer spa-e mining while -ontributing little to the in)rastru-ture or general well"being o) theeveloping nation in whi-h it began mining. 7owever> the #R5 woul re+uire that investment be tie ire-tl% to the )irm ornationJs mining a-tivities. Li8e similar national spa-e programs> the builing an laun-hing o) outer spa-e mining te-hnolog% anthe )irm or nationJs mission -ontrol woul re+uire a large amount o) high"te-h in)rastru-ture n2!' an s8ille laborers. n2!94here)ore> investment in eveloping -ountries woul bring with it a level o) in)rastru-ture an labor that -oul help rive growthin other se-tors o) that nationJs e-onom%. n2!, 4he )irm or nation ta8ing avantage o) the )orgiveness program bene)its )rom ahigher rate o) return while eveloping -ountries bene)it )rom a higher egree o) investment. #e-on> the #R5Js :nterprise willbene)it eveloping nations b% proviing a sour-e o) in-ome to eveloping nations an promoting the evelopment o) spa-e"relateenterprises in eveloping nations. In aition> the :nterprise will provie eveloping nations with something the% rarel% possesBe-onomi- leverage that -an be use in negotiations with inustrialiOe )irms an nations.


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Unilateral Strategy 'oes not solve-general

; unilateral strateg( is counterproductive and unrealistic

Molt> +@-@ames Cla% MoltO> is an asso-iate pro)essor in the Department o) National #e-urit% #tuies at the Naval ostgrauate#-hool> Montere%> Cali)ornia. 7is latest boo8 is 4he oliti-s o) #pa-e #e-urit%B #trategi- Restraint an the ursuit o) National Interests

X#tan)or niversit% ress> 200Y> A4owar Cooperation or Con)li-t on the MoonH httpB//www.au.a).mil/au/ss+/200/ given emerging international trens in spa-e> aopting a purel% national strateg%will be-ome in-reasingl% i))i-ult an -ounterprou-tive. #pe-i)i-all%> with the growing importan-e o) international -ooperation in spa-)or reu-ing -osts an ealing with share problems in this highl% interepenent environment> allian-es> networ8s> an transnational tiema% be-ome the true test o) a stateJs Apower in spa-e> rather than> as in the past> onl% its own national assets. In this sense> e))e-tiveleaership in spa-e -oalition builing an -ompatibilit% with other -ountriesJ goals ma% be-ome -riti-al to the su--ess o) an% )uturenational strateg%. serious thin8ing about -ause"an"e))e-t relationships an a-tion"rea-tion %nami-s -annot be ignore. 4ooo)ten> purporte strategists ma8e the mista8e o) aopting simplisti- assumptions o) Ae-isive .#. moves an stati- )oreign rea-tions.#u-h thin8ing is unrealisti-> an it will -ause us to )ail in anti-ipating the a-tual )uture o) spa-e a-tivit%. Inee> given the global sprea spa-e te-hnolog%> the -ompleE %nami-s o) international intera-tions are li8el% to be-ome even more important as we move )urther )romthe bipolar .#."Russian -onteEt an into a new multipolar spa-e stru-ture> in)luen-e b% aitional a-tors> su-h as China> the :uropean

#pa-e 5gen-% an :uropean nion> @apan> Inia> an others.=ith these -aveats in min> the )irst tas8 herein is to review brie)l% what the -on-ept o) strateg% means. NeEt> this paper unerta8es a-omparative review o) some o) the Alessons we might raw )rom nu-lear strateg% uring the Col =ar X1$'"11Y> where we haverelativel% greater eEperien-e> an the bene)it o) e-lassi)ie in)ormation about the thin8ing o) both sies. 4he thir se-tion o) this stu%reviews the pra-ti-e o) spa-e poli-% an attempts at strateg% sin-e 1' to the present> as well as more re-ent suggestions regaring spa-strateg% )rom the a-aemi- literature. 5s will be shown> the perio o) the Moon ra-e )rom 191 to 19 is arguabl% as -lose as the nite#tates has ever -ome to a spa-e strateg%> however> our eventual su--ess reveale this strateg%Js ultimate limitations. the arti-le-onsiers how we might )ormulate a spa-e strateg% in the )uture> an what pit)alls we shoul see8 to avoi in oing so. 4he main point ithat )orwar"leaning approa-hes that re-ogniOe the uni+ue -hara-teristi-s o) spa-e %nami-s an the in-reasing in)luen-e o) e-onomi-globaliOation are li8el% to be more su--ess)ul than ba-8war"loo8ing strategies attempting to mimi- or aapt militar% prin-iples thatwor8e in other environments in other times. In aition> -ontrar% to mu-h -urrent thin8ing> a su--ess)ul strateg% in spa-e ma% have moto o with mustering the )uning an organiOational s8ills that it too8 to buil the inter"state highwa% s%stem than in organiOing themilitar% )or-es neee to storm the bea-hes o) Norman% uring =orl =ar II.

Unilateral Strategy 'oes not solve-resour"es

Cooperation ma( 'e di##icult 'ut is critical #or eploiting lunar resources

Molt> 1+"@ames Cla% MoltO> is an asso-iate pro)essor in the Department o) National #e-urit% #tuies at the Naval ostgrauate #-hooMontere%> Cali)ornia. 7is latest boo8 is 4he oliti-s o) #pa-e #e-urit%B #trategi- Restraint an the ursuit o) National Interests X#tan)orniversit% ress> 200Y> A#pa-e an #trateg%B 5 Con-eptual versus oli-% 5nal%sis> De-. 9> 2010>httpB//www.tan)online.-om/oi/)ull/10.100/1$,,,922.2010.'22!'tabMoule

