- _ %7._ " •

<

THE _

"COMPLETE WORKS

OF

M. DEMONTESQ,UIEU.:*

/V OL. I.

J_z

THE ......_$

COMPLETE WORKS

OF

M. Ds M ONTESQ.UIEU. -'

TRANSLATED v.o. Taa FRENCH.

IN FOUR VOLUMES.

VOL,UME THE FIRST.

II I --- I I

LONDON',

Printedfor T. E vANS, in the Strand;AND

W. D ._v Is, in Piccadilly..L

M DCCLXXVII.

17q_

A N _ '_,

UL 0 G I U M

0 hl

PRESIDENT MONTESQ,.UIEU,

B Y

MONSIEUR D'ALEM BERT.

THE interel_whichgoodcitizensarepleafedto take in theEncyclopedia,andthegreatnum-berofmenofletters,whoconfecratetheirlaboursto it, feemto permitus to regardthisworkas oneof the mot_propermonuments,to prefervethegratefulfentimentsofourcountry,andthatrefpecq:whichisdueto thememoryof tholecelebratedmenwhohavedoneit honour. Perfuaded,however,thatM. de Montefquieuhadatitleto expe&otherpanegyrifis,andthatthepublicgriefdefervedto bedefcribedby moreeloquentpens,wewouldhaveconcealedwithinour ownbreaffsourjuftconcern,andrefpe&forhis memory; buttheacknowledge-mentof whatweowehimweholdtoodearto per-mitus to leavethecareof it to others. Whileabenefa&ortomankindbyhiswritings,he alfocon-defcendedto,befo to thiswork,andourgratitudepretendsto nomorebutonlyto traceouta fewlinesat the.footofhisftatue.

CharlesdeSecondat,baronof La BredeandofMontefq_ieu,late prefident_ mortieroftheparlia-mentofBourdeaux,memberoftheFrenchacademy"

'COL.I. a " ot

B AN EULOGIUM ON

of fcldncesandbelleslettresof Pruflla,andof the_/J'yalSocietyof Londun,wa_bornat thecafi'leofLa Brede,nearBourdeaux,the iSth of Janua_x689,Of a noblefamil_of Guycnne.Hisgreat:gr6iifgrandfather,JohndeSecondat;:Rewardof'theh_h01d :toHenrythe Second,kingof Navarre,anddrerwardstoJane,daughterofthatking, WhomarriedAntonyofBourbon,purchafedthecrateofM6ntefquieufor therum,ofxo,ooolivres,whichthisprincefsgavehimby an authenticdeed,'asarewardforhisprobkyandfervices. ' "_

Henry theThird, king of Navarre,afterwardsHenrythe Fourth, king of France,crewedthelandsof Montefquieuinto a barony,infavourofjacob"de Secondat,fortof John,frr_ oneof 'thegentlemenin ordinaryof the bedchamber:tottii*prince,andofterwardscolonelof the regimento_fChatillon. J_hnGat_n de Set'Ondat,his t'et_ndfon,havingmarriedadwagh_rOfthefirfipret_dlenXofthe 9afliamentofBourdeaux,pure'haledthet_ceof prefidente_mortierin thisfociety. He hadftw-ralchi!dren;one of whomerrteredimotheferviee,dlft?nguiPaedhimfdfin it, and_iuittedJt_ery;earth;inlife. "ThisWasthe fatherofCharlesdeSet-_n'dat;author_f theSpiritof Laws. T_fe partieatarsmay_perhapsappearmifpiacedat the beginnirrg0fthe_log'eofaphilofop_erwho_ename_anttsfotit:tiein need0_"arrceftors; butletusnot envy,t_h_ir_e.morYthate'c]atwhichthisnamereflecetsuponit. :

• Theearlymarksof his genius,a _prefage_:#e-fitnesfodeceitful,wasnot ;f_inCh_rtesdeSee'on,d_t: hedifeovetedvery_on'what'he0nedaFwouldbe,_and"hisfatheremployedall his_atterMoaxo'etfl-_tivate.thistiring'genius,xheo'bje&_ h'i?,s_o_eandof:'his,endernefs;At the age of"_tw_ht_-,y&angMontefquieualready preparedmaterialsfor the

Spirit

PRES_ENT _MDN T E_8_,U IE U. jil

Sp'iritofLawsiby,a wett-dige,Oa:dextra&fromt;hofe

ei_i:llaw:_ms*heretoforeNew,_on]aid,in'laisae_lyouth,_hefoundationof workswhichhave'_-_"ri_ered.himimmortal._ TileffuC!,yofjurifprpdence,

however,_ough tefs dry¢o_M.de M "iethantothemo_partoftholewhoapply_ iz,he_.cgufeg*'ff_died.itasapllilofo'l_er_wasnot£u_¢ientfortheexterrcanda_ivk.yofhisgenius._ __-quired.deelsly,,at-the ,fameelms,into(ubje_"'_:illmore-unporta_t_andmore de{icate,'__nddifcufl'edthemin _ilence,with that .wffdom,.withthat de-Cency,andwi_,hthatequity',whichh¢hasfincedif-covered/nh_s_orks.

A ._other_f_'his,fa_er,-p_efideat__oe¢i_'of_e,_mliamentc_fBoucdcaux,.an ablejudgeandvir-"tuouscidzen,_e oracleof his'ownfociotyand.ofhisL:_rovince,:having;lo_an only-fon,and.war,ringd.?:,cferv¢,:inhis owncorps,that eI_vg.tedfpiric-whichhehadendeavouredto infa.feinto.it, lefthis"fortuneaM hisofficetoM. deMontefquieu._0d,beer_r_noneof_hecounfellorsof,theparliamentof"Bourdeauxfincetheg4thofFebruary_I7_4,and.wasreceivedprtf-_lentd_ortierthe.__thofJuly,t7x6.• S.qmc'years.af_er,in _7_z,duringtheking'smi-_nomy,his Iocietyemployedhim to pref_ntte-m_ra.nces,uponoccafionofa newimpotL P-laced.b_wetnthe'throneandthepeople,h8filled,likearefpec'ffalfu_bje&and courageousmagifi_:ate,the_pl0yme_,_Conoble,and-fo_lit-tteenvied,ofran--Icing_e criestf theunfortunatereachthefovereign;the publicmKery,reprcf_ntedwith asmuchacl-drC_f_,a_.forceof argument, obtainedthatjuffic¢"'i_)_t--._s'_a_wo_|n,the_formof letters,'the_of_ of _¢hi_h.was_roprov,,t._a:.rll¢idola_ of.moP_of thtRa£ans_lldnotapt'car"incltfcc_¢ternaldamn¢-

az _'hich

iv = _:AN EU_LO:GiUM:0 Nwhichi_demanded.Thisfuceefs,it is_true,.much

,,m0_e;fi_fortunatelyfor the f_tet_ for hi_,.was_of°_sfhort.confintianceis if it liad.beenA¢nj_fLi_Scarce.hadthe,voiceiof,th.epeop!gc_i'ed::_,be.hear_,.but the_imp_t_,-;_whichhad:beeh:ful?l_.effed,..wai:re_acedby m/other:but _h'egood¢iu_ _ad.d0n_hisduty.• , "" •": _..... o:_:i_)''I':• He wasreceivedthe3dofApril,_x716;,ia_;.9ihe.... " W _ __academyof Bourdcaux,which,asthenonly_a-aing..A tafce.formufic,andforworkso£puj_c.a-tertainment,_had at_firfl:_¢.ffc.mbkdtogethg_thememberswho¢ompofcdit. M, de M0n_tefqui6ubelieved,with reafon,,that the firingardour_andtalentsof his friendsmightbetmpl#ye_d_ith Rillgreateradvantagein phyficalfubje&s.He wasger-fundedthatnature,foworthyofbeingbehelde_¢¢__here,foundalfo,in allplaces,eyesw_rthy:ofyiew-ingher; that,onthe contrary,works:oft_._e_otadmittingofmediocrity,andthe metropo!isbeingthecenterof menof abilitiesandopporturdtiC/improvementinthisway,it wastoodifficulttOga-thertogether,atadiffancefromit,af_ffi¢ieatnumSerofdiftjngui_edwriters.He looked'upo0t_hef01¢_-tiesforbelleslettres,fo ftrangelymultipliedin our.provinces,asa kind,orratherasa flaa_ow;ofi_te-iary_lpxury,whichis ofprejudiceto real:op_jeon;c,withoutevenprcfentinguswiththeappearancd_Pf_t. Luckily.theflukedela Force,byaprize'whichhe hadjuR.foundedat Bourdeaux,fecondedtl/fe'¢'ational_d ju_defigns.It wasjudgedthatar_ex-perimentproperlymade_vouldbe pr_¢rabic;t6=a.weak_ifc0uffe_rabad poem_ andB0firdeauxgot_anac_demyoffci%nc,es..... i i . ". _,•_M. de Mo'ntefquieu,notatalieage'rto fhe_¢h_m-fclfto ithepublic;fcerned,accor¢lingto theexpr r.fiOa:ofa gieatgenius,'towaitforan ageripefqr

p RE S_D E_T MONTI_SQ _J I E Uo _y

wilting._It_wasnot till 17_-I, thatiSto fay,at 3z=_;eal:s_"age,:thathepuSlilhedthe PerfianLetters.The:S_arriois,_hd thefeiiousandcomicamufements,might:hauef_gilhedhimwiththe idea of:it, but

i ti_ ex_eiled_t_s'_del.Thedefcripfionoforientalafiann:ei-s,'r_alYorTfippofed,:ofxhieprideandphlegm

• of Aria@loye,is_hut thefmallefcobje&of there_lett_H;_t0htyfe_;e_,f0_tofpeak,asapretencefora_licare faxire1i a:oUi;manners,andfor treatin_Offeveratimp0rtgntfubje&s,whichthe authorwent•_tbthebottom'0f;,_Whilehe onlyappegredto glanceat them. In this kindof md_.ingpi&ureiUPoecchieflye_cpbfes,'with_ muchlgeatedeafiriefs'asenergy,whateveramdngftus moltftruckhispene-tratingeyes: Ourwa¥oftreatingthemoltfillyfh_ngsfefibufly,andofturningthe moltimportantintoajoke; ourconverfationswhicharefob!uftefingandi'0frivolous_ Ourimpatienceevenin the midfl;ofpleafui.eitfelf_ ourprejudicesandoura&ionsper-pe,ua"'llyin contratti&ionwithourunderftandin_s-_,,t'Onluchloveof gloryjoinedwithfomuchrefpcc"tfor'theidoIofcourt-favour; ourcourtiersfomeanand foVain; ourexteriorpolitenefsto, andourrealcontemptof, Rrangers,or ouraffec'_dregardforthem; the fantafticnefsof our taffes,thanwhichthei_is nothinglowerbuttheeagernefsof all Eu-ropet_oadoptthem_ ourbarbarousdifdainfor thetwomoil:refpe&abteoccupationsofa citizen,com-merceandmagiRracy; ourliterarydifputes,fokeenandfoufclefs_ ourragetbrwritingbeforewethink,andforjudglngbeforewcunderRand.To thispic-tm.e,_whichislively,butwithoutmalice,heoppofes,in theapologueoftheTroglodytes,thedefctiptioab£a virtuouspeQple,becomewifeby misfortunes:_Pie_e_worthyVf the portico, in anotherpla_c,h_reprefent_philofophy,whichhadbeena long

a ;_ t_me

A_ _ULOGIUM-a_ . _

ti!_!:_fmotheced,appeat_gallnor.a.fudden,_regaia._ing, by • rapid:progeefs,the timewhich.tie.hadloR_.:p_rl6ttatiag,e_,eaamongstttleRuffiansa_tl/¢voico_f_ geiaiu_whichinvitesh_r_.._hile,am3mgothea_eopleof F_,urope,fuperR-/fion,,likea tifickatmgfphere_prevemsthat light_which furroimdathemunaBbands,_from_eacbingthorn. Infine,D]:heptin_il_leswhichhe hasef_alolifl_edconcerningri_ natureof ancientandmoderngovernmental_heprefentsuswiththebudof thofebrightideaswhichh_vebeenlincedevelopedbythesutlmrinhisgroatsvorlg. •

Tlie_differentfubje&s,deprivedatprefentof thet_racesof n0veity,whichtheyhadwhenthePerfianLettersfirP_appeared_willfor ever prefervethemerit_of that originalchara&erwhichthe authorhashadtheart togivethem_ ameritbyfomuchthemorereal_that in thiscareit proceedsalo_fromthe.geniusofthewriter,andnotfromthatf0,.reignveilwithwhichhecoveredhimfelf;forUPoecacquired,duringhis abodein France,not onlyfoRpcrfe&a knowledgeof our morals,but evenfo •tong a tin&ureof our manners,that his ftyle

m_ak'esusoftenforgethiscountry:Thisfmalldefe&inpointofprobabilitywasperhapsnotwithoutde-_fignand addret_: whenhe wasexpofingourfollies _:andvices,hewantedwithoutdoubtatfotodojuftice_toour advantages.He wasfullyconfciousof the_fipidityofa dire&panegyric: he hasmoredeli _:cateiypraifedus,by f0oftenaffumingourownair _tOfatirizeusmoreagreeably. • _:__,_Nptwkhfi_dingthefuccefiof thiswork,M. de _Mo_nte!quieudidnotopenlydeclarehimfelf,theau-- ::_::_tk_of:_it.: Perhapshethoughtthatbythismeans i_h_:ycould-:more..eafilyefcapethat literaryTa/;ile, fiwhieh.fpares_anonymouswritingsthemorewillingly, i_:_" becaufe_

e

PRESIDENT MONTE$O_UIEU. v_i

becaufeit is alwaystheperfcm,andnotthework,whichisthe aimof itsdarts. P_hapshewasafraidof heine at_tackedon accountof thepretendedcon-

- trail:of thePeifianLetterswiththegravityof his! office; a fortof reproach,faJd he, whichcritics

_everfail to make, becaofeit requiresnoeffortof; gerdcs. But his fe_t was dlf¢overed,and the

public already pointed him out to the Frencha_:ademy. The event demonffratedhowprudent

M. de Montefquteu_sfilcncehadh_o. Ufl_ecex-preffeshimfetf fom_'dmesfreelyenough,notcon-ceraingthe fundamentalsof Chriftianity,but aboutmatterswhichtooman},people affe&to confoundwithChrii_ianityitfelf; about the fpiritof perfecu-don withwhichfo manyChri_ans have beenmated; aboutthe temporalufurpstionof ecclefiaf_icpower; about the etceglvemultiplicationof mo-Baflzr!_, whichdeprivethe fr.ateof fubjec_ wit:h.ot_tgtvmgworfhippe.tsto God; about fumeopi-nions whichhave in vain been attempted tO tm¢i_ablill_ as principles; aboutour religiousdigputes, alwaysviolent andalwaysfa.tal. If heap.l;_grsanywheretotouchuponmoredelicatequeflions,¢ndwhichmorenearlyintercf_thoChfit_ianreligion,hilsrefle_ions,weighedwithjuftice, areinraft .veryfgvourableto revelation; becaufeh¢ only ib.ewshootlittlehumanreafon,leftto itfdf,knowsconcern:ing therefubje&s. In a word,amongthe genuinelettersof M. deMontefquieutheforeignprinterhadinferredfumeby anotherhand; andth,y oughtatleaff, beforethe authorwas condemned,to haved_inguilhed which properly belonged to him

W/thot_tregardto thefeconfiderations,on _h_onehand,hatredunder thenameof z.al, and,on:_ti¢:Oflmr,zeal withoutdifceramentOr underitandiag,roleand unitedthcmfetvesagainf_theP_rfianL_tters,

a 4 Informers,

Viii AN -EULOGIUM ON

Informers,a fpecicsofmendangerousand-bai_whichevenina wifegovernmentareunfortunately,fomctimesIi_enedto, alarmed,by,an-,uiafaithfutextra&,the pietyof theminiftry,:M.deM0nte£-:quieu,by,theadviceof, hisfriends,,fupporte&hit,the publicvoice,havingoffered:himfelffor:that_placein d_eFrenchacademyvacan_bythedeatli:_sfMLdeSacy,the minifterwrotea:letter:to the:kc_demy,that his majeftywouldalever,agree-tothe:cle&iOnOftheaumor,of the Perfian,Letters; that_he.hadnotreadthebook_ but,thatpe:fons_inwhom:he placedconfidencehadinformed,himof theirpoifonousanddangeroustendency.M.deMontef.,quieuperceivedwhata Rrokefueh an itccufationm.ight:beto hisperfon,hisfamily,andthe tran,-_quilityof his life. Heneitherputfo higha price_ _upol_.literaryhonours,eit-herkeenlytoleekthemi,/)r _to affcd:to difdainthemwhenthey,cameinhisway,, i'nor_.inaword,-toregardthefimplewantof themas:, :/a misfortune: butaperpetualexelufion,andefpe-ciallythemotivesofthatexclufion,appearedtohim-- _to.beaninjury., He lawtheminifier._ declaredto: _!him.that,./brparticularreafons,hedidnot.own.the _;P_erfianLetters_ butthathe wouldbe Rillfar,herfrom,difowning.aworkfor whichhe believedhehadno reafonto blufla; and thatheoughtto be _judgedafterareading,and_iztuponaninformation. _Attar theminiRerdidwhatheoughttohavebegun :_with_, he readthe book,lovedthe author,_,and _learnedto placehisconfidencebetter.•TheFrench _a¢_.derriywasnotdeprivedofoneof itsgreateftor- _!namcnts,and Francehadthehappinefsto preferve !i_a_fubje&whichfuperRidonor c_lumnywasreadyto :_depriveiacrof; forM.deMontefquieuhaddeclared,to thegdvernment,that,afterthatkindof affront. _'_w_chtheywereaboutto putuponhim,he woukt !!_

Yr

PRE$1DENT MONTE $O_UIEU.

i fote_ners,-whoWit_openarms-_ffe._edi g°__am_ngto:receivehim,:Aaq-_e_ofthati:faCety, thatTepbfS;'_nd_pe'rhaps_'thOfdr_wafds,whmhhe -mig}/__:-h_av6

: hol_Pfor_!inh_isown'country., _h_ natio6 wdh]_thai,e:deploredth_srlofs,and _th6difgrace of it woulclrm4vithf_a_ridin-g,ha_e'fallen upon:_itl.......... ..::'-,Thelate_ma_l d'Effr_e,, at:fha_timediF_6r

of,:the French:_tcademy¢condu&edhimfelf_pdhthis oocafionlike;a 'virtuouscou?tierand a perfoaofia_truly"elevated:mind: he was neitheraf/'didofabufinghis *creditnor of endangeringit _ he fup'-portedhis.friend:andjuftified'S6crat(_s.Tl'/is'a&of courag6,fo'dearto learning,fo "worthyof:lseihgimitatedat prefent,and fohonourableto the me-moryofmai'flaatd'Effr&s,-oughtnot to havebe(mforgotinhis panegyric.'M. de Montefquieuwasreceivedthe zgth of JaL

nuary,t7aS. His orationisone of the beptwhichhnrcebe_enpronouncedupona likeoccafion: its me-ritqs:b_,fo mtichthe greater,that tholewhoweretobe_reeeived,till thenconfinedby th0feformsandbythofe_logeswhichwerein ufe, and to whicha kindofprefcriptionfubje_edthem, hadnotas yet daredto Ptepover,thiscircleto treat of other fubje&s,orhad notat leaPtthought of comprehendingthem_ttit¢_:Evenin thisPtateof conftrainthe -hadthe hap-pinefs'to fucceed. Among feveral fcrokeswithwhichhis %r0tionrhinos,wemayeafilydiftinguifhthe deep.thinkingwriter by the tingleportraitof"cardinalRichlieu, who taught Francethefecretofits_3_rengtb,.andSpainthatof its weaknefs; who'freed-Germany.from b_ chainsandgave her new ones;We m,uttadmire mor,fieur de Montefquiim_forha_'_ingbeen-able.toovercomethed k(iicukyof 'his

Z AN EULOGIUM ON

.fubje&.and we oughtto pard_ tholewhohavenothadthefamefuccefs.

Thenewacademicianwasbyfomuchthe m0reworthyofthistitle, thathe hadri0t;!ongbeforere-iiouricedeveryotherbtff'mefstogivehimfelfentirelrupto hisgeniusandtatt;e.Howeverimportanttheplacewhichheoccupiedwas,witkwhateverjudge-mentandintegrityhemighthavefulfiI1edits duties,he perceivedthat therewereohje_smoreworthyof employinghistalents;t_t a titian is account,abletohiscountryandto mankindforallthe g_dwhichhe cando; ,andthathecouldbemoreuf_u!to oneand the other, by inftru&ingthem wkhlaissWitings,thanhe couldbeby determiningafew particulardifputesin obfcurity.ARtherere,:fle_fionsdeterminedhimto feUhisoffice. He war;nolongera magiftrate,andwasnowonlya mattofktters.

But, to renderhimfelfufefdbykis worksto dif-£ere,tnations,it wasneceffatyt_t he_ould kno_them: it waswiththisviewthat heundertookxotravel; hisaimwastoexamine:everywherethe_a..turn1andmoralworld,to ffudythe lawsandcon,fdtufionof everycountry; tovifit;zhe learned.:thewxiters,the celebratedartifts; everywhereto _¢kfortholerareandfingulargeniufeswhofecoaver_,-fi0af_metimesfuppliestheplaceofmany.yearsoh,.ferVationandrefidence.M. deMontefqmet!mighthave laid,likeDemocritus," I haveforgotno-thingtoinftru&myfelf:I havequittedmycountry,andtravelledovertheuniverfe,thebettertoknowtrmh; 1 havefeen",dltheillu_riousperfonagesofmytime." But therewasLhisdifferencebetween.theFrench,_emocrimsandhimof Abdera.tkgtthe firfttravelledto infl;ru&men_andthefecond

t0 !aughatthem. He

pRES_IDEI_TMONTESQUIEU. xlHefir_wentto'Vienna,wherehe oftenlawthe

celebratedprinceEugene.This hero,fofataltoFrance,(to whiehhemighthavebeenfoufefut,)after h:ayinggiven a checkto the fortuneofLeWiSXIV,alJd_qumbledtheOttomanpride,livedduring thepeace:withoutpomp,lovingandcuki-wiringlettersin:a.court,wheretheyarelittleho-noured,andlettinganexampletohis mattershowthey lhouldprote&them. M. de Montefquieuthoughtthat"he ¢0utddifcoverin hisconveffationromeremainsof affe&ionforhisancientcount0r.PrinceEugeneefpeciallydifcoveredit,'as muchasanenemycould,whenhe talkedofthefatalconfe-querteesofthatinteKinedivifionwhichhasfolongtroubledthechurchofFrance:the{tatefmaafore-lawitsdurationand effe&s,andforetoldit likeaphilofopher.'

M. de Montefquieuleft Viennato vifitHun-agahrY_ an opulentandfertilecountry,inhabitedby

aughtyandgenerousnation,the fcourgeof itstyrantsandthefupportofitsfovereigns.As fewperfonskno,_thiscountrywell,hehaswritgenwithcarethispartofhistravels.

! FromGermanyhewentto Italy: hefawat Ve-nice the famousMr.Law,whohad nothingre-mainingof his grandeurbut proje&sfortunately"

i deftinedtodieawayin hisownhead,and'adiamondvchichhepawnedto playat gamesofhazard.One

: daythe converfationturnedon thefamousfy_em',vhichLawhadinvented;anepochoffomany.cala-mitiesandfomanygreatfortunes,andefpeclallyofa remark_.blecorruptioninourmorals.Asthepar-

! !iamentof Paris,theimmediatedepofitoryofthe. lawsduringaminority,hadmadefomerefiffance

the Scotchminifferon thisoccafion,M. deMon-t_fquieualkedhimwhyhehadnevertriedto over-.... cÙm_

AN

COl/iet_is_refiftanceby.a method_alrn0ftalwaysin-falii61e:in England,by thegrani:lmoverofhumaa'adtions,in a word,by money,g'hefeare@'t,im-f_dredLaw,geniufes_ ardentandfigeuero_sit_ra/ycourt,men,but theyraremucbmoreincoffiepti_!e._v_e'lh:alladd,withoutanyprejudi_zeofnational--.._/an,_};,'thatafocie_y,whi_zhis free'f0rromeflaort]i.:miredtime,oughtto refifteorrupfioz/morethauoneVchichis alwaysfo:the firft,:_eh itlfellsi(_ij-_er_, t0fesit ; theTec0nd,fo to fpeak,onlyI/mclsit, and'exercifesit_evenwhenit is:dgi_gfo. Thusthe ifi_eumfianeesandnature'ofgo_e,'nmentgiverifetothevicesandvirtuesofnations, i

Anotherperfon,-nolefsfamous,'whomM. "deMOrltefquieufawfrillofteneratVenice,was_cotifitde.Bonneval._ Thisman, fo knownby.his:gd-ventures,whichwerenotyetatanenid,andflattered_itheonver_rtg:withfogooda judge,andone£oWbr_yof-hearingthem,oftenretatedto him tl_eremarleAblecir_:umt_ancesof his life, recitedthemilitarya&ionsin whichhehadbeenengaged,anddrewthe chara&ersof tholegeneralsandmiail_rswhomhe hadknown. M. de Montefquieuoft_areeall_:flto mindtliefeconverfatidns, andrelateddif-_'erent_crokesofthemtohisfriends. • •

HewentfromVeniceto Rome. In thisaricientcapital_ofZheworld,whichisRillfoinromerefpe6[Sghe applied"him_klfchieflyto examinethatwhichdifdnguifhesit mot at prefent;' the Worksof_Ra-phael,ofTitian,andofMichaelAngelo. Hehadnotmadea particular_udyofthefinearts,but_thatexpreffi0n,whichfhinesin the ma_er-,piecesofthis kind, infalliblyftrikeseverymanof geniUS;Aceuecomedto ffi.ldynature;he_kiaewher'/ig_nwhenWellimitated, as_a:like-portraitffi:it_esall_hofewhoarefamiliarlyacquaiatedwiththeoi'i-

ginal.

PRESI,D_NT MONTES0.UIEU.._

gijaal.; Tho,f_-produ&ionsof art mull:indeed,be._ __etch_d_hg_w_olebeaut_J_onlydifcer_i_e:by

artiftS. :.,f Afterhfiving_trave.!!_dover_Italy,M..delVI-On-

i¢_quigi_.qa_i.tb .s.wi_zer|and__ "He carefullyex-:_fied_tli_'e__°c ic6dntridsWhiclf'areW_ter_dby "_¢h_!ai_, :__e _wasnofhin_.,morefbi:_hiifito

[H_Rgpp'ediaft_,¢;cchrdsfometime in the Uhite_tPr6-_yi6ces,,ang_d_ir_5_mongmentwhathiam'anin-; dusty anim_if_d8y_a' love_of J_bertycando. At

JaffhewentiCEn_a,nd;whe;_lieftaldthreeyears.,Worthyof vi'/iti6ganden_eitainigthe-B.reatet_,of _en_,._,hg__nothingto i'egretbutthathe h_'notmadethis_6yag6fooner.°NewtonandLocke_ere dead.,Buthehadoftenthe honourOfp:ayi9g

! _.,refpe_stoth_ii',prote&refs,thecelebrated_iuden?gfo£t_gland,who cultivatedphilofophyupon/a:_e, gndWho'propedy-etieemedandvalued1_._d¢h;fontefquieu.He wasnolefswelIreceived.t:9-'_ nat.ion,Which,_however,wasnot oblig_d tofollo.wtheexainp,l_Ofits thisfuperiors Occai_on.on

" iHf¢formedatLondonintimatefriendfhipswithmen_ccuftomedtothink, andtopreparethemfelv_sforgreata&ions'b_;profoundftudies; withthemhejo_ru&edhimfelfin the natureof the lzoilern-m_nt,andattainedto a thordughknowledgeof'it.,.'_skr.¢i'peakhere'afterthepublictefiimonies.wh_k:h

i ha_e.beengi'verihimby.theEngli_themfelv&,lb•_;_ous ofouradvantages;and folittledifp_fedt;oa_kndwledge_anyfuperiorityinus. " ,7"i[As-h_ehad-e_tmined_nothingeitherWiththd,pre_-j'.6df¢¢of"a_ne'nthufmftorth_au*adrityOf_ cy'nic,_.'br0ughtback:.fromhis travels'neither:a'faucy_dt_daj0for fpre_gnersnor a-_tll morem fpqed

Xi_ _AN EULOGIUM ON

his obfervadons,thatGermanywasmadeto travelin,Italy to fojournin, Englandto think in, andFranceto livein.

Afterhisreturntohisowncountry,M. deMon-tefquieuretiredfortwoyearstohise&ateofLaBredeHe thereenjoyedin peacethatfoljtudewhicho_rhavingviewedthe tumultandhurryof the worldfervestorendermoreagreeable.Helivedwithhim-felf,afterhavingfo longlivedina differentway;and,whatintereffsusmoff,heptrt.thetaftbandtohisworkOntheCaz_oftheGrandeurandDecle_fionoftheRomans,whichappearedin_734-

Empires,likemen,muffencreafe,decay,andbeextinguifhed.ButthisnecelT,tryrevolutionhasoftenhiddencaufes,whichtheveilofx,imeconcealsfromus, andwhichmyffery,ortheirapparentminutenefs_has even fometimeshid from the eyesof con-temporaries.

Nothingin thisrefpe&refemblesmodernhitt-ory',morethanancienthiPcory.That of theRomans_however,detkrves,inthisrefpe&,to-bemadeane_-ceptionof; it prefentsuswitha rationalpolicy,aconne&edfyttemofaggrandizement,whichdoesnotpermitusto attributethefortuneof"thispeopleto obfcureandinferiorfprings.Thecaufesof theRomangrandeurmaythen be foundin hiffory_andit isthe bufinefsofthephilofophertodifcoverthem. Betides,therearenofyftemsinthisttudyasin that of phyfic; thereare almot'calwaysover-thrown,becaut_onenewandunforefeenexperimentcanoverturnthemin an inltant: on thecontrary,whenwecarefullycollec'_thefacq:swhichtheancien_hi_oryof a countrytranfmitsto us, if wedo notalwaysgathertogetherail the materialswhichwecan defire,we canat leaffhopeonedayto havemoreof them. AcarefulPcudyof hittory,a Rudy

fo

PRESIDENT MONTESQUIEU. _v

fo hhportantandfo difficult,confi_sin combininginthemoltperfe&mannerthefedefe&ivematarials:fuch wouldbe the meritof an architect,who,fromromecuriouslearnedremains,fl_ouldtrace,intherno_probablemanner,theplan of an ancientedi_e; fupplying,by geniusand happycon-je&ures,whatwaswantinginthofeunformedandmutihtedruins.

It isinthispointof viewchat_e ought_oconfi-derthe workofM.de Montefquieu.He findsthecaufesofthegrandeuroftheRomansinthat loveofliberty,of hbour, and of thdr country,whichwas inffilledintothem duringtheirinfancy_ inth_tfeinterline_ti_f_onswhichgavean activitytotheirgenius,andwhichceafedimmediatelyupontheappearanceolfanenemy; in thatconftancyaftermisfortunes,whichneverdefpairedoftherepublic;in thatprinciple_:y adhered_ of neverma_i.ngpeacebutaftervi61:ories;intheb._ourofatriumph,whichwasa fubje&of emulsionamongtheget,e-rats; inthatprotec"tionwahichtheygrantedto tholepeoplewirerebelledagainfttheirkings;intheexcel-lentpolicyof permittingtheconquered_opnffervetheirrelig!tmaddcoPcoms; andthatofaecerhavingtwoenemaesupontheir .handsatonce, and,of_bear-ing everyth_ngof theonetilt theybad deffroyedtheother. He findsthe eaufesoftheirdedenfionin the aggrandize.mentortheirateitfelf:in .tholediftantwars,which,obligingthecitizensto betoolongabfenr.,.madetheminferrfibtylc_fetheirrepub-licanfpirit;in the privilegeof beingcitizensofRome,granted.tofo.manya-_ations,whichmadetheRomanpeopleat lafcbecomea fortof .many-headedmonfter; in_hecorruption:i_roduced_y.theluxuryofAria; in theproferiptionsofSylla,whichdebafedthegeni:usof'thenation,and.prepareditforflavery;

ltl

X_ AN EULOGIUM ON

in thatnecemtywhichthe Romansfoundthemfeleesin, of having a mafterwhiletheirlibertywasbe,comeburthenfometo them; in that neceffitytheywere obligedto of changingtheirmaximswhentheychangedtheir government;in that feriesofmonfterswhoreigned,almof_withoutinterruption,fromTiberiusto Nerva,and from CommodustoConffantine; in a word, in the tranflationand di-villon of the empire,which perilhedfirft in theWeft by thepowerof barbarians_andwhich,afterhavinglanguiflaedfeveralages in theEalt, underweakor cruelemperors,infenfiblydied away,liketholeriverswhichdifappearin thefands.

A veryfmallvolumewasenoughforM. deMen.,tefquieu,to explainand unfoldfo intere_ingandva_ a pi&ure. As the authordid notinfiftuponthe detail, and only feizedon the rno_ fruitfulbranchesof hisfubjec°c,he has beenableto include,in a very fmallfpace, a va/'cnumberof objec_difiin&lyperceived,andrapidlyprefented,withoutfatiguingthereader. While he pointsout a greatdeal to t_s,heleavesus l_illmore to retie&uponand he mighthaveintitledhisbook, .4 RomanHif-toryfor theUfeof StatefmenandPhilofophers.