4he tremenous wor8 involve in bringing to -ompletion the 3bama 5ministrationJs spa-e poli-% a)ter 1, months in o))i-eFami thewelter o) bureau-rati- in")ighting involveFhighlights the even greater -hallenges o) eveloping a wor8able .#. spa-e strateg%. there woul have to be a serious stu% o) the -hallenges we )a-e in spa-e> the range o) resour-es we possessFnational> allie> an )rienl%Fan the li8el% rea-tion o) potential aversaries. It must also o))er a vision -apable o) rall%ing national aninternational support behin a set o) pra-ti-al priorities> su-h as settlement o) the Moon or Mars> eveloping energ% sour-es )rom spa-e>or -reating a share response plan )or angerous near :arth ob6e-ts> as well as more general philosophi-al goals> li8e )reeom o) a--ess>servi-e to :arth as a priorit%> or -reation o) an ever"eEpaning league o) -ooperating spa-e)aring -ountries. iven the eEtra"territorialnature o) spa-e itsel) an the in-reasingl% international -ompleEion o) spa-e a-tivit%> with the eE-eption o) the militar% se-tor> an ol"st%national strateg% seems to be an overl% limite approa-h. It is also not li8el% to su--ee. Cra)ting an international strateg%> however>re+uires agreeing to -ertain -onstraints on national sovereignt% with the assumption o) greater iniviual an -olle-tive gains. 4o ate>su-h agreements have been i))i-ultFbut not impossibleFto establish. 4he neEt set o) roboti- an manne lunar mission might o))er tes-ases o) su-h -omparative strategies. =hether the problems o) tomorrow in spa-e might a-tuall% re+uire su-h -ooperation is a +uestionworth as8ing. In the militar% se-tor> the growth o) international responses to isasters> an o) at least> -oalition"base responses to se-uri


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Northwestern Debate Institute 12011 File Titlethreats suggest that multilateral approa-hes ma% be-ome more a--eptable an esirable in the )uture. #u-h trens an the unerl%ingreasons )or supporting them Xi) su-h a e-ision is maeY woul nee to be in-orporate into a )uture spa-e strateg%.4he prospe-t that su-h a uni)ie strateg% might eventuall% in-lue all nations in a -ommon approa-h to spa-e is not realisti- toa%. In themeantime> we nee to start b% eveloping new me-hanisms to prevent spa-e -on)li-ts among ourselves> an parti-ularl% the 8in o)8ineti- -on)li-ts that might rener :arth orbital spa-e unusable. 4he -osts o) )ailure in this mission are ver% high. n)ortunatel%>eveloping -ooperative me-hanisms )or mutual restraint in spa-e is not going to be eas%. :ven without a spa-e strateg%> the nite #tatemanage to survive the Col =ar in spa-e with the #oviet nion inta-t> an erive great bene)it )rom it through parti-ipation in mutual

militar% restraint me-hanisms> both ta-it an eEpli-it. erhaps> su-h past> bilateral -ooperation -oul be-ome a moel o) sorts )or the)uture in spa-e. &et -reating su-h me-hanisms in a multilateral -onteEt ma% be more i))i-ult> parti-ularl% i) the spa-e strategiesevelope b% iniviual -ountries are )unamentall% -ompetitive. the status o) relations among ma6or states toa% oes notmirror .#."#oviet hostilit% o) the Col =ar> an the )or-es o) globaliOation> transparen-%> an in)ormation sharing ma% help us over-omobsta-les to -ooperation. In the en> unerstaning an a-ting upon our -ommon interests as human beings in spa-e ma% be the mosti))i-ult an most important element o) an% )uture attempt at spa-e strateg%.

Unilateral Strategy(Confli"ts

oing to moon unilaterall% will -ause -on)li-ts

Molt> +@-@ames Cla% MoltO> is an asso-iate pro)essor in the Department o) National #e-urit% #tuies at the Naval ostgrauate#-hool> Montere%> Cali)ornia. 7is latest boo8 is 4he oliti-s o) #pa-e #e-urit%B #trategi- Restraint an the ursuit o) National InterestsX#tan)or niversit% ress> 200Y> A4owar Cooperation or Con)li-t on the MoonH httpB//www.au.a).mil/au/ss+/200/ a range o) ma6or powers have plans to parti-ipate in the moons )urther s-ienti)i-eEploration> -ommer-ial eEploitation> an possible permanent settlement. I) we -ount both manne an roboti- a-tivities> this list-urrentl% in-lues the nite #tates> China> Russia> Inia> erman%> the nite Wingom> the :uropean #pa-e 5gen-%> @apan> an #outhWorea. 3ther -ountries are li8el% to 6oin this list in the -oming %ears.:stablishing a pea-e)ul )ramewor8 )or lunar governan-e will be important> be-ause hostile international relations on the moon are li8el%to lea to -on)li-ts elsewhere in spa-e an> possibl%> on :arth. #u-h patterns regaring new )rontiers have plague the histor% o)