WhateverreputationM. de Montefquieuhadacquiredby thislaf'cwork,and by tholewhichhadprecededit, he had only clearedthewayfor a fargranderundertaking,for that whichought to im-mortalizehis name, and render it refpec'hab]etofutureages. He /ladlongagoformedthedefign,and hadmeditatedfor twentyyearsuponthe execu-tionof is; or to fpeakmoreproperly,his wholelifehad beena perpetualmeditationupon it. Hehadfirftmade himfelfin fomerefpe&a ftrangerillhisowncountry,better tounderl_candit atlafl:: he hadafterwardstravelledoverallEurope,andprofoundly.

i_udied

PRESIDENT MONTESQ. UIEU. xvil

: fttldied t.he differentpeople whoinhabitit. Thefamousifland,which gloriesfo muchinher laws,andwhichmakesfobad a ufeof them, had beentohim, in his long tour, what the ifleof Cretehadformerlybeento Lycurgus,a fchoolwherehe hadknown well how to inffru&himfelfwithout ap-

i proving every thing: in a word, he had, if we:_ mayib fpeak,examinedandjudgedtholecelebrated

.nationsand menwhoonlyexiftat prefentin the an-nalsof the world. It wasthus that he attainedbydegrees to the noblefttitle whicha wifeman candeferve,thatof legiflatorof nations.

If he wasanimatedby the importanceof hisfub-jec"t,he wasat die fametime terrifiedbyits exten-l]venefs; he abandonedit, and returnedto it againat feveralintervals. He felt,morethanonce, as hehimfelfowns,his paternalhandsfail t_.ix_.At laft,encouragedby his friends, he colle&ec|all hist_rength,and publifhed_-beSpiritofLaws.

In this importantwork, M. de Montefquieu,without infifting,after the exampleof thol_ whoprecededhim, uponmetaphyficaldifcu_onsre!ativeto thenatureof man, fappofedin anab!_tra&t_atewithout confininghimfelf,like others, to confidercei'tainpeoplein certainparticularrelationsor cir-cumftances,takes a viewof the inhabitantsof theworldin the a&ualflate in whichtheyare, andinall therelationswhichthey canffandin toone ano-ther. The moi'cp_.rtof other writersin thiswayare almoftalwayseitherfimplemoralit_s,or fimplelawyers,or evenfometimesfimpletheologit_s.Asfor him, a citizenof all countries,andof all na-tions, he is lefs employedabout what our dutyrt_quiresof us, than aboutthe meansbywhichwef/in be obligedto fulfilit ; aboutthe metaphyficalperle&ionof laws, than about tha_ whichhuman

VOLI. b nature

-xvill AN EULOGIUM ON

nature rendersmancapableof_ aboutlawswhichhave beenmade,than abouttholewhichoughtto havebeenmade; aboutthelawsof aparticularpeople,thanaboutthofeo£all nations.• Thus,'whencomparinghim[elfto th_fewhohaverunbe-fore himin thisnobleandgrandcareer,he mightfay,withCorreggiowhenhehadfeentheworksofhisrivals,rindI alfo,I ama.painter.

Filledandpenetratedwithhisfubje&,theauthorOfthe Spiritof Lawscomprehends_nit fo greata numberof materials,andtreatsthemwithfuchbrevityand depth,that an affiduousandftudiousreadingof itcanmakeusaloneperceivethe meritof thisbook. Thiswillefpeeiallyferve,weventureto fay,to makethatpretendedwantofmethod,withwhichromereadershaveaccufedM. de Montef-quieu,difappear; anadvantagewhichtheyoughtnot flightlyto haveaccufedhim of havingne-gle&edin a philofophicalfubje&,and in a workof twentyyears. Realwantof orderoughtto bediftinguilhedfrom that whichis only apparent.Diforderis whetithe analogyand conne&ionofideasarenotobferved; whenconclufionsareletupasprinciples,or precedethem; whenthe reader,afterinnumerablewindings,findshimfelfat thepointwhenceheletout. Apparentdiforderis mhentheauthor,puttingin theirtrue placetheideaswhichhe makesufeof, leavesit to thereadersto fupplythe intermediateones; and it is thus that M. deMontefquieubelievedthat hemightandoughttomakeufeof themina bookdefignedformenmhothought,wholegeniusoughtto fupplyvoluntaryandreafonableomiffions.

Theorderwhichisperceivablein the granddi-vifionsoftheSpiritof Lawstakesplacenolefsinthefinallerdetails: webelievethat, themorepro-foundlythe workisffudied,the moreonewillbe

convinced

PRESIDENT MONTESO_UIEU. x_

convincedof it. Faithfulto hisgenera_tdivifmns,theauthorrefersto eachtholeobje,ftswhichbeloogtoit exclufively; and_withrefpe&to th_fewhich,bydifferentbranches,belongto feveralfub_e&satonce,hehasp!aced,undereachdivifion,thatbranch

: whichproperlybelongsto it. By thisweeafityi perceive,and without confufion,the influence

whichthe differentpartsof thefubje&haveupon; eachother; as, ina treeorfyitemofhumanknow-

ledge,_ellunderttood,we mayperceivethemutualrelationof fciencesand arts. Thiscomparifonisby lb muchthemorejufi, that it isthefamethingwithrefpe&to a plan whichwemayformto our-re!yesforexamininglaws philofophically,asof thatorderwhichmaybeobfervedin a treecomprehend-ing allthefciences: therewillalwaysremainrome-thingarbitraryin it_ andallthatcanberequiredofan authoris, that he followttri,Ytly,withoutde-viatingfromit, that fyffemwtdchhe hasonceformedto himl_lf.

We mayfayof thatobfcurity,whichis allow-ablein thch a work,thefamethingasof wantoforder. Whatmaybe obfcureforvulgarreadersisnotfofor tholewhomtheauthorhadin hisviev¢.Betides,obtcuritywhichis voluntaryis not pro-perlyobfcurity.M. de Montefquieubeingfonte-timesobligedto prefentto us truthsofgreatim-portance,the abfoluteanddirer avowalof whjchmighthave ihockedwithoutdoinganygood,hashadtheprudenceto coverthem; and,bythis in_nocentartifice,he hasconcealedthemfromih_feto whomtheymighthavebeenhurtful,withoutmakingthemloftto menoffagacity.

Amongthofeworkswhichhavefometimesfur-niflaedltim with affifialace,and (ometimeswithclearerviewsforhisown,wemayperceivethathe

b 2 has

XX AN EULOGIUM ON

'hasefpeciallyprofitedfromtwo hiftorianswhohavethoughtthemolt,TacitusandPlutarch: but,thougha philofopherwho hasreadtheretwoauthorsmighthavedifpenfedwithagreatmanyothers,he did not

•believethat he oughtto negle&or difdainanythingin this.way-thatcould be of ufe to his fubjecct.That. readingwhichwe mufffuppofeneoeffaryfortheSpiritofLaws is immenfe; andthe rationalufewhichthe author has madeof fuch a prodigiousmultitudeof materialswill appear frill more fur-prifing,whenit is knownthathe wasalmoftentirelydeprivedof fight, andobligedto have recourfetoeyes not his own; this prodigiousreading con-.tributes not only to the utility, but to the agree--ablenefs,of the work, Withoutderogatingfromthe majeftyof his fubjecCt,M. de Montefquieuhasknown how to foftenits aufterity,andprocurethereader rome momentsof repole;whetherby fa&swhich arefingularandlittleknown, or by delicateallufions,or by thofe ftrong and brillianttouchesof the pencil,whichpaint, by oneftroke, nationsand men.

In a word,(for we willnot hereplaythe part ofHomer's commentators,)thereare, withoutdoubt;aCaultsin the Spirit of Laws, as thereare in every-workof geniuswholeauthorfirft daredto clearoutfor himfelfa new rout. M. de Montefquieuhasbeen amongft us, for the ftudy of laws, what_Defcarteswas for thatof philofophy: he oftenin-i'tru&sus, and is fometimesmifiaken; and, evenwhenhe miftakes,he inftruc2stholewhokno_howto.readhim. The laft"editionof his worksdemon-£trates,by the correc"tionsand additionswhichhehas made,that, if hehasnowand thenmade'aflip,he has beena_le to find it out, and to rifeagain.By thishe willacquire,at leaf_,a titleto a newex-

amination,

PRESIDENT MONTESO.UIEU. xxl

amination,in tholeplaceswherehe wasnotof thefameopinionwith his cenfurers: perhaps,indeed,what he imaginedRoodmott in needof corre&ionhas entirelye£capedthem.; fo blindcommonlyistheinclinationto do hurt.

Bat that which is within the reach of all theworldis the Spiritof Laws; that whichought torender the author dear to all nations,that whichwouldferveto coverfargreaterfaultsthanarein ir,is that fpiritof patriotifmwhichdi&atedit. Thelo,¢eof the publicgood, a defireof feeingmenhap-py, difcoversitfelfin it everywhere; and, hadir noothermeritbut this, whichisforareand fovaluable,it wouldbeworthy,onthisaccountalone,to bereadby nations and kings. We alreadyperceive,byhappyexperience,that the fruits of this workarenot confinedto ufelefsfentimentsin themindsof itsreaders. Though M. de Montefquieufurvivedthe49ublicationof the SpiritofLaws buta fhort while,he had the fatisfa&ionin rome meafureto forefeethot_effe&swhichit beginstoproduceamongRus;_.henatural love of Frenchmen_br their countryturned towardsits true obje&; that tare for com-merce, for agriculture,and for ufefularts, _vhichinfenfiblyfpreadsiffelfin our nation; that generalknowledgeof the principlesof government,whichrenders people more attachedto that whichtheyoughtto love. Thofe who have tb indecentlyat-tackedthiswork,perhaps,owemoreto it than theyimagine.Ingratitude,betides,isthefmalleRreproachwhichwe haveto maketo them. It is notwithoutregret, and withoutbtafhingfor the agewelive in,that weproceedto expol_them; but this hiftoryisof too much conl_quenceto the glory of M. deMontefquieu,and advantage,to philofophy_to be

b 3 paffed

xxli AN EULOGIUM ON

paffcdoverin talence. Maythatreproach,whichatia_ covershisenemies,beofufeto them!

Scarcehad the Spiritof Lawsappeared,butitwaseagerly1oughtafteron accountofthereputaLtionof itsauthor: but, thotjghM. deMontefquiet!had writtenJ:orthe goodot the people,he oughtnot to havehad the vuigarfor his judge. '1"hedepthof hisfubjec"twasa neceffaryconfequenceofits importance.However,theftrokeswhichwerefcatteredup and downthework,andwhichwouldhavebeendifplacedif theyhadnotarifennaturallyfromthe fubjee't:,madetoo manypeoplebelievethatit waswrittenforthem. Peoplefoughtforanagreeablebook,andtheyonlyfoundanufefulonethe wholefchemeand particulardetailsof whichtheycouldnotcomprehendwithoutromeattention.The Spiritof Lawswastreatedwithadealoflightwit; eventhetitleofit ivasmadea fubje&of plea-fantry:in a word,oneof the fineftliterarymonu-mentsv_hichournationeverproducedwasat firftregardedby it with muchindifference.It wasrequifitethatthetruejudgesthouldhavetimetoread it: theyveryfooncorred'ttheerrorsof themuli.itude,alwaysreadytochangeitsopinion.Thatpart of thepublicwhichteache'sdigtatedto thatwhichIiffens,to hearhowit oughtto thinkandfpeak; andtheft,ffragesof menofabilities,joinedtotheechoeswhichrepeatedthem,formedonlyonevoiceoverallEurope.

It wasthen that theopenandfecretenemiesoflettersandphilofophy(forthereareof bothkinds)unitedtheirdartsagainffthis work. Hencethatmultitudeof pamphletswhichwereaimedagainfthimfromallparts,andwhichwefhallnot drawoutfromthat oblivionin whichtheyhavefunk. Iftholeauthorshad not takenpropermeafuresrobeunknown

[

_._ PRESIDENT MONTESO_UIEU. xxlil

il unknownto pofierity,kmightbebelievedthattheSpiritofLawswaswrktenamidf_a nationof bar-barians.

M. de Montefquieueafilydefpifedthe dark cri-ticifmsof tholeweakauthorswho(whetheroutofajealoufywhichtheyhad no titletohave,or tofatisfythe publicill-nature,whichlovesTatireandcontempt)outrageouflyattackwhattheyca.nnotat-

i: tainto; and,moreodiousonaccountoftheillwhichtheywantto do, than formidablefor thatwhichtheya&uallydo, donotfucceedeveninthiskindofwriting,thefacilityof which,aswellasitsobje&,rendersequallymean. He placedworksof thiskind on the famelevelwkh tholeweeklynews-papersofEurope,theencomiumsofwhichhavenoauthority,andtheirdartsnoeffe&; whichindolentreadersrun over withoutgivingcreditto, andinwhichfovereignsiireinfuhedwithoutknowingit,or withoutdeigningto revengeit. Buthewasnotequallyindifferentaboutthofeprinciplesof irreli-gionwhichtheyaecufedhimof havingpropagatedin theSpiritofLaws. Bydefpifingfuchreproacheshewouldhavebelievedtha.the defervedthem,andthe importanceof the ob]e&madehim thut hiseyesattherealmeannefsof hisadverfaries.Thofemen,whoreallywantzealasmuchastheyareeagerto makeit appearthattheyhaveit, afraidof thatlightwhichlettersdilute,not to theprejudiceofreligion,butto theirowndifadvantage,tookdiffe-rentwaysof attackinghim; fome,byaitratagemwhichwasaspuerileaspufillanimous,hadwrittentohimfelf;others,after havingattackedhimunderthemaflcofanonymouswriters,hadafterwardsfallenbytheearsamongthemfeives.M.deMontefquieu,thoughhe wasveryjealousof confoundingtt_em•,'itheachother,did not thinkit properto lole

b4 time,

xxlv AN EULOGIUM ON

time,whichwasprecious,in combatingthemoneafter:another; hecontentedhimfelfwithmakinganexampleofhimwhohadmoil:fignalizedhimfelfbyhisextravagance.It wasthe authorof ananony-mousand periodicalpaper,whoimaginedthathehad a_tide to fucceedPafcal,l_caufehe hasfuc-ceeSedto hisopinions_ apanegyrifl:ofworkswhichnobodyreads,and an apologifl:of miracleswhichthefecutarpowerputanendto wheneverit wantedto doit; whocallsthelittleintere_,whichpeopleofletterstakeinhisquarrels,impiousandfcandalous_,andbath,by anaddrefsworthyof him,alienatedfromhimfelfthatpartofthenationwholeaffectionsheoughtchieflytohaveendeavouredtokeep. Thet_rokesef thisformidablechampionwereworthyoftholeviewswhichinfpiredhim: he accufedM.deMontefquieuof Spinofifmanddeifm(two imputa-tior_swhichare incompatible);of havingfollowedthet_ffemofPope(ofwhichthereisnotawordinhisworks)_of havingquotedPlutarch,whoisnota ChriRianauthor;of nothavingfpokenoforigi-nalfinandofgrace. Ina word,hepretendedthattheSpiritofLawswasaprodu&ionoftheconfl:itu-tionUnigenitus; an ideawhichwemayperhapsbefutpe&edof fatheringonthecriticoutofderifion.TholewhohaveknownM. deMontefquieu,andwhounderfiandhisworkand thatof ClementXI.mayjudge, bythisaccut_tion,of therefL

The unfuccefsfulnefsofthiswriteroughtgreatlyto difcouragehim: hewantedtoattacka wifemanin thatplacewhichismofl_fenfibletoeverygoodci-tizen; butheonlyprocuredhimanadditionofgloryasa manofletters:theDefenceoftheSpiritofLawsappeared.This work,on accountof thatmode-ration,that truth,that delicacyof ridiculewhichaboundin it, oughtto be regardedasa model-in

this

PRESIDENT MONTESQ_UIEU. xxv

thisway. 1VI.de_Montefquieu,chargedby his_ad-verfary with atr0ciousimputations, might, eafilyhaverenderedhim Odious; he did better,he madehimridiculous.If wearebeholdentoanaggrefforforthatgoodwhich,hehas doneuswithoutwzntingrodo it, we owe himeternalthanks for having pro-cured us this mailer-piece. But what adds ftiltmoreto themeritof thispreciouslittle pieceisthis,that the author, without thinkingof it, hastheredrawna pic"tureof himfelf;thole who knewhimthink they hear him; and pofteritywill' be con-vinced,whenreadinghis Pefence,that his conver-rationwasnot inferiorto his writings; an encomiumwhichfewgreatmenhavedeferred.

Anothercircumftancegave him plainly the ad-vantagein this difpute. The critic, who, as a :proofof his attachmentto religion,attacks its mi-hirers, loudly accufedthe clergy of France, andefpeciatlythe faculty of theology,of indifferencefor the caufeof God, becaufetheydidnotauthen-ticallyprofcribefoperniciousa work, The faculty,had a title to defpifethe reproachof a namelet_writer,but religionwas in the queftion; a com-mendabledelicacymadeit refolveto examinetheSpiritof Laws.Though it hasbeenemployedaboutit feveralyears,it hasnotyet pronouncedanything;and, if romeflightinadvertencies,whicharealmofl:inevitablein foraft a career, flaouldhaveefcapedM. de Montefquieu,thelongandfcruputousatten-tion,whichtheywouldhaverequiredfromthe mo_enlightenedbody of the church, might prove atleaft how excufabletheyare; but this body, fullof prudence,will do nothingrafhlyin fo importantan affair. It knowsthe groundsof reafonand offaith; it knows that the workof a man of lettersought no to be examinedlikethatof a theo!ogift;• that

xxvi AN EULOGIUM ONthatthebad confequences,whichodiousinterpre- iirationsmaydrawfroma propofition,do notrender _the propofitionblameablein itfelf;thatbetideswe I_liveinan unluckyage,in whichtheinterefl:sofre- I_ligionhaveneedof beingdelicatelymanaged; and _thatit maydohurtto weakpeopleto throwan ill- rtimedfufpicionof incredulityupongeniufesof thefirffrank; that, in a word,in fpiteofthisunjufr .accufation,M.deMontefquieuwasalwayseReemed,vifited,andwellreceived,bythegreateltandmoltre- ifpe&ablecharac"tersin thechurch. Wouldhe havepreferredamongmenof worththateReemwhich !:!.heenjoyedif theyhadregardedhimas a dangerous _iwriter? _/

Whileinfec"tsplaguedhim in hisowncountry, !i_Englandere&eda monumentto his glory. In _:iox75z, M.d'Aflier,celebratedfor themedalswhich _he hasftruckin honourof feveralilluftriousmen, ;_camefromLondontoParisto _rike one of him. _M. de ta Tour, an artiftof fuchfuperiortalents, :_andforefpe&ableforhisdifintereftednefsandgreat- .:nefsof mind,hadardentlydefiredto givea new _+luRretohispencil,bytranfmittingto poReritythe (;portraitoftheauthoroftheSpiritofLaws; heonly _::wantedthefatisfac"tionofpaintinghim; andhede- :_ferved, like Apelles,that thishonourflaouldberefervedfor him: but M. de Montefquieu,as ::_fparingofM. dela Tour'stimeas hehimfelfwas _ifreeofit, conftantlyandpolitelyrefutedhisprefiqng i__blicitations.M. d'Aliierat fir_ bore withfuch i:_difficulties.' Doyoubelieve,'laidheat laRtoM. i_deMontefquieu,' thatthereisnotasmuchpridein ';_' refutingmyofferasin acceptingofit?' Overcome _(_:by his pleafantry,lie permittedM. d'Affiertodowhateverhewould.

Th_

PRESIDENT MONTESQUIEU. xxvii

The authorOf theSpiritof Laws,in fine,waspeaceablyenjoyinghisglory,whenhefellfi_katthe beginningof February:his health,naturallydelicate,beganto deeayforrometimepaf_,by theflowandalmoflEinfailibleeffe_%of deept_udy; bytheuneafinefswhichtheyhadendeavouredto givehim onaccountof hiswork; in a word,bythat:kindoflifewhichhewasobligedto leadat Paris,whichhefehtobefatalto him. But the eagernefswithwhichhis companywasfoughtafterwastookeennot to befometimesindifcreet;theywould,withoutperceivingit, enjoyhimat theexpenceofhimfelf. Scarcehadthenewsof thedangerwhichhe wasin fpreadabroad,butit becametheobjectoftheconverfationandanxietyofthe public. Hishoufewasneveremptyofperfonsof all rankswhocameto enquireabouthishealth,romeoutof realaff'e6tion,othersto havethe appearanceofit or tofollowthecrowd. Hismajefly,penetratedwiththelofswhichhis kingdomwasabout to fufiain,en-quiredabouthim feveraltimes; a teftimonyofgoodnefsandjufticewhichdoesequalhonourto themonarchandtheruble&.M.deMontefquieu'sendwasnotunworthyofhislife. Oppreffedwithcruelpains,far froma familythatwasdearto him,andwhichhadnotthecomfortofclofinghiseyes,fur-roundedby romefriendsand a great crowdoffpe&ators,hepreferredto hislaftmomentsa calm-nefsand tranquilityof foul. In a word,afterhavingperformedwithdecencyever),duty,fullofconfidencein theEternalBeingwhomhewasaboutto bere.unitedwith,hediedwiththetranquilityofa man of worth,whohad nevercontecratedhistalentsbut to theimprovementof virtueandhu-manity. Franceand Europelofthimthe xothofFebruary,I755, agedfixty-fix.

Al!

xxviii AN EULOGIUM ON

All thepublicnews-paperspublilhedthiseventasa misfortune.We mayapplyto M. de Montefquieuwhat was formerlylaidof an illuftriousRomanthat nobody, when told of his death, thewedany'joyat it ; that nobodyevenforgothimwhenhe wasno more. Foreignerswere eager todemonfLratetheir regrets: my lord Chefterfield,whomit isenough to name, caufedto be publifhedinoneofthepublicLondonpapersan article to his honour,an articleworthyof theone and of the other_ it isthe portrait of Anaxagorasdrawn by Pericles*.The royalacademyof fciencesand belleslettresofPrut'fia,thoughit is not itsculturetopronouncethe[logeof foreign members,thought itfelf boundto dohim an honourwhich it had not before doneto anyonebut the illuftriousJohn Bernouilli. M.de Maupertuis,notwithfLandinghewasat that timeindifpoied,performedhimfelfthis laft duty tohisfriend, andwouldnot permitan officefo dear andfo melancholytofallto the lhareof anyotherperfon.To fo manyhonourablefuffragesin favourOfM.de Montefquieu,we believewemay add, _withoutindifcretion,tholepraifeswhichweregivenhim, inprefenceof one of us, by that very monarchtowhom this celebratedacademy owes its lugcre,

'_See this encomiumin Englifh_as we readit in the papere_lledthe-'EveningPull " On the loth uf this monthdiedat Paris, unive/fallyand,fiueerelyregretted, CharlesSecondat, baron of Muntefquie%andprefident_ mortier of the parliamentof Buurdeaux. His virtues didlaonoortu human natures his writingsjugtice. A friend to mankind,h_ affertedtheir undoubtedand unaheuatedrights, with freedom,,evenin his own country=whole ple]udicesin matters uf religionand govern-meat .(_oe_ul_rememberit is an EngliShmanq_bofpeakt) he had longlamented,anderJdeavoured(not without fume fuccefs)to remove. Hewell knew and joflly admi-edthe happy couftitutionof this eountry__'here' fixedand known laws equallyret_rainmonarchyfrom tyranny,and libertyfrom lieentiuufnefs. His wo.,kswill illuftrale his name,_nd furvzvehim, as long as right reafon_moral obhgatiou,an_l'th'era_eS_ixitof Iaaws_faultbeunderttood,refpe_ed,andmaintained,'_.

a prince

PRESIDENT MONTESQUIEU. xxlx

a princemadeto feel tholeloffeswhichPhilofophyfuf_ains,and at thefametimetocomforther.

The feventeenthOf February,the French aca-demy, accordingto cut"tom,performed a folemnfervice for him,•at which,notwithffandingthe ri-gourof the featbn,almof'call the learnedmen ofthisbody, whowerenotabfeotfrom Paris, thoughtit their duty to affiff. They ought, at this melan-cholyceremony,to haveplacedthe Spirit of Lawsuponhis coffin,as heretoforetheyexpofed,oppofiteto that of Raphael,his laff piftureof the transfi-guration. This fimpleand affe&ingornamentwouldhavebeena finefuneraloration.

HithertowehaveonlyconfideredM. de Montef-quieuas a writerand philofopher_ it would be to

i rob him of the half of his glory, to pafsoverinfilencehisagreeableperfonalqualities.

' He had, in company,a fweetnefsand gaietyofi temper always the fame. His converfationwasi fpirited, agreeable, and inftru&ive,by the great_ numberof menandof nationswhomhe hadknown.

It was, likehis Rile,concife,fullofwit and fallies,without gall, and without fatire. Nobody told

'_ a Rory in a more lively manner, more readily,or with more grace and lefsaffe&ation; he knew

i' that theconclufionof an agreeableftoryis always! the point in view,he thereforemadedifpatchto;_ comeat it, and producedthe effe&withouthaving

longpromifedit.His frequentabfenceof mindonly renderedhim

more amiable: he alwaysawokefrom it byrome2

unexpe_.edftrokewhichre.animatedthelanguifhing9,[5 convertatmn; betides,there were nevereitherfro-

licfome,thocking, or troublefome. The fire of_i hisgenius, the great numberof ideaswithwhichit

was furniflled,gave rife to them; but this never

I happened

xxx AN EULOGIUM ON

happenedin themiddeof an intereffingorferiousconverfation; thedefireof pleafmgthere,in whorecompanyhewas,madehimattentiveto themwith-outaffec%ationandwithoutconHaint.

The agreeablenel_ofhisconverfatioanotonlyre-fembledhischara&erandhisgenius,buteventhatkindofmethodwhichheobfervedinhist'cudy. Thoughcapableofdeepand long-continuedmeditation,heneverexhauitedhistlrength,healwaysleftoffappli-cationbeforehefe!tthelearfymptomoffatigue*.

He wasfenfibleto glory,buthe didnot wifl_toattain it but by deferringit. He never en-deavouredto augmenthisownby thereunderhandpra&ices,by there dark and lhamefulmethods,whichdithonourthechara&erof themanwithoutaddingto thatoftheauthor.

WorthyofeverydifLin&ionandof everyreward,heatkednothing,andhewasnot£urprifedthat hewasforgot; buthehasadventured,evenin delicatecircumftances,to prote&at court menof letters,whowereperfecuted,celebrated,andunfortunate,andhasobtainedfavoursforthem.

Thoughhe livedwiththegreat,wheflaeroutofneceffity,orpropriety,or tatte,theircompanywasnotneceffaryto hishappinefs.Heretiredwheneverhecouldtohisettatein the country_ hethereagainwithjoy met hisphitofophy,his books,and his

The author of the anonymousand periodicalpaper, which wementionedabove_pretends to find a rtmnifet_contradi&ionbetweenwhat we fay here and that ghich _e h_d raidbefore,that M, deMon-tefqu]eu'shealth was impairedhy the flowand a|mott infallibleeffe_of deepfludy. _ut why, _,henhe was comparing_e two places,hashe fupprrffedthere words, fle_ and _lm_ jrfallible, which he hadunder his eyes? It is evidentlybecaufehe perceived,that an effe_which is flow, is not a bit lefs real for not beingfelt ilxnnediate]y._._nd th_,_ confequently,there wordsdeflroy that appearanceof eontra-di_ion which he p,ctendsto pointour. Suchis thefidelityof this au-thor intri_es,andfora ttrozgerrealbninmot°.feriousmarter_,

repels,

PRESIDENT MONTES0_UIEU. xxxi

repofe. Surrounded,at his leifurehours, withcountrypeople,after havingftudiedman,in thecommerceof the World,andin thehiftoryof na-tions,he ftudiedhimalfoin tholefimplepeoplewhomnaturealonehas inftru&ed,and he couldfromthemlearnfomething: heconverfedchearfullywiththem; heendeavoured,likeSocrates,to findouttheirgenius; heappearedashappy,whencon-vertingwiththem,asinthemoltbrilliantaffemblies,efpeciMtywhenhemadeup theirdifferences,andcomfortedthemundertheirdiftrefsbyhisbenefi-cence.

Nothingdoesgreaterhonourto hismemorythanthemethodin whichhelived,whichromepeoplehavepretendedto blameasextravagant,in a proudandavariciousage,extremelyunfitto findout,andRilllefstofeel,therealbenevolentmotivesofit.

M.deMontefquieuwouldneithermakeencroach-mentsuponthefortuneof hisfamily,bytholefup-plieswhichhe gavetheunfortunate,nor by tholeconfiderableexpenceswhichhis]ongtour of tra-velling,the weaknefsof hisfight,andtheprintingof hisworks,hadexpofedhimto. He tranfmittedto his children,withoutdiminutionor augmen.ration,the ettatewhichhe receivedfromhisan..ceftors; headdednothingto it butthegloryof hisname,andtheexampleofhislife. Hehadmarried,in x715,dameJanedeLartigue,daughterof Peterde Lartigue,lieutenant-colonelof the regimentofMolevrier: he hadtwodaughtersandonefonbyher, who,by his chara&er,his morals,and hisworks,has lhewnhimfetfworthyof fuch a fa-ther.

Tholewholovetruthandtheircountrywillnotbedifpleafedto findromeof hismaximshere. Hethought_

That

XXX_ AN EULOGIUM ON

Thateverypartofthe ftateoughtto be equallyfubje&to the laws; but thattheprivilegesof e-verypart of the ftate oughtto be tefpe&edwhentheir effec"tshavenothingcontraryto thatnaturalrightwhichobligeseverycitizenequallyto concurto the publicgood: that ancientpoffeltionwasinthiskindthefirffof titles,andthemoltinviolableofrights,whichit wasalwaysunjuft,andfometimesdangerous,to wanttothake.

That magiftrates,in allcircumftances,andnot*,withftandingwhateveradvantageit mightbetotheir iownbody,oughtneverto be anythingbutma- [gittrateswithoutpartialityandwithoutpattlon,likethelawswhichabfoiveandpunilhwithoutloveand" '.hatred.

In a word, he raid,uponoccafionof tholeec-¢lefiafticaldifputeswhichhavefomuchemployedtheGreekemperorsandChriftians,thattheologicaldifputes,whentheyarenotconfinedtothefchools_inf_al!iblydifhonoura nationintheeyesofitsneigh-bours: in fac"t,thecontempt,in whichwifemenhold tholequarrels,doesnotvindicatethe charac-terof theircountry; becaufe,fagesmakingever7wherethe-leaffnolle,and beingthefmatleftnum-ber, it is neverfromthemthatthenationisjudgedof.

The importanceof tholeworks,whichwehavehad occafionto mentionin this panegyric,hasmadeuspaysoverin filcncelet_confiderableones,whichfervedas a relaxationto our author,and [_which,in anyotherperfon,wouldhavemeritedanencbmium.Themoltremarkableof themis the _"l'empieof Gaidus,whichwasveryloonpubliihed L_afterthePerfianLetters. M. deMon_efquiet_,af-terb.avi,gbeenHorace,Tt_eophra_us,andLuci.an, "ia

PRESIDENT MONTE$O..UIEU. xxxlii

in thole, wasan Ovidand Anacreonin this neweffay. :|t is no more the defpoficlove of theEaE whichhe propofesto gainr, it is the dell-.caW and fimplicityof pattoral love, fuchas it_s in an unexperiencedheart which the com-merceof _he w_ld has not yet cm'rupted. Theauthor,fearing,perhaps,thata pi&urefooppofitetoour manners_outd agpeartoo languidand uni-form, hasendeavouredto animateit by the moil:agreeableimages, Hetranfportsthe readerintoin-ahantedfcenes,theviewof which,to faythe truth,little intereRsthe lover in his happief_moments,but thedefcripdonof whicht_illflattersthe imam-nation,whenthe paflionsaregratified. Infpiredbyhisfubje&,hebathadornedhis profewith thatani-mated, figurative,and poetic,Rite, whichthe ro-manceof Telemachusgave the firi_exampleofamongffus. We dono_tknowwhy,Comecenfurersof thetempleofGnidt_shavefaiduponthisoccafion,that it oughtto havebeen v,'rittenin verfe. Thepoeticftile, if weunder{_and,aswe ought by thisv_ord,a Ritefur of warmth and images,doesnotRandin needof the uniformmarchandcadencyofverfificationtobe agreeable; bat, if we onlymakethisfiileto confiCtina di&ionloadedwith needlefsepithets,in the coldand trivialdefcriptionsof thewingsand quiver of love, and of fuch obje&s,verfificationwilladd nethingto the meritof thefebeatenornaments_invainwiil we laok tbr the lifeand fpirit of it. Howeverthis be, the templeofGnidusbeing a fortof poemin profe,it belongstoour celebratedwriters to determinetherank whichit ought tohold : it isworthyof frithjudges.

We believe,at leall, the defcriptions,in thi._work may with fuccefsRand one of the prin-

V_t. I. c cipal

xxxiv AN EULOGIUM ON

cipal teilsof poetic defcriptions,thatof being re-;prefentedon canvafs. But whatweoughtchieflytoobferveinthe templeof Gnidusis, thatAnacreonhimfelf is alwaysthe obferverand thephilofopherthere. In the fourth canto the authorappearstodefcribethe mannersof the Cyberites,and it may"eafilybe perceivedthat thereare ourownmanners.The prefaceefpeciallybearsthe mark of theauthorof the PerfianLetters. When° he reprefentstheTemple of Gnidusas a tranflationfrom a Greekma,qu_cript,a pieceof witwhichhas beenfo muchdisfiguredfinceby bad imitators,he takes occafionto paintbyoneftrokeof his penthe follyof criticsand the pedantry of tranflators, He concludeswith there words,which deferveto be repeated:' If t_riouspeoplerequireromeother work of me" ofa lefsfrivolousnature, I caneafilyfatisfythem;' I have been labouringthirty yearsat a work' of twelve pages, which will contain all that" weknowof metaphyfics,politics,and morality;' and all that the greateftauthorshave forgot irl" the volumeswhich theyhave publilhedon there' fciences.'

We look uponthat particularintereftwhichM.de Montefquieutook inthe Encyclopmdia,asoneofthe mo_ honourablerewardsof our labour; thiswork, till theprcfenttime,has onlybeenfupportedby thecourageand emulationof its authors. Allmen of letters ought, as he thought, eagerly toconcurin the executionof this moff ufefulunder-taking. He gave an exampleof it, withM. deVoltaire,andfeveralothercelebratedwriters. Per-haps theoppofitionwhichthis workhas metwith,and whichremindedhim of what had happenedtohimf¢If, intereffedhim the more in our favour.

Perhap_

P_ESIDENT MONTESQUIEU. xxxv

{ Perhapshewasfenfibll,withoutperceivingit, ofthatjult'i_ewhichwedaredto do himin the firi_volumeof the Encyclopaedia,whennobodyasyetventuredto faya wordinhis_defence.Hepreparedfor us an articleupontafle,whichhasbeenfoundimperfe&amonghispapers.We lhallgiveitto

J thepublicin that condition,andtreatit withl:he_ famerefpe&thatantiquityformerlythewedto the

lad:wordsof"Seneca.Deathpreventedhimfrom! giyingusanyfarthermarksofhisbeneficence; and,;, joiningourowngriefswiththoleofallEurope,we

mightwriteonhistomb,

Finisvitwejusno,isluSuofus,patri,etriJtis,extrane:setiaruignotifqueno_tfinecurafuit.

TaciT.inAgric.

c z PREFACE.

P R E F A C E.

I F, amidffthe infinitenumberof tqabje&scon-tainedinthisbook,thereis anything which,con-traryto myexpe&ation,maypoliiblyoffend,I canat leat'taffurethepublicthat it wasnot inferredwith an ill intention,for I am not naturallyof acaptioustemper. PlatothatlkedHeaventhathewasbornin the fameagewithSocrates;and, for mypart,I givethankstoGodthat1wasbornafubje_t:ofthatgovernmentunderwhichI live,and thatitishispleafureI fhouldobeytholewhomhehasmademelove.

I begonefavourofmyreaders,whichI fearwillnotbe grantedme; thisis. thattheywillnotjudgebyafewhoursreadingoftkelabouroftwenty)'ears;thattheywillapproveor condemnthe bookentire,and not a few particularphrafes. If theywouldfearchintothedefignof theaw.hor,tl_eycandoitnootherwayfocompletelyasby fearchingintothedefignofthework.

I havefirffofall confideredmankind;andtherefultofmythoughtshasbeen,that,amidfffuchaninfinitediverfityoflawsandmanners,r.heywerenot£olelycondu_-kedbythecapriceoffancy.

I havelaiddownthe firffprinciples,andhavefoundthat the particularcafesapplynaturallytothem; thatthehifforiesofall nationsareonlycon-i_quencesof them; andthateveryparticularlawisconne&edwithanotherlaw,or dependson romeotherof"amoregeneralext_nt.

c 3 Whert

xxxvi_ P R EPA C E.

When Ihavebeenobligedtolookbackintoant/..qui_,Ihaveendeavouredtoaffumethefpiritoftheant:ients,le_I thouldconfiderthofethingsas alikewhicharereallydifferent,and left[ thould milsthedifferenceoftholewhichappearto be like.

I havenotdrawnmy principlesfrom mypreju-dices, but fromthenatureof things.

Here a great manytruthswillnot appear tillwehavefeenthe chainwhichconnec"tsthemwithothers.The moreweenterintoparticulars,themorewefhallperceivethe certaintyoftheprinciplesonwhichtheyarefounded. I havenotevengiven all thereparti-culars; for who couldmentionthem all withoutamoltinfupportablefatigue!

The readerwillnot here meet withany of tholeboldflightswhichfeemto chara&erifethe worksofthe prefentage. Whenthings are examinedwitheverfo fmalla degreeof extent, the ralliesof ima-ginationmut_vanith; theregenerallyar'_fefromthemind'scolle&ingallits powersto viewonlyone fideofthefubje&,whileitleavesthe otherunobferved.

I writenotto cenfureanything eftablifhedinanycountrywhatfoever. Everynationwillherefindthereafonson whichits maximsarefounded; andthiswillbethe naturalinference,that topropofealtera-tions belongsonly to tholewhoarefohappyas tobe born witha geniuscapableof penetratingintotheentireconftitutionof a fLate.

It is not a matterof indifferencethat Bhemindsof people be enlightened. The prejudicesof themagiffratehavearifenfromnationalprejudice. Ina timeof ignorancethey have committedeventhegreateft evilswithoutthe leaftfcruple; but, in anenlighteneduge, theyeventremblewhileconferringthe greateft bleflings. They perceivethe ancientabufes,they fee how they muffbe reformed,buc

they

P RE F A CE. xxXix

th_eyarefenfiblealfo of the abufesof the refor-mation, They let the evilcontinueif theyfearaworfe;they arecontentwith a leffergoodif they-doubt_ofagreater. Theyexamineintothe partstojudgeofthemin conne&ion; and theyexamineallthecaufestodifcovertheirdifferenteffe&s.

CouldI but fucceedfoasto affordnew reafonstoeverymanto lovehisduty, hisprince,his country,his laws; newreafonsto renderhimmorefenfibte,in.everynationandgovernment,of thebleffingsheen-joys, I fhouldthinkmyfelfthemoRhappyofmortals.

CouldI but fucceedfo as to perfuadethole whocommandto increafetheir knowlegein whattheyoughtto prefcribe; and thole whoobey, tofindanew pleafurerefultingfrom their obedience; Ifhouldthinkmyfelfthemoil:happyofmortals.

The moffhappyof mortalsfhouldI think myfelf,could I contributeto make mankix;drecoverfromtheir prejudices. By prejudice, I heremean,notthat whichrendersmenignorantof io:ne particularthings,butwhateverrendersthemignora._tof them-felves.

It is in endeavouringto inRru&mankindthatweare be_ able to pra&ifethat generalvirtuewhichcomprehendsthe love of all. Man, that flexiblebeing, conformingin focietyto the thoughtsandimpreffionsof others,isequallycapableof knowinghisownnature,wheneverit is laidcrpento hisview_andof lofingthe veryfenfeof it, whenthisideaisbanifhedfromhismind.

Oftenhave I begunandasoftenhaveI laidafidethisundertaking.I havea thoufandtimesgiventhe1eavesI have writtento the_winds;I every daylelt mypaternalhandsfall-I-. I havefollo_vedmy"

L.dibrlaventls._."B,5_,atri_cecideremanus.----

c 4 obj.&

x| PREFACE.

obje&_withoutanyfixedplan;. I havekno_waneitherrulesnorexceptions_ I havefoundthe truth-onlytoloreit again. But, whenI hadoncedifcoveredmyfirftprinciples,everythingI foughtforappear-ed; and,inthecourfeof twentyyears,I havefeenmyworkbegun,growingup, advancingto matu-rity, andfinifhed.

If thisworkmeetswithfuccefs,I lhalloweitchieflytothe grandeurandmajeffyof the fubje&.However,I donotthink thatI havebeentotallydeficientinpointofgenius. WhenI havefeenwhatfo manygreatmen bothin Franceand Germanyhavewrittenbeforeme,I havebeenloftin admira-tion,butI havenot loft:my courage;I havefaid_withCorregio,_lndI a_ amapainter._

•,_E_Iioanchcfortpittore.

CONTENTS° [Pig

I I I 1 I I I . II I II . )1111

#

CONTENTS.

_- BookI. Ofla_:singe#eraL

Hap.L Oflawsastheyrelatetodifferentbeings, pageChap.It. Ofthelawsofnature, 4

Chap.III. Ofpofitivelaws, 6

[BookI[. Ofla_sdlre_tyderi_aedf'omthenatureofgowernment,Chap,I. Of thenatureofthethreedifferentgovernments,9Chap.II. Oftherepublicangovernment,andthetawsrela-

tivetodemocracy, IoChap,lII. Ofthelawsrelativetothenatureof arif_oeracy,16Chap,IV. Oftherelationoflawsto thenatureof monarchi-

calgovernment, 19Chap,V. Ofthelawsrelativeto thenatureofa defpotlcgo-

vernment, 2_

BookIII, Of_eprinci:les_ft_etlaree_indsofgo.vernrnem.

Chap,I. Differencebetweenthenatureandprincipleofgo-vernment, z4

Chap.II. Of theprincipleof differentgovernments, z4Chap..1II.Of theprincipleofdemocracy, z5Chap.IV. OftheprincipleofarifLocracy, z8Chai_.V. That virtueis nottheprincipleofa monarchical

government, z9Chap.VI. In whatmannervirtueis fuppliedinamonarchi-

calgovernment, 3IChap.VII. Oftheprincipleofa monarchy, 3lChap.VIII. Thathonourisnottheprincipleofdefpoticgo-

vernment, 32Chap.IX. Oftheprincipleofdefpoticgovernment, 33Chap.X. Differenceofobediencein moderateanddefpotic

governments, 54Chap,XI. Retie&ionsoatheforegoing,- 36

BookIV. _at thelwwsofeducation_ughtto Z'erelativelot_eprinci:lesofgo.vernme:a.

Chap,I, Of thelawsofeducation, _7CL_p.

xlii C 0 N T E N T S.

Chap. II. Of educationin monarchies, 37C-hap.III. Of educanonin a defpotiegovernment, 4tChap. IV. Differencebetweenthe effe6tsof ancientandmo-

derneducation, 4zChap.V. Ofeducationin arepublicangovernment, 43Chap.VL Of fomeinRitutionsamongtheGreeks, 44Chap.VII. In whatcafetherefingularinRitutionsmaybeof

fervice, 47Chap. VIII. Explicationof a p_iradoxof the ancient_,in

refpe&to manners_ 48

BookV. _hat t_e laqvsgiven35 the legi/Tatorottgbtto_srelativetotheprincii_leof'government.

Chap.I. Ideaof this book, 5 IChap.II. What is meantbyvirtuein apoliticalRate, 5zChap. III. What is meant by a love of the republicin a de-

mocracy, 5zChap. IV. In whatmannerthe loveof equalityand frugality

isinfpired, de 54Chap.V. In what mannerthe lawseRabliflaequalityin a -mocraey,

Chap.VI. In whatmannerthe laws oughtto maintain fru-5qguiltyin a democracy, •

Chap. VII. Othermethodsfor favouringthe principleof de-58mocracy, 60

Chap.VIII. In whatmannerthe laws oughttobe relati_/etotheprincipleof governmentin anariRocracy, 63

Chap. IX. In whatmannerthe lawsarerelativeto theirprin-ciple_inmonarchies, 69

Chap. X. Of the expeditionpeculiarto the executivepowerin monarchies, 7°

Chap.XI. Of theexcellenceof a monarchicalgovmnment,71Chap.XII. The famefubje&continued, 73Chap.XIII. Anideaof defpoticpower, 75Chap.XIV. In whatmannerthe lawsare relativeto the prin-

ciplesof defpoticgovernment, 74Chap. XV. The famefubje&continued, 8 lChap. XV[. Of the communicationof power, 83Chap.XVII. Of prefents, 8.1.Chap.XVIII. Of rewardsconferredby the fove_elgn, 86Chap. XIX. Newconfcquencesof the prlnciplesof the three

governments, 87

Book

C 0 N T E N T S. xliH

BookVI. Confiqueneesof theprinciplesof diff'erentgo,oer_mentseoltbre/pet7to zkeflmplicityof cietil andcriminallacvs,theformofjudgements,andt.beinfliaingofpuni_ments.

CLap.I. Of the fimplicityof civil laws in differentgovern-ments, " 9 t

Chap.II. Of the timplicltyof criminallawsin differentgo-vernments,

C_hap.IlL In what governments,and in what cafes, th95judges oughtto determineaccordingto tile exprefsletterof thelaw, 96

Chap.IV, Of the mannerof formingjudgements, 97Chap.V. In whatgovernmentsthe fovereignmay bejudge, 99Chap.VI. That in monarchiesthe miniRersoughtnot tobe -

judges, lozChap. VII. Of a tinglemagif_rate, lo3Chap.VIII. Of accufationsin differentgovernments, 1o4.Chap.IX. Of thinfeverity of puniflamentsin differentgo-

vernments, 1o5Chap.X. Of theancientFrenchlaws, 106Chap. XI. That, whena people are virtuous,few punifla-

mentsareneceffary, I o7Chap.XII. Of the powerof punifrtments, lo7Chap.XIIL Impotencyof the lawsof Japan, l _oChap.XIV. Of the fpiritof the Romanfenate, 113Chap. XV. Of the RomantawsinretpeEttopunifl_ments,) 14Cha.p.XVL Of thejuftproportionbetwixtpuniflamentsand

crimes, i 16Chap. XVII. Of the queflionortorture, J, 8Chap.XVIII. Of pecuniaryand corporalpuniflaments, l19Chap.XIX. Of the lawof retaliation, I19Chap.XX. Of the punithmentof fathersfog the crimesof

theirchildren, IzoChap.XXI. Of the clemencyof the prince; 1z i

BookVII. Con_quencesof thedifferentprinciplesof the threego-qJernments,_withrefpet7to thej_miktuarylaws, luxury,andtheconditionof-women.

Chap.I. Of luxury, 12zChap. II. Of fumptuarylawsin a democracy, 1z5Chap. IlI. Of fumptuarylawsin an ariltocracy, Iz6Chap,IV. Of fumptuarylawsin a mQnarchy, Iz7Chap. V. In whatcafesfumptuarylaws are ufefulin a mo-

narchy, s29Chap.VI. Of the luxuryof China, _3oChap.V11. Fatalconfequencesof luxuryin China, ' 3

Chap.

xllv C O N T E N T ft.

Chap.VIII. Of publiccontlnency,Chap. 1X. Of the conditionor Rateof women_ndifferenti33

governments, i33Chap.X. Of thedomeRictribunalamongtheRomans, 13.4Chap.XI. InwhatmannertheinRitutionsChangedatRome,

togetherwiththe government, z36Chap. XII. Of the guardian/hipof woffaenamongthe R0-

malls,

Chap.XIII. Of the puni/hment decreedby the emperorsI37againf_the incontinencyof women, r37

Chap. XIV. Sumptuarylawsamongthe Romans, 14oChap.XV. Of dowriesandnuptial advar/tagesin different

conRitutions, 14°Chap.XVI. An excellentcuf_omof theSamnites, I4tChap.XVII. Of femaleadminiRratien, 14z

BookVIII. Of the corruptionof the pri_ciplesof thethreeff:oq)grd?lldilg$.

Chap. I. General ideaof thisbook, _43Chap.II. Of thecorruptionof the principleof democracy,__3Chap. III. Of thefpiritof extremeequality, , 146Chap. IV. Particularcaufeof the corruptionoftne people, 146Chap. V. Of thecorruptionof the principleof ar]Rocracy, 147Chap. VL Of thecorruptionof the principleof monarchy,148Chap. VII. The fzanefubje&continued, 249Chap. VIII. Danger of the corruptionof the principle of

monarchicalgovernment, l_oChap.IX. How readythenobilityaretodefendthe throne,55tChap.X. Of tilecorruptionof theprincipleof defpoticgo-

vernment, 15 zChap.XL Naturaleffe&sof thegoodnefsandcorruptionof

the principlesofgovernment, " 15zChap.XII. The famefubje&continued, 154Chap.XIII. The effec2of an oathamonga virtuouspeople, 155Chap.XIV. Howthe fmalleftchangein the cotaltitutionis

attendedwith the ruinof its principles, 157Chap.XV. Suremethods,of prefervingthe threeprinciples,.157Chap.XVI. DiRin&lvepropertiesof a republic, 158Chap.XVII. Diftin&ivepropertiesofa monarchy, 159Chap. XVIIL Particularcaieof the Spaniihmonarchy, I6oChap.XIX. Di_in&ivepropertiesofa defpoticgovernment,t6tChap.XX. Confequenceof the precedingchapters, I6IChap.XXI, Of the empireof China, 161

Book

C 0 N T E N T S. xlv

BookIX. Of la_s id therdationthey_mr toa d_kenfiveforce,

Chap. £ :inwhatmanr_crrepublicsprovidefortheir fafety, _65Chap. IL That a dtnfederategovernmentoughtto becorn-

pofed of tiates of the famenature, efpeciallyof the re-publicankind, 167

Chap. III. Other.requifitesin a confederaterepublic, 168Chap, IV. In whatmanner defpoticgovernmentsprovide

for theirfecurit'¢, . 169Chap. V. In whz_fi_arinera monarchicalgov.ernmentpro-

_;ide_for its fecm-iiy, x69Chap. VI. O£the.dcfcufiveforceof ftatesingeneral, z7°Chap. VII. A refle&[on, I7iCliap.VIII, A particularcare, in whichthe defenfiveforce

of a Pcateis inferiorto the offenfive, 17zChap.IX. Of the retativeforceof dates, 173Chap.X. Of the wca&nefsof neighbouringRates, ! 7J

Book X. Of la,-wsinthe _elationth9' beartooffenfivefarce.

Chap. I. Of offenfiveforce, r7¢Chap. 1L Of war, 174Chap.IlI. Of the rightot:conquer, x76Chap.IV. Someadvantagesof a conqueredpeople_ 178Chap.V. Gelon, idng of Syracufe, 18oChap. VL Of conqueftsmadebya republic, I8IChap.Vll. The famefubje&continued, 18zChap.VIII. The famefubje&continued, 185Chap.IX. Of conquersmadebya monarchy, i_3Chap. X. Of onemonarchythat fubduesanother, 184Chap.XI. Of the mannersof a conqueredpeople_ 185Ch_p.XlI. Of a lawof Cyrus, I8gChap. XIII. Alexander, xS_Chap.XlV. CharlesXIL 186Chap. XV. Newmethodsof preferringa conqueft, 19zChap. XVI. Of conquefismadebya defpoticprince, 193Chap.XVil.Thefamefubje&continued, 19+

BookXL Of the last thatformpoliticalli&rty, _itb regardtotheconflitution.

Chap.I. A generalidea, 195Chap. II. Differentfiguificationsgivento the wordliberO',19_Chap.Ill. In whatlibertyconfifts, 19oChap.IV. ']?hefamefubje&coatinued_ 197

Chap.

xlvl C 0 N T E N T 8.

Chap.V. of theendorviewof differentgovernments, 197Chap.¥I. Of theconftitutionof England, I98Chap.VII. Of the monarchiesweareacquaintedwith, zizChap.VIII. Whythe ancientshad not a clearideaofmo-

narchy, 2 t3Chap.IX. Ariftofle'smannerof thinking, _2t4Chap. X. Whatotherpoliticiansthought, " 2x$Chap.XI. Of the kingsof theheroictimesof Greece, zt 5Chap.XII. Of the governmentof the kingsof Rome,and

in whatmannerthe threepowerswerethere dittributed, z 17Chap.XIII. Generalretie&ionson the Rateof Romeafter

theexpulfionof its kings, 219Chap. XIV. In what mannerthe difLributionof the three

powersbegantochangeafter theexpulllonof the kings, 2ZlChap. XV. In whatmannerRome, whilein theflourilhing

Lateof therepublic, fuddenlylollitsliberty, 2z4Chap. XVI. Of the legillativepowersin the Romanrepub-

lic, 2z5Chap.XVII. Of the executivepower in the fame repub-

lic, 2z7Chap.XVIII. Of thejudiciarypowerintheRomangovern-

ment, zz9Chap.XIX. Of the governmentof the Romanprovinces, 237Chap. XX. End of this book, 239

BookXlI. Of thelawsd:atform politicallibert:,asrelativetothefubjedL

Chap.I. Ideaof thisbook, 240Chap.1[. Of the libertyof the fubje&, 241Chap.III. The famefubje&continued, 242Chap. IV. That libertyis favouredby the nature andpro-

portionof puniflaments, 24zChap.V. Of certainaccufatlonsthatrequire13articularmo-

derationandprudence, 246Chap.VI. Of the crimeagainfLnature, 248Chap.VII. Of the crim6of high.treafon, 249Chap.VIII. Gf thebad applicationof the nameof Sacri-

lege=ridHigh-treafon, _5oChap.IX. The famefubje&continued, 25_Chap.X. The famefubje&continued, 2S3Chap.XI. Of thought_, 353Chap.X_II.Of indifcreetfpeeches, zS+Chap. XII1. Of writings, 236"Ci_ap.XIV. Breachof lalodefiyin puniflaingcrimes, -"57

Chap,

C O N T E N T S. :xlvii

Chap.XV. Of the infranchifementof flaresin orderto ac-cufetheir ma_e:_, z58

Chap. XVI, Og calumnyin refpe&to the crimeof high-treafon, z58

Chap. XVII. Of the revealingof confpiraeies, z59Chap. XVIII. Howdangerousit is, _nrepublics, to be too

reverein punifhingthe crimeofhigh-treafon, z6oChap. XIX. in whatmannerthe ufeof liberty is fufpended

in a republic, a6zChap. XX. Of lawsfavourableto theliberty of the fubje&

in a republic, z63Chap. XXI. Of the crueltyof lawsin refpeCtto debtorsin

a republic, z63Chap. XXII. Of thingsthat Rrikeat libertyin monarchies,z65Chap. XX_II. Of fplesin monarchies, z66Chap. XXJV.Of anonymousletters, 267Chap. XXV. Of the mannerof governingin monarchies, z68Chap. XXVI. That, inamonarchy, the princeoughtto be

of eafyaccefs, 269Chap.XXVII, Of the mannersof a mofiarch, z69Chap. XXVIII. Of the regardwhichmonarchsowetotheir

fubje6ts, ZTOChap. XXIX. Of the civil laws properfor mixinga lhde

liberty in a defpoticgovernment, z7IChap.XXX. The famefubje_continued, z7z

BookXIII. Of the relation,whichthe le,vyingof taxes,and thegreatnefsof thepublicre*venues,have toliberty.

Chap. [. Of the revenuesof the fLate, z7jChap. II. That itis badreafoningtofaythat thegreatnefsof

the taxesis goodinits ownnature, z74Chap.III. Of taxesin countrieswhere part of the people

are villainsor bondmen, z7_Chap. IV. Of a republicin the like care, 275Chap. V. Of a monarchyin the likeca(e, _76Chap.VI. Of a defpoticgovernmentinthelike care, z76Chap. VII. Of taxes in countrieswhere villainage is not

etlablithed, z77Chap. VIII. In whatmannerthe illufionis preferred, z79Chap.IX. Of a bad kind of impel}, zSoChap. X. That the greatnefsof taxes_ependsonthenature

of the government, 28tChap. XI. Of fifcalpunithment% 28t

Chap.

xlviii C 0 N T E N T _,

Chap.XII. Relation betweenthe greatnefsof taxes andliberty, z83

Chap.XIII. In what governmentstaxesare capableofia-creafe, z84

Chap. XIV. That the natureof the taxesis relativeto thegovernment, z86

Chap.XV. Abufeof liberty, =86Chap.XVI. Of the conquersof the Mahometans, z87Chap.XVII. Of theaugmentationof troops, z87Chap. XVIII. Of an exemptionfromtaxe_, z8_Chap. XIX. Whichis molt fuitabletothe princeand to the

people, the lettingout to farm, or the adminittratiouofthe revenues, z89

Chap,XX.Of thefarmersof therevenues, zgv

BookXIV. Of la_s asrelativetothenatureof theclimate.

Chap. I. Generalidea, z9zChap.II. Of thedifferenceof men in differentclimates, z9nChap. IIL Contradie"tionin the chara6tersof romefouthern

nations, z97Chap. IV. Caufeof the immutabilityof religion, manners,

cuftoms,and laws, in the eafierncountries, z98Chap. V. That thofe are bad legiflatorswho favour the

vicesof theclimate, andgood legiflatorswhooppofetholevices, 298

Chap. VI. Of the cultivationof landsin warmclimates, z99Chap.VII. Of monkery, 300Chap. VIII. An excellenteuffomof China, 300Chap. IX. Meansof encouragingindultry, 3oiChap. X. Of the laws reIativeto the fobrletyof the pea.

pie, 3o tChap.XI. Of the lawsre!ativcto the diltempersof the cli-

mate, 303Chap. XII. Of the lawsagainitfuicides, 306Chap.XIII. Effe&sarifingfromthe climateof England, 3o6Chap.KIV. Othereffee_tsofthe climate, 308Chap. XV. Of the different confidencewhich the laws

have in the people, accordingto the differenceof cli-mates) 309

]lookX\ r. In ,whatman_zerthela._vs9t ci.vil.flave;'yarerelalivetothenaturecf th_climate.

Chap. I. Ofdvil flavery, 3toChap. II. Origin of the rightof flaveryamongthe Roman

civilians, 31lCt.ap.

C O N T E N T 8. xllx

Chap.HI. Another originof the right of flavery, 3x4Ch_p.IV_ Anotheroriginof the rightof flavery, 3*,l-Chap.V. Of the flaveryof the negroes, 3xChap.VL The trueoriginof therightof flavery, 316Chap.VII. Anotheroriginof the rightof flavery, 3 I7Chap.VIII. Inutility of flaveryamongus, 318Chap.IX. Severalkinds of flavery, 319Chap. X. Regulationsneceffaryin refpec'-ttoflavery, 319Chap.XI. Abufesof flavery, 3zoChap. XII. Danger fromthe multitudeof flares, 3zlChap.XIII. Of armedflares, 52z

Chahp....X'V The famefub'e&jcontinued, 3z3Cap. XV, Precautionsto be ufed in moderategovern-ments, 3z3

Chap.XVL Regulationsbet_veenmafiersand fJaves, 3z6Chap.XVIL' Of infranchifements, \ 3z7Chap.XVIII. Of freedmenand eunuchs, 33°

BookXVI. Howthelavwsofdomeflicfavery havea relationtothe_atureoftheclimate,

Chap.I. Of domefHcfervitude, 33IChap. II. That, in the countriesof theloath, thereis ana-

turalinequalitybetweenthe twofexes,Chap.ilI. That a pluralityof wivesdependsgreatlyon the33z

meansof fupportingthem, de 333Chap. IV. That the law ofpolygamyis an affairthat ,pendsoncalculation, 334

Chap. V. The reafon.ofa law of Malabar, 3_;Chap.VI. Of polygamyconfideredin itfelf, 335Cha.p.VII. Of ,n equalityof treatment in care of many

Wlves, 337

ChaD.VIII. Of the reparationof womenfrommen, politi 337Chap. IX. Of the connexionbetweendomefficandcal government, 338

Chap.X. The principleon whichthe mora!sof the Eaftarefounded, 339

Chap.XI. Ofdomeflicflaveryindependentlyof polygamy,3q_1Chap.XII. Of naturalmodefty, 542Chap. XII[. Ofjealoufy, 343Chap. X1V, Of the eaftern manner of dome._icgovern,

meat, 343Chap. XV. Of divorceandrepudiation, 34+Chap. XVI. Of repudiationand divorce amongP,theRo-

mans, 345'Vow.I. d B_ok

I - C O N T E N T S.

BookXVII. How thelavwsofpoliticalfer:uitudeha_earelationt_the natureoftheclimate.

Chap. I. Of politicalfervitude, 349Chap.II. The differencebetweennationsin point of cou-

rage, 349Chap.IH. Of theclimateof Aria, 350Chap. IV. The confequencesrefuhing fromthis, and353Ch_p.V. That, whentbe peoplein the northof Aria,

tholeof the northof Europe,haveconquered,the effectsof theconqueftwerenot the fame, 354

Chap. VL A newphyficalcaufeof the flaveryof Aria, andof the liberty of Europe, 356

Chap.VII. Of Africaand America, 357

BookXVIII. Of lacusin the relationtho' $earto thenatureofthefoil.

Chap.I. Howthe natureof the foilhas an influenceon thelaws, 358

Chap. II. The famefubje&continued, 359Chap. iII. Whatcountriesare beltcultivated, 360Chap. IV. New effe&sof the fertilityand barrennefsof

countries, 361Chap.V. Of theinhabitantsof iflands, 36IChap.VI. Of countriesrailedbythe indufiryof men, 36zChap.VII. Of the worksof men, 363Chap.VIII. Thegeneralrelationof laws, 363Chap. IX. Of the foilof America, 364Chap.X. Of thenumberof menwith regardto the manner

in whichtheyprocurefubfiftence, 364.Chap.XI. Of favagenationsand nationsof barbarians, 36_Chap. XII. Of the law of nationsamongttpeoplewhodo

not cultivatethe earth, 365Chap.X[II. Of the civil lawsof tholenationswhichdonot

cultivatethe earth, 366Chap. X1V. Of the po!iticalfhte of the peoplewhodonot

cultivatethe lands, 367Chap.XV. Of the peoplewhoknow the ufeof money,Chap.XVI. Of civillawsamongl_peoplewhoknownotthe367

u_eof money, 368Chap. XVII. Of politicallawsamongftnations_hich have

not the ufeof money, 368Chap. XVIII. Of the powerof fuperflition, 369

Chap.

C 0 N T E N T S._ It

Chap.XIX. Of tholibertyof theArabs, andthefervltudeoftheTartars,

Chap.XX. Ofthelawofnationsasprae'tifedby theTar-37°tars, 37I

Chap.XXL ThecivillawoftheTartars, 372Chap.XXII.OfacivillawoftheGermannations, 37zChap.XXIILOftheornamentsofroyalty, 379Chap.XXIV.Ofthemarriagesofthekiag_of theFranks,38oChap.XXV. Childeric,Chap.XXVI. Of thetimeswhenthekingsof theFrank?S°

becameofage, 38tChap.XXVII.Thefamefabje&continued, 38z.Chap.XXVI1LOf thefanguinarytemperofthekingsof

theFranks, 384.Chap.XXIX.Ofthenationalaffembliesof theFranks, 385Chap.XXX°Oftheauthorityof theclergyunderthefirfi

race, 386

BookXIX. Ofla,wsinrelationtotheprinciples_whichformthege-neralfDirit,themorals,andcufloms_fanation.

Chap.I. Ofthe fubje&ofthisbook, 387Chap.II. Thatit isneceflhrypeople'smindsfhouldbepre-

paredforthereceptionofthebdtlaws, 387Chap.IIL Of tyranny, $88

Chap.IV. Of thegeneralfpiritofmankind, general389Chap.V. How farwe thouldbe attentiveleftthefpiritofthenationflaouldbe changed, 389

Chap.VI. ThateverythingoughtnottobecorreCted, 39°Chap.VII. OftheAtheniansandLaeedmmonians, 39IChap.VIII. Effe&sofa focialtemper, 39zChap.IX. Ofthevanityandprideofnations, 39zChap.X. Of thecharactersoftheSpaniardsandChinefe, 393Chap.XI. A reflection, 394Chap.XII. Ofcuf_omsandmannersinadefpoticflate, 394

Chap.XIII. Ofthecut,oresof theChinefe, the395Chap.XIV. Whatare the naturalmeansof changingmannersandcuftomsof anation, 396

Chap.XV, Theinfluenceofdomeltlcgovernmentonthepo-litical, 398

Chap.XVLHowromelegiflatorshaveconfoundedtheprin-cipleswhichgovernmankind, 398

Chap.XVll. OfthepeculiarqualityoftheChinefegovern-ment, 4oo

Chap.XVIII.A confcquencedrawnfromthe precedingchaptera 4° I

Ch._p,

lli C 0 N T E N T &

Chap.XIX.Howthisunionofreligion,laws,manners,andcuRoms,amongfttheChinefe,wasproduced, 4oz

Chap.XX.Anexplicationofaparadoxrelatingto theChi-nefe, 404

Chap.XXI.Howthelawsoughttohavearelationtoman-nersandcuRoms, 405

Chap.XXII.Thefamefubje&continued, o4°5f iChap.XXIII.Howthelawsarefoundedon themannersa people, • 4o5

Chap.XXIV.Thefamefubje_continued, 407Chap.XXV.ThefamefubjecCtcontinued, 4o8 iChap.XXVI.Thefamefubje&continued, 408 ,Chap.XXVII. Howthelawscontributetoformtheman- _

hers,caroms,andcharacter,ofanation, 408 [

[

THg

THE

SPIRIT

OF

L A W S.

BOOK I.

_F LAWS IN GENERALz'

CHAP. I.

Of theRelationof Laws to diffgrentPeings.

AWS, in their molt:generalfignification,arethe neceffaryrelationsarifing from the na-

ture of things. In this fenfe,all beingshave theirlaws; the Deityhis * laws, the materialworlditslaws,the intelligencesfuperiortomantheirlaws,thebeaftstheirlaws,manhis Iaqcs.

They whoaiTert,that a blindfatalityproducedtheVariouseffectswe beholdin thisworld,talkveryab-furdly; for canany thingbe moreunreafonablethanto pretend that a blindfatalitycouldbe produ&iveof intelligentbeings?

_ Law_"faysPlutarch,c¢is the kingof mortalandimmortalbelngs."Seehistreatife,entitled,d DifcourfetoanunlearntdPri.qce.

VoL.I. B There

z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_t,

Thereisthenaprimitivereafon; andlawsaretherelationsfubfiftingbetweenit anddifferentbeings,andtherelationsof thefetooneanother.

Godisrelatedto theuniverfeascreatorand pre-ferver: thelawsbywhichhe createdallthingsarethofebywhichheprefervesthem. Heac'tsaccord-ingtothererules,becaufeheknowsthem; heknowsthem,becaufehemadethem; and hemadethem,becaufetheyarerelativeto hiswifdomandpower.

Sinceweobfervethattheworld,thoughformed [bythemotionofmatter,andvoidofunderftanding, ifubfiftsthroughfo longafucceffionofages,itsmo-tionsmuff:certainlybedire&edbyinvariablelaws: Iand,couldwe imagineanotherworld,it muffalfohaveconftantrules,or itwouldinevitablyperifh.

Thus the creation,whichfeemsanarbitraryac"t,fuppofethlawsas invariableasthofeof thefatalityof theatheifts.It wouldbeabfurdto fay,thattheCreatormightgoverntheworldwithout'tholerules, :fincewithoutthemit couldnotfubfift.

Thererulesarea fixedandinvariablerelation.Inbodiesmoved,the motionis received,increafed,diminifhed,loft,accordingto the relationsof thequantityof matterand velocity: eachdiverfityisuniformity; eachchangeisconflanor.