international relations )or -enturies. Inee> espite )re+uent hopes )or -ooperation> most un-laime territories histori-all% have be-omesour-es o) international -on)li-t rather than serving as pea-e)ul lebensraum. 4%pi-all%> an -onsistent with realist prei-tions aboutinternational politi-s> states have ha a built"in pen-hant to pursue relative gains over their rivals an there)ore have sought to seiOe ane)en new resour-es to their own avantage. 3n the other han> su--ess)ul )ormation o) a stable> transnational governan-e s%stemFame-hanism )or sharing or otherwise pea-e)ull% allo-ating the moons resour-esF-oul open the possibilit% )or mutuall% bene)i-ial ansel)"sustaining lunar -ommer-e an settlement> -onsistent with neo"liberal institutionalist prei-tions. #u-h a moel -oul have positivespin"o)) e))e-ts on :arth an set a -ooperative pattern )or )urther human eEploration an evelopment o) the rest o) the solar s%stem>spurring states to pool resour-es an engage in 6oint approa-hes to spa-es man% -hallenges. In su-h s-enarios> hopes )or Ahuman8ine))orts in spa-eFrather than state"riven rivalriesFmight be realiOe> something )or whi-h astronauts an -osmonauts who have visitespa-e have o)ten -alle. 5s er Magnus =i68man wrote on these issues in 12> the Ainterepenen-e o) all a-tors in spa-e proviesAstrong in-entives )or the emergen-e o) -ooperative solutions.1&et prei-tions )rom the literature on -olle-tive goos suggest that governing the Aglobal -ommons o) spa-e an the moon is li8el% tobe-ome in-reasingl% i))i-ult when )inite resour-es )a-e -laims b% multiple> sel)"intereste a-tors. #u-h trens histori-all% have le topro-esses o) Aen-losure rather than su--ess)ul -olle-tive management.2 4hus> the +uestion )a-ing lunar settlement isB Can su-h -on)li-tbe avoie an> i) so> howHIn see8ing to weigh possible alternative s-enarios on the moon> this arti-le anal%Oes histori-al -ases o) human settlement o) remoteregions an attempts to -hart an -ategoriOe similarities an i))eren-es that might provie use)ul guian-e )or )ore-asting lunargovernan-eFan> spe-i)i-all%> with the aim o) avoiing international -on)li-t. 4his stu% begins b% -omparing spa-e to the internationaleEperien-e in three prior regionsB settling the 5meri-as in the 1'00s> establishing permanent bases on the 5ntar-ti- -ontinent in the latetwentieth -entur%> an managing the eep seabe sin-e the 10s. It then turns to the moon> starting with a histori-al surve% o) prei-tionabout its settlement sin-e the 1'0s an relevant evelopments in the realm o) international treaties a))e-ting lunar a-tivit%. 4he arti-le-on-lues b% appl%ing lessons rawn )rom the histori-al -asesFan i))eren-esFto )ore-ast li8el% ire-tions on the moon. It argues thathe -urrent restraints impose b% moon"relate treaties an the nonmilitar% nature o) the li8el% parti-ipants are li8el% to )avor -ooperatio(ut it -autions that su-h )or-es will have to be balan-e against the li8el% presen-e o) highl% -ompetitive national motivations. 4his


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Northwestern Debate Institute 1 +@-@ames Cla% MoltO> is an asso-iate pro)essor in the Department o) National #e-urit% #tuies at the Naval ostgrauate#-hool> Montere%> Cali)ornia. 7is latest boo8 is 4he oliti-s o) #pa-e #e-urit%B #trategi- Restraint an the ursuit o) National InterestsX#tan)or niversit% ress> 200Y> A4owar Cooperation or Con)li-t on the MoonH httpB//www.au.a).mil/au/ss+/200/woul be highl% esirable )or states to settle these issues be)ore the neEt humans set )oot on the moon. 3n-e humans begin laning ansta%ing on the moon> -ompleE issues will +ui-8l% arise. We% variables in the pro-ess o) international is-ussion an possible negotiationin-lue X1Y the nature o) the leaing spa-e a-tors an their interrelations at the time o) the moons settlement> X 2Y the status o) eEistingspa-e"relate treaties an restraint"base norms> X!Y the prospe-ts )or lu-rative -ontra-ts Xwhi-h -oul promote either -ompetition or-ooperationY> X$Y the eEtent o) the resour-es an lo-ations available Xmore li8el% to promote -ompetitionY> an X'Y the availabilit% o) -oste))e-tive te-hnolog% )or their eEploitation.3) all these )a-tors> the )irst twoFthe status o) international relations among parti-ipants an their willingness to -ompl% with eEistingspa-e treaties an normsFma% be the most important> even above resour-e s-ar-it% or the availabilit% o) te-hnolog%. It almost goeswithout sa%ing that )rienl% relations an -ooperative eEplorator% pro6e-ts on the moon an in the solar s%stem will greatl% in-rease the

-han-es o) su--ess)ul management o) moon -on)li-ts. 4his suggests that realist )a-tors alone are not li8el% to i-tate a brea8"up o) the3#4 or the eEisting -onsensus on -ooperative restraint on the eEer-ise o) militar% power. 3) -ourse> hostile relations Xsu-h as between thnite #tates an ChinaY -annot be rule out an -oul lea to unilateral e))orts to seiOe lo-ations an establish nationall% oriente 8eepout an governan-e regimes> whether or not resour-es are s-ar-e. 7owever> violation o) the 3#4 in this manner -oul have otherreper-ussions on spa-e se-urit% an woul have to be -onsiere -are)ull% b% an% state unerta8ing su-h poli-ies. 7ostile or sel)"servinga-tions on the moon -oul harm a -ountr%s interests in other areas o) spa-e or on :arth> leaing to rival -oalitions against it an e))orts tuner-ut its attempte unilateral gainsFpossibl% through militar% means.

Great con#licts &ill occur in %pace and on .art! i# $)%) unilaterall( acts upon eploiting t!e Moons

resources

0atc! 1+"(en6amin D. 7at-h> :Ee-utive Notes an Comments :itor> :mor% International Law> ADIIDIN 47: I: IN 47: #W&47: N::D httpB//www.law.emor%.eu/)ileamin/6ournals/eilr/2$/2$.1/7at-h.p)