Particularintelligentbeingsmayhavela,wsoftheirownmaking;buttheyhavefomelikewifewhichtheynevermade. Beforetherewereintelligentbeings,theywerepoffible; theyhadthereforepoffiblerela-tions,andconfequentlypoffiblelaws. Beforelawsweremade,therewererelationsof poffiblejufti_ze,To faythatthereis nothin_juftorunjuft,butwhatiscofilmandedorforbiddenbypofitivel_.qcs,isthefameaslayingthat,beforethedefcribingofacircle,all theradiiwerenotequal.

- ¥¢e

C_aP,I. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3

We mullthereforeacknowledgerelationsofju[{iceantecedentto thepofitivelawbywhichtheyareera-blifhed: as for inftance,that, if human£ocietiesex-ifted,it wouldbe right to conformto theirlaws; ifthere were intelligent beings that had receivedabenefitof anotherbeing, they ought to fhewtheirgratitude; if oneintelligentbeinghad createdano-ther intelligentbeing, the latter ought to continuein itsoriginalftateof dependence; if oneintelligentbeinginjuresanother,it defervesa retaliation; andfoon.

But theintelligentworldis farfrom beingfowellgovernedasthe phyfical: for, though the formerhas alfoits laws,whichof theirownnatureare in-variable,it doesnot conformto themfo exadtlyasthe phyficalworld. This is becaufe,on the onehand, particularintelligentbeingsareof a finitena-ture, and confequentlyliableto error; and, ontheother, theirnature requiresthemto be free agents.Hencetheydo not Readilyconformto theirprimi-tivelaws; and even thole of theirowninftitutingtheyfrequentlyinfringe.

Whetherbrutes begovernedby the generallawsof motion,or bya particularmovement,we cannotdetermine. Be thatasit may, theyhavenota moreintimaterelationto God thanthe rett:of the mate-rialworld; and fenfationis of noother ufe to them,than in the relationthey haveeitherto other par-ticularbeings,or to themfelves.

By the allurementof pleafuretheyprefervetheindividual,and bythe fameallurementtheyprefervetheirfpecies. They havenaturallaws,becaufetheyare united by fenfation; pofitivelaws theyhavenone,becaufethey are not connec2edby know-ledge: and yet theydonot invariablyconformtotheir natural laws: thereare better obfervedby

B 2 vegetables,

4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BdozL

vegetables, that have neitherunderftandingnorfenfe.

Brutesaredeprivedof thehighadvantageswhichwe have; but theyhaverome whichwe havenot.They havenotour hopes; but theyarewithoutourfears: theyare fubje&,likeus, todeath, butwith-out knowingit : evenmoffofthemaremore atten-tive thanwe to felf-prefervation,and do not makefo bada ufeof theirpaffions.

Man,asa phyficalbeing,is,likeotherbodies,go-vernedby invariablelaws. As an intelligentbeing,heinceffantlytranfgreffesthelawseffablifhedbyGod,and changestholeofhis owninffituting. He isleftto his privatedire&ion,thougha limited being,and fubje&,likeall finiteintelligences,to ignoranceanderror: evenhis imperfe&knowledgehe lofeth;and, asa fenfiblecreature,he is hurriedawayby athoufandimpetuouspaffions. Sucha beingmighteveryinRantforgethis Creator;: God hasthereforeremindedhimof his duty by the laws of religion.Sucha beingis liableeverymomentto forgethim-felf; philofophyhasprovidedagainffthisby thelawsofmorality.Formedto liveinfociety,hemightforgeLhis fellow-creatures; legiftatorshave, therefore,bypoliticaland civillaws,confinedhimtohis duty.

CHAP. II.OftheLawsofNature:

ANTECEDENT to the above-mentionedlawsare tholeof nature; fo calledbecaufetheyderivetheir force entirelyfrom our frameandexiffence.In order tohavea perle&knowledgeof therelaws,we muff confiderman beforetheeffablifhmentoffociety; the lawsreceivedin fucha ffatewouldbetholeof nature.

The law,which,imprefl]ngonour mindstheideaof aCreator,inclinesus towardhim,is thefirffinim-

portance,

CHAP.2, THE SPIRIT OF LAWS.

portance, though not in order, of naturallaws.Man, in aftateof nature,wouldhavethefacultyofknowing before he had acquiredany knowledge.Plainit isthathis firftideaswouldnotbe of a fpecu-lativenature: he wouldthink of theprefervationofhis being before he wouldinvefligateits original,Sucha manwouldfeelnothinginhimfelf,at firtt,butimpotencyandweaknefs:hisfearsandapprehenfionswouldbe exceflive; asappearsfrominftances(werethereany neceffityofprovingit) of ravagesfoundinforefts* tremblingat the motionof a leaf, andfly-ing fromeverytq_adow.

In thisfl:ate,everyman, inffeadof beingfenfibleof hisequality, wouldfancyhimfelfinferior: therewould,therefore,be nodangerof theirattackingoneanother; peacewouldbe thefirfrlawof nature.

The naturalimpulfe,ordefire,whichHobbesattri-butestomankind,offubduingoneanother,isfarfrombeingwellfounded. The ideaof empireanddomi-nionis focomplex,and dependson fo many othernotions,that it couldnever be the firf'cwhichoc-curredto the humanunderftanding.

Hobbesenquires," Forwhatreafonmengoarm-" ed, andhavelocksandkeysto fattentheirdoors," iftheybenotnaturallyina fl:ateof war._"Butisit '-_notobvious,thatheattributestomankind,beforetheeffablifhmentof fociety,whatcanhappenbut incon- 'fequenceof thisettablithment,whichfurniflaesthemwithmotivesforhottileattacksand fell-defence?

Next toa fenfeof his weaknefs,m2nwouldloonfindthatof his wants. Hence,anotherlawof nature _ -g&.

wouldprompthimto leek for nourilhment.I haveobferved,would_duce mento fllun

oneanother; but the marksof this fear,beingreci-WitherstheravagefoundintheforeitsofHanover,whowa_carriedoverto

EnglandunderthereignofGtorgeI.B 3 proca]_

6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKI.

procal,wouldloonengagethemtoaffociate,Betides,this affociationwouldquicklyfollowfromthe verypleafureone animalfeelsat the approachof anotherof the fame fpecies. Again, theattra&ionarifingfromthe differenceof fexeswouldenhancethisplea-

- lure, and the naturalinclinationtheyhavefor eachotherwouldform'-athird law.

Betidethe fenfeorinftin&whichmanpoffeffesincommonwith brutes,he has the advantageof ac-quired knowledge; and thencearifesa fecondtie,whichbrutes havenot. Mankind havethereforea

_. new motive of uniting,and a fourthlaw of naturerefultsfromthe defireof livingin fociety.

C H A P. III.Of po./itiveLaws.

AS loonas mankindenter intoa fiateof fociety,theylofethefenfeof theirweaknefs_ equalityceafes,and thencommencesthe prateof war.

Each particularfocietybeginsto feel its ttrengthwhencearifesa ftateof warbetwixtdifferentnations,The individualslikewifeof eachfocietybecomefen-fibleof theirforce: hencethe principaladvantagesof thisfocietytheyendeavourto convertto theirownemolument; whichconftitutesa prateof warbetwixtindividuals.

Theretwodifferentkindsof Pratesgiverife to hu-: manlaws. Confideredas inhabitantsof fo gre_-a

planet,whichneceffarilycontainsavarietyof nations,they have lawsrelativeto their mutualintercourfe,whichis whatwecallthelaw _ nations. Asmem-bers of a focietythat mupr"ffei_roperlyfupported,they have laws relativeto the governorsandthegoverned_ and this we diftinguithby thenameofpdi_tic_law. They have alfo anotherfort of laws,as theyftandin relationto ea,ch-o!her_ bywhichisu,qderproodthe civillaw.

--- The

CsA:'.3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 7

Thelawof nationsis naturallyfoundedon'thisprinciple,that differentnationsoughtin time ofpeaceto dooneanotherallthe goodtheycan,andin timeof waras littleinjuryas poffible_withoutiprejudicingtheirrealinteref_s._

Theobje_rjsvi&ory ; thatof vi&oryisconqueft; andthatofconqueft,prefervation,Fromthisandthe precedingprinciplealltholerulesarederivedwhichconffitutethelawofnations.

Allcountrieshavealawofnations,notexceptingthe Iroquoisthemfetves,thoughtheydevourtheirprifoners; for theyfendandrecelveambaffadors,andunderftandthe rightsof warandpeace. Themifchiefis, that theirlawofnationsis notfoundedontrueprinciples.

Betidesthelawofnationsrelatingto allfocieties,thereisa polity,orcivilconftitution,foreach,par-ticularlyconfidered.No focietycanfubfiftwithouta formof government." Theunited_rengthof" individuals,"as Gravinawellobferves," confd-" tuteswhatwecallthebodypolitic."

Thegeneralfcrengthmaybeinthehandsofatingleperfon,orofmany. Somethinkthat,naturehavingeftablifnedpaternalauthority,the mo_naturalgo-vernmentwasthatof a tingleperfon. Buttheex-ampleof paternalauthorityprovesnothing:for,if thepowerof afatherbe relativeto a tinglego-vernment,thatofbrothersafterthedeathofafather,_andthatofcoufin-germansafterthedeceafeof bro-'Lthers,referto a governmentof many. Thepoliti-calpowerneceffarilycomprehendsthe unionof fe-veralfamilies.

Betteris itto fay,thatthegovernmentmo_con-formableto natureis thatwhichbefragreeswiththehumouranddii'pofitionof thepeoplein wholefavourit iseftablithed.

B 4 The

$ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo.I,

The ftrengthof individualscannotbe unitedwith-out a cor_jun&ionof all theirwills. " The con-"'jun&ionof thole wills," as Gravinaagain veryjuftlyobferves," is whatwecallthedvilflate."

Lawingennera!is humanreafon,inafmuchasit go-I vernsalltheinhabitantsoftheearth;the politicaland

civillawsof eachnationought to beonlythe parti-cularcafesinwhich humanreafonis applied.

They fhouldbe adaptedin fucha mannerto thepeople _orwhomtheyare framed,that it is a greatchanceif tholeofonenationfuitanother.

Theythouldberelativeto the natureandprincipleof eachgovernment; whethertheyformit, as maybe laidof politicallaws; or whethertheyfupportit,asin thecateof civilinffitutions.

Theytlaouldberelativeto theclimateofeachcoun-try, to the qualityof itsfoil, to its fituationandex-tent, to the principaloccupationof the natives,whetherhutbandmen,huntfmen,or fhepherds:theythouldhavea relationto the degreeof libertywhichthe conftitutionwillbear, to the religionof the in-habitants, to their inclinations,riches, numbers,commerce,manners,.and cuRoms. In fine, theyhave relationsto each other, as alfoto their ori-gin, to the intent of the legiflator,and to the or-derof thingson whichtheyare eftablifhed; inallwhichdifferentlightstheyought to be confidered.

This is whatI haveundertakento performin thefollowingwork. There relationsI lhall examine,fiace all theretogetherconffitutewhat I call theSpiritof Laws.

I havenot feparatedthepoliticalfromthecivilin-ftitutions; for, asI do not pretendto treatof laws,

_..5/_ but of their fpirit, andas thisfpirit confiltsin thevariousrelationswhichthe lawsmayhaveto differ-•__ cnt obje&s,-it]Snot fo muchmybufincfsto follow

"_ the

¢_.AP.3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 9

thenaturalorderof laws,asthat of thererelationsandobje&s.

I [hallfirRexaminetherelationswhichlawshavetothenatureandprincipie_f-e_cti-g6g6"rfii_efiT:'"_ind,asthisi_rlnci_etilis"att¥6fi_infli.iendeonlaws,I thallmakeit nayftudyto underftanditthoroughly; and,if I canbutonceeftabliihit, thelawswilltbonap-peartoflowfromthenceasfromtheirfource. I lhaUproceedafterwardstoothermoreparticularrelations.

B 0 0 K II.

OF ]LAWS DIRECTLY DERIVED FROM THE NATISREOF GOVERNMENT.

CHAP. I.

OftheNatureof threedifferentGovernments.THERE are threefpeciesof government;re-

publican,monarchical,anddeJpotic.In orderto dill .covertheirnature,it is fufficientto recolle&thecommonnotion,whichfuppofesthreedefinitions,orratherthreefac2s: " Thatarepublicangovernment_" is thatin whichthebodyoronly a partof the" peopleis poffeffedof the fupremepower:too-" narchy,thatinwhicha tingleper/ongovernsby" fixed_mdcfkabliflaedlaws:adefpoticg°vernment," th-atiiiwhicha tingleperfondire6tseverything " -"" by hisownwi!!andcaprice." _-""

ThisiswhatI callthenatureofeachgovernment:we muffnowinquireintotholelawswhichdire&lyconformto this nature,and confequentlyare thefundamentalinftitutions,

CHAP,

lo THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoozII.

CHAP. II.Of the republicanGovernment,andtheLawsrdative

toDemocracy.WHEN the bodyof the peopleispoffeffedof

thefupremepower,thisiscalledademocracy.Whenthefupremepowerislodgedinthehandsofapartofthepeople,itisthenanariflocracy.

In ademocracythepeopleareinfomerefpe&sthefovereign,andin othersthefubjec"t.

Therecanbenoexercifeoffovereigntybutbytheirfuffrages,whicharetheirownwill: now,the fove-r_ign'swillisthefovereignhimfeff.Thelaws,there-fore,whicheftablilhtherightof fuffrage,arefunda-mentalto thisgovernment.And indeedit is asimportantto regulate,in a republic,inwhatman-ner,bywhom,towhom,andconcerningwhat,fuf-fragesaretobegiven,asitis,in amonarchy,toknowwhoistheprince,andafterwhatmannerheoughttogovern.

Libanius*lays,that at " Athensa Rrangerwho*' intermeddledintheaffembliesof thepeoplewas" puni/hedwithdeath." Thisisbecaufefuchaman

! ufurpedtherightsoffoy_ereignty.t -lTis--ane_ifa pT_oint,tofixthenumberofcitizensI whoareto formthepublicaffemblies; otherwifeit

wouldbeuncertainwhetherthewholeoronlya partof thepeoplehadgiventheirvotes. At Spartathenumberwasfixedto tenthoufand.ButRome,de-fignedby Providencetorifefromthe weakeftbe-ginningsto the higheftpitchof grandeur;Rome,doomedto experienceall the viciflitudesof for-tune; Rome,whohadfometimesall her inhabi-tantswithoutherwalls,andfometimesallItalyanda confiderablepart of the worldwithinthem;

D.-¢lam._7,&zS.Rome,

CHAr.Z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. tt

Rome, I fay, neverfixed* the number; and thiswasoneof theprincipalcaulksof her ruin.

The people, in whomthe fupremepowerrefides,oughtto havethemanagementof everythingwithin itheir reach: what exceedstheirabilities muffbe icondu&edbytheirminiffers.

But theycannotproperlybe faidto havetheirmi-nifters,withoutthepowerof nominatingthem: it isthereforea fundamentalmaxim,in thisgovernment,that thepe0ple tho_uldchoofetheirminifters_thatis_.........their magiffrate_......................

Theyha_/e0ccafion,aswellas monarchs,andevenmorefo, to be dire&edbya councilor fenate. But,to havea properconfidencein thefe, they /houldhavethe choofingof the members; whetherthe e-le&ionbe madebythemfelves,as at Athens; or byromemagif_ratedeputedfor that purpofe,asoncer-tainoccafionswascut'tomaryatRome.

The peopleareextremelywellqualifiedfor choo-ringtholewhomtheyareto intruftwithpart of theirauthority.Theyhaveonlytobedeterminedbythings !to whichtheycannotbeftrangers,and byfa&sthat !areobviousto fenfe. They cantell whena perfon !has fought many battles,and beencrownedwithfuccefs; theyarethereforeverycapableof ele&ingageneral. Theycantellwhenajudge is affiduousinhis office,givesgeneral fatisfac"tion,and has neverbeenchargedwithbribery: thisisfufficientforchoo-ringa prmtor.Theyareftruckwiththe magnificenceor richesof a fellow.citizen: nomoreis requifiteforelectinganmdile. Therearefa&sofwhichtheycanhavebetterinformationina publicforumthana mo-narch in hispalace. But are they capableof con-du6tingan intricateaffair,of feizingandimproving

• SeetheConfideration_ontheeaufesofthegrandeuranddeclineoftheRo.,/I'lan_e

the

,z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _oor_.q_,.

theopportunityandcriticalmomentofadtion? Nothisfurpaffestheirabilkies.

Shouldwedoubtof/hepeople'snaturalcapacity,inrefpe&tothe difcernmentof merit,weneedonlycarl:an eyeontheferiesoffurprifingele&ionsmadebytheAtheniansandRomans; whichnoonefurelywillattributeto hazard.

Weknowthat, thoughthepeopleof Romeaf-fumedto themfelvestherightofraifingplebeianstopublicoffices,yettheyneverwouldexertthispow-er; andthough,at Athens,themagiRrateswereal-lowed,bythe lawof Ariftides,to be eleCtedfromall the differentclaffesof inhabitants,thereneyerwasacare,laysXenophon*, thatthecommonpeo-ple petitionedforemploymentswhichcouldendan-gereithertheirfecurityortheirglory.

Asmoil:citizenshavefufficientabilitiestochoofe,thoughunqualifiedto be chofen,£othe people,thoughcapableof callingothersto anaccount*'ortheiradminiftration,areincapableofcondu&ingtheadminiff:rationthemfelves.

"l'hepublicbufinefsmuff:be carriedon,withacertainmotion,neithertooquicknortooflow. Butthe motionof thepeopleis alwayseithertooretailsor too violent. Sometimes,withahundredthou-land arms,they overturnall beforethem; andfometimes,witha hundredthoufandfeet,theycreeplikeinfegts.

In a popularRatetheinhabitantsaredividedin-to certainclaffes.It isinthemannerofmakingthisdivifionthatgreatlegiflatorshavefignalizedthem-]'elves; andit isonthisthe durationandprofperityOfdemocracyhaveeverdepended.

ServiusTullusfollowedthefpiritofariftocracyinthediff:ributionof hisclaffes.Wefind,in Livy,-l-

* Page69z,&69z,edit.Wechel,/inn,_576_ afLib.z. and

Ci_AV.Z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 13

and in Dionyfius.Halicarnaffeus,._:in whatmannerhe lodgedthe rightof fuffragem thehandsof theprincipalcitizens. He had dividedthe people of ; ..... -:Romeinto a hundredand ninety-threecenturies,whichformedfix claffes_ and, ranking the rich,whowerein fmallernumbers,in the firf'tcenturies;andtholein middlingcircumftances,whoweremorenumerous,in the next, he flungthe indigentmulti-tudeinto thelaft; and, aseachcenturyhad butonevote*, it waspropertyratherthan numbersthatde-cidedthe de&ions.

Solondividedthe peopleof Athensintofourclaf-fes. In this hewasdire&edbythe fpiritof demo-cracy,his intentionnotbeingto fix thole'whowere )to choofe, but fuch as were eligible: therefore,lleavingto every citizenthe right of election, hemadet- the judges eligiblefromeachof thofefourclaffes; but the magiftrateshe orderedto be chofenonlyout of the firftthree, confiftingof perfonsofeafyfortunes.

As the divifionof tholewhohavea right of fur-.frageis a fundamentallawin republics,the manneralfoof givingthis fuffrageis anotherfundamental.

The fuffrageby lot is natural to democracy,asthatby cboiceis to ariftocracy.

The fuffrageby lotis a methodof ele&ingthatoffendsnoone; but animateseachcitizenwith thepleatinghopeof fervinghis country.

Yet, as this methodis in itfelf defe&ive,it hasbeentheendeavourofthe mof_eminentlegiflamrstoregulateandamendit.

_ Lib,4, Art. xf, &feq.Se%in the Confiderationsontheeaufesofthe_randeuran,.tJecl_neof theRomans_chap.9"how thisfpiritof ServiusTullus_va_p_cl_vcdin therepub-lic.

"1-DionytiusHaliearn.eulogiumofIfocrates_p,67. torri.2. Edit'.Wechel.Potluxj1.8. ¢,I% Art, I3o.

Solon

I_. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. B0ogIL

Solonmadea law,at Athens,thatmilitaryem-ploymentsfhouldbeconferredbychoice; butthatfenatorsandjudgesfhouldbeelecrtedbylot.

Thefamelegiflatorordained,thatcivilmagi_ra-ciesattendedwithgreatexpencelhouldbegivenbychoice,andtheothersbylot.

In order,however,to amendthefuffragebylot,he madea rule, thatnonebuttholewhoprefentedthemfelves/houldbeele&ed; thattheperfonelectedflaouldbe examinedbyjudges,*andthateveryonethouldhavea right to accufehim if he wereun-worthyof theoff:icet : thisparticipatedat thefametimeof thefuffrageby lot, andof thatbychoice.Whenthetimeof theirmagiftracywasexpired,theywereobligedto fubmitto anotherjudgementin re-gardto theircondu&. Perfonsutterlyunqualifiedmuf_havebeenextremelybackwardin givingintheirnamesto bedrawnbylot.

The lawwhichdeterminesthemannerofgivingfuffrageis likewifefundamentalin a democracy.It is a queftionof fomeimportance,whetherthefuffragesoughtto be publicorfecret. Ciceroob-ferves,_ thatthelawsIIwhichrenderedthemfecret,towardstheclofeof therepublic,werethecaufeofits decline.But,asthis is differentlypra&ifedindifferentrepublics,I lhallofferheremythoughtsconcerningthisfubje&.

Thepeople'sfuffragesoughtdoubtlefsto bepub-lic§;andthisfhouldbeconfideredasafundamental

'_ Seethe oratioaof Demofihenesdefalf,gkgat, andtheoration_galn_Ti-marchus.

J"Theyufedevento drawtwo ticketsforeachplace; onewhichgavetheplace,andtheotherwhichnamedtheperfoawhowastofacccedincarethefirftwasrejected.

_. Lib.1"._ 3"deLeg.[[ TheywerecalledLegesCl'abulares: twotabletswereprefentedtoeachcit_-

zen; the firRmarkedw_thanA, forAntiguo,orIfor_d it i _d theotherwithanUandanR, forUtirogat,or Beit a,youde/ire.

§ At Athen_thepeopleureato liftuptheirhands.law

C_AP. 2. THE SPIRIT OF LAWr_. 15

lawof democracy.The lowerclafsoughtto bedire&edby tholeof higherrank, andreftrainedwithinboundsbythegravityofeminentperfona_es.Hence,byrenderingthe fuffragesfecretin theRo-manrepublic,allwasloft: it wasnolongerpoflibleto dire&a populacethatfoughtitsowndefl_ru_ion.But,whenthe bodyofthe noblesaretovotein aaariftocracy,®orin a democracythe fenate,t asthebufinefsis thenonlyto preventintrigues,thefur- "_fragescannotbe toofecret.

Intriguingin a fenateis dangerous:dangerousit is alfoin a bodyof nobles; butnotfoin thepeople,wholenatureis to ac"rthroughpalt%n.Incountrieswheretheyhaveno tharein thegovera-merit,weoftenfeethemas muchinflamedon theaccount,ofan a&or,asevertheycouldbefor thewelfareof the _ate. The misfortuneof arepub..lieis, whenintriguesareatanend; whichhappenswhenthepeopleare gainedbybriberyandcorrup-tion: inthiscaretheygrowindifferentto publicaf-fairs,andavaricebecomestheir predo:v.inantpaf-fion. Unconcernedaboutthegovernmentande-verythingbelongingtotit, theyquietlywaitfortheirhire.

It islikewifea fundamentallaw,in democracies,thatthepeopleflaouldhavethe rolepowerto ena&laws. And yet therearea thoufandoccafionsonwhichit isneceffarythefenatefl_ouldhavea powerofdecreeing:nay,it is frequentlyproperto makerometrialofalawbeforeitiseftablifhed.Tilecon-ffitutionsofRomeandAthenswereexcellent.Thedecreesof thefenate$ hadtheforceoflawsforthe

*sAsatVenlee."]-'/'hethirtytyrantsat Athensorderedthefu_a-.esof the /lrecpazitestobe

public,in orderto managethem asthey plcafed. Lyf,as, Orat.ccn;radgora;.cap8.

SeeDionyf.Halicarn.Jib.4'&9.fpace

16 THE SPIRIT OF LAWs, BooKII:

fpaceof a year,butdidnotbecomeperpetualtilltheywereratifiedbytheconfentofthepeople.

C H A P. III.

OftheLawsrelativetotheNatureofAriflocrac.y._ IN anariftocracythefupremepoweris lodgedin

\ the handsof a certainnumberof perfons.Thereareinvefledbothwiththe legiflativeandexecutiveauthority; andtherefrofthepeopleare, inrefpecq:to them,thefameas the fubje&sofa monarchyinregardto thefovereign.

Theydonotvoteherebylot; for thiswouldbeprodu&iveof inconvenienciesonly. And indeed,in agovernmentwherethe moftmortifyingdiftinc-tionsare alreadyeftablithed,thoughtheyweretobe chofenbylot, frilltheywouldnotceafeto be o-dious: it is thenoblemantheyenvy,and notthemagiftrate.

Whenthenobilityare numerous,theremuffbeafenateto regulatetheaffairswhichthebodyofno-blesareincapableof deciding,andto prepareothersfortheirdecifion.In thiscafeit maybelaid,thattheariftocracyisin fomemeafurein thefenate,thedemocracyinthe bodyof thenobles,andthepeo-ple areacypher.

It wouldbe averyhappything,in anariftocracy.,if thepeople,in romemeafure,couldberailedfromtheir fcateof annihilation.Thus,at Genoa,thebankof St.Georgebeingadminifteredbythe peo-ple*givesthema certaininfluencein the govern-ment, fromwhencetheirwholeprofperityis de-rived.

The fenatorsoughtby no meansto havea rightof namingtheir ownmembers_ for thiswouldbe

the

_'SeeMr.Addifon'_TravelstoItaly,

C_aP. 5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z7

the only way to perpetuateabufes. At Rome,which in its early yearswasakindof arifiocracy,the fenatedid not fillup the vacantplacesin theirownbody: the new memberswerenominatedbythe * cenfors.

In a republic,the fuddenrifeof a privatecitizento exorbitantpowerproducesmonarchy,or rome-thingmorethanmonarchy. In the latter, the lawshave provided for, or in fome meafureadapted :themfelvesto, the conRitution; and the principle_-of governmentchecks the monarch: but, in a re-public, wherea privatecitizenhasobtainedanex-orbitantpower,j- the abufeof this poweris much /greater, becaufethe lawstbrefawit not, and confe-quentlymadenopro_qfibn-a-ga-i_/lt"it.

There is anexceptionto this rule, whenthecon-ttitution is fuchasto haveimmediateneedof ama-giRrate invertedwith an exorbitantpower. Such.wasRome with herdi&ators;fuch is Venicewithher Rate-inquifitors: there are formidablemagif-trates, whored:ore,asit werebyviolence,the Rateto its liberty. But how comesit that theremagif-traciesarefo verydifferentin theretwo republics?It is becaufeRomefupportedthe remainsof herariRocracyagainfl:thepeople; whereasVeniceem-ploysherRate-inquifitorsto maintainherariRocracyagainfl:the nobles. The confequencewas, thatatRomethe di&atorthipcouldbeonlyof a ihortdu-ration,as the peoplea&through paflion,and notwithdefign. It wasneceffarythata magiftracyofthiskind /houldbe exercitedwithfurl:reandpomp;the bufinefsbeingto intimidate,and n6t topunirn,,the multitude. It wasalfoproperthat the di&atorthould be createdonly for rome particularaffair,

_*Theywerenamedat firt_bytheco_,fi_ls,t "l'h_Is whatruinedthe_ept_blicof Rome. SeeConfi?erationsonthe

caufesorthegrandeuranddeclineoftheI_omaas.Vm..1. C and

18 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:II."

and for this only fhouldhavean unlimitedautho-rity, as he was alwayscreatedupon romefuddenemergency. On the contrary,at Venicetheyhaveoccafion_br a permanentmagiftracy; for hereit isthat fchemesmay be t_t on foot, continued,fuf-pended, and refumed; that the ambitionof a tingleperfonbecomesthat of a family,and theambitionof one familythat of many. They haveoccafion_br a fecretmagiftracy,the crimestheypunifhbe-ing hatchedin fecrecyand filence. Thismagif_racymuff:have a generalinquifition; for theirbufinefsis not to remedyknowndiforders,but topreventthe unknown. In a word,the latter is defignedtopunifh fufpe&edcrimes; whereasthe formerufedrather menacesthan punithment,even for crimesthat wereopenlyavowed.

In all magiftraciesthe greatnefsof the powermuff be compenfatedbythebrevityof the duration.

! This moff:legiflatorshavefixedto a year: a longerfpacewould be dangerous,and a thorter wouldbecontraryto the natureof government; for whois itthat, in themanagementevenof hisdomefticaffairs,wouldbethus confined? At Ragufa_"thechiefma-giftrateof the republicischangedeverymonth,the iother officersevery week, and the governorof the icaftleevery day. Bur this can take placeonly ina fmallrepublicenvironed"t-byformidablepowers,who might eafilycorrupt fuchpettyand infignifi-cant magiftrates.

The heft:ariftocracyis that in whichthole who !:have no flaarein the legiflatureare fo few and in-•confiderable,that the governingparty have no in- itereft inoppreffi;Jgthem. Thus, when_ Antipatermadea lawat Athens, that whofoeverwasnotworth !,

Tournefort'svoyages° [_t At Luccathemagiflratesarechofenon]yfortwomonths. _._Diodor_s,lib.x8. p, fol. Rhmloman'sedition. [:two

C_Ap,4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. *9

twothoufanddrachmsflmuldhavenopowertovote,heformed_bythismethod,thebeltariltocracypof-fible'_b_ecaufethiswasfo fmalla rum,asexcluded.veryfo%and notoneof anyrankor contideratioam thecity.

Arifl:ocraticalfamiliesought,therefore,asmuchaspoflible,tolevelthemfelves,in appearance,withthe people. The morean ariitocracybordersondemocracy,the nearerit approachesto perfe&ion;and, in proportionas it drawstowardsmonarchy,themoreit isimperfe&.

Butthemolt:imperfe&ofall isthatinwhichthepartof the peoplethatobeysisin a tlateof civilfervirudeto tholewhocommand; astheariftocracyof Poland,wherethepeafantsare,flavesto the no-bility.

CHAP. IV.

Of the_dationof LawstotheNatureof monarchicalGovernment.

THE intermediate,fubordinate,and dependent:powersconllitutethenatureof monarchicalgovern-ment; I meanof thatin whicha tingleperfongo-vernsby fundamentallaws. I laid,theintermedioate,fubordinate,anddependentpowers: andindeed,in monarchies,theprinceisthefourceofallpower,politicaland civil. Therefundamentallawsnecef-farilyfuppofethe intermediatechannelsthroughwhichthe powerflows; for, if therebe onlythemomentaryandcapriciouswillofa tingleperfontogoverntheflare,nothingcanbefixed,andofcourfethereisnofundamentallaw.

The moil:naturalintermediateandfubordinatepoweris that of the nobility. This,inromemea-fure,rectusto be effentialto a monarchy,whole

C 2 fundamental

to THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_II,

fundamentalmaximis, No monarch,no nobility_no,zobility,no monarch:but theremay be a defpotieprince.

There are men who have endeavoured,in romecountriesin Europe, to fupprefsthe jurifdi&ionofthe nobility; not perceivingthat theyweredrivingat the very thing that was done bythe parliamentof England. Abolifhthe privilegesof the lords,theclergy, and cities,in a monarchy,andyouwillloonhavea popularltate, or el£ea defpoticgovern-ment.

The courtsof a confiderablekingdomin Europehave, for many ages, beenttrikingat the patrimo-nial jurifdi&ionof the lordsand clergy. We donot pretend to cenfurethefefagemagittrates_ butwe leaveit to the public to judgehowfar thismayaltertheconflitution.

Far am I frombeingprejudicedin favourof theprivilegesof the clergy; however,I thouldbe gladtheir jurifdidtionwere oncefixed. The queftionisnot, whethertheirjurifdi&ionwasjuftlyeftablifhed;but, whetherit be reallyeftablifhed; whetheritconftitutesa part of the lawsof the country,and isin every refpe&relativeto thole laws; whether,between two powersacknowledgedindependent,the conditionsoughtnot to be reciprocal; and whe-ther it be not equallythe dutyof a goodfubje&todefendthe prerogativeof the prince,and to main-tain the limitswhichfrom time immemorialhe hasprefcribedto hisauthority.

Though theecclefiafticpowerbe fodangerousina republic,yet it is extremelyproperina monarchy,efpeciailyof the abfolutekind. What wouldbe-come of Spainand Portugal, fincethe fubverfionoftheir laws,were it not _brthisonlybarrieragain_the incurfionsof arbitrarypower? a barrierever

uf_ful

CnA1,.4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. zx

ufeful whenthereis noother: for, fincca defpoticgovernmentis productiveof the mof_dreadfulca-lamitiesto humannature, theveryevilthatreffrainsit is beneficialto thefubje&.

In the famemanneras theocean,threateningtooverflowthe wholeearth, is ftoppedby weedsandpebbles,that liefcatteredalongthe lhore; fomo-narchs, wholepower feems unbounded, are re-ttrained by the £mallefl:obftacles,and fuffcrtheirnatural pride to be-fubduedby £upplicationandprayer.

The Englilh, to favour their liberty, have abo-lifhed all the intermediatepowersof whichtheirmonarchywascompofed. They havea greatdealof reafon to be jealousof"this liberty: weretheyever to be founhappyas to loreit, they wouldbeoneof themoil:ikrvilenationsuponearth.

Mr. Law, through ignorancebothof a repub-lican_ih]:lmonarchicalconftitution,wasone of thegreateft promotersof abfolutepowerever knownin Europe. Betidesthe violentand extraordinarychangesowingto his dire&ion,he would fain fup-prefsall the intermediateranks, and abolifhthepolitical communities. He was diffolving* themonarchyby his chimericalreimburfements,and£eemedasif he evenwantedto redeemthe conffitu-tion.

It is not enough to have intermedh__..__tepewersina monarchy; theremuffbealfo a depofitaryofthe taws. Thisdepofitarycanonly be thejudgesof thefupremecourtsof juftice, whopromulgethenew laws,and revive the obfolete. The naturalignoranceof the nobility,theirindolence,and con-temptof civilgovernment,requiretherethouldbe

*Ferdinand,king of Arragon,madehimfelfgrand-ma_erof theorder._;andthatalonechangedtheconlHtution.

C 3 abody

zz THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKII.

a bodyinve_edwith a powerof revivingandexe-cuting the laws,whichwouldbe otherwit_buriedin oblivion. The prince'scouncilarenota properdepofitary: they are naturallythe depofitaryof themomentarywillof the prince, and not of thefun-damentallaws. Betides,theprince'scouncilis con-tinually changing; it is neitherpermanentnor nu-merous; neitherhas it a fufficientfhareof the con-fidenceof thepeople; confequentlyit is incapableto let themright in difficultconjun6tures,or to re-duce themto properobedience.

Oefpoficgovernments,where there are no fun-damentallaws, have no fuch kind of depofitary.I-Ienceit is that religionhasgenerallyfo much in-fluencein thoi_countries,becaufeit formsa kindof permanentdepofitary; and, if this cannot befaidof religion,it may of thecuttomsthat are re-fpe&edinfteadof laws.

CHAP. V.

Of the Laws relativeto theNatureaf adefpoticGo-vernment.

FROM the natureof defpoticpowerit follows,that the tingle perfon, inveltedwith thispower,commitsthe executionof it alfoto a tingleperfon.A man, whomhisfenfescontinuallyinformthat hehimfelfis everything, and his fubje&snothing,isnaturallylazy, voluptuous,and ignorant. In con-fequenceof this, he neglecq:sthe managementofpublic affairs. But, were he tocommitthe admi-niftrationto many, there wouldbe continualdillputesamongthem; each would form intriguestobe his firft flave,andhe wouldbeobligedto take [the reinsinto hisownhands. It is, therefore,more

natural i

C_AP.5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 23

naturalforhimto refignit to a vizir,*andto invefl:himwiththefamepoweras himfelf. The crea-tionof a vizirisa fundamentallawof thisgovern-merit.

It isre]atedof apope,that hehadf_artedan in-finitenumberofdifficultiesagainfthisde&ion,froma thoroughconvi&ionof hisincapacity.Atlengthhewasprevailedonto acceptofthepontificate,andrefignedthe adminiftrationentirelyto hisnephew.He wasloonftruckwithfurprize,andlaid," I" fhouldneverhavethoughtthat therethingswere" foeal}'." ThefamemaybelaidoftheprincesoftheEatt, who,beingeducatedin a pritbn,whereeunuchscorrupttheir heartsand &baletheirun-derPcandings,andwheretheyare frequentlykeptignorantof theirhighrank,whendrawnforthi,1orderto be placedon the throne,they are atfirfl:confounded; but, as foonas theyhavechofenavizir,andabandonedthemfelvesin theirferagliotothe moftbrutalpaffions,purfuing,in themidi_ofa proltitutedcourt,everycapriciousextravagance,theycouldneverhavedreamtto findmattersfoeafy.

,Themoreextenfivethe empire,the largertheferaglio; andconfequentlythemorevoluptuoustheprince. Hencethe morenationsfucha fovereignhas to rule,thelefsheattendsto the caresofgo-vernment;the moreimportanthisaffairs,thelefshe makesthemthefubje&ofhisdelit3erations.

#Thecaltcrnkingsarcneverwithoutvizlrs,laysSirJo,'-alChardin.

C 4 P.OOI{[

24 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_IIL

B O O K III.OF THE PRINCIPLESOF THE THREE KINDSOF

00VERNMENT.

CHAP. I.

DifferencebetweentheNa/ureandPrincipleofGovern-

AFTERhavingexaminedthelawsrelativeto thenatureofeachgovernment,wemu_inveltigatetholewhichrelatetoitsprinciple.

Thereis thisdifferencebetween®thenatureandprincipleof government,thattheformeristhat bywhichit isconftituted,andthelatterthatbywhichit ismadeto a&. OneisitsparticularRru&ure,andtheotherthehumanpaffionswhichfetit inmotion.

Now,lawsoughttobenolefsrelativetotheprin-ciple,than__t-_gnature;,of ea_ti_o_Fg-rn-etit:Wemut0cthereforeeiaq_fire]ri-mkhisprinciple,whichthallbe thefubje&ofthisthirdbook.

CHAP. iI.

OfthePrinc;2Ieofdiffere;_tGovernments.I havealreadyobferved,thatit is thenatureofa

reptLblicangovernment,thateithertheco]_a:_ebo-dyofYh_p--6-opeTf-orparticularfamilieslhouldbepof-feffedof thefupremepower: of a monarchy,thatthe princefhauldhavethispower,but, in theexe-cutionofit, _ouldbedire&edbyeftablithedlaws:ofa defpoticgovernment,thata tingleperfonthouldrule accordingto hisownwillandcaprice. Thisenablesme to difcovertheirthreeprinciples,which

Thisisaveryimportantdiffln_ion,fromwhenceI/halldrawmanyconfe-_uencgbforitisthekeyofaninfinitenumberoflaws.

aro

4-

CHAP. 3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _Sare naturallyderivedfromthence. I fhallbeginwitha republicangovernment,andinparticularwiththatofdemocracy.

C H A P. III.

Of thePrincipleof Democracy.

THEREisnogreatthareof probityneceffarytofupporta monarchicalordefpoticgovernment: theforceof laws,in one,andthe prince'sarm, intheother,arefi,fficienttodire&andmaintainthewhole:but, ina popularRate,onefpringmoreisneceffary,namely,virtue.

WhatI havehereadvancedisconfirmedbytheu-nanimousteftimonyof hifforians,andis extremelyagreeableto thenatureof things. For, it is clear,that, ina monarchy,wherehe, whocommandstheexecutionof thelaws,generallythinkshimfelfabovethem,thereis lefsneedofvirtuethanin a popular]government,wherethe perfon,entruftedwiththe:executionofthelaws,isfenfibleofhisbei_gfub,je&to theirdire&ion.

Clearit is,alfo,thata monarch,who,throughbadadviceor indolence,ceafesto enforcetheexecu-tionofthelaws,mayeafilyrepairtheevil; hehasonlytofollowotheradvice,ortofhakeoffthisindo-lence. Butwhen,in a populargovernment,thereisafufpenfionofthelaws,(asthiscanproceedonlyfromthecorruptionoftherepublic,)theftateiscer-tainlyundone.

Averydrollfpe&acleitwas,in thelattcentury,tobeholdtlleimpotenteffortsoftheEnglifhtowardsthee_ablifhmentof democracy..Asthey,who hada fharein thedire&ionof publicaffairs,werevoidof virtue_ as their ambitionwasenflamedby

the

•6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_IIL

the fuccefsof themoildaringof theirmemberst ; asthe prevailingpartieswerefucceffivelyanimatedbythe fpirit of fa&ion; the governmentwascontinu-allychanging; the people,amazedatfomanyrevo-lutions, invainattemptedtoere&a commonwealth.At length,whenthecountryhadundergonethemoilviolent fl_ocks,theywere obligedto haverecourfeto the very governmentwhichtheyhad fowantonlyprofcribed.

WhenSyllathoughtof reiloringRometo her li-berty, thisunhappycity was incapableof that blef-ring. Shehadonly the feebleremainsof virtue,whichwerecontinuallydimirfifhing:inileadof be-ing touredout of her lethargyby Caefar,Tiberitls,Caius, Claudius,Nero, Domitian,filerivetedevery

/ day herchains; if lhe ttruck tbmeblows, heraim; wasatthetyrant, but notat the ufurpation.

"I-hepoliticGreeks,who lived under a populargovernment,knew no other fupport than virtue:the moderninhabitantsof that countryareentirelytaken up withmanufadture,commerce,finances,opulence,and luxury.

When virtue is baniflned,ambition invadesthe'Ii mindsof thole whoaredifpofedto receiveit, and

avaricepoffeffesthewholecommunity. The obje&sof theirdefiresarechanged; whatthey werefondofbeforeis becomeindifferent; they werefree whileunderthereftraintof laws,but theywouldfainnowbe freeto a&againillaw; and, as each citizen islikea flarewhohasrun awayfrom hismailer, whatwasa maximof equity,he callsrigour; whatwasarule ofa&ion,he Rilescont'craint; and toprecautionhe givesthe nameof fear. Frugality,and not thethirttof gain, nowpaffesfor avarice. Formerly,thewealthofindividualsconftitutedthepublictreafure,

j- Cromwell, [bug

C_av.3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z7

but nowthis isbecomethepatrimonyofprivateper-fons. The membersof the commonwealthriotonthepublicfpoils,and its ftrengthis onlythe powerof a fewandthe licentioufnefsof many.

Athenswaspoffef£edof thefamenumberof forces,,,vhenfl_etriumphedfoglorioufly,andwhen,withfomuch infamy, t_,ewas inflaved. She had twentythcufandcitizens§ whenfinede_+'cndedthe Greeksa-gainftthe Pcrfians,whenfinecontendedfor empirewithSparta,and invadedSmily. She had twentythoufand when Demetrius Phalereus numberedthem*, as flaresare told by the headin a maiket-place. WhenPhilipattemptedto lordit overGreece,andappearedat thegatesof Athens-t-, filehad eventthenloftnothingbut time. We mayfee,inDemof-thenes,howdiflSculrit wastoawakeher: [hedread-ed Philip,not asthe enemyof her liberty,butof herpleafuresll. This famouscity, whichhadwithftoodfo manydefeats,and,afterhavingbeenfo oftende-ttroyed,hadasoftenrifenout ofheralhes,wasover-thrownat Cb.mronea,and,at one blow,deprivedofallhopesofrefource. What doesit avail her,thatPhilipfendsbackherprifoners,if hedoesnot returnhermen? It waseverafteras eafyto triumphoverthe Athenianforcesas it hadbeendi_cult to fubduehervirtue,

Howwasit poffiblefor Carthageto maintainher.ground? When Hannibal,upon his beingmadepraetor,endeavouredto hinderthe magiftratesfromplunderingthe republic,did not they complainofhim to the Romans? Wretches, whowouldfainbe citizenswithouta city, and beholdenfor their

§ Plutarch,LifeofPerlcles. Plato, in Crltla,_*Sheh.d, at thattimertwent)-onethoufandc;t;zen_,ten thoufandftran-

gem,andfourhundredthoufandflares, SeeAthen_us_book6,

Shehadthentwentythoufandcitizens,SeeDemoflhenesinArittog.Theyhadpaffeda law-whichrenderedit a eapltal,crimeforanyonetopro-po_capplyingthemoneyd¢fignedforthetheatrestomilitarylcrvice.

riches

_8 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKIII.

richesto theirverydeflcroyers!Romelooninfifleduponhavingthreehundredof their principalciti-zensashot,ages; fheobligedthemnexttofurrendertheirarmsandflnips;and then[hedeclaredwar+.Fromthedefperateeffortsofthisdefencelefscity,onemayjudgeofwhat[hemighthaveperformedin herfullvigour_andafliftedbyvirtue.

CHAP. IV.

OfthePrincipleofdriJtocracy..ASvirtueisneceffaryin apopulargovernment,it

isrequifite,alfo,underan ariftocracy.Trueit is,that,inthelatter,it isnotfoabfolutelyrequifite.

Thepeople,who,in refpe&tothenobility,arethe fameas the fubje&swithregardto a monarch,arereftrainedbytheirlaws: theyhave,therefore,lefsoccafionforvirtuethanthepeopleina democracy.Buthowarethenobilityto be reftrained? They,whoaretoexecutethelawsagainfttheircolleagues,will immediatelyperceivetheyare a&ingagainftthemfelves.Virtueis,therefore,neceffaryin thisbo-dy, fromtheverynatureoftheconttitution.

An arittocraticalgovernmenthasaninherentvi-gour,unknownto democracy.Thenoblesformabody,who,bytheirprerogative,andfortheirownparticularintereft,reltrainthe people; it is fuffi-cient,thattherearelawsin being,to feethemexe-cuted.

But, eafyasit maybeforthebodyof thenoblestoreftrainthepeople,it isdifficultto retirainthem-felves*.Suchisthenatureofthisconftirution,thatit feemsto fubje&theveryfameperfonsto thepow-

"_This laliedthreeyears,P,abliccrimes maybe puniflleg, becaufeit i_herea commonconcern; but

privatecrimeswill go unpuniihed,becaufcit is the commonmterci_not to paniththem .

er

CHAP._, THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _9

erofthelaws,and,atthefametime,toexemptthem.

Now,fuchabodyasthiscanreftrainitfe]fonlytwoways; eitherbyaveryeminentvirtue,whichputsthe nobility,in romemeafure,ona levelwiththepeople,andmaybethemeansof iorminga greatrepublic; orbyaninferiorvirtue,whichputsthem,atleaft,uponalevelwithoneanother;andonthistheirprefervationdepends.

Moderationis,therefore,theveryfoulof thisgo-vernment; amoderation,I mean,foundedon vir-tue, nottbatwhichproceedsfromindolenceandpu-fillanimity.

CHAP. V.

_hatFirtueisnotthePrincipleof a monarchicalGo.:vernment.

IN monarchies,policyeffe&sgreatthingswithaslittlevirtueaspoffible. Thus, in the niceftma-chines,art hasreducedthe numberof movements,fprings,andwheels.

TheRatefubfiftsindependentlyoftheloveofour Icountry,ofthethirftoftrueglory,offell-denial,of ithefacrificeofourdearerinterelts,andof all thole iheroicvirtueswhichweadmirein theancients,and /to usareknownonlybyftory.

Thelawsfupplyherethe placeof tholevirtues;theyarebynomeanswanted,andtheRatedifpenfeswiththem: ana&ion,performedherein fecret,is,infomemeafure,ofnoconfequence.

Thoughallcrimesbe,intheirownnature,public,yetthereisadiftin&ionbetweencrimesreallypublicandtholethatareprivate,whicharefo called,be-caufetheyare moreinjuriousto individualsthantothecommunity.

No%

%

30 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooziIL

Now,inrepublics,privatecrimesaremorepublic;thatis, theyattackthe conttitutionmorethantheydoindividuals: and, in monarchies,publiccrimesaremoreprivate;thatis,theyare moreprejudicialtoprivatepeoplethanto theconftitution.

I begthatnoonewillbeoffendedwithwhatIhavebeenfaying; myobfervationsare foundedontheunanimousteftimonyofhiRorians.I amnotignorantthatvirtuousprincesarenofuchveryrareinRances;butI venturetoaffirm,that, ina monarchy,itisex-tremelydifficultforthepeopleto bevirtuous_.

Letuscomparewhatthehiftoriansofallageshaveaffertedconcerningthecourtsofmonarchs; let usrecolle&theconverfationsandfentimentsof peopleofallcountriesin refpe&to the wretchedchara&erof courtiers; andweflaallfind,thattherearenotairyfpeculations,buttruths,confirmedbyafadandmelancholyexperience.

Ambitionin idlenefs,meannefsmixedwithpride,adefireof richeswithoutinduftry,averfionto truth,flattery,perfidy,violationofengagements,contemptofcivilduties,fearoftheprince'svirtue,hopefromhis weaknefs,but, above,all, a perpetualridiculecartuponvirtue,are,I think,thechara&erifticsbywhichmoRcourtiers,in allagesandcountries,havebeenconRantlydillinguifhed.Now,ir isexceedingdifficultfor the leadingmenof the nationto beknaves,andtheinferiorfortto be honer; for theformertobecheats,andthe latterto reR fatisfiedwithbeingonlydupes.

But, if therefhouldchanceto beromeunluckyhonermant amongthepeople,cardinalRichelieu,inhispoliticalteliament,fcemstohintthataprince

I fpe_khereofpoliticalvirtue,whichis,alfo,moralvirtue,as it isdirec"tedto thepu_ticgood: verylittle of privatemoralvirtue,andnotat all of thatvirtuevdchrelatestorevealedtruths. 'fhiswallappearbetter,bookV. chap.2.

"i_ Thi_i_tobeundcrflo_ciin thefcnfeof theprecedingnote.thould

CHAP.7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 31

thouldtakecarenotto employhim_. Sotrueisit,thatvirtueisnot theti)ringofthisgovernment.Itisnot,indeed,excluded,butit isnotthefpringofgovernment.

CHAP. VI.In whatMannerUirtueisfuppliedina monarchicalGo-

vermnentBUTit ishightimeformetohavedonewiththis

fubje&,left1 enouldbefufpecCtedofwritinga fatireagainftmonarchicalgovernment.Farbeitfromme;ifmonarchywantsonefpring,it is providedwithanother. Honour,that is, theprejudiceof everyperfonandrank,fupplieththe placeofthepohficalvirtueofwhich1 havebeenfpeaking,and is"everywhereherreprefentative: hereit iscapableofinfpi-frogthe moffgloriousa&ions,and,joinedwiththe !forceoflaws,mayleadusto theendofgovernment:iaswellasvirtueitfelf.

Hence,in well-regulatedmonarchic%they_areal-moltallgoodfubje&s,andve_ ?_felw-_igg_o.d]imen; <efor, to 5_a g0odman"t',agoodintentionis necef-fary*,andwethouldloveourc'-'-ountrynotfo muchonourownaccountasoutof regardtothecommu-nity.

C H A P. VII.

OfthePrincipleofMonarchy.A monarchicalgovernmentfuppofeth,as wehave

alreadyobferved,pre-eminencesandranks,as like.-wifeanobledefcent.Now,finceit isthenatureof

Wemu_not,layshr_employpeopleofmeanextra&ion,theyaretoorlgldandmorofe."t"Thisword,g_dman,isunderftoodhe,einapoliticalfenfeonly.

Seethenote,p,30.honour

_ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_IIr.

honourto afpireto prefermentsandtitles,it isprosperlyplacedin thisgovernment.

Ambitionis perniciousin a republic; but in amonarchyit hasromegoodeffcc"ts; it giveslifetothegovernment,andisattendedwiththisadvantage,thatit isnowaydangerous,becaufeit maybeconti-nuallychecked.

It iswiththiskindofgovernmentaswiththefyf-ternof theuniverfe,in whichthereisa powerthatconltantlyrepelsall bodiesfromthecenter,andapowerof gravitation,thatattra&sthemto it. Ho-nourletsall thepartsof thebodypoliticin motion_and,by its very ac"tion,conne&sthem; thuseachindividualadvancesthe publicgood,whileheonlythinksofpromotinghisownintereft.

Trueit is, that, philofophicallyfpeaking,it is afa[fe@honourwhichmovesall thepartsofthegovern-ment; buteventhisfalfehonourisasufefulto thepublicastruehonourcouldpofl_blybe to privatepeople.

Is it nota verygreatpoint,toobligementoper-formthe molt difficulta&ions,fuchas requireanextraordinaryexertionof fortitudeand refolution,withoutanyotherrecompencethanthatofgloryandapplaufe?

C H A P. VIII.

if'batHonourisnotthePrin@leofdefpoticGovernment.HONOURisfarfrombeingtheprincipleofdef-

poticgovernment: mankindbeingherealluponalevel,nooneperfoncan preferhimfelftoanotherandas,ontheotherhand,theyare allflaves,they

• cangivethemfelvesnofortofpreference.Betides,ashonourhas its lawsandrules; asit

knowsnothowio-ffibmit_ asit depends,in agreatmeafure,

C_,P.9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 33

meafure,on a man's owncaprice,andnoton thatof anotherperlbn_ it canbefoundonlyin countriesin whichthe contlitutionis fixed, andwheretheyaregovernedby Je_itied'i_.............................

How candefpotifinbearwithhonour? Thisglo-riesin the contemp_of life, andthat is founded inthe powerof takingit away. How canhonour,onthe otherhand, bearwithdefpotifm? The formerhasits fixedrulesand peculiarcaprices,but the lat-_--ter isdire&edbyno rule, and its own capricesare'-"£ubverfiveof allothers.

Honour,therefore,a thingunknowninarbitrary"governments,romeof whichhavenotevena properwordto exprefsit% is the prevailingprincipleinmonarchies; hereit giveslifeto thewholebodypo-litic, to thelaws,andevento thevirtuesthemfdves.

CHAP. IX.

OfthePrincipleofdefyoticGovernment.ASvirtueis neceffaryin arepublic,and, ina mo-

narchy,honour, fofear isneceiFaryin a defpotiego-vernment: withregardto virtue,thereis nooccafionfor it, andhonourwouldbe extremelydangerous.

Here, theimmenfepowerof theprinceis devolvedintirelyuponthofewhomhe ispleafcdto intrufl:withtheadminittration. PerIbns,capableoflettingava-lue upon themfelves,wouldbe likelytocrea.:edif-turbances.Fearmuff:,therefore,deprefstheirfpirits,andextinguiiheventheleat_tenfeof ambition.

A moderategovernmentmay,wheneverit pleafes,and without:he karl:danger, relaxits fprings: i._fupportsitt_lf by the laws and by its own inter-nal ftrength. But, when a defpoticprince ceafesonefi_g]emomentto lift up his arm, whenhe c2n-

_c¢ Perry, p 4'}1'

VoL.I. D not

34 'I_HE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKIII.

not in[}antlydemoli(htholewhomhehasintruffedwiththefirftemployments"t',allisover: for,asfear,thefpringof thisgovernment,nolongerfubfiffs,thepeopleareleftwithoutaprote_or.

It is probablyinthis fenfetheCadismaintainedthattheGrandSeigniorwasnotobligedto keephiswordoroath,whenhe limitedtherebyhisautho-rity_.

It isneceffarythatthepeoplefhouldbejudgedbylaws,andthegreatmenbythecapriceoftheprince;thatthe livesof the lowellfub]e&sfhouldbefare,andthebafhaw'sheadeverin danger.We cannotmentiontheremonRrousgovernmentswithouthor-ror. TheSophiofPerfia,dethroned,inourdays,byMahomet,thefonof Miriveis,lawthe conRitu-tionfubverted,beforethisrevolution,becaufehehadbeentoofparingofblood_

Hifforyinformsus, that thehorridcrueltiesofDomitianffruckfuchaterrorintothegovernors,thatthe peoplerecoveredthemfelvesa little underhisreign§. Thus a torrentoverflowsonefideof acountry,and,ontheother,leavesfieldsuntouched,wherethe eyeis refrelhedbythe profpe,Stof finemeadows.

CHAP. X.

DifferenceofObedienceinmoderateanddefpoticGovern-.ien:s.

IN defpoticftates,thenatureof governmentre-quiresthemo,qpal-fiveobedience; and,whenoncetheprince'swillismadeknown,it oughtinfalliblyto produceitseWec_t.

ar As it often happens m a military ar]fl.ocracy.

_ Ricault on ehe Ottomanentire.See the hi_'cory of th_s revolution, b'e fatlmr Du cerceau.

§ /'hs leas a military confiitution_ v,,)iii.h Ia uric of the fpedes of defpoti¢gOV¢l'/1i_l¢llt,

Hele

C_AP. Io. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 35

Heretheyhavenolimitationsorrefl:ri&ions; nomediums,terms,equivalents,or remonffrances; nochangeto propofe: manisa creaturethat blindly'fubmitstotheabfolutewillofthefovereign.

In acountrylikethis,theyarenomoreallowedtoreprefenttheirapprehenfionsofafuturedangerthanto imputetheirmitkarriageto the capricioufnefsoffortune. Man'sportionhere,likethatofbead:s,isintlin&,compliance,andpunii'hment.

Littledoesit thenavailtopleadthefentimentsofnature,filialrefpe&,conjugalor parentaltendernefs,thelawsof honour,or wantof health_ theorderisgiven_andthatisfutficienr.

InPerfia,whenthekitlghascondemneda perfon,it isnolongerlawfultomentionhisnameor to inter-cedeinhisfavour. Evenif the princemerein:oxi-cared,ornoncompos,thedecreemuff:beexecuted*;otherwifehewouldcontradi&himti_lf,andthelawadmitsof nocontradi&ion.Thishasbeenthewayofthinkingin thatcountryinallages: astheorder,whichAhafuerusgave, to exterminatethe Jews,couldnot berevoked,theywereallowedthelibertyofdefendingthemfelves.

Onething,however,maybefometimesoppofedtotheprince's_,vill§, namely,religion. They willabandon,nay,theywillflay,a parent,if theprincefo commands,but he cannotobligethemto drinkwine. Thelawsofreligionareofafuperiornature, --becaufetheybindthei_verelgn-aswel'ias tilefub-je&. Bur,withrefpe&tothe lawof nature,it isotherwife_tl_eprinceis no'longerf_l_l_of&t"to bea " _ ' -_-:mall.

Inmonarchicaland moderatedates,thepowerislimitedbyitsveryfpring,I mean,byhonour,which,likea monarch,reignsovertheprinceandhispeo.

SeefirJohnChar3in. § Ibid.

D 2 ple.

36 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BOoKlV.

pie. They willnot alledge to their fovereign,thelawsof religion; a courtierwouldbeapprehenfiveofrenderinghimfelfridiculous. But the lawsof ho-nour will be appealedto on alloccafions.Hencearifethe reftri&ionsneceffaryto obedience: honouris naturallyfubje&to whims,by whichthe fubjec_'sfubmiffionwillbe everdire&ed.

Though the mannerof obeyingbe different,inthere two kinds of government,the poweris thefame. On whichfidefoeverthe monarchturns, heinclinesthe tcale, and is obeyed. The wholedif-ferenceis, that, ina monarchy,the princereceivesinttru&ion,at the fametimethat his miniltershavegreaterabilities,and are moreverfedin public af-±airs,thantheminiftersof a defpoticgovernment.

CHAP. XI.

_efle_io_zsonthe precedingChapters.SUCH are the principlesof the three forts of

government: whichdoesnot imply, that, ina par-ticular republic, they a&uallyare, but that theyought to be, virtuous: nor doesit prove, that, ina particularmonarchy,theyarea&uatedbyhonour;or, ina particulardetpoticgovernment,byfear; but

' that they ought to be dire&edbythereprinciples,=therwifethe governmentis imperfe&.

BOOK

CnA_.z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 37

B O O K IV.

THAT THE LAWS OF EDUCATION OUGHT TO BE RE-

LATIVE TO THE PRINCIPLES OF GOVEKNMENT.

CHAP. I.

Of theLaws:f Education.THE lawsof educationare the firftimpreffions

wereceive; and,astheyprepareusforcivillife,e-veryprivatefamilyoughtto be governedbytheplanof that great houfeholdwhichcomprehendsthemall.

If the peoplein generalhavea principle,theirconf_ituentparts,thatis, the feveralfamilies,willhaveonealto. Thelawsofeducationwillbethere-foredifferentineachfpeciesofgovernment: inma-narchies,theywillhavehonourfor.their9bjec_;-in ":republics,virtue;indefpoticgovernments,fear. ,"_

CHAP. II.Of Educationin Monarchies.

IN monarchiestheprincipalbranchof educationis not taughtin collegesor academies:it com-mences,in romemeafure,at ourlettingoutin theworld; for this is the fchoolof whatwecallho-nour,that univerfalpreceptor,whichoughteverywheretobeourguide.

Here it is thatweconftantlyhearthreerulesormaxims; viz.thatwe./bouldhavea certainnoblenefsinourvirtues,akindof franknefsinourmorals,andaparticularpolitenefsinourbehaviour.

The virtuesweareheretaughtarelefswhatwe\oweto othersthan tc_ourfelves; theyarenotfo tD 3 much

3g THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:IV.much what drawsus towardsfociety,as whatdil-tinguifhesusfromour fellow-citizens.

Here the a&ionsof menare judged, notas vir-i tuous, but as lhining; not asjueq but as great;not as reafonable,but as extraordinary.

Whenhonourheremeetswithanythingnobleinourad_ions,it iseithera judge that approvesthem,or a fophiftcrby"whomtheyareexcufed.

It allowsof gallantry,whenunitedwiththe ideaof fenfibleaffe&ion,or with thatof conquer: this

.is thereafonwhywe nevermeetwith tb ftri&a pu-rity of moralsin monarchiesas in republicango-vernmen:s.

It allowsof cunningand craft, whenjoinedwiththe notionof greamefsof foul, or importanceof allfairs; as, for inRance,in politics,withwholefi-neffesit isfar frombeingoft'ended.

It does not forbid adulation,but whenfeparatefromthe ideaof a largefortune, andconne&edonlywiththe fenfeof our meancondition.

_lith regardto morals,I haveobferved,that theeducationof monarchiesought to admitof a certainfranknefsand open carriage: truth, therefore,inconverfation,is ilerea neceffarypoint. But isit forthefakeoftruth? 13ynomeans. Truth is requifiteonly becaufea perfonhabituatedto veracityhasaIaair ot boldnefsand freedom. And, indeed,a manof thisftampfeemsto lay a ftrefsonlyon thethingsthemfelves,not'on themannerinwhichthey arere-ceived.

Henceit is, that, in proportionas this kind offranknefsis commended,that of the commonpeo-pleisdefpifed,whichhasnothingbut truthand tim-plicityfor itsobje&.

In fine, the educationof monarchiesrequires acertain politenefsof behaviour. Man, a focial

animal,

CHA_.Z.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. S_animal,is formedto pleafein fociety; anda per-fonthatwouldbreakthroughtherulesof decency,foasto thocktholehe converfedwith,wouldlorethe publicet2eem,andbecomeincapableof doinganygood.

But politenefs,generallyfpeaking,doesnot de-riveitsoriginalfromfopurea fource: it rilesfromadefixeofdiftinguifhingourfelves.It is pridethat trendersuspolite: weare flatteredwithbeingta-kennoticeof fora behaviourthatlhewswearenotof a meancondition,and that wehavenotbeenbredup withthofewh6inallagesareconfideredasthefcumofthepeople.

Politenefs,in monarchies,isnaturalifedatcourt.One manexceffivelygreatrenderseverybodyelfelittle. Hencethatregardwhichis paidto ourfel-low-fubje&s: hencethatpolitenefs,equallypleatingtothot_bywhom,as to tholetowardswhom,it ispra&ifed_ becaufeit givespeopleto underftandthat a perfona&uallybelongs,or at leaitdefervesto belong,to the court.

A courtair confiftsin quittinga realfora bor-rowedgreamefs. The latterpleafesthe courtiermore thanthe former. It infpireshimwitha cer-tain difdainfulmodefty,whichfhewsitfelfexter-nally,but wholeprideinfenfiblydiminilhesinpro-portionto itsdiftancefromthefourceof thisgreat-llefs,

At court we finda delicacyof taftein everything; a delicacyarifingfromtheconftantufeofthefupe_fluitiesof life; fromthevariety,andef-peciallythe fatiety,of pleafures; fromthemulti-plicity,and evenconfufion,of fancies;which,iftheyarebutagreeable,arefureofbeingwellreceived.

Thereare the thingswhl.chproperlyfallwithintheprovinceof education,in orderto formwhat

D 4 we

40 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKIV.

wecalla manof honour, a manpoffcffedof all thequalitiesandvirtuesrequifitein this kindof govern-ment.

Here it isthathonourinterfereswitheverything,mixing evenwithpeople'smannerof thinking,anddire&ingtheirveryprinciples.

To thiswhimficalhonourit is owingthat the vir=tues areonly juf[ what it pleat_s: it adds rulesofits owninventionto every thing prefcribedto us:it extendsor limitsour duties accordingto its ownfancy, whethertheyproceedfrom religion,politics,or morality.

There is nothingfo ftronglyinculcated,inmo-narchies,by the laws,byreligion,and honour, as

, fubmi_onto the prince'swill: but this veryhonourtellsus, that the princenevero_ght to commanda

: diflaoncurablea&ion; becaufethis wouldrenderusi_capableof retyinghim.

Critlon refufedto affaffinatethe dukeof Guile,but offered to fight him. After the maffacreofSt. Bartholomew,CharlesIX. havingt_ntorderstothe governorsin the feveralprovincesfor the Hu-gonots to be murdered,vifcountDorte, whocom-manded at Bayonne, wrote thus to the king:* " Sire, among the inhabitantsof thistown, and"' your majefty'stroops,I couldnot findfomuch" as oneexecutioner: theyarehonercitizens,and" brave foldiers. We jointly, therefore,befeech" your majeftyto commandour armsand livesin" thingsthatare pra&icable." Thisgreatandge-nerousfoul looked upon a bale a&ionas a thingimpoffible.

There is nothingthat honourmore Pcronglyre-commendsto the nobility,thanto fervetheirprincein a militarycapacity: andindeedthis is theirfa-

*SeeD'Aubign_,'shit_ory.vourite

C_^P.3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 4I

vourite profeffion,becaufeits dangers,its fuccefs,andevenits mifcarriages,are the road to grandeur, iYet thisverylawof its ownmakinghonourchoofes !to explain; and, in cafeof anyaffront,it requires ]or permitsusto retire.

It infiRsalfothat wefhouldbe at libertyeitherto .;leek or to rejec"temployments; a libertywhichit 'prefersevento an amplefortune.

Honour thereforehasits fupremelaws, to whicheducationis obligedto conform.+ The chief ofthelbare, thatwe arepermittedto fit a vatu'_uponourfortune, butare abfolutelyforbiddento let anyuponourlives. .....

The fecondis, that, whenweare railedtoa po_or prefer-_ent,we fhould never do or permitanything whichmay feemto imply thatwe lookupoaourfelvesasinferiorto the rankwehold.

The third is, that tholethingswhichhonourfor-bidsare more rigorouflyforbicldenwhen the Jawsdo notconcurin the prohibition; and tholeit com-mands are more ffronglyinfil_edupon whentheyhappennot to becommandedby law.

C H A P. III.