4oa%> unowne areas -annot be a-+uire through is-over% or )irst use>1 primaril% be-ause Aeveloping nations be-ame -on-ernethat ri-her -ountries woul ominate the resour-es that la% as %et un-laime b% an% sovereign. . . . (% the time the eveloping worlgaine the wherewithal to rea-h the resour-es o) the o-ean bes> outer spa-e> an 5ntar-ti-a> those resour-es woul alrea% be-laime.200 (% re6e-ting res nullius an its -orresponing moe o) a-+uisition through is-over%> the alternative position o) res-ommunes be-ame a--epte in the law o) international -ommon spa-es. Res -ommunes is -hara-teriOe b% the notion that the real estateor ob6e-t was A-ommon to all men . . . su-h things -oul not be owne . . . .201 4his notion gave rise to the Common 7eritage Do-trinees-ribe above. &et> regarless o) whether the language is res nullius or res -ommunes> the eEisten-e o) a vast> unowne> but -laimablearea o) resour-e"ri-h lan will inevitabl% spawn politi-al -on)li-t.202 5t )irst glan-e> this might appear to be -ounter"intuitiveB the logi- res -ommunes woul seem to suggest that when a proprietar% -laim is isallowe> states woul have no reason to have -on)li-ts over anunownable entit%.20! 3ne eEample o) the su--ess o) res -ommunes with respe-t to -on)li-t resolution is in 5ntar-ti-a. rior to the5ntar-ti- 4reat% o) 1'> the -ontinent was the sub6e-t o) a series o) territorial -laims> some ating ba-8 as )ar as the 1$0s.20$ (% theearl% part o) the twentieth -entur%> eight i))erent -ountries ha laun-he As-ienti)i- eEpeitions> some o) whi-h were as mu-h aboutanneEation as eEploration.20' (% 1'0> eight -laims ha been mae on the -ontinent>209 an these eight woul be the -laims that woulbe lo-8e in pla-e uring the 1' 5ntar-ti-a 4reat%.20, 4his treat%> along with supplementar% agreements Xaltogether -omprising theA5ntar-ti- 4reat% #%stemY have manage to AavoiTU -on)li-ts over sovereignt% . . . preventTU the militariOation o) the -ontinent . . . TanpreventTU an unregulate gol rush in 5ntar-ti-a.20 4his su--ess has> at least in part> been attribute to the appli-ation o) the res-ommunes o-trine to the 5ntar-ti- 4reat% #%stem.20 4here are two -ru-ial points> however> that i))erentiate 5ntar-ti-a )rom the Mooan that prei-t the )ailure o) the 3#4 regime on-e the Moon be-omes a resour-e base that is reail% a--essible. 5ntar-ti-a is not atrue res -ommunes. 4he 5ntar-ti- 4reat% i not re+uire states parties to isavow their territorial -laims.210 Rather> it onl% barre themoi)i-ation o) the -laims that were in eEisten-e in 1'.211 #tates not onl% still maintain their -laims on 5ntar-ti- territor%>212 but somhave gone as )ar as to issue postage stamps in the name o) their 5ntar-ti- territories to reassert the vitalit% o) those -laims.21! 4he impa-o) this perpetuation o) territorial -laims has been mitigate b% other arrangements in the 5ntar-ti- 4reat% #%stem that severel% limit the


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Northwestern Debate Institute 1?2011 File Titlepro)itabilit% o) states eEploiting their -laims> su-h as the roto-ol on :nvironmental rote-tion to the 5ntar-ti- 4reat%>21$ whi-h hasbarre eEtra-tion o) 5ntar-ti- resour-es until 20$.21' 5itionall%> 5ntar-ti-a oes not have the mineral or resour-e wealth o) theMoon.219 5ntar-ti-a has not been worth eveloping> mu-h less )ighting over. Contrast this with the -urrent isputeover the resour-e"ri-h 5r-ti-Fwhere states are tr%ing to maintain assertions o) territorial -ontrol to hore the energ% resour-es beneaththe seabe21,Fan it is -lear that where resour-es an pro)its are a--essible> -on)li-t surel% )ollows. 4he histori-al -on)li-ts overimperialist regimes an -olonialism ten to suggest that when power)ul states have an interest in amassing something that eEists in largepreviousl% un"owne +uantities in one lo-ation> the% will inevitabl% -ome into -on)li-t with one another. #tates have a limite e-onomi-

interest in the 5ntar-ti->21 an so the% are unli8el% to invest militar% assets an the ne-essar% )inan-ing to vini-ate or broaen their-laim to something that is not generating them an% wealth. In -ontrast> states seem to believe that the% have potentiall% great e-onomi-interests in the Moon an> a--oringl% ma% have a -orresponingl% large motivation to have -on)li-ts over it.21 :Eploration o) the Moowill bene)it humanit%Fon :arth> new te-hnologies will be have to be evelope to ai states in the new spa-e ra-eF an on the Moon>proviing new opportunities )or human growth an eEpansion.220 =hatever name a regime wants to give to the MoonFres nullius or re-ommunesFthe Moon represents an unparallele opportunit%. Imagine a situation where one state was able to not onl% )in large+uantities o) 7elium"! or some other valuable resour-e on the Moon but also su--eee in en%ing a--ess to other states. 4hat statewoul en6o% a tremenous e-onomi- avantage b% -ornering the mar8et in some ultra"rare> use)ul -ommoit%. Resour-es b% their naturebree -on)li-t.221 5s emonstrate above> states will soon be -onverging on the Moon to reap the bene)its that it ma% provie. iven thre-ent a-tions b% the nite #tates an China> an the spirit o) -on+uest an -ompetition that seems to be in)orming the -urrent Moonrush> the vague an generi- 3#4 will not be able to su))i-ientl% stop state -on)li-t over the greatest e-onomi- opportunit% in histor%.

$nilateral action &it! 0e-3 'ased #usion &ill result in political insta'ilit( and controversies 'et&een

countries-international cooperation is 'est

ilder +@-Ri-har (. (iler> Ri-har (. even i) the nite #tates -oul go it alone in this wa%> there are reasons wh% it ma% not wish to o so. neither the .#.government nor .#. private enterprise is li8el% to be willing to ris8 the ver% substantial investment an long"term e))ort ne-essaril%involve in see8ing to evelop 7e"!"base )usion energ% without some assuran-e that"assuming the ver% i))i-ult te-hni-al anengineering obsta-les to eveloping e))i-ient )usion rea-tors an establishing permanent moon bases -an be over-ome"the re+uisite suppo) lunar 7e"! -an -ontinue to be obtaine without en-ountering signi)i-ant legal or politi-al i))i-ulties. =hatever ma% be the most legalpersuasive interpretation o) eEisting international law> other nations or people on :arth ma% -hallenge the unilateral appropriation o) lun