Of Educationina defpoticGovernment.AS educationin monarchiestends to raifeand

ennoblethe mind, in defpoticgovernmentsits onlyaimis todebafeit. Here it muff:neceffarilybe fer-vile: even in power fuchan educationwill be an

becaufeeverytyrantis at the fametime 1advantage,a flare. |

Exce,_veobedience fuppofesignorancein theperfonthatobeys. The fameit fuppofesinhimthat,

af We mention here what actually i% and not what ought to be. Honouris a p,*e_dice_ wh*ch religion fometimes endeavours to remove, _nd at othertames to regulate,

commands;

4z THE $P.I-RIT OF LAWS. Boo,IV.commands; for hehasnooccafiontodeliberate,todoubt,to reafon; he hasonlyto will.

In defpoticf[ateseachhouti:is afeparategovern-ment. .As,education,therefore,confifischieflyinfocialconverfe,it muttbehereverymuchlimited:all it doesistoltriketheheartwithfear,andto im-printontheunderff:andingaveryfimplenotionofafewprinciplesof religion. Learninghereprovesdangerous,emulationfatal; and,as to virtue,A-rifiotlecannotthinkthereis anyonevirtuebelong-ingto flaves:* if fo,educationin defpoticcountriesis confinedwithina verynarrowcompafs.

Herethereforeeducationisin romemeafureneed-lefs: to givefomething,onemuff:takeawayeverything; andbeginwithmakinga badfubje&,in or-

t dertomakeagoodflave.Forwhyflaouldeducationtakepainsinforminga

goodcitizen,onlyto makehimlhareinthepublicmifery? If he loveshiscountry,he willttrivetorelaxthe fpringsof government: if he mifcarries,hewillbe undone:ifhe fucceeds,he muff:expofehimfelf,theprince,andhiscountry,toruin.

C H A P. IV.

Differencebetweenthe Effe_sof ancientandmodernEducation.

MOSTof theancientslivedundergovernmentsthat hadvirtuefortheirprinciple; and,whenthiswasin fullvigour,theyperformeda&ionsunufualin our times,andat whichournarrowmindsareat_onifhed.

Anotheradvantagetheireducationhadoverours;it neverwaseffacedbycontraryimpreffions.Epa-minondas,thelaftyearof hislife_laid,heard,be-

* Polk. lib.z.heli_,

CaAr.5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 43held,andperformed,theveryfamethingsas at theage in whichhe receivedthefirRprinciplesof hiseducation.

In ourdays.wereceivethreedifferen;or contraryeducations; namely,ofourparents,ofourmaffers,andofthe world. Whatwelearnin the.latteref-facesall the ideasof the _brmer. Thisin fomemeafurearifesfrom thecontrail:weexperiencebe- qtweenour religiousand worldlyengagements; athingunknownto theancients.

- CHAP. V.

Of Educationina republicanGovernment.

IT is in a republicangovernmentthatthewholepowerof educationisrequired. Thefearof def-poticgovernmentsnaturallyrilesof itfelfamidl_threatsandpuniihments: the honourofmonarchiesisfavouredbythepaffions,andfavoursthemin itsturn: butvirtueis afell-renunciation,whichisever _, _.arduousandpainful.

This virtuemaybedefinedtheloveof thelawsIa',utofourcountry.Asfuchloverequiresaconftant,_preferenceof publicto privateintereff,it is thetburceof all privatevirtues; for theyarenothingmorethanthisverypreferenceitfelf.

This loveis peculiarto democracies.In therealonethegovernmentisintruffedtoprivatecitizens.Now,governmentis likeeverythirigelfe: to pre-ferveit, wemuffloveit.

Hasit everbeenheardthatkingswerenotfondof monarchy,o1"that defpoticprinceshatedarbi-trarypower?

Everything,therefore,dependson ef[ablillaingthisloveinarepublic; andtoinfpireit oughtto betheprincipalbufinefsof education: but the furef_

way

44 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKIV.

wayof infiillingit into childrenis for parentsto lettheman example.

People have it generallyin theirpowertocom-municatetheirideasto theirchildren; but they areflill betterableto transfufetheirpaffions.

If it happensotherwife,it is becaufethe impref-fionsmade at homeareeffacedbythofetheyhavereceivedabroad.

tt isnotthe youngpeoplethatdegenerate: they=re not fpoilttill tholeof matureragearealreadytur,k into corruption.

CHAP. VI.

OfromelnflitutiomamongtheGreeks.

THE ancientGreeks, convincedof the neceffitythat peoplewholive undera popular governmentflmuldbe trainedup to virtue, made very fingularinftitutionsin order to infpireit. Upon feeing,inthe life of Lycurgus,the lawsthat tegiflatorgaveto the Lacedmmonians,I imagineI am readingthehiitoryof theSevarambes.The lawsof Cretewerethe modelof thole of Sparta; and thole of Platorefgrm,_dthem.

Let us retie&herea littleon the extenfivegeniuswithwhichtholelegiflatorsmutt havebeenendowed,toperceivethat, by thikingat receivedculioms,andby confoundingall mannerof virtues, they t'houldd:fplaytheirwiliJomto the univerfe. Lycurgus, byblendingtheftwith the fpiritof juitice,"the hardetl:ti:rvitudewithexcelsofliberty, the molt rigid fen-timentswith the greatef'tmoderation,gaveftabilityto his city. He t_emedto depriveher of all re-£ources,fuchas arts,commerce,money,walls: am-bitionprevailedamongthe citizens,withouthoFeso_improvingtheiriortune: they hadn_turalfenti-

nq_BtS

CHAr.6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 4_;

mentswithoutthe tieof a fon, huPoand,or fatherand chaffitywasftriptevenof modeftyand flaame.This was the road that led Spartato grandeurandglory; andfo infalliblewerethereinttitutions,thatit fignifiednothingto gain a vi&oryover that _e-publm,withoutfubvertingherpolity.*

By thefelawsCrete and Laconiaweregoverned.Sparta was the laffthat fell a prey to theMacedo-nians, and Creteto the Romans:l- The Samniteshad thefameinffitutions,whichfurnilhedtholevery'Romanswith the fubje&of four and twenty tri-umphs.IJ

A chara&erfoextraordinaryin the inftitutionsofGreecehaslhewnitfelflately in the dregs and cor-ruptionof moderntimes._ A very honePclegif-latorhasformeda people,to whomprobityfeemsasnaturalas braveryto the Spartans. Mr. Pennisa real Lycurgus; and, though the former madepeace his principalaim, as the latterdid war, yettheyreferableone another in the fingular way ofliving to which they reduced theirpeople,in theafcendanttheyhadover free men, in the prejudicestheyovercame,and in the paftionswhichthey£ub-dued.

Anotherexamplewehavefrom Paraguay. Thishas beenthe fubje&of an invidiouschargeagainfl:a focietythat confidersthe pleafureof commandingas the onlyhappinefsin life: but it will be evera

glorious

Philopcemenobligedthe Lacedzemonianstochangetheirmannerofcduca-tln_;theirehitdren_bei_:gconvincedthat, ifhedidnot takethis meafure,theewouldalwaysbenoteafortheirmagnanimity,lalutarcb.L_feof t_kilo_emeu.SeeLivy,book38.

-]"Shedefendedher laws andlibertyfor thefpaceof three]tears. Seethe9$th, 99th,andlootbbookofLivy,in Florus'_Epitome.Staemadea braverrefiftaneeth_ntheg_eatcfl:kin;.s.

Florus,lib. I.Inf_ce£:m#li. Cicero.

46 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BOoKIV.gloriousundertakingto rendergovernmentfubfer-vientto humanhappinefs.§

It is gloriousindeedforthisfo=ietytohavebeenthe firff:in pointingout to tholecountriestheideaof religionjoinedwiththat of humanity.Byre-pairingthe devafl:ationsof the Spaniards,/he hasbegunto healone of the moff:dangerouswoundsthatthehumanfpecieseverreceived.

An exquifitet_ntibilityto whateverthe dittin-gui/hesby thenameof honour,joinedto herzealforareligionwhichis farmorehumblinginrefpecq:to tholewhoreceivethanto thofewhopreachitsdod'trines,hasletheruponvail:undertakings,which/he hasaccomplifhedwithfuccefs.Shehasdrawnwildpeoplefromtheirwoods,fecuredthemamain-tenance_andclothedtheirnakednefs_and,hadtheonly,by thisff:ep,improvedtheinduftryof man_kind_it wouldhavebeenfufficienttoeternizeherfame;

They,wholh_llattempthereafterto introducethe like inff:itutions,muffeftabli/hthecommunityofgoods+as prefcribedin Plato'sRepublic_ thathigh refpec°rhe requiredforthegods; that fepa,rationfromif:rangers,for the prefervationof mo-rals; antianextenfivecommerce,carriedonbythe_mmunity,and not by privatecitizens. Theymuff:giveour arts withoutour luxury,and ourwantswithoutourdefims.

They muffprefcribemoney,the effec't:ofwhichis to fwellpeople'sfortunesbeyondtheboundspre-fcribedbynature; tOlearnto preferveforno pur-tJofew)lathasbeenidlyhoardedup; to multiplywiflloutendourdefires;andto fupplythe fl:erility

of

The Indhns of Paraguaydo notdependon anypartle_,larlord: theypayonlya fifthof thetaxes_andar_allowedth_ u£eof fire.armsto defendthem°rely=s,

CHAP.7. TI_E SPIRIT OF LA_v_S. _7

of nature, of whomwe haee receivedvery fcantymeansof inflamingour paffionsand of corruptingeachother.

" The Epidamnianst, perceivingtheir morals" depravedby convertingwithbarbarians, choir:a•' magiffratefor making all contra&sand fales, in" the nameand behalf of the city." Commercethendoesnotcorruptthec0nfiitutibn,andth6_6nfti-tutiondoesnotdeprivethe£o_ietyof the advantagesof commerce.

C H A P. VII.

In wbatCaretbefeflngidai"I_fliiutionsmaybeofService.

INSTITUTIONS of this kindmaybe properinrepublics,becaufetheyhavevirtuefor their princi.ple: but, to excitemento h'0nour,in monarchies,or to imprint fear, in defpoticgovernments,lefspainsareneceffary.

Betides,they cannot take place but in a fmaliftate*, inwhichthereis a pofl_bj!ityof a generaleducation,andof trainingup thebodyof thep_oplelikea tinglefamily.

The lawsof Minos, of Lycurgus, andof Plato,fuppofea particularattentionand carewhichthe ci-tizens ought to haveover one another's conduc%But an attentionof thiskind cannotbe expectedinthe confufionand multitudeof affairsin whichalargenationis intangled.

In inftitutionsof this kind, money,as wehaveaboveobt_rved,muft be banifhed. But, ingreat

! focieties,themultiplicity,variety,embarraffment,and

i importance,of affairs,as wellas thefacilityof pur-chafing, and the flownefsof exchange,requirev,! '1"Plutarch,inhisquefliontconcerningtheGreekaffairs,.

_ Suckaswereformerly,thecitiesof Greece.common

48 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKIV.

commonmeafure.Ir_orderto extendor iupportour powrr,wemuffbepoffcffedof the meanstowhich,bythe unanimousconfentof mankind,thispoweris annexed.

C H A P. VIII.

Exflicationofa ParadvxoftheAncients,in _efpe_'t/oManners.

THAT judiciouswriter,Polybius,informsus,thatmuficwasneceffaryto foftenthemannersofthe.Arcadians,wholivedin a coldgloomycountry;thattheinhabitantsofCynete,whoflightedmufic,werethe cruclleft:of all theGreeks,and thatnoothertownwasfoimmerfedin luxuryanddebauch.Platoisnotafraidtoa_rm,thatthereis nopoftibi-lityofmakingachangein muficwithoutalteringtheframeofgovernment.Ariftotle,whofeemsto havewrittenhispoliticsonlyin ordertocontradi&Plato,agreeswkhhim, notwithftanding,in regardto thepowerandinfluenceof muficoverthe mannersofthepeople.ThiswasalfotheopinionofTheophraf-tus,ofPlutarch§,andofalltheancients; anopiniongroundedon matureretie&ion;beingoneof theprinciplesoftheirpolity_. Thusitwastheyena&edlaws,andthustheyrequiredthatcitiesfhouldbego.verned.

This, I fancy,muf_beexplainedin thefollowingmanner. It is obfervable,that, in the citiesofGreece,efpeciallytholewholeprincipalobje&waswar,alllucrativeartsandprofeffionswereconfideredasunworthyofafreeman." Moltarts(laysXeno-§ LifeofPclopldas._"Plato,in hisfourthbookoflaws,fays,thatthe prmf_u_esofmuficand

gmnic exc_cifcs_rethe moil;mportantemploymentsinthecity: and, ifJhisRepublic,bookI]I. Damonwilltellyou, layshe, whatfoundsa,e eapabl_of¢orru.ptingthemind_itl_balefentiments_orofinfpiringthe contraryv,rtues.

" phoa

CnAe.& THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 49

" phon_) corruptand enervatethe bodiesof thole" thatex_rcil_:them; theyobligethemto fitundera'° l'hadeor nearthe fire. They canfind no leifure" eitherfor theirfriendsor for the repub!ic." I_wasonlyby thecorruptionof fon.edemocraciesthai:artifansbecamefreemen. ThiswelearnfromA_if-totleI!,whomaintains,that a wall-regulatedrepubhcwillnevergivethem the rightandfreedomof thecity-]-.

Agriculturewas,likewife,afervileprofeffion,andgenerallypra&ifedbythe inhabitantsof conqueredcountries; fuchas theHdotes,amongtheLaced_e-monians; the Periecians,among the Cretans; thePenCes,amongthe Theffalians; andotherconquer-ed _ peoplein otherrepublics.

tn fine, everykindof low commerce*was infa-mous,amongthe Greeks,as it obligeda citizentot_rveand waiton a flare, ona lodger,or a ftranger.Thiswasa notionthatciafhedwiththefpiritofGreekliberty; hencePlato§, inhis laws,ordersa citizento be punifhedif he attemptedtoconcernhimfelfwithtrade.

Thus_in the Greek republics, the magiftrateswereextremelyembarraffed.They wouldnothavethecitizensapplythemfelvesto trade,to agriculture,or to the arts, and yet they wouldnot havethemidlell]t.Theyfound,therefore,employmentfor them

Book 5th of memorablefayings.]1 Polit. book3" chap. 4-'"t"Diophantes, fays Ariflotle, Pollt. oh. 7. made a law, formerlyjat Athen_

that artilana/houldbe flaresto therepobhc.Plato, likewife, and Arifl:otlerequire flavesto till the land: Lairs, book

V. Polit. boo_Vii. c. 1o, True it is, tha_agriculturewasnot everywhere ex-ercifedby flares : on tt.e eontrary_ Ariftotle obferve% the belt repnblicswerethole in which the citizens themfelves tilled the land. But this was broughtaboutby the corruptionof the anctent gove;mnents_which were becomedemo-craticali for)in earliertimes, the c_tiesof Greece _vcr_fubjee"tto an ariftoaratiggovernment.

_' Cauponatlo. § Book z,11tlArifLPolk. lib, zo,

VoL.I. E ja

50 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKV°

ingymnicand militaryexercifes; and noneelfewereallowed by their inititution$. Hence the Greeksmuf_be confideredasa focietyof wreRlersandbox-ers. Now,thereexercil_shavinga naturaltendencyto renderpeoplehardyandfierce,therewasa neceffi-ty for temperingthemwithothersthat mightfoftentheirmanners*. Forthispurpofe,mufic,whichin-fluencesthe mindbymeansof the corporealorgans,wasextremelyproper. It is a kindof mediumbe-tweenmanlyexercifcs,whichhardenthe body, andfpeculativefciences,whichareapt torenderusunfo-ciableandfour. It cannotbe laidthatmuficinfpiredvirtue, forthis wouldbe inconceivable_but it pre-ventedthe effe&sof a ravageinftitution, and ena-bledthefoultohavefucha flaarein the educationasit couldneverhavehad withouttheaft:franceot har-mony.

Let us fuppofe, among ourfelves, a focietyofmen, tbpaffionatelyfondof hunting as to makeittheirroleemployment: theywould,doubtlefs,con-tra&therebya kindof rufficityandfiercenefs:bur,if theyhappento imbibea tare for mufic,wefhouldquicklyperceivea fenfibledifferencein theircuffomsand manners. In [bert, the exercifesufed by theGreekscouldraife only onekind of paffions,viz.fiercenefs,indignation,and cruelty: butmuficex-citesall there, and is, likewife,able to infp:rethefoul with a fenfeof pity, lenity, tendernefs,andlove. Our moralwriters,whodeclaimfovehementlyagainfttheRage, fu_cientlydemonRratethe powerof muficoverthe mind.

If the focietyabovementionedwere to have noothermuficthanthatof dru,nsand thefoundof the

Arscorporumexereendorumgymnafliea,varliscertamiaibusterendorump_-dotnbiea. .driflot.Polit. 1.8. e. 5"

* Ariftotleobferve%thatthechildrenof the Lacedmmonians,who beganthereexereifesat a verytenderage,covtraeqedfromthencetoogreat a ferocityandrudenef_ofbehavicur,Poht. lib.8. ¢.4.

trumyet,

CsAP._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. -5ttrumpet,woulditnotbemoredifficulttoaccomplilhthisendthanbythe moremeltingtonesof fofterharmony? The ancientswere,therefore,in theright,when,underparticularcircumftances,theypreferredonemodeto another,in regardto man-ners.

Butromewillark,whythouldmuficbepitcheduponpreferableto anyotherentertainment?It isbecaufe,ofallfenfiblepleafures,thereisnonethatlefscorruptsthefoul. We bluflltoread,inPlu-tarch¶, that the Thebans,in orderto foftenthemannersoftheiryouth,authorifed,bylaw,apaffioawhichoughtto beprofcribedbyallnations.

BOOK V.THAT THE LAWS_GIVEN BY THE LEGISLATOR, OUGH'r

TO BE RELATIVE TO THE PRINCIPLE,OF GOVERNMENT.

CHAP. I.Ideaof thisBook:

T H A T the lawsof educationOughtto berelativeto the principleof eachgovernmenthasbeenfhewnin the precedingbook. Now,thefamemaybelaidoftholewhichthe legiflatorgivesto thewholefociety.The relationof lawsto thisprincipleftrengthensthe feveralfpringsof govern-ment;andthisprinciplederivesfromthence_initsturn,anewdegreeof vigour. Andthusit _s,inmechanics,thata&ionisalwaysfollowedbyre-a&ion.

Ourdefignis, toexaminethisrelationineachgo-vernment,beginningwiththerepublicantiate_wholeprincipleisvirtue.

.lITLifeof Pelopidas.E 2 CHAP.

5z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BOOKV.

CHAP. lI.

Whatis meantbyVirtueinapoliticalState.VIR'I-UEin a republicis amoRfimplething_ it

is a loveof therepublic; it is a fenfation,andnotaconlequenceof acquir._dknowledge; a fenfationthat may be felt by the meaneraswellas bythehigher perfonin theflare. Whenthecommonpeo-ple adoptgoodmaxims,theyadhereto themfleadierthantholewecall gentlemen. It is veryrare thatcorruptioncommenceswith the former: nay, theyfrequently derive from their imperfe& light attrongerattachmentto theeftablithedlawsand cut'-toms.Theloveofourcountryisconducivetoa purity

ofmorals,andthelatterisagainconducivetotheformer. The lefswe areableto fatisfyour privatepaffions,the morewe abandonourfelvesto tholi:ofa generalnature. Howcomesit that monksarefofondoftheirorder? It is owingto the verycaut_that rendersthe order infupportable. Their ruledebarsthemof all tholethingsby whichthe ordina-ry paflionsarefed; thereremains,therefore,onlythispaffionfor theveryrulethat tormentsthem: themoreauftereit is, thatis, the moreit curbstheirin-clinations,themorefmccit givesto tileonlyportionleftthem.

C H A P. III.

WhatismeantbyaLoveof :heRepuHic,inaDemocracy.

A loveofthe republic,ina democracy,is a loveof thedemocracy; asthe latteris that ofequality.

A 16veof the democracyis, liKewife,thatot Du-gality. Sinceeveryindividualoughthere to enjoythe famehappinefsand the fameadvantages,they

lhould,

C_._l,.3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, f5

i'hould,confequentlv,ta_ethe famep!eafuresandformthefamehopes; whichcannotbeexpe&edbatfroma generalfrugality.

Theloveofequality,in ademocracy,limitsam-bitiontothetbledefire,to thetblehappin_t_,ofdo-inggreatertiervicestoourcountrythanthereftofourfeLlow-citizens.Theycannotallrenderher equalfervices,buttheyalloughtto ferveh_rwithequalalacrity.Atourcomingintotheworld,wecontra&animmenfedebtto ourcountry,whizh wecanneverdilizharge.

Hencedittin&ionsherearifefromtheprindpleofequality,evenwhenit teemsto beremovedbyfig-halfervicesorfuperiorabilities.

Theloveoffrugalitylimit_thede/Treofhaving,totheftudyofprocuring,neceffarmstoour fam',ly,andfuperfluitiesto our country. Richesgiveapowerwhicha citizencannotu'kforhimfelf,for thenhewouldbenolongerequal. Theylikewifeprocurepleafureswhichheoughtnottoenjoy,becaufetherewouldbealforepugnantto theequality.

Thuswell-regulateddemocracies,byefl:abliflaingdomefticfrugality,madeway,at thefametime,forpublicexpences; aswasthecareatRomeandAthens,whenmagnificenceandprofufionarot_fromtheveryfund of frugality.And,as religioncommandsusto havepureandunfpottedhands,whenwemakeourofferingsto thegods,thelawsrequireda fruga-lityoflife,to enablethemtobeliberalto ourcoun-try.

Thegoodfenfeandhappinefsof individualsde-pendgreatlyonthe mediocrityoftheirabihtiesandfortunes,Therefore,asa republic,wherethelawshaveplacedmanyina middlingRation,iscompofedofwithmen,it willbewifelygoverned; asitiscorn-poledofhappymen,it willbcextremelyhappy.

E 3 CHAP.

5_ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKV,

CHAP. IV.

InwhatMannertheLoveof E_ualityandFrugalityisinfpired.

THE loveofequalityandofafrugaloeconomyisgreatlyexcitedbyequalityandfrugalitythemfelves,in focieties,whereboththerevirtuesareeftablifhedbylaw.

Inmonarchiesanddefpoticgovernments,nobodyaimsatequality; thisdoesnotfomuchasentertheirthoughts; theyallafpireto fuperiority.Peopleoftheverylowerconditiondefiretoemergefromtheirobfcurity,onlyto lordit overtheirfellow-fubje&s.

It is thefamewithrefpe&to frugality.3.0loveit, wemuffpra&ifeandenjoyit. It isnottholewhoareenervatedwithpleafurethatarefondofafrugallife: werethisnaturaland common,Alcibiadeswouldneverhavebeentheadmirationof the uni-vertb. Neitheris it tholewhoenvyor admiretheluxuryof the great: people,thathaveprefenttotheirviewnonebutrichmen,ormenmiferablelikethemfelves,detefftheirwretchedcondition,withoutlovingorknowingtherealtermorpointofmifery.

A truemaximit is,therefore,that,inordertoloveequalityandfrugalityin a republic,therevirtuesmuffhavebeenpreviouflyeftablifhedbylaw.

CHAP. V.

In whatMannertheLawseflabliJhE1ualityin a ,De,rnocracy.

SOMEancientlegiflators,asLycurgusandRo-mulus,madeanequaldivifionof lands. A fettle-mentofthiskindcannevertakeplacebutuponthefoundationofa newrepublic,orwhentheoldoneisfocorrupt,andtilemindsofthepeoplearefodifpo-

fed,

C_*_._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. S5

fed, that thepoorthink themfelvesobligedto de-mand, and therichobligedto confentto, a remedyof thisnature.

If the legiflator,inmakinga divifionof thiskind,doesnotena&laws,at the tametime, to fupportit,he forms onlya temporaryconft_tutio_; inequalitywillbreak in wherethe lawshavenotprecludedit,andthe republicwill be utterlyundone.

Hence, forthe prefervationof this equality,it isabfolutelyneceffarytherefhouldbe romeregulationin refpe&to womensdowries,donations,fucceflions,te_amentaryfettlements,and allotherformsof con-tra&ing. For, wereit onceallowedto difpofeofourpropertytowhomandhowwe pleai_d,the willof eachindividualwoulddiffurb the order of thefundamentallaw.

Solon,by permittingthe Athenians,uponfailureof iffue_, to leavetheiref{atestowhomtheypleafed,actedcontraryto the ancientlaws,bywhichthe ef-tateswereorderedto continuein the familyof thetet_ator-l-,andevencontraryto his ownlaws; for,by abolifhingdebts, he hadaimedatequality.

The law, which prohibitedpeople'shavingtwoinheritances§, wasextremelywelladaptedfor a de-mocracy: it deriveditsoriginfrom theequaldi_ri-butionof landsand portionsmade to eachcitizen.The lawwouldnot permit a tingle manto poffefsmorethan a tingleportion.

Fromthe famefourcearofetholelaws by whichthe nextrelationwas orderedto marrythe heifers.This lawwasgivento the Jewsafter the likedif{ri-bution. Plato¶, whogroundshis lawsonthisdivi-

_, _ Plutarch,lifeofSolon. "["Ibid._ § Phddaus,ofCorinth,madea !aw,at Athen_,thatthenumberofthepor-

tions oflandandthat of inheritances_,ouldbealwaysthefame. ,drift._o,'it.lib.z. cap.Iz,

_[ Republic,book_, E 4 fion,

56 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoomEr,

fion, made the fameregulationwhichhadbeenre..ceivrdasalaw bythe Athenians.

At Athens, there wasa law, wholefpirit, in myopinion,has not been hithertorightlyundcrllood.It waslawfulto marrya filter onlybythe father'sfide, but it was notpermittedto etpoufea fitterbythe famerenter,. This cui!omwasoriginallyow-ing to republics,wholefpiritwouldnotpermitthattwo portionsof land, andconfequentty,twoinherit-ances, flaoulddevolveonthe fameperlon. A man,whomarriedhisrifleronlybythefather'sfide,couldinherit but one ellate,namely,that of his father;but, by e]poufinghis filler bythe famerenter, itmight happen, that his filler'sfather, havingnomale iffv.e,might leave her his eftate, and,confe-quently, the brother,who marriedher, might bepoffeffedof two.

Little willit availto objeCtwhatPhilofays_,that,althoughtheAthenianswereallowedto marrya fit-ter bythefather'sfide,andnot bythe mother's,yetthe contrarypra&iceprevailedamongtheJ.,aceda_-monians,whowerepermittedto efpoufea filler bythe mother'sfide, and not by the father's, For Ifind, in Strabot, that, at Sparta, whenevera wo-man was marriedto herbrother, the had half hisporfio,afor her dowry. Plain it is, that this fecondlawwasmadeinorderto preventthebadconfequen-cesof the former. That the eltatebelongingto thefilter'sfamilymightnotdevolveonthebrother's,theygavehalf the brother'seft:ateto the fitterfor herdowry.

CorneliusNepos,inprcefat. Tbi_euf_ombegan_ntheear|ie(_t;mes. ThusAbraham fay, of Sarab,./he it myrifleri n_ father's daughter__utnotmymotber't.The fame reafonsoccafionedthe e/_abli/hmgthe fame law among di/_erentna-tiorJs.

De foecialibu,legibusfuae_ertinentadpr_eceptaDecalogio

Ca^l".D THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 57

Seneca,11fpeakingofSilanu,%whohadmarriedhisfitter,lays, that the permiffionwas limitedatAthens, butgeneralatAlexandria. In a monarchi-cal governmenttherewasverylittleconcernaboutanythchthingas a divi.fionoi el_ates.

Excellentwasthat law, which,in orderto main-tainthis divifionof landsin a democracy,ordained,r.hata father,whohadfeveralchildren,/houldpitchupononeof themto inherithisportion,§and leavethe othersto be adopted,to the endthat the num-ber of citizens might alw'aysbe kept upon ane-qualitywiththatof thedivifions.

Phaleasof Chalcedon_ contriveda veryextraor-dinarymethodof renderingall fortunesequal,inarepublicwherethere was the greateflcinequality.Thiswas, that the rich flmuldgive fortuneswiththeirdaughtersto the poor, but receivenonethem-fdves; and that the poorflnouldreceivemoneyfortheir daughters, inf[eadof giving them fortunes.But I do not rememberthat a regulationof thiskindevertookplace in any republic. It laysthecitizensunder fuch hardand oppreffiveconditions,as wouldmakethemdeter the veryequalitywhichtheydefignedto eftablifl_. It is properfometimesthat the lawsflnouldnot feemto tend fo direcq:lytothe end theyi_}opofe.

Though real equalitybe the very foulof a de-mocracy,it is fo difficu]tto effablilh,that an ex-tremeexa&nefsin this refpe&wouldnotbe alwaysconvenient. Sufficientit is to ettablitha cenfus,'twhichthould reduce or fixthe differencesto a cer-tainpoint: it is afterwardsthe bufinefsofparticular

tltbenlsdimidiumliceG dlexandr¢totura.SenecademorteClaadli.§ Platohasalaveofthls kind,lib.3"leg. _ AriPcot.lib.z. cap.7.

Solonmadefourclaffrsi the firOg,oftholewhohadan incomeof Soomi-nas,eitherincornorhqmdfruitsi thefecond_ofthofewhohad_o_ andwereableto keepa horfe; the third_of fuchas had onlyzoo_ thefoarth_ofallthole_vholivedbj'thdrmanuallabour.Plat, Lifcof Solo_.

laws

55 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKV.lawstolevel,asit were,theinequalities,bythedu-tieslaidupontherich,andby theeafeaffordedtothepoor. It ismoderaterichesalonethatcangiveorfufferthisfortof compenfations; for, asto menof over-growneftates,everythingwhichdoesnotcontributeto advancetheirpowerandhonourisconfideredbythemasaninjury.

Allinequalityindemocraciesoughttobederivedfromthenatureofthegovernment,andevenfromtheprincipleof equality.Forexample,it maybeapprehencedthat people,whoareobligedto livebytheirlabour,wouldbe toomuchimpoverithedby a publicemployment,or negle&the dutiesat-tendingit; thatartifanswouldgrowinfolent; andthattoogreatanumberoffreemenwouldoverpowertheancientcitizens.In thiscaretheequality"l"inademocracymaybefuppreffed,for thegoodof theRate. Butthisis onlyanapparentequality: foramanruinedbya publicemploymentwouldbein aworfeconditionthanhisfellow-citizens; andthistameman,beingobligedto negle&hisduty,wouldreducetherefcto a worfeconditionthanhimfelf_andfoon.

CHAP. VI.

InwhatMannertheLawsoughttomaintainFrugalityina Democracy.

IT is not fufficient,in a well-regulateddemo-cracy,thatthedivifionsoflandbeequal; theyoughtalfoto befmall,aswascuftomaryamongtheRo-mans. " Godforbid,"laidCuriusto hisfoldiers," that acitizenthouldlook uponthat as afmall_' pieceoflandwhichisfufficientto maintainhim."

"I"Solonexcludes,frompublicemployments,alltholeof thefourthclafs."l-heyinfi_eduponalarg_rdiwfionof the(onquoredlands. Plutarcb'smoo

a!works,Liwsof theanclentKingsandCommlnder_;As

CsAr.6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 59

As equalityof fortunesfupportsfrugality,fothelatter m_iintainsthe former. Therethings, thoughin themfelvesdifferent,areof fucha natureasto beunable to fubfilt ti:parately"they reciprocallya&uponeachother: if onewithdrawsitfelffroma de-mocracy,theotherfurelyfollowsit.

True it is, that, whena democracyis foundedincommerce,private peoplemay acquirevail:richeswithout a corruptionof morals. This is becaufethefpiritofcommerceis naturallyattendedwiththatof frugality, oeconomy,moderation,labour,pru-dence, tranquility,order, andrule. Solongasthis£piritfubfifts,the richesit produceshaveno badel-re&. The mifchiefiswhenexceffivewealthdef_roysthefpiritof commerce: then it is that the inconve-niencesof inequalitybegintobefelt.

In orderto fupport this fpirit, commercePnouldbe carriedon by theprincipalcitizens: thisfhoutdbe their lute aim and ttudy; this the chiefobje&of the laws: and there verylaws,by dividimztheeftatesof individualsinproportionto theincreafeofcommerce,thouldlet every poor citizenfo farathis eafe,asto be ableto worklike theretie; and e-verywealthycitizen in fucha mediocrity,as to beobliged to takefumepaias either in prefervingoracquiringa fortune.

It is an excellentlaw, in a tradingrepublic,tomakean equaldivifionof the paternaleftateamongthe children. The confequenceof thisis, that, howgreatfoevera fortunethe fatherhasmade, his chil-dren, being not forich as he, are inducedto avoidluxury, andto workas he had done. I fpeakhereonlyof tradingrepublics; for, as to thofethat haveno commerce,the !egiflatormuffpurfue quitedif-ferentmeafures.*

IntheretheportionsorfortunesofwomenoughttobcverymuchIimite4.

In

60 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:V.

In Greecethereweretwo fortsof republics;theone military,likeSparta; theothercommercial,asAthens. In the former,the citizenswereobligedto be idle; in the latter,endeavourswereufedtoi_.fplrethem withthe loveof induftryandlabour.Solonmadeidlenefsa crime,and refilledthat eachcitizenfhouldgivean accountof his mannerof get-tinga livelihood. And indeed,in a well-regulateddemocracy,where people'sexpencesfhouldextendonly to whatis neceffary,everyoneoughtto haveit ; for how fhouldtheir wants be otherwifefup-plied?

C H A P. VII.

OtherMethodsoffavouringthePrincipleof Democracy.

AN equaldivifionof landscannotbe eflcabli/hedinall democracies.There are romecircumftancesinwhicha regulationof thisnatt're wouldbe im-pra&icable,dangerous,andeven fubverfiveof theconfleitution.We are not alwaysobligedto pro-ceedtoextremes. If it appearsthatthisdivifionoflands,which wasdefignedto prefervethe people'smorals,doesnot fuit withthe democracy,recourfemu_ behadtoothermethods.

If apermanentbodybe efiablilhed,to ferveasarule and pat,ern of manners; a fenate,to which).ears,virtue,gravity,andeminentfervices,procureadmittance; the fenators,by beingexpofedtopub-licviewlikethe ftatuesof the gods, mulenaturallyinfpireeveryfamilywithfentimentsof virtue.

Aboveall, thisfenatemutt fteadilyadhereto theancientinftitutions,and mind that the peopleand 'the magi_ratesneverfwervefromthem.

The prefervationof the ancientcuftomsis a veryconfiderablepoint in refpecTt:to mani,ers. Sinceacorrupt people tialdomperformanymemorableac- i

tions,

CHAr.7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 6z

tions, feldomeffablifhfocieties,buildcities, orena&laws: on the contrary,fince moff inffitutiovsarederivedfrom people wholemannersare plainandfimple,to keepup the ancientcu_omis thewaytopretizrvethe origi,_alpurityof morals.

Betides,if, byromerevolution,theffatehashap-penedto affumea newform, this feldomcanbe ef-fe&cdwithoutinfinitepainsandlabour,and hardlyever by idle and debauchedperfons. Even tholewhohadbeenthe inftrumentsof therevolutionweredefirousit flaouldbe relilhedi whichis difficulttocompafswithout good laws. Hence it is that an-cientinftitutionsgenerallytend to reform thepeo-ple'smanners,andthofeof moderndate tocorruptthem. In thecourfe of a long adminiftrationthedefcent to vice is infenfible; but there Is nore-afcendingto virtue withoutmaking the moffgene-rousefforts.

It hasbeenquet2ioned,whetherthemembersofthe fenateweare fpeakingof ought to befor hfe,or onlychofenfor a time. Doubtlefstheyought tobe for life, aswasthecut_omat Rome,* at Sparta,-l-andevenat Athens: for we muff:not confoundthefenateat Athens,whichwasa bodythatchangede-very three months, with the Areopagus, whofemembers,as ftandmgpatterns,wereeftablifhedforlife.

Let thisbe thereforea generalmaxim; that, inafenatedefignedto be a ruleand thedepofitary,asitwere,of manners,the membersoughtto be choii_nfor life; in a fenateintendedfor the adminiftrationof affairsthemembersmaybechanged.

The

t The magiflrategtherewereannual, and the fenators{'orllfe,Lycurgub laysXenophon, (de Repub Laced,_m.)ordained, that the fena-

tors flaouldbe ehofenfrom amongf_theold men. to the end that they misnt notbe negle&edin the clecl_neof llf_ : thus, by making them judgesof'the courageof youngpe,,ple, he renderedtheold ageof th¢ formermoreh*aourabletha_ the_reagtlaa_aavigtmrof the latter.

62 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKV,

The fpirit,faysAriftotle,waxesold,as wellasthe body. Thisretie&ionholdsgoodonlyin re-gardto a tinglemagif'crate,but cannotbeappliedto afenatorianaffembly.

At Athens,betidethe Areopagus,therewereguardiansof the publicmorals,as wellasof thelaws._ At Spartaall the old menwerecenfors,.AtRomethecenforfhipwascommittedto twopar-ticularmagiffrates.Asthefenatewatchedoverthepeople,the cenforswereto havean eyeoverthepeopleand the fenate. Theirofficewasto reformthecorruptionsof therepublic,to ttigmatizeindo-lence,to cenfureneglec"ts,andtocorre&miffakes:asto flagrantcrimes,thefewereleftto thepunilh-mentofthelaws.

ThatRomanlaw,whichrequiredtheaccufationsin cafesof adulteryto be public,wasadmirablywellcalculatedforpreferringthepurityof morals;it intimidatedmarriedwomen,as wellastholewhowereto watchovertheircondu&.

Nothingcontributesmoreto theprefervationofmoralsthananextremefubordinationof theyoungto theold. Thustheyarebothrettrained,thefor-merbytheirrefpec"tfortholeofadvancedage,andthelatterbytheirregardforthemfelves.

Nothinggivesa greaterforceto thelawsthanaperle&fubordinationbetweenthe citizensandthemagiftrate." The greatdifferencewhichLycur-" gus ethblifhedbetweenSpartaandtheotherci-" ties(faysXenophon*) confiffschieflyintheo-*' bediencethecitizensthewto thelaws: theyrun" whenthemagiftratecallsthem. But,atAthens,_' a rich man wouldbe highlydifpleafedto be_' thoughtdependentonthemagittrate."

Paternal

;I EventheAreopa_usitfelfwasfubje&totheircenfur¢oReoubli¢ofthgLated_monians.

_2HAP.g. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 63Paternalauthorityislikewifeofgreatufetowards

theprefervationof morals.We havealreadyob-ferved,that, in a republic,thereis notfocoercivea forceas in othergovernments.Thelawsmul_thereforeendeavourto fupplythisdefeftbyromemeansorother; and this is donebypaternalau-thority.

Fathers,atRome,hadthepoweroflifeanddeathovertheirchildren.#_AtSpartaeveryfatherhadarightto corre&anotherman'schild.

Paternalauthorityended,at Rome,togetherwiththe republic. In monarchies,wherefucha purityof moralsisnotrequired,theyarecontrouledbynootherauthoritythanthatof themagi£trates.

The Romanlaws,whichaccuftomedyoungpeo-ple to dependence,eftablitheda long minority.Perhapswearemiftakenin conformingto thiscur-tom: thereisno neceflityforfomuchconftraintinmonarchies.

Thisveryfubordinationina republicmightmakeit neceffaryforthefatherto continuein the poffef-fionof hischildren'sfortuneduringlife,aswasthecuffomat Rome. Butthisisno_agreeableto thefpiritofmonarchy.

C H A P. VHI.

In whatMan_ertheLaws oughttoberelativetothePrincipleof GovernmentinanAriflocracy.

IF the peoplearevirtuousin anarifiocracy,theyenjoyverynearthe famehappinefsas in apopulargovernment,and the Rategrowspowerful.But,asa greatthareof virtueis veryrare wheremens

fortunes"_Wemayfee,intheRomanhit%ry,hownfefnlthis powerwastotherepublic.

I flaallgiveanrelianceeveninthe timeof its greateflcorruption,AulusFul-viuswasletouton hisjourney_in orderto joinCatihnej his lathercalledhia_back_andput himtodeath. SaUufi,debelleCatil.

64. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo,V,

fortunesarefo unequal,thelawstour tendasmuchas poffibleto infufea fpirit of moderation_and en-deavourto re-eftabli[ntF.atequalitywhichwasnettle.farilyremovedbythecon[titution.

The fpiritof moderationis whatwecallvirtue inan ariftocracy; it fuppliesthe placeof the fpirit ofequalityina popularKate.

As the pompand fplendor,withwhichkings arefurrounded,form a partof theirpower,fo modet_ty•andfimplicityof mannersconKitutethe ftrengthofanariftocraticnobility*. Whentheyafro&nodiitinc-tion,whentheymixwiththe people,drefstikethem,andwiththemfhareall their pleafurcs,the peopieareaptto forgettheirfubjec'tionand weaknel_;.

Every governmenthas its natureand principle,.Anariftocracymuff:not,therefore,afftamethenatureand principleof monarchy; whichwouldbe thecare,werethe noblesto be invertedwithperfonalprivilegesdiftin&fromtholeof theirbody. Privi-legesought to befor thefena:e,and fimplerefpec't:for thefenators.

In ariftocraticalgovernments,thereare twoprin-cipalfourcesof diforder:excefliveinequalitybetweenthegovernorsandthe governed; and thefame ine-quality betweenthe differentmembersof the bodythat governs. From theretwo inequalitieshatredsand jealoufiesarife, whichthe lawsoughtever topreventorreprefs.

The flrftinequalityis,chiefly,whentheprivilegesof tllenobilityarehonourableonly astheyare igno-miniousto thepeople. Suchwasthelaw,at Rome,bywhichthe patricianswereforbiddentomarryple-

t In our day_, the qC'enetlans, who) in many refpe_s_ m_y be fald to have nvery wife government_ decideA a difpure between a nobic Venetian and a gentle-la'_,,nof Terr_-Flrma, in req_e&to precedency in a church, by declaring) tbatp

out oi Vemec, a noble Vene_la_ ha.; uo p;e-emingnce over an)' other citizen.

beiansi

CHAr,8. THR SPIRITOF LAWS. 6_

beians_;alawthathadnoothereffc6_thantorenderfl_epatricians,ontheonefide,morehaughty_and,on the other,moreodious. The readermay feewhatadvantagesthetribunesderivedfromthenceintheirharang-es.

Thisinequalityoccurs,likewife,whentF.econdi_tionof the citizensdifferswith regardto taxes:whichmayhappenfour differentways;whenthenoblesaffumetheprivilegeof payingnone; whentheycommitfraudsto exemptthemfelves-[-; whentheyengrofsthe publicmoney,underpretenceofrewardsor appointmentsfortheirrefpe&iveemploy-ments; in fine,whentheyrenderthecommonpeo-pletributary,anddivideamongtheirownbodytheprofitsarifingfi'omthefeveralfubfidies.Thislafl:careis veryrare; an arittocracyfointtitutedwouldbethemoil:intolerableofallgovernments.

WhileRomeinclinedtowardsanariftocracy,meavoidedall thereinconveniences.Themagittratesneverreceivedanyemolumentsfromtheir office:the chiefmenof. the republicweretaxedlikethereft,nay,heavier;andfometimesthetaxesfellup-on themalone. In fine,farfromflaaringamongthemfelvesthe revenuesof theRate,alltheycoulddrawfrom the publictreafure,andall thewealththatfortuneflunginto theirlaps, they beftowedfreelyon thepeople,to be excu@dfromacceptingpublichonoursil.

It isafundamentalm_ixim,thatlargeffesareper*nicioustothe peoptein a democracy,but falutaryin anariftocradcalgovernment.Theformermakethemforgettheyarecitizens,thelatterbringthemtoa fenfeofit.

It wa_infertedby the decemvirsin the twolaf_table. SeeDionyf.Halicarn,Lzo.y Asmromearil_ocracies_nouttime. Nothingismoreprejurllcialto go-

•¢rlllll_rlt.

See,inStrabo_1.i_.,illwhatm_rmertheRhodiansbehavedintbii_f_e,q,YoL.I. F If

66 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_V.If the revenuesof the ftatearenotdif_ributed

amongftthepeople,theymuitbeconvinced,at leaft,oftheirbeingwelladminiftered: tofeafftheireyeswiththepublictreafureis,withthem,thefamethingalmoftasenjoyingit. Thegoldenchaindifplayedat Venice,the richesexhibitedat Romein publictriumphs,thetreafurespreferredin the templeofSaturn,were,inreality,thewealthofthepeople.

It isa veryeffentialpoint,inanariftocracy,thatthenoblesthemfelveslhouldnotlevythetaxes.Thefirfrorderof theRate,in Rome,neverconcernedthemfelveswithit ; thelevyingof taxeswascom-mittedto thefecond_ andeventhis, in procefsoftime,wasattendedwithgreat inconveniences.Irtanariftocracyof thiskind,wherethenoblesleviedthe taxes,the privatepeoplewouldbe all at thedifcretion.of perfonsin publicemployments,andtherewouldbenofuchthingas a fuperiortribunalto checktheirpower. The members,appointedtoremovetheabufes,wouldratherenjoythem: thenobleswouldbeliketheprincesofdefpoticgovern-ments,whoconfifcatewhatevereftatestheypleafe.

Soonwouldtheprofits,hencearifing,beconfider-ed asa patrimony,whichavaricewouldenlargeatpleafure.The farmswouldbe lowered,andthepublicrevenuesreducedto nothing. Thisisthereafonthatfomegovernments,withouthavingeverreceivedanyremarkablelhock,havedwindledawaytofucha degree,as not onlytheirneighbours,buteventheirownfubje&s,havebeenfurprizedatit.

Thelawsflaouldlikewifeforbidthenoblesallkindof commerce: merchantsoffuchunboundedcreditwouldmonopolizeallto themfelves.Commerceisa profefflotaof peoplewhoareuponanequality;hence,amongdefpoticftates,themoltmiferablearetholeinwhichtheprinceapplieshimfelftotrade.

The

CuAr.S.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 67

ThelawsofVenicedebar_ thenoblesfromcom-merce,bywhichtheymight,eveninnocently,acquireexorbitantwealth.

Thelawsoughttoemploythemolteffe&ualmeansformakingthenoblesdo jufticeto thepeop!e. Iftheyhavenoteftablifheda tribune,theyoughttobea tribunethemfelves.

Everyfortof afylum,in oppofitionto theexecu-tion of the laws,deftroysariitocracy,and is loonfucceededbytyranny.•Theyoughtalwaysto mortifythe luftof dotal-

men. Therefhouldbeeitheratemporaryor perpe-tual magiltrateto keepthe noblesin awe; astheEphoriatSparta,andtheState-InquifitorsatVenice,magii_ratesfubje&to no formalities.Thisfortofgovernmentftandsinneedof the ftrongei_fprings:thusa mouthof fione§ isopentoeveryinformeratVenice_ amouthto whichonewouldbeapttogivetheappellationoftyranny.

Therearbitrarymagiftratesin an arifiocracybearfomeanalogytothecenforfhipindemocracies,which,of its ownnature,isequallyindependent.And,indeed,thecenforsoughttobefubje&to noenqui-ry in relationto theircondu&duringtheiroffice;_theythouldmeetwitha thoroughconfidence,andneverbe difcouraged.In thisrefpe&,thepra&iceoftheRomansdefervedadmiration; magiftratesofall denominationswereaccountablefortheiradmi-niftration_, exceptthecenfors_.

law_Amelotdela I'loufaye,of the governmentof Venice, part ]. The CIaudla,forbad the fenatorato have any flfipat lea that held aboveforty bufl_el_:.Li_,. l. zt.

§ The informers thzowtheir retells into it.

_ SeeLi.vy, I. 49. A cenforcould not be troubled'evenby a"eenfor ; eaelimade his remark without taking the opinionof his col!eague; and, when it:otherwifehappened_the cenfor/hlpwas, in a manner_abohfhed.

_ At Athens, the logifl_e,who madeall the magifirat_ accountablefor their: ¢ondu,ft,gaveno accountthemfelve_.

: F _ There

68 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:V.

Thelearetwoveryperniciousthingsinanariffo-cracy; excelseitherof povertyoro_wealthinthenobility.To preventtheirpoverty,it is necefl'ary,aboveall things,toobligethemtopaytheirdebtsintime. To moderatetheexce£sof wealth,prudentandgradualregulationsfhouldbe made; but noconfifcations,no agrarianlaws,no expungingofdebts_thereareprodu&iveofinfinitemifchief.

Thelawsoughttoabolilhthe rightof primoge-nitureamongthe noblest,to theend, that, byacontinualdivifionof theinheritances,theirfortunesmaybealwaysupona level.

There fhouldbe no fubf_itutlons,nopowersofredemption,no rightsof majorafgo,or adoption.Thecontrivances,forFerpetuatingthegrandeuroffamilies,in morJarchicalgovernments,oughtnevertobeemployedinariRocracies._.

Whenthelawshavecompafledtheequalityoffa-milies,thenextthingis toprefervea properharmo-ny andunionamongftthem. Thequarrelsof thenobilityoughttobequicklydecided; otherwifetheconteRsof individualsbecometholeof families.Arbitersmayterminate,orevenpreventtherifeof,difputes.

Infine,thelawsmuf_not favourthediftin&ionsrailedbyvanityamongfkmilies,underpretencethattheyaremorenobleorancientthanothers: preten-ces of thisnatureoughtto be rankedamongtheweakneffesofprivateperfons.

Wehaveonlyto car aneyeonSparta; therewemayfeehowtheEphoricontrivedtocheckthefoi-blesofthekings,aswellastholeofthenobilityandcommonpeople.

"t"It isfopra&ifeclatVenice: .4melotd: laIforfaye,p. 30 and_T.-. _ "l'hcmaindefignoffomcariRocraciesf_emsto belcfs the fupportof theRatethanofthe;rnobiliD'.

CHAP.

C_A_.9. THg SPIRIT OF LAWS. 69

C H A P. IX.

251whatMannertheLawsarerelativeto theirPrincipleinMonarchies.

AS honouris the principleof a monarchicalgo-vernment,thelawsooght to be relativeto thisprin-ciple.

They thould endeavourto fupport the nobility;in refpecCtto whom,honourmaybe,in romemeafure,deemedbothchildandparent.

"/'heylhouldrenderthe nobilityhereditary; notas a boundarybetweenthe powerof the princeandthe weaknefsof the people, but asthe link whichconne&sthemboth.

In this government,fubftitutions,whichprefervethe eftatesof familiesundivided,areextremdyufe-(ul, thoughinothersnot fo proper.

Here thepowerof redemptionisof fervice,as itreftoresto noblefamiliesthelands that had beenalienatedby theprodigalityofa parent.

The landsof the nobilityought tohaveprivi!egesas wellas theirperfons. The monarch'sdignity isinfeparablefromthat of his kingdom,and the dig-nityof thenoblemanfromthatof hisfief.

All thereprivilegesmu_ beparticularto the nobi-lity and incommunicableto the people, unleisweintendtoa&contraryto theprincipleof government,andtodiminifhthepowerof thenoblestogetherwiththatofthepeople.

Subf_itutionsare a re_raint to commerce; thepowerof redemptionproducesan infinitenumberofproceffes; everyeftatein land, that is foldthrough-out die kingdom,is, in romemeaftlre,withoutan,ownerfor thefpaceof a year. Privilegesannexedto fiefsgive a powervery burthenfo,neto tho.Cego-vernmentswhichtolerate them. Thereare tile in-

J[?3 convczfienccs

70 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogV,

conveniencesof nobi]ity_ inconveniences,however,thatvanifhwhenconfrontedwithitsgeneralutility.But,whenthereprivilegesarecommunicatedto thepeople,everyprincipleof governmentis wantonlyviolated.

In monarchies,aperfonmayleavethebulkofhiseftateto oneofhischildren; apermiffionimproperinanyothergovernment,

Thelawsoughtto favourallkindofcommerce!1confiftentwiththe conftitution,to the endthatthe£ubje&smay,withoutruiningthemfelves,beabletofatisfythe continualcravingsof theprinceandhiscourt.

They ihouldeffabliflaromeregulation,thatthemannerofcollectingthetaxesmaynotbemorebur-thenfomethanthetaxesthemfelves.

The weightof dutiesproduceslabour, labourwearinefs,andwearinefsthefpiritof indolence.

CHAP. X.

OftheExloedilionpeculiarto theexecutive_PowerinMonarchies.

GR,EATis the advantagewhicha monarchicalg9vernmenthasovera republic. As the flareiscondu&edbya tingleperfon,theexecutivepoweristherebyenabledto a&with greaterexpedition:but,asthisexpeditionmaydegenerateintorapidity,thelaws/houlduferomecontrivanceto flackenit:they oughtnotonlyto favourthe natureof eachconffitution,butlikewifeto remedytheabufesthatmightrefultfromthisverynature.

CardinalRichelieu§ advifesmonarchsto permitnofuchthingsas focietiesor communitiesthatraife

[1It istoleratedonlyiathecommonpeople.SeethethirdlaverCod.decomm._ mercatoribusjwhichisfullofgoodferule.

§ Te_am.polk.• di_culties

CHAP.II. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 7x

difficultiesuponeverytrifle. If thisman'shearthadnot beenbewitchedwkh theloveof defpoticpower,Rill therearbitrary notions would have filled hishead.

The bodies,intruftedwith the depofitumof thetaws, are nevermoreobedientthanwhentheypro-ceed flowly,and ufethat retie&ionin the prince'saffairswhichcan fcarcelybe expec'-tedfrom the ig-noranceof a court, or fromthe precipitationof itscouncilstl[.

What wouldhave becomeof the fineftmonarchyin the world, if the magiftrates,by theirdelays,their complaints,and entreaties,had notcheckedtherapidityevenoftheirprincesvirtues,whentheremonarchs,confultingonly the generousimpulfeoftheirminds,wouldfain have given a boundlefsre-wardto fervicesperformedwithan unlimitedcourageandfidelity?

CHAP. XI.

Of the;Excellenceof a monarchicalgovernment.MONARCHYhasa greatadvantageovera def,

potic government. As it naturallyrequiresthereflaouldbefeveralordersor ranksof fubjec-t_,theftateis morepermanent,theconftitutionmorefteady,andthe perfonof himwhogovernsmorefecure.

Cicero* isof opinion,that theeftablifhingof thetribunes prefervedthe republic. " And, indeed," (layshe,) theviolenceofa headlefspeopleis more" terrible. A chief, or head, is fenfiblethat the" affairdependsupon himfelf, and thereforehe" thinks; but the people,in their impetuofity,are" ignorantof the danger into which they hurry

_, _arbarls cunbTatiofetwillsjflatlm exe_u_r_ium widetur. Tacitl Annal. 1.5.• Lib. 3"de Le_.

F 4 " them-

7z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKV.

" themfelves." This retie&ionmaybe appliedtoadefpoticgovernment,wh:chis a peoplewithout tri-bunes,and to a monarchy,wherethe people haveromefortoftribunes.

Accordingly,it is obfervabte,that, in the com-motionsof a defpoticgovernment,the people,hur-riedawaybytheirpaffion%are apt to pulh thingsas faras theycango. The djfordersthey commitareallextreme; whereas,inmonarchies,mattersarefeldomcarriedto excels. The chief'sareapprehen-five ontheirownaccount; theyare afraidot beingabandoned; andtheintermediatedependentpowers-["do notchoofethat thepopulacethouldhavetoomuchthe upperhand. It rarelyhappensthat the Ratesofthekingdomareentirelycorrupted:the prince ad-heresto there; andthe feditious,whohave neitherwillnorhQpestoihbvertthegovernment,haveneitherpowernor willto dethronetheprince.

In therecircumftances,menof prudenceand-au-thorityinterfere; moderatemeafuresarefirftpropo-fed, thencompliedwith, and things at lengthareredreffed;the lawsrelumetheir vigour, and com.mandfubmitfion.

Thusallourhiftoriesarefullof civilwarswithoutrevolutions,whilethehiftoriesof defpoticgovern-mentsaboundwithrevolutionswithoutcivilwars.

The writersofthehittoryof thecivilwarsof romecountries,even thole who fomentedthem, fuffi-cientlydemonftratethe littlefoundationprinceshaveto fufpe&the'authoritywithwhichthey invertpar-ticular bodiesof men; fince,evenunder the un-happycircumftanceof theirerrors, they fighedonlyafter the lawsand their duty, andreftrained,morethantheywerecapableof inflaming,the impetuofityof therevoltedII.

Seethe_rflnoteofbook_. oh.4"M_moil;sofCardinaldeRetzj an.dotherhiftorle_.Carding!

C_aP.z3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 73

CardinalRichelieu,reflectingperhapsthat he hadtoo much reduced the flaresof the kingdom,hasrecourfeto the virtuesof the princeand of his mi-niftersfor thethpport_ of government: but he re-quiresfo manythings, that indeedthereis nonebut_.nangel capableof fuchattention,fuchrefotution,and knowledge; andfcarcecan weflatterourfelveseverto feefucha princeand minit2ers,no not whilemonarchyfubfifts.

As people,wholive under a good government,arehappierthantholewho, withoutrule or leaders,wanderabout the forefts; fo monarchs,wholiveunder the fundamentallawsof their country,arefar happierthandefpoticprinces,whohavenothingto regulateeither their ownpattionsor tho£eof theirfi bjec-ts.

C H A P. XII.

5rbefameSubje_lcantinued.LET us not look for magnanimityin defpotie

governments. The prince cannot impart a great-nefswhichhe hasnothimfelf: withhim thereis nofuchthingas glory.

Ixis in monarchies_e beholdthe fubje&sencir-clingthe throne,and cheeredby the irradiancyofthe fmrereign: there it is that each perfon,fiiling,as it were,a largerfpace,is capable of exerci/]ngtholevirtueswhich adorn the foul, not with inde-pendence,but with true dignityand greatnefs.

C H A P. XIIL

An ideaofdefpoticPower.

WHEN the ravagesof Louifianaaredefirousoffruit:-they cut ,he treeto the root, and gather the

fruit.

74. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogV.

fruit.*Thisisanemblemofdcfpoticgovern-ment.

C H A P.XIV.

Inwhat214annertheLawsarerelativeto thePrinciplesofdefpoticGovernment.

THE principleof defpoticgovernmentisfear:buta timid,ignorant,andfaint-fpiritedpeoplehav_nooccafionfora greatnumberoflaws.

Everythingoughtto dependhereontwoorthreeideas: hencethereis noneceffitythatanynewno-tionsthouldbeadded. Whenwewantto breakahorfe,we takecarenot to lethimchangehismar..ter, his leffon,or hispace. Thusanimpreffionismadeonhisbrainbytwoor threemotions,andnQmorc.

Ifa princeisihutupinafcraglio,hccannot]cavehisvoluptuousabodewithoutalarmingtholewhokcephimconfined.Thcywillnotbearthathispcrfonandpowerihouldpatsintootherhands,Hc feldom,thcrcforc,wageswarinpeffon,andhardlyvcnturcstointruRthccommandtohisgcnc-rals.A princeofthisRamp,unaccuftomcdtorcfifl:.

anccinhispalace,iscnragcdtofcchiswilloppofcdbyarmedforce:henceheisgenerallygovcmcdbywrathorvcngcancc.P,cfidcs,hccanhavenono-tionoftrucglory.War,thcrcforc,iscarricdon,underfuch_a government,initsfullnaturalfury,andIcfsextentisgivento_hclawofnationsthaninotherRatcs.Sucha princehasfomanyimpcffc&ions,that

theyai'cafraidtocxpofehisnaturalftupiditytopublicview.Heisconcealedinhispalace,andthe

r_difyingI_ttd/_, JI. col.p,.3xS.people

C_^_.t_. THE "SPIRIT OF L_ws. 7_

peopleareignorantofhis fituaxion. It islucky forhimthat the inhabitantsof _hofecountriesneedonlythe nameof a princetogovernthem.

When CharlesXII. was at Bender,he metwithromeoppofitionfrom the fenateof Sweden: uponwhighhe wroteword home thathe wouldfendoneof his bootsto commandthem. This boot wouldhavegovernedlikea defpoticprince.

If the prince is a prifoner,he is fuppnfedto bedead, andanothermountsthe throne. Thetreatiesmadebytheprifonerarevoid; hisfuceefforwillnotratifythem. And, indeed,(as he is the law, theRate, andtheprince.,)whenhe is nolongera prince,he isnothing: werehe not, therefore,deemedtobedeceafed,the.Ratewouldbe fubverted,

One thingwhichchieflydeterminedthe Turks toconcludea feparatepeace with PeterI. wastheMufcovitestelling the vizir, that, in Sweden,art-otherprincehadbeenletuponthe throne.'l-

The prefervationof the flare is onlytheprefer-vationof the prince, or ratherof the palacewherehe is confined. Whateverdoesnotdirec"dymenacethis palace,or thecapital,makesno impreffiononignorant,proud, and prejudiced,minds; and, asfor the concatenationof events, theyare unabletotrace, to forefee,or evento conceive,it. Politics,withits fevcralfpringsand laws,muff:herebeverymuchlimited; thepoliticalgovernmentis as fimpleasthecivil.*

The wholeis reducedto reconcilingthepoliticaland civiladminiffrationto thedomefticgovernment,the officersofRateto tholeof the feraglio.

Sucha ftateis happieftwhenit can lookuponit-fell as the only one in the world,whenit is envi-

J"ContinuationofPuffendorf'sIntrodu_ioatothe Hittoryof Europejin thearticleofSweden,ch.Io.

t AccordingtofirJohnChardin_thereisnocouncilof RateinPer/_a.toned

76 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, BooKVo

tonedwithdeferts,and feparatedfromthofepeoplewhomtheycallbarbarians. Sinceit cannotdependonthe militia,it isproperit lhoulddeftroya partofiffelf.

__isfear is theprincipleof defpoticgovernment,its end is tranquillity: but this tranquillitycannotbe calleda peace; no, it is onlythefilenceot"thofetownswhichtheenemyis readyto invade.

Sincethe f_rengthdoesnot lie in the ftate,but inthe armythat foundedit ; in ordertodefendtheflare, the armymuffbe preferred,howformidablefoeverto theprince. How, then, canwe reconcilethefecurityof the governmentto thatof the prince'sperfon?

ObfervehowinduftriouflytheRuffiangovernmentendeavoursto temperits arbitrarypower,whichitfindsmoreburthenfomethan thepeoplethemfelves.They havebroke theirnumerousguards, mitigatedcriminalpuniflaments,ere&edtribunals,enteredintoa knowledgeof the laws,and inftru&edthe people.But there are particularcaufesthat willprobablyonce more involvethem in the verymiferywhichtheynowendeavourto avoid.

In thofeftates religionhas more influencethanany whereelfe: it is fear addedto fear. In Maho-metancounl_riesit is partlyfromtheir religionthatthepeoplederivethefurprizingvenerationtheyhavefor d;eirprince.

It is re!igionthat amends,in romemeafure,theTurkifh conftitution. The fubje&s,whohavenoattachmentof honourto the gloryandgrandeurofthe ftate, are conne&edwith it by the force andprincipleof religion.

Of all defpoticgovernmentsthere is none thatlaboursmoreunderits ownweightthanthatwhereinthe prince declareshimfelfproprietorof all the

lands,

CHAr.X4.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 77

lands, and heir to all hisfubje6ts. Hence thene-gle&of agriculturearites; and, if the princeinter-meddleslikewifein trade, allmannerof induftryisruined.

Underthisfortof governmentnothingis repairedor improved.+ Hout_s are built onlyfor thene-ceffityof habitation: thereis nodiggingof ditches,or planting of trees : everythingis drawnfrom,but nothingreRorcdto, the earth: thegroundliesuntilled, and the whole country becomesa de-fert.

Is it to be imagined,that thelaws,whichabolifh.the propertyof land and the fucceffionof eRates,willdiminilh theavariceandcupidityof thegreat?By nomeans: they willrather flimulatethis cupi-dity and avarice. The greatmenwillbepromptedto ufe a thoufandoppreffivemethods_imaginingtheyhavenootherpropertythanthegold_andfilverwhichtheyareableto fcizeuponby violenceor toconceal.

To prevent, therefore,theutterruinof theRate,the avidityof the princeought to be moderatedby romeeRablifhedcuftom. Thus, inTurkey, thefovereignis fatisfiedwith the rightof threepercent.on the value of inheritances._ But, as he givesthe greater part of the lands to hisfoldiery,anddifpofesof themas hepleafes; as he feizesonallthe inheritancesof theofficersof the empireattheirdeceafe_ as he hasthe propertyof thepoffeflionsoftholewhodiewithoutiffue,and the daughtershaveonlythe ufufru&; it thencefollowsthatthegreateftpart of the eRatesof the countryare heldin a pre-cariousmanner.

: 1" SeeRieaub Stateofthe O_tomanEmpire,p. i96.Seeconcerningthe inheritancesof the Tutk_s .4_witntar_lz]fdernS_arta.

See dfo Ricaut on the Ott_maa Em.oire.

Bj_

7g THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoozV,

BythelawsofBantam* thekingfcizcsonthewholeinheritance,evenwife,children,andhabita-tion.Inordertocludcthecruellcf_partofthislaw,theyarcobligedtomarrytheirchildrenateight,0ine,ortenyearsofage,andfomctimesyounger,totheendthattheymaynotbeawrctchcdpartofthefather'slhcceffion.In countrieswheretherearenofundamentallawsthefucceffionto the empirecannotbe fixed. Thecrownisthenele&ive,andtherightofele&ingisirltheprince,whonamesa fuccefforeitherofhisowr_or ofromeotherfamily. Invainwouldit betoefta-blifllherethefuccemonof theelderfon: theprincemightalwayschoofeanother.Thefuccefforisde-claredby the princehimfelf,or by a civil war.Hencea defpoticflareis, uponanotheraccou0t_moreliable, thana monarchicalgovernment,todiffolution.

As everyprinceof theroyalfamilyisheldequaUycapableof beingchofen,henceit followsthatthe

, princewhoafcendsthethroneimmediatelyttrangleshisbrothers,asin Turkey; orputs outtheireyes,asin Perfia; or bereavesthemof theirunderfiand-ing, as in the Mogul'scountry; or, if therepre-cautionsare notufed,as in Morocco,thevacancyofthethroneisalwaysattendedwiththe horrorsofacivilwar.

By the conf[itutlonsof Ruffiat-the Czarmaychoofewhomhehasamindforhisfucceffor,whe-,therofhisownor of affrangefamily_Sucha let-dementproducesa thoufandrevolutions,and ren-dersthethroneas totteringasthefuccefl]onisarbi-trary. The rightof fuccemonbeingoneof thole

• Cotlec'tionof VoyagestharcontrlbutecltotheefiablifhmentoftheEaft-Indiacompany,tom.x. The lawof PcguJslei_cruel: if therehappentobechil_dren,theki.qgfueceedsonlytotwo-thirds,lbld. tom.3- P, I.

t Seethe different_or._tutions,rlpcr.iAl)thatof 17z_,things

CHAP._4.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 79

thingswhich are of moftimportanceto the peopleto know, the bef'cisthat whichmolt fenfiblyftrikesthem, fuch as a certain orderof birth. A fettle-mentof this kindputs a ftopto intrigues,andRiflesambition: the mind of a weakprinceis no longerenflaved,nor is he madeto fpeakhis will as he isjuecexpiring.

When the fucceflionis ef_abliflaedby a funda-mentallaw,onlyone princeis the fucceffor,andhisbrothershave neithera real norapparentright todlfputethe crownwithhim. They canneitherpre-tendto, nor takeanyadvantageof, the willofa fa-ther. There is thennomoreoccafionto confineorkill theking'sbrotherthananyotherfubje&.