resour-es b% the nite #tates> espe-iall% o) a potentiall% uni+uel% valuable resour-e su-h as 7e"!. 4his> -ertainl%> was the internationaleEperien-e in the 190Js when eveloping nations vigorousl% proteste the prospe-t that a )ew te-hnologi-all%avan-e -ountries antheir private enterprises might alone appropriate what was at the time assume to be the mineral ri-hes o) the eep seabe. 4hatper-eption ultimatel% le to the enun-iation o) the -ommon heritage o-trine> the -onvening o) NCL3#"!> an the aoption o) part Ko) the 12 L3#C.1 3nl% a broal% a--epte international agreement is li8el% to o))er the -ontinue legal an politi-al prei-tabilit%that is essential i) a long"term 7e"!"base )usion energ% program is to be unerta8en an sustaine.11 #e-on> -urrent -ommitmentsalrea% obligate the nite #tates to a -ertain level o) international -ooperation in spa-e a-tivities. =hile the 3uter #pa-e 4reat% anpresent international law o not eEpressl% bar the unilateral appropriation o) lunar resour-es> the% nevertheless impose an obligation onnations to -ooperate in outer spa-e a-tivities an to avoi -onu-t that might give rise to isputes. 120 4he nite #tates is also-ommitte to international -ooperation in outer spa-e a-tivities uner the 3uter #pa-e 4reat%> the multinational )ramewor8 )or-oorination in spa-e eEploration entitle 4he lobal :Eploration #trateg%>J 21 an other agreements> su-h as the International #pa-e#tation 5greement>122 an has similarl% -ommitte itsel) to international -ooperation in eveloping )usion energ% through itsparti-ipation in the re-entl% -on-lue I4:R agreement. 12! .#. insisten-e on a right to unilaterall% appropriate lunar 7e"!> without)urther international agreement> -oul be -ontroversial an regare as in-onsistent with these pre-eents. i) -ountries other thanthe nite #tates also engage in a-tivities on the Moon> as now appears highl% li8el%> it will be in the interest o) ea-h o) them to have atleast some unerstanings to provie )or -ooperation on -ommon problems an 8eep them )rom inter)ering with ea-h otherJs a-tivities. 5the Moon 5greement anti-ipates>12 $ i) some 8in o) lunar agreement is in their -ommon interests> it will be i))i-ult )or su-h anagreement to not aress the salient an thus )ar unresolve issue o) lunar resour-es eEploitation. Conse+uentl%> i) the nite #tatesetermines that it is serious about see8ing to evelop an 7e"!"base )usion energ% program> it woul seem sensible )or it to also see8international agreement on a lunar resour-e regime esigne to provie the long"term legal an politi-al stabilit% that su-h a program wimost li8el% re+uire.

.#. shoul see8 international agreement"international -limate is )avorable an there will be e-rease -on)li-ts
http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2180&context=iljhttp://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2180&context=iljhttp://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2180&context=ilj


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Northwestern Debate Institute 1B2011 File Title

ilder +@-Ri-har (. (iler> Ri-har (. however> several reasons suggesting that the .#. shoul see8 to rea-h international agreement on su-h a regime +uite soon aneven be)ore the possibilit% an pra-ti-alit% o) a permanent moon base an an 7e"!"base )usion power program are -learl% establishe. as is-usse> states an enterprises are unli8el% to be willing to unerta8e the substantial e))ort an investment involve in

eveloping lunar 7e"! mining an 7e"!" base )usion power without the assuran-e o) politi-al an legal stabilit% that onl% a broal%a--epte international agreement -an provie. 12, iven the long lea time whi-h will be re+uire i) the nite #tates wishes to a-hievea viable 7e"!"base )usion power program in the relativel% near )uture"perhaps within the neEt hal)"-entur% or so"it seems sensible )or itto begin to ta8e steps to put the ne-essar% legal in)rastru-ture in pla-e )airl% soon. #e-on> the international -limate is arguabl% nowrelativel% )avorable to a-hieving international agreement on the 8in o) international lunar resour-e regime the nite #tates hopes toa-hieve. 3ther ma6or pla%ers> su-h as China> the :uropean nion> Inia> @apan> an Russia> whi-h -urrentl% appear to have the -apabilit%to parti-ipate in the potential eEploitation o) lunar resour-es> ma% well now share an interest with the nite #tates in a more open"a--esregime an mar8et"base me-hanisms. 12 4he .N. eneral 5ssembl%Js aoption o) the 1$ implementation agreement nulli)%ing theprovisions o) part KI o) the L3#C to whi-h the nite #tates ob6e-te -learl% re)le-ts a broaer international a--eptan-e o) a .#.")avore approa-h to the eEploitation o) eep seabe -ommon heritage resour-es more )avorable to the parti-ipation o) )ree enterprise>whi-h serves as persuasive pre-eent )or the similar treatment o) lunar resour-es. 12 Inee> there is now growing support in the nite#tates )or .#. rati)i-ation o) the L3#C an a--ession -urrentl% seems in-reasingl% li8el%.1!0 In aition> international -ooperationamong the ma6or te-hnologi-all%"avan-e -ountries in both spa-e an )usion power evelopment is alrea% ongoing uner the

International #pa-e #tation an I4:R agreements1 J an the 3bama aministration appears to loo8 )avorabl% on -ooperative multilateralrather than unilateral approa-hes to ealing with broa international issues.1! 2 Moreover> the re-ent spi8e in oil pri-es1!! anheightene international -on-ern about global warming1!$ rein)or-e the pressing nee o) the global e-onom% to )in wa%s to meet theworlJs growing appetite )or energ% while still e-reasing greenhouse gas emissions> an thus to renewe international interest in theevelopment o) alternative energ% sour-es su-h as nu-lear )ission an )usion. 4hir> )or a variet% o) reasons> the -urrent in)luen-e anbargaining power o) the nite #tates both as a leaer in spa-e an nu-lear te-hnolog%> an more generall% as an a-tor on the worlstage> is arguabl% e-lining relative to that o) China> the :uropean nion> Inia> Russia> an other -ountries.1! ' I) this is so> the abilit% the nite #tates to negotiate the 8in o) lunar resour-e regime it wants ma% well be greater now than later. it ma% be easier toestablish the t%pe o) lunar resour-e regime that the nite #tates woul pre)er while the )easibilit% o) 7e"! eEploitation an )usion powean> inee> the possibilit% that we ma% eventuall% )in valuable resour-es elsewhere in the solar s%stem"is still un-ertain an be)orepotentiall% -on-erne states

;'sent a international #rame&or", unilateral mining o# t!e moon &ill cause con#licts

ilder +@-Ri-har (. (iler> Ri-har (. the growing interest in lunar 7e"! poses its own problems. 5s %et> there is no international -onsensus on whether> or how> an%nation or private entit% -an eEploit or a-+uire title to lunar resour-es. 4he .N."evelope 19, 3uter #pa-e 4reat% n, oes notspe-i)i-all% aress this +uestion. 4he relate .N."sponsore 1, Moon 5greement n purports to la% the grounwor8 )or the eventuaestablishment o) a regime )or the eEploitation o) lunar resour-es> but that agreement has thus )ar been rati)ie b% onl% a ver% )ew -ountri" not in-luing the nite #tates an none o) whi-h are -urrentl% leaing spa-e T*2$U powers. n 5bsent an agree international legal)ramewor8> attempts b% the nite #tates or an% other nation or private entit% to a-+uire an bring to :arth signi)i-ant +uantities o) 7e"!-oul give rise to -ontrovers% an -on)li-t. Inee> without the se-urit% o) an establishe legal regime> nations or private entities mightwell be relu-tant to -ommit the ver% substantial mone%> e))ort> an resour-es ne-essar% to mine> pro-ess> an transport ba-8 to :arth the

amounts o) lunar 7e"! su))i-ient to support the broa"s-ale terrestrial use o) 7e"!"base )usion energ%.

Mining unilaterall( &ill cause con#licts among nations-readopting a di##erent moon polic( &ill !elp

7o!nson +1"Dana @. @ohnson> Dr. @ohnson is a #enior 5nal%st at the Northrop rumman CorporationJs 5nal%sis Center> where she isresponsible )or assessing spa-e" an missile"e)ense"relate poli-ies an trens> Aoliti-al (arriers to #pa-e #ettlement> @an"httpB//www.nss.org/settlement/roamap/politi-al.html

4he


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Northwestern Debate Institute 1@2011 File Title=hile the Moon 4reat% woul no oubt be ba )or spa-e evelopment i) it were in )or-e as to the ma6or spa-e powers> its absen-e is not su))i-ient -onition )or spa-e evelopment. 5s the e-onomi- problems )ollowing the emise o) the )ormer #oviet nion illustrate> themere absen-e o) regulation is not enough to en-ourage investmentB there must be positive legal prote-tion )or propert% rights. It thusseems -lear that lunar evelopment re+uires prote-tion o) propert% rights. #u-h prote-tion is i))i-ult to a-hieve in the absen-e o) somesort o) legal regime. 5n although it is -on-eivable that an appropriate regime might be provie via a unilateral approa-h emplo%ingonl% the muni-ipal Xomesti-Y law o) iniviual nations> that is ver% mu-h a se-on"best solution.

Rewriting the Moon 4reat% is not out o) the +uestion. It is prett% generall% -onsiere a )ailure> even b% its supporters. 5n b% its ownterms> it -omes up )or perioi- review b% the nite Nations eneral 5ssembl%. 4he )irst su-h review was s-heule to ta8e pla-e ten%ears a)ter its entr% into )or-e. 5lthough there was then no great interest among N members in revisiting the Moon 4reat%> a strongproposal )or substantial re)orm might generate su-h interest. #pa-e -apabilit% is no longer a superpower monopol%. In )a-t> several 4hir=orl opinion leaers> su-h as Inia an China> now have -reible spa-e programs. #o there ma% be a mar8et )or new ieas in this area

5n entirel% new treat%> negotiate among the ma6or spa-e powers> is another possibilit%. 4his avois an% politi-al i))i-ulties asso-iatewith rasti- moi)i-ation o) a treat% that is alrea% in )or-e> an allows the nations that a-tuall% have something at sta8e to ta8e the lea.#u-h a limitation woul probabl% allow )or )aster negotiations> an woul substantiall% reu-e )ree rier an holout problems thato)ten plague negotiations in the nite Nations Committee on the ea-e)ul ses o) 3uter #pa-e> where man% nations with little ire-tsta8e are involve in a -onsensus"base s%stem.

o) -ourse> it is possible that a unilateral regime> base on the muni-ipal law o) iniviual spa-e)aring nations> -oul provie the

ne-essar% prote-tion> at least in the earl% a%s o) lunar resour-e evelopment. (ut su-h an approa-h has several rawba-8s. it -arriwith it in-rease potential )or -on)li-t among nations. #e-on> it might seem to la-8 politi-al legitima-% in the worl -ommunit%. 5nthir> the )ear o) hostile iplomati-> e-onomi-> or militar% a-tion b% other nations might unermine the ver% -on)ien-e an stabilit% thatresour-e regime is esigne to -reate. 4hese problems are not insuperable> an there is some pre-eent )or su-h an approa-h> but theproblems with unilateralism are su))i-ientl% great that it shoul be regare as a last resort.

Regarless o) whi-h approa-h is ta8en> some thought nees to be given to the +uestion o) how an% regime shoul be stru-ture. 4heNational #pa-e #o-iet% has ta8en the position that earl% evelopment o) spa-e resour-es is vital to the )uture o) humanit% )or e-onomi->environmental> an spiritual reasons. 4his prou-es a strong bias in )avor o) a s%stem that prou-es earl% evelopment.

4hus> a -laims regime> in whi-h private parties are reware )or is-overing an eEploiting lunar resour-es> woul ma8e more sensethan a regime base on allo-ation b% a -entraliOe authorit%. 4hough su-h an argument might have been rai-al in the 1,0s> it is )ouneon e-onomi- prin-iples that are now uneE-eptionable. 4he pre-ise etails )or implementing su-h a s%stem are be%on the s-ope o) thisarti-le> although the prin-iples set out above provie substantial guian-e.

Con-lusion

@ust as various te-hnologi-al hurles must be over-ome )irst> it is -ertain that we will not see evelopment o) lunar resour-es without anappropriate legal regime. 4he Moon 4reat%Js -ommon heritage regime has proven thoroughl% unsatis)a-tor%> an so will an% regimebase on similar prin-iples. it seems -lear that the most esirable regime )or eveloping lunar resour-es> one base on privapropert% rights with minimal governan-e> is also the approa-h that is li8el% to prove most a--eptable to spa-e)aring nations.

It is m% hope that the spa-e)aring nations will seiOe the opportunit% to wor8 out su-h a regime in the neEt )ew %ears. =e are alrea%beginning to see the ver% )irst stirrings o) interest in -ommer-ial eEploitation o) the Moon> an b% the earl% part o) the neEt e-ae we arli8el% to see more. 5s interests be-ome more -on-rete> negotiation will be-ome more i))i-ult. 4oa%Js situation ma8es agreement ongeneral prin-iples easier. 5s the parties are able to ma8e out their )uture interests with greater -larit% an spe-i)i-it%> the tas8 o)negotiation is li8el% to be-ome more i))i-ult.

=o international cooperation over lunar mining could lead to a 666 and massive con#lict

0atc! 1+"(en6amin D. 7at-h> :Ee-utive Notes an Comments :itor> :mor% International Law> ADIIDIN 47: I: IN 47: #W&47: N::D httpB//www.law.emor%.eu/)ileamin/6ournals/eilr/2$/2$.1/7at-h.p)

D3"N347IN s%stems impose no restri-tions on -ommons users. n2$ Rather> the% permit )ree use Xan abuseYo) the s%stem. 5 D3"N347IN T*29,U s%stem woul e))e-tivel% be impose on the Moon i) the 3#4 anMoon 5greement were repeale with no substitute agreement in their pla-e. In -ombination with the naturalW::34 s%stem governing the Moon> n2$ the onl% )a-tor preventing the Moon )rom being sub6e-te to atrage% o) the -ommons woul be the small number o) a-tors iviing the vast eEpanse o) the lunar sur)a-e. n2'0


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Northwestern Debate Institute 2+2011 File Title3n the other han> with no legal regime )or the Moon at all> the trage% o) the -ommons shoul be the leasto) humanit%Js worries. 4he total repeal o) the 3#4 an Moon 5greements woul -ause the Moon to -ease beingan ob6e-t o) international law> leaving it utterl% )ree an open )or the uses o) the )irst -laimants. Rather than-reate a regime to govern state interests over the Moon> this poli-% woul -ause the Moon to be-ome theinternational e+uivalent o) the =il =est. Rights to the Moon woul be e)ine onl% to the egree that thoserights -oul be prote-te.4he total repeal o) the 3#4 woul almost -ertainl% solve the MoonJs e-onomi- problems generate b% the

trage% o) the -ommons. =ith no regulation or -onvolute proprietar% s-hemes an no legal manate to provie)or )ree riers> the isin-entives that have suppresse lunar evelopment woul vanish. 7owever> this total la-8o) lunar law woul li8el% heighten the -omparison to the =il =est " with no regulation> states woul have anin-entive to militariOe the Moon an to engage in prolonge -on)li-ts with other woul"be users to gainmonopolies an eE-lusive uses over valuable lunar resour-es. =hile a s-heme re6e-ting all lunar regulationmight lea to an era o) )ree an open use o) the Moon> it also ma% lea to =orl =ar III.

.ploiting lunar resources unilaterall( &ill lead to more pro'lems-international cooperation and open

dialogue is necessar(

0atc! 1+"(en6amin D. 7at-h> :Ee-utive Notes an Comments :itor> :mor% International Law> ADIIDIN 47: I: IN 47: #W&

47: N::D httpB//www.law.emor%.eu/)ileamin/6ournals/eilr/2$/2$.1/7at-h.p)

5 return o) humans to the Moon an a harnessing o) lunar resour-es is be-oming a realit%. 4he -urrent legal)ramewor8 is both e-onomi-all% ine))i-ient an insu))i-ientl% -lear to guie spa-e)aring states in theirintera-tions on the Moon. New institutions are neee> an given the timetable T*2$U that the spa-e)aringstates have provie )or their return to the Moon> the worl shoul turn its attention to this issue now. (%proa-tivel% -reating a new legal )ramewor8 )or the Moon> an outer spa-e generall%> potential e-onomi-opponents will be )or-e to reevaluate their own interests an to listen to the -on-erns o) other states. Regarlesso) whether the solution -reate resembles the Lunar the Mari roto-ol> or some mile groun> it is o)paramount importan-e that states begin an parti-ipate in a ialogue about the )uture o) the Moon an itsresour-es. 4his ialogue will lea to greater mutual unerstaning an reu-e the -han-e o) international -on)li-ton the Moon. :ven i) 7elium"! )usion ultimatel% oes not be-ome a solution to the worlJs energ% problems>states will be none"the"worse )or having -ome together> is-usse energ% e-onomi-s> an wor8e out a mutuall%agreeable solution. I)> on the other han> it oes prove to be a su--ess)ul energ% sour-e> the ris8s o) allowing the

3#4 an Moon 5greement to remain the o))i-ial international law o) lunar resour-es are too great. It is better tobe sa)e an win up with another -ommon"spa-e regime that eEists onl% on paper than to be sorr% an see theworl reu-e to -on)li-t over 7elium"!. Creating a new treat% through open ialogue will lea not onl% to anew tren in more e))i-ient -ommons"resour-e management but also to greater respe-t )or international law another states as the worl )a-es the -hallenges o) the neEt -entur%.

$% $nilateralism ad $% a'andonment o# supporting an international regime results in an arena o#

militar( competition and con#lict)

Tannen&ald +3" Nina 4annenwal> Dire-tor o) the International Relations rogram an @ou8ows8% 5pril> 200!> ALaw ersus ower on the 7igh largel% in isregar o) the interests o) others. I) pursue> su-h astrateg% will unermine the )ragile eEisting legal orer in spa-e wiel% supporte b% the rest o) the worl. 4his will pla-e in6eopar% not onl% the interests o) other nations in spa-e> but the multiple interests there o) the nite #tates itsel). (e-ause o)the threat pose b% this evelopment> it is -lear that> one wa% or another> a new regime )or spa-e will emerge. 4he eEisting regime-annot survive in its -urrent )orm in the )a-e o) the new -hallenges. :ither it will be trans)orme b% agreement into a moreelaborate operating regime that balan-es the various interests in spa-e on the basis o) new guiing prin-iples an norms> or it willbe trans)orme b% e)ault into a regime o) power an an arena o) militar% -ompetition ominate b% the nite #tates.
http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2180&context=ilj&sei-redir=1#search=%22mining+moon+legal+regime%22http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2180&context=ilj&sei-redir=1#search=%22mining+moon+legal+regime%22http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2180&context=ilj&sei-redir=1#search=%22mining+moon+legal+regime%22http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2180&context=ilj&sei-redir=1#search=%22mining+moon+legal+regime%22


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Northwestern Debate Institute 212011 File Title$nilateral ;ction ad $nilateral $% space eploitation catal(>ed '( resource scarcit( leads to space

&eaponi>ation)

0untle(, oc", ;nd eingartner 1+P =ae L. 7untle%> # Naval ostgrauate #-hool> @oseph . (o-8> Wro- Institute Mirana =eingartner> =eingartner Consulting> Alanning 4he nplannableB #-enarios 3n4he #pa-e oli-%> ol. 29 Issue 1> pg. 2'"2> 3nlineBhttpB//www.s-ien-eire-t.-om/s-ien-e/arti-le/pii/#029'9$9000129K

$.'. #-enario (B A#is%phus Xor A4he Never :ning #tor%Y #is%phus es-ribes a )uture -hallenge b% a s-ar-it% o) resour-es buten6o%ing a high egree o) te-hnologi-al brea8through. In 2010 oil pri-es rea-h \!'0 per barrel> resulting in massive investment innew energ% te-hnolog% b% the #5> Inia> China an Russia. 4hese investments lea to a leap in -omputing -apa-it%. 4he highpri-e o) oil -auses global )oo shortages. 4hese in turn -ause isruptions in the politi-al orer o) man% nations an massiveispla-ement o) populations towars Northern regions. Canaa -loses its borers an -alls )or the N to assist its management o)# Ae-onomi- re)ugees. #evere water shortages sen sho-8waves in the =estern worl. niversit% o) =is-onsin Law #-hoo200> A5 Legal Regime )or the Mining o) 7elium"! on the MoonB .#. oli-% 3ptions. Fordham International Law Journal. olume !

Issue 2. 5rti-le 1.httpB//ir.lawnet.)orham.eu/-gi/view-ontent.-giHarti-le210?-onteEtil67owever> even i) the nite #tates -oul go it alone in this wa%> there are reasons wh% it ma% not wish to o so. neither the.#. government nor .#. private enterprise is li8el% to be willing to ris8 the ver% substantial investment an long"term e))ortne-essaril% involve in see8ing to evelop 7e"!"base )usion energ% without some assuran-e that"assuming the ver% i))i-ultte-hni-al an engineering obsta-les to eveloping e))i-ient )usion rea-tors an establishing permanent moon bases -an beover-ome"the re+uisite suppl% o) lunar 7e"! -an -ontinue to be obtaine without en-ountering signi)i-ant legal or politi-ali))i-ulties. =hatever ma% be the most legall% persuasive interpretation o) eEisting international law> other nations or people on:arth ma% -hallenge the unilateral appropriation o) lunar resour-es b% the nite #tates> espe-iall% o) a potentiall% uni+uel%valuable resour-e su-h as 7e"!. 4his> -ertainl%> was the international eEperien-e in the 190Js when eveloping nations vigorousl%proteste the prospe-t that a )ew te-hnologi-all%avan-e -ountries an their private enterprises might alone appropriate what wasat the time assume to be the mineral ri-hes o) the eep seabe. 4hat per-eption ultimatel% le to the enun-iation o) the -ommonheritage o-trine> the -onvening o) NCL3#"!> an the aoption o) part KI o) the 12 L3#C.1 3nl% a broal% a--epteinternational agreement is li8el% to o))er the -ontinue legal an politi-al prei-tabilit% that is essential i) a long"term 7e"!"base)usion energ% program is to be unerta8en an sustaine.11 #e-on> -urrent -ommitments alrea% obligate the nite #tates to a-ertain level o) international -ooperation in spa-e a-tivities. =hile the 3uter #pa-e 4reat% an present international law o noteEpressl% bar the unilateral appropriation o) lunar resour-es> the% nevertheless impose an obligation on nations to -ooperate inouter spa-e a-tivities an to avoi -onu-t that might give rise to isputes. 120 4he nite #tates is also -ommitte tointernational -ooperation in outer spa-e a-tivities uner the 3uter #pa-e 4reat%> the multinational )ramewor8 )or -oorination inspa-e eEploration entitle 4he lobal :Eploration #trateg%>J 21 an other agreements> su-h as the International #pa-e #tation5greement>122 an has similarl% -ommitte itsel) to international -ooperation in eveloping )usion energ% through itsparti-ipation in the

moon mining negative ndi 2011

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