But, in defpoticgovernments,wherethe prince'sbrothersare equally his flaresand hisrivals, pru-dence requiresthat theirperfonsbefecured; efpe-ciallyin Mahometancountries,_vherereligioncon.fidersvi&oryor fuccefsas a divinedecifionin theirfavour; fo that they havenofuchthing as a mo-narchdejure, but onlydefago.

There is a far greater incentivetoambitionincountrieswherethe princesof the bloodarefenfi-ble, that, if they do not afcend thethrone, they"mul_be either imprifonedor put todeath, thana-mong_us, where they are placedin fucha f_ationas may fatisfy,if not theirambition,at leafttheirmoderatedefires.

The princesof defpoticgovernmentshaveeverpervertedthe_ufeof marriage. Theygenerallytakea great many wives,efpeciatlyin that part of theworldwhereabfolutepoweris in romemeafurena-turalized; namely, Aria. Hence they come tohave fuch a multitudeof children,that they cauhardly have any great afro&ionfor them, nor thechildrenfor one another.

The

80 THE SPIRIT. OF LAWS. Bc,oK_r.

The reigningfamilyrefemblestheftate: it is tooweakitfelf; and its head too powerful: it fcemsverynumerousand extenfive,and vet is fuddcnlyextind't. Artaxerxes_ put all his childrenrodeathfor confpiringagain_ him. It is not at all proba-ble that fifty childrenthouldconfpireagainittheirfather, andmuchlefsthat thisconfpiracyfhouldbeowingtohis havingtel\fledto refignhisconcubineto his eldeftfon. It is more natural to believethat the wholewasan intrigueof tholeorientalfc-raglios,wherefraud, treachery,anddeceit,reigninfilenceand darknefs_ and where an old prince,growneverydaymore infirm,isthe fir_ prifonerofthepalace.

Afterwhathasbeenlaid, onewouldimaginethathumannaturefhouldperpetuallyrifeup againftdct-potifm. But, notwithi_andingthe love of liberty,fo natural to mankind, notwithttandingtheir in-natedeteftationof force andviolence,mo_ nationsarefubje&to this verygovernment. This is eafflyaccountedfor. To form a moderategovernment,it is neceffaryto combinethe feveralpowers; to re-gulate, temper,and let them in motion; to give,as it were,ballaf'cto one, in order to enableit tocounterpoifethe other. This is a marker-pieceoflegiflation,rarely producedbyhazard, andfeldomattained by prudence. On the contrary,a defpo-tic governmentoffersitfelf, as it were,atfirftfightit is uniformthroughout; and, as paffionsonlyarerequifiteto cRabli_ k, this is whateverycapacWma),reach.

I SecJuflfin.

CHAP.

C_A_.IS. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. , 8x

CHAP. XV.

ThefameSu/jet-1continued.IN warmclimates,wheredefpoticpowergeneral-

ly prevails,the pafllonsdifclofethemfelvesearlier,and arefoonerextinguifhedtl; the under_andingisfoonerripened_ theyare in lefsdangerof fquanderoingawaytheir fortunes; thereis letsfacilityofdif-tinguilhingthemfelvesin the world; lefscommuni-cationbetweenyoungpeople, whoare confinedathome; they marrymuchearlier,and confequentlymaybefoonerof age,thaninour Europeanclimates.In Turkey, theyare of ageat fifteen§.

They'haveno fuchthingasa ceffionof goods; irla governmentwherethereisnofixedpropertypeopledependratheronthe perfonthanonhis eftate.

The ceflionof goodsis naturallyadmittedinmo-derategovernments®, butefpeciallyin republics,be-caufeof thegreaterconfidenceufuallyplaced in theprobityof the citizens,andthe lenityand modera-tionarifingfroma formof governmentwhicheveryfubje&feemsto havepreferredto all others.

Had the legiflatorsof the Roman republicefta-bliihedtheceffionofgoods-I-,theyneverwouldhavebeenexpofedto f0manyfeditionsandcivildifcords;neitherwouldtheyhave experiencedthe dangerofthe evilsnortheinconveniencyof theremedies.

Poverty,and the precariouthefsof property,inadefpoticftate, renderufurynatural,each perfonrai-ringthevalueof his moneyinproportionto thedan-gerhefeesin lendingit. Mili:ry,therefore,poursin

I eethehookof laws,asrelativetothenatureof theclimate.T-anguilletierejAncientandModernSparta,p. 463._',The famemaybelaidof compofitionsin regardtofairbankrupts."t"Therewasno PacheRabli/hmentmadetilltheJulianlaw,de ceffTonebona.

rumi whichpreferredthemfromprifonandfro_ aa ignominiousmwfionoftheirgoods.

VoL..t. G froa_

82 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKV.

fromall parts intotholeunhappycountries;theyare bereftof everything,evenof the refourceofborrowing.

Henceit is, thata merchant,underthisgovern-ment,isunableto carryonanextenfivecommerce:helivesfromhandto mouth; and,werehe toen-cumberhimfelfwithalargequantityofmerchandifes,hewouldtoremorebytheexorbitantinteref_hemuffgivefor moneythanhe couldpofiiblygetbythegoods. Hencetheyhaveno lawshererelatingtocommerce; theyareallreducedto whatiscalledthebarepolice.

A governmentcannotbeunjuRwithouthavinghandsto exercifeitsinjuffice.Now,it is impoffiblebutthefehandswillbegrafpingforthemfelves.Theembezzlingof thepublicmoneyis,therefore,natu-ralindefpoticRates.

Asthisisacommoncrime,underfucha govern-ment,confifcationsare veryufeful. By therethepeopleareeared_ themoneydrawnbythismethodbeingaconfiderabletribute,whichcouldhardlyberailedontheexhauRedfubje&: neitheris there,intholecountries,anyonefamilywhichthe princewouldbegladto preferve.

In moderategovernmentsit is quiteadifferentthing. Confifcationswouldrenderpropertyuncer-tain,wouldftripinnocentchildren,woulddeftroyawholefamily,inReadofpunifhinga tinglecriminal.In republics,theywouldbeattendedwiththerail-chiefof fubvertingequality,whichis the veryfoulofthisgovernment,bydeprivinga citizenofhisne-ceffaryfubfiftence.

ThereisaRomanlaw$ again_confifcations,ex-cept in thecareofcrimenmajeflatis,orhightreafonof themoftheinousnature. It wouldbea prudent

;_Aut!lenticabonadamnatot_m.Cod.debon.damn.thing

CHA*'.I6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 83

thingto followthefpiritof thislaw,and to limitconfifcationsto particularcrimes% In countrieswherea localcuffomhasrenderedreale_atesaliena-ble,Bodinveryjut_lyobferves,that confifcationsfllouldextendonlyto fuchas arepurchafedor ac-quiredII.

CHAP. XVI.OftheCommunicationof Power.

IN a defpoticgovernment,the poweriscommu-nicatedentireto theperfonintruRedwithit. Thevizirhimfelfisthe defpoticprince; andeachparti-cularo_ceris thevizir. In monarchies,thepoweris leftimmediatelyapplied,beingtemperedby themonarchashegivesitS;. Hemakesfuchadiffribu-tionof his authority,as neverto communicateapai'tof it withoutreferringagreaterflaaretohimfelf.

Hence,inmonarchies,the governorsoftownsarenot fo dependenton the governorof theprovinceasnottobeRillmorefoontheprince; andthe pri-vateofficersofmilitarybodiesarenotfofarfubje_ktotheirgeneralasnottooweRillagreaterfubje&iontotheirfovereign.

In moilmonarchies,it hasbeenwifelyregulated,thatthole,whohaveanextenfivecommand,thouldnotbelongtoanymilitarycorps; fo that,astheyhavenoauthoritybutthroughtheprince'spleafure,andastheymaybeemployedor nor,theyareinromemeafurein thefervice,andinfomemealureoutofit.

Thisisincompatiblewitha defpoticgovernment.For,if thofewhoare not a&uallyemployedwereRillinveRedwith privilegesand titles,theconfe-

Theyfeemtohavebeentoofendofconfifcationsintherel_ublicofAthens.[[Book._.ch._.

$ UteffePhc_bidulciusIt,menfoletJamjamcadgntis.

G 2 quence

84 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoozV.quencemuf'_be, thattherewouldbe akindof menin theftatewhomightbelaidto begreatofthem-felves; athingdire_lyoppofitetothenatureof thisgovernment.

Werethegovernorof atownindependentofthebathaw,expedientswouldbedailyneceffaryto makethemagree; whichis highlyabfurdin adefpoticRate. Betides,if a particulargovernormightrefuti:to obey,howcou!dtheotheranfwerforhisprovincewithhishead?

In thiskindof government,authoritymuffeverbe wavering;noristhat of the loweftmagiftratemoreReadythanthatofthedefpoticprince.Undermoderategovernments,thelawis prudentinall itsparts,andperfe&lywellknown,fo thateventhepettieftmagit_ratesarecapableoffollowingit. Bot,in a defpoticRate,wheretheprince'swillisthelaw,thoughtheprincewerewife,yethowcouldthetha-giftratefollowa will hedoesnot know? hemuftcertainlyfollowhisown.

.Again,asthelawisonlytheprince'swill,andastheprincecanonlywillwhatheknows,the confe-quenceis, thattherearean infinitenumberofpeoplewhomuffwillforhim,andmaketheir willskeeppacewithhis.

In fine,as the lawis themomentarywillof theprince,it is neceffarythat tholewhowillforhimlhouldfollowhisfubitaneousmannerofwilling.

C H A P. XVII.

Of Prefents.IT is a receivedcuftom,indefpoticcountries,

neverto addrefsanyfuperiorwhomfoever,notex-ceptingtheirkings,withoutmakingthemaprefent.'/'he

C_AP.I7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 8/"

The Mogul-[-neverreceivesthepetitionsof hisfub-jecCtsiftheycomewithemptyhands. Thereprincesfpoileventheirownfavours.

But thusit muff:ever be in a governmentWhereno manis a citizen; wherethey haveall a notionthata fuperioris undernoobligationtoan inferior;where men imaginethemfelvesboundby noothertiethanthechaffifementsinflicCtedbyonepartyoveranother; where,in fine, thereis very littleto do,andwherethe peoplehavefeldomanoccafionof pro-rentingthemfelvesbeforethegreat,of offeringtheirpetitions,and muchlefstheircomplaints.

In a republic,prefentsareodious,becaufevirtueftandsin no needof them. In monarchies,honouris a muchffrongerincentivethanprefents. But, iaa defpoticgovernment,wherethereisneitherhonournor virtue,peoplecannotbe determinedto ac_butthroughhopeof theconveniencesof life.

It is in conformityto republicanideas, that Pla-to J_orderedtholewho receivedprefentsfor doingtheirdutyto bepunithedwithdeath. " Theymuff:" not take prefents (layshe) neitherfor goodnor" for evilacCtions.''

A verybad lawthat was,amongthe Romansl],whichgave the magifcratcsleaveto accep_of finallpretents§,providedthey did notexceedone hun-dred crowns the wholeyear. They, whoreceivenothing,expecq:nothing; they, whoreceivea little,]boncovetmore; till at lengththeirdefiresfwelltoan exorbitantheight. Betides,it is mucheafiertoconvid'ta man, whoknowshimfelfobligedtoacceptof noprefentat all,and yetwillacceptof£omething,

"_Coll_on ofVoyagesthatcontlibu'cdto theEttabh.Chm_-ntof the E_t_.IndiaCompany,tom.x. p. $o.

Bookrz, ofL_ws.[1Lrg,§.q.adleg.j_l. repot.§ i_unufcula.

G 3 than

86 THE SPIRrT OF LAWS. BooKV.

thana perfonwhotakesmorewhenheoughttotakelefs, andwhoalwaysfindspretexts,excufes,andp1aufiblereafons,injuffificationofhiscondu&.

C H A P. XVIII.

Of_Rewardsconferredbythe8overeign.tN defpoticgovernments,where,aswehaveal-

readyobferved,theprincipalmotiveofa&ionisthehopeoftheconveniencesoflife,theprincewhocon-fersrewardshasnothingto befcowbutmoney. Inmonarchies,wherehonouralonepredominates,theprince'srewardswouldconfiffonlyof marksofdif-tin&ion,if thediOdn&ionseffabliflaedbyhonourwerenot attendedwithluxury,whichneceffarilybringson its wants: the prince,therefore,isobligedtoconferfuchhm;oursasleadtoweahh. But,in a re-public,wherevirtuereigns,(amotivefelf-fu/ficient,andwhichexcludesallothers,)the recompencesoftheflareconfiffonly of publicatteffationsof thisvirtue.

It isa generalrule,thatgreatrewards,in monar-chiesandrepublics,area fignof theirdecline,be-caufe'theyarea proofof theirprinciplesbeingcor-rupted,andthattheideaof honourhasnolongerthefameforceinmonarchy,northetitleof citizenthefameweightinarepublic.•TheveryworffRomanemperorswerethofewho

weremoltprofui_in theirlargeffes;for example,Caligula,Claudius,Nero,O,ho, lHtellius,Commodus,Heliogabalus,andCaracalla.Thebeff,asAuguflus,l/'efp_flan,AntoninusPius,Ma,cusAurelius,andPer.tinax,werececonomiffs,Undergoodemperorsthe/_atereft,meditsprinciples; allothertreafureswereluppliedbythatofhonour.

CHAP,

Char. 19. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 87

C H A P. XIX.

New Confe_uencesof the Principlesof thethreeGovern-ments.

I cannotconcludethis bookwithoutmakingromeapplicationsof mythreeprinciples.

_9._e_fl.I. It is a queRion,whetherthelawsoughttoobligea fubje&to acceptof a publicemployment.My .opinionis, that theyought in a republic,butnot m a monarchicalgovernment. In the former,publicemploymentsareatteftationsof'virtue, depo-fltumswithwhicha citizenis entruftedby hiscoun-try, for wholefakealone he ought to live, to a&,andto think; confequently,hecannotrefufetheme[.In the latter,publicofficesareteffimoniesof honour:now, fuch is thecapricioufnefsof honour, that itchoofesto accept of none of thereteffimoniesbutwhenandin whatmannerit pleafes.

The late king of Sardiniainfli&edpunifhments*onhis£ubje&swhorefufedthe dignitiesand publicofficesof theftate. In thishe unknowinglyfollowed.republicanidezs: but his mannerof governing,inotherrefpe&s,fufficienttyprovesthatthiswasnothis intention.

Quefl.2. Secondly,it is queffioned,whetherafubje&fhouldbe obligedtoaccept of a portin thearmyinferiorto thatwhichhe heldbefore. Amongthe Romans,it wasufualto fee a captainfervethenext year under his lieutenant-l-.This is becaufevirtuein republicsrequiresa continualfacrificeof

In"Plato,in hisRepublie_book8. ranksthererefufalsamongthemarksoftheeorruptionofa r'p,_blie.In hish'_ws,book6 heordersthemtobepumfh-edbya fine. At VenicetheyarepurAflzedwithbanifhment,

VJ&orAmadeus,"_Somecenturionshavingappealedto th_penal.-forthe employmentswhich

theyhadbeforeenjoyed,Itujufl_m_,comra4eslaida centurionthat you_'u'dlookt_onemeryp_flashono,trab[ein_uLlctayouha_eano_a,tunttyofdefen&ngthelepubli¢.Llv)'_D_c.5"lib.4z.

G 4 our

88 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKV.

ourperfonsandof ourrepugnancesfor thegoodoftheirate. But,inmonarchies,honour,trueorfalti:,willneverbearwithwhatitcallsdegradingitfelL

In defpoticgovernments,wherehonour,pofls,andranks,are equallyabufed,theyindifcriminatelymakeofaprinceatizullion,andofafcullionaprince,

.t_.uefl.8' Thirdly,it maybeenquired,whethercivilandmilitaryemploymentsflmuldbe conferredon the fameperfon. In republics,I think,theyfhouldbejoined,butin monarchiest_parated.Intheformer,it wouldbeextremelydangeroustomaketheprofef'fionof armsaparticularliate,diftin&fromthat of civilfun&ions; and,in thelatter,no lefsdangerouswouldit be to confertheretwoemploy-mentsonthefameperfon.

In republics,a perfontakesuparmsonlywithaviewtodefendhiscoantryanditslaws; it isbecaufeheis a citizenhemakeshimfelf,fora while,a fol-dier. Werethefe'wodiftin&12ates,theperfonwho,underarms,thinkshimfelfa citizen,wouldloonbemadefenfibleheisonlyafoldier.

In monarchies,they, wholeconditionengagesthemin the profeffionof arms,havenothingbutglory,or, at leafl:,honouror fortune,in view.Tomen,therefore,like there,the princelhouldnevergiveanycivilemployments; on the contrary,theyought to becheckedby the civil magifl:rate,thatthe fameperfonsmaynothave, at the fametime,the confidenceofthepeopleandthepowerto abufeits •

Wehaveonlyto carloaneyeona nationthat maybe jufllycalledarepublicdifguifedunderthe formof monarchy,and welhallfeehowjealoustheyal'ecf makingafeparateorderof theprqfefl3onofarms,

Neimperlumadoptlmosnobillumte_nsL'rretu,_fenatummilitiavetultOal-lienus_euamadireexexcitum..durelt;_sk't_OrjdewrJifllu_dbus.

and

CaA_,.I9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 89

andhowthemilitaryftateis con_antlyalliedwiththatofthecitizen,andevenfometimesof thema-gifirate,to the end that therequalitiesmaybeapledgefortheircountrywhich£houldneverbe for-gotten.

Thedivifionof civiland militaryemployments,madebytheRomansaftertheextin&ionof there-public,wasnotanarbitrarything: it wasa confe-quenceofthechangewhichhappenedin theconffi-tutionof Rome; it wasnaturalto a monarchicalgovernment; and,whatwasonlycommencedunde,,Auguf_usll,fucceedingemperors§wereobligedtofinilh,inordertotemperthemilitarygovernment.

Procopius,therefore,thecompetitorofValens,theemperor,wasverymuchto blame,when,conferringtheproconfulardignity¶ uponHormifdas,a princeoftheblood-royalofPerfia,hereRoredto thisma-gifcracythemilitarycommandof whichithadbeen_brmerlypoffeffed,unlefs,indeed,hehadverypar-ticularreafonsfor fodoing. A perfon,thatafpire,to thefovereignty,concernshimfelflefsaboutwhatis ferviceabletotheRatethanwhatislikelyto pro-motehisowninterefc.

9._qefl.4- Fourthly,it isaqueftion,whetherpub-licemployments/houldbe fold. Theyoughtnor,I think,indefpoticgovernments,wheretheIhbjec"tsmuffbe inRantaneouflyplacedor difplacedbytheprince.

But, in monarchies,thiscuftomisnot atallim-proper,by reafonit is aninducementto engageinthat,asafamilyemployment,whichwouldnotbeundertakenthrougha motiveof virtue: it fixes,likewife,everyoneto hisduty,andrenderstheleve-

l]Auguflusdeprivedthe fenators,prbconfulsjandgovernors,ofthe_rivilegeof wearingarms. Dioj1.33"Cor_antine. SeeZozJmuF,lib.2.Amm_anusMarcelha,*s,lib,z6. Msre_eterum_ bellare¢7_Oo

ral

9° THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo,V,

ralordersofthe kingdommorepermanent. Suidas*weryjuftly obferves, that Anaftafiushad changedthe empire intoa kindof ariftocracy,byfellingallpublicemployments.

Plato -]-cannotbearwiththisproftitution: "This•' is exa&ly(fayshe)as if a perfonwereto be made" a marineror pilotof a fhipfor hismoney. Is it•' pofiiblethat thisrulethouldbe badineveryother" employmentof lifeand holdgoodonlyin thead-" miniftrationof a republic?" But Platofpeaksofa republicfoundedonvirtue,andweof a monarchy.Now,in monarchies,(where,thoughthere wereno£uchthingasa regdar faleof publicoffices,frilltheindigenceand avidityof the ,courtierwouldequallyprompthimto expofethemto fale,)chancewillfur-niflabetterfubje&sthantheprince'schoice.In flaort,the methodof attainingto honoursthroughrichesinfpiresandcherilhesinduftry_,a thingextremelywantingin thiskindof government.

_9_,.ue.fl.5. The fifth queftionis, inwhatkindofgovernmentcenforsare neceffary. My anfwer is,that theyareneceffaryin a republic,wheretheprin-cipleof governmentisvirtue. Wemut_notimaginethat criminala&ionsonlyare deftruc"tiveofvirtue;it is deftroyedalfo by omiffions,bynegle&s,by acertaincoolnefsin theloveofourcountry,bybadex-amples,andby the ceedsof corruption. Whateverdoesnot openlyviolate,but elude,the laws; doesnot fubvert,but weaken,them; oughtto fall undertheenquiryandcorre&ionof the cenfors.

We arefurprifedatthepunifhmentof theAreopa-gite forkillinga fparrow,vchich,to efcapethe pur-fuitof ahawk,hadtaken fhelterinhis bofom. Sur-prifcdwe are, alfo, that an Areopagitefhouldput

_' FragmentstakenfromtheembafllesofCon_antinePorphyrogenitus."1"Repub.llb.8.

WefeethelazmefiofSpaioj_heteallpublicemploymentsaregivenaway.his

CHAP.I9. THE SPIR1T OF LAWS_ 91

hisfonto deathfor pullingouttheeyesof a littlebird. Butletusretie&,thattheque_ionheredoesnotrelatetoacriminalfentence,buttoajudgementconcerningmannersin a republicfoundedonman-_er$.

In monarchiestherefhou|dbe no cenfors:theformerare foundedon honour,andthe natureofhonouristohavethewholeworldforitscenfor. E-verymanwhofailsin thisarticleis fubje&to thereproachesevenoftholewhoarevoidofhonour.

Herethecenforswouldbefpoiltbytheverypeo-ple whomtheyoughtto corre&: theycouldnotprevailagainfl:the corruptionof a monarchy_tilecorruptionratherwouldbetooftrongagainftthem.

Henceit is obvious,that thereoughtto be nocenforsin defpoticgovernments."/heexampleofChinafeemsto derogatefrom thisrule: butwe/hallfee,in the courfeof thiswork,theparticularreafonsofthatin_itution.

BOOK VI.

CONSEO..UENCE$OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DIFFERENTGOVERNMENTSWITH RESPECT'TO THE SIMPLICITYOF CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAWS_ THE FORM OFJUDGEMENTS_ AND THE INFLICTING OF PUNISH-MENTS.

CHAP. I.OftheSimplicityofcivilLawsindifferentGovernments.

MONARCHIESdonotpermitoffogreatatim-plidty of lawsas defpoticgovernments:.for,inmonarchies,theremuftbe courtsof judicature:theremu_ givetheirdecifions: thedecifionsmuf_bepreferredandlearnt,that wemayjudgein the

fame

9z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogVI.

famemannerto-dayasyefterday,andthat the livesandpropertyof the citizensmay be as certainandfixtas the veryconfdtutionof the Rate.

In monarchies,theadminiftrationofjuffice,whichdecidesnotonlyinwhateverbelongsto lifeandpro-perty, but likewifetohonour,demandsveryfcrupu-lous enquiries. The delicacyof thejudgeincreafesin proportionto theincreafeof histruR, and0f theimportanceof theintereftsonwhichhedetermines.

We tour not thereforebe furprifcdto findfo ma-ny rules, reftri&ions,and extenfions,in thelawsofthole countries; rules that multiplythe pamcularcafes,and feemto makeof reafonitfelfanart.

The differenceof rank, birth, and condition,ef-tablithedin monarchicalgovernments,is frequentlyattendedwithdi[tin_ionsin the natureof property;andthe lawsrelativeto the conftitutionof thisgo-vernmentmay augmentthe numberof theredif-tin6tions. Hence, amongus, goodsare dividedinto realeRates,purchafes,dowries,paraphernalia,paternal and maternal inheritances;moveablesofdifferentkinds; cratesheldin fee-fimpleor in tail;acquiredby defcent or conveyance_allodial, orheldby foccage;ground-rents,or annuides. Eachfortot goods is fubje&to particularrules,whichtour be compliedwith in the difpofalof them.Therethings mut°cneedsdiminiththe fimplicityofthe laws.

In our governmentsthe fiefsare becomeheredi-tary. It wasneceffarythat thenobilityfnouldhaveu,t]xt property; that is, the fief fhouldhavea cer-tain confiftency; to the end that the proprietormightbe alwaysin a capacityof retyingthe prince.This mu_havebeenprodu&iveof great varieties:for inftance,there are countrieswhere fiefs couldnot be dividedamongthe brothers_ in others, the

younger

Ca^_._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 93youngerbrothersmaybe alloweda moregenerousfubfiftence.

The monarch,whoknowseachof hisprovinces,mayeff:ablilhdifferentlaws,or toleratedifferentcuf-toms. But, as thedefpoticprinceknowsnothing,and canattendto nothing,he muff:take generalmeafures,andgovernbya rigidandinflexiblewill_which,throughouthiswholedominions,producesthefameeffe&: in lhort,everythingbendsunderhisfeet.

In proportionas the decifionsof the courtsofjudicatureare multipliedin monarchies,thelawisloadedwithdecreesthat fometimescontradi&oneanother;eitherbecaufefucceedingjudgesareof adifferentwayof thinking,orbecautetheiamecaufesarefometimeswell,andatothertimesill, defended;or, in fine,by reafonof an infinitenumberof a-bufes,to whichall humanregulationsare liable.Thisisa neceffaryevil,whichtheleg!flatorredreffesfromtimeto time,as contraryevento thefpiritofmoderategovernmen:s: for,whenpeopleareobligedto haverecourl_to courtsofjudicature,thislhouldcomefromthe natureof theconftitution,andnotfromthecontradic"tionoruncertaintyofthelaw.

In governmentswherethereareneceffarydiff:ine-tionsof perfonstheremufflikewifebe privileges.This alfodiminilhesthe fimplicity,and createsathoufandexceptions,

Oneoftheprivilegeslealtburthenfometo fociety,andefpeciallytohimwhoconfersit, isthatof plead-ingmonecourtpreferablyto another. Here newdifficultiesarife,whenit becomesaqueRionbeforewhichcourtwelhallplead.

Fardifferentis thecareof the peopleunderdef-poticgovernments.In tholecountries'Icanfeeno-thing tha_the legiflatoris ableto 'ff'ecree,orthe

magiRrate

94 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVL

rnagifirateto judge. As the landsbelongto theprince, it followsthat therearc fcarceanycivillawsinregardto landedproperty.Fromtherightthe fovereignhas tofucceffionsit followslikewifethat thereare nonerelatingto inheritances.Themonopolies,eftablifhedbytheprinceforhimfelfinromecountries,renderall fortsofcommerciallawsquiteufelefs. Themarriages,whichtheyufuallycontra&withfemaleflares,arethecaufethattherearefcarceanycivillawsrelatingto dowries,ortotheparticularadvantageof marriedwomen.Fromthe prodigiousmultitudeof flavesit followslikewifethat thereareveryfewwhohaveanyfuchthingasawillof theirown,and of couffeare anfwerablefor theircondu&beforea judge. Moil:moralac-tions,that are only inconfequenceof afather's,ahufband's,or a maffer's,will, are regulatedbythem,andnotbythemagif'crates.

I forgotto obferve,that, aswhatwecallhonouris athinghardlyknownin tholecountries,the fe-veraldifficultiesrelatingto this article,thoughoffuchimportancewith us, are withthemquiteoutof thequeffion.Defpoticpoweris felf-fufficient:roundit thereis anabfolutevacuum. Henceit is,that, whentravellersfavouruswiththedefcriptionofcountrieswherearbitraryfwayprevails,they fel-doramakementionofcivillaws.*

All occafions,therefore,of wranglingandlaw-fuitsarehereremoved.Andtothis, in part, it isowingthat litigiouspeople,in tholecountries,arefo roughlyhandled: as theinjufticeof theirde-mandis neitherfcreened,palliated,norprote&ed,

I InMa_ulipatanitcouldneverhefoundoutthattherewasfucha thingasal_rittenlaw..SeetheColle_ionofVoyagesthatcontributedtotheeflabliflamentoftheIndiaCompany,tom.IV. part1.p.391. TheIndiansareregulatedintheirdecifionsby certaincnftoms.TheVedanandfuchlikeho_ksdonotcontaincivil]aw_,butreligiousprecepts.SesL_ttrued.it4. co11¢_.

by

C_^r.z.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 95

byan infinitenumberof laws,of couffeit is imme-diatelydifcovered.

CHAP. II.Of theSimplicityof criminalLawsindifferentGovern-

_ellls.

WEhearitgenerallylaid,thatjufticeoughttobeadminifteredwithusas inTurkey. Is i_ poltible,then,thatthemoil:ignorantofallnations/houldbethemoltclear-rightedina pointwhichit mol'cbe-hovesmankindto know?

If weexaminetheletformsof juftice,withre-fpec°cto the troublethefubjec"tundergoes,inreco_.veringhisproperty,orin obtainingtatisfa6tionforan injuryoraffront,we[hallfindthemdoubtlefstoonumerous: but, ifweconfidertheminthe re-lationtheybearto the libertyandfecurityof everyindividual,we [halloftenfind themtoofew,andbeconvincedthatthetrouble,expence,delays,andeventhe verydangers,of our judiciaryproceed-ings,arethepricethat eachfubje&paysforhisli-berty.

In Turkey,wherelittleregardis /hewnto thehonour,life,oreftate,of thefubjec't,allcaufesarefpeedilydecided.Themetlaodof determiningthemisa matterof indifference,providedtheybedear-mined. The bathaw,aftera quickhearing,orderswhichparty he pleafesto bebaftinadoed,andthenfendsthemabouttheirbufinefs.

Here it wouldbedangerousto beof a litigiousdifpofition:_ thisfuppofesaftrongdefireof obtain-mgjuftice,a fettledaverfion,an a&ivemind,anda fteadinet_in purfuingone'spoint. All thisflaouldbeavoidedin agovernmentwherefearoughtto betheonlyprevailingfcntiment,and in whichpopu-

lar

98 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, Boo_VI.

far diflurbaneesare frequentlyattendedwithfuddenandunforefeenrevolutions._Here everymanoughtto know that the magiftratemutt not hear hisnamementioned, and that his fecuritydependsen-tirelyonhis beingreducedto a kindof annihilation.

But, in moderategovernments,wherethe lifeofthe meaneftfubje&is deemedprecious,no man isfl-riptof hishonouror propertybut aftera longen-quiry_ and no man is bereft of lifetill his verycountryhasattackedhim; an attackthat is nevermadewithoutleavinghimall poffiblemeansof ma-king hisdefence.

Henceit is, that, whena perfon rendershimfelfabfolute*,he immediatelythinks of reducingthenumberof laws. In a governmentthusconftituted,theyaremoreaffe&edwithparticularinconveniencesthan withthe liberty of the fubje&,which is verylittleminded.

In republics,it is plain, that asmanyformalities,atleaft, areneceffaryasin monarchies. In bothgo-vernments,theyincreafein proportionto the valuewhichisfet onthe honour,fortune,liberty,andlife,of thefubje&.

In republicangovernments,men are all equal;equaltheyare, alfo,indefpoticgovernments: in theformer, becautetheyareeverything; in the latter,becaufetheyarenothing.

C H A P. III.

In whatGovernments,andin what Cafes,the _eudgesoughtto determineaccordingto theexprefsLetteroftheLaw.

THE nearerthe governmentapproachestowardsa republic,themorethemannerofjudgingbecomes

t C_efar_Cromwell,andma,yothers,fettled

C_AP,4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 97

fettledandfixt: henceit wasa fault, in the repubfieofSparta,for theEphoritopal'sfucharbitraryjudge-ments,withouthavinganylawstodire&them. ThefirflEconfuls,at Rome, pronouncedtentencein thethroemanneras the Ephori; but the inconveniencyof this proceedingwasloonfelt, andtheywereobli-gedto haverecourfetoexprefsanddeterminatelaws.

In defpoticgovernmentsthereare nolaws; thejudgehimfelfis hisown rule. There are lawsinmonarchies_ and,wheretheftareexplicit,thejudgeconformsto them; where they are otherwife,heendeavoursto invettigatetheirfpirit. In republics,the very nature of the conititutionrequires thejudgestofollowtheletterof thelaw; otherwife,thelawmightbeexplainedto the prejudiceof everyci-tizen, in cafeswheretheirhonour,property,or life,areconcerned.

At Rome,thejudgeshad nomoreto do than todeclarethat theperfonaccufedwasguiltyof a parti-cularcrime, and then the punifhmentwasfoundinthe laws,as maybe feenindiverslawsf[ill extant.InEngland,thejury givetheirverdi&,whetherthefa&, broughtunder theircognizance,be provedornot; if it be proved, thejudge pronouncesthe pu-niflamentinfli&edby the law, and for this he needsonlytoopenhis eyes.

CHAP. IV.

Of theMaturerof #a_nZ_'udgement.HENCE arifesthe differentmannerof p_fling

judgement. In monarchiesthe judges choot_themethod of arbitration: they deliberatetogether;they communicatetheir fentimentsfor the fakeofunanimity; theymoderatetheir opinions,in orderto renderthemconr%rmableto tholeof"others; and

Vor,.I, H the

9_ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogVI.

theIeffet:numberisobligedto givewayto the ma-3ority. But thisis notagreeableto thenatureof arepublic. At Rome,andinthecitiesof Greece,the "udgesneverenteredintoaconfultation; each,J . • .

gavehisoptmononeoftherethreeways; I abfolveI condemn; itdoesnotappearcleartom#: thiswasbe-caufethepeoplejudged,orwerefuppofedtojudge.Butthepeoplearefarfrombeingcivilians_ allthererettri&ionsand methodsof aroitrationareabovetheirreach; theymuffhaveonlyone object,andonetinglefa&,letbeforethem; andthentheyhaveonlytofeewhethertheyoughtto condemn,to ac-quit,or tofufpendtheirjudgement.

The Romansintroducedlet formsof a&ions-[,aftertheexampleof theGreeks,andeffablifhedarule,thateachcaufethouldbedire&edbyitspropera&ion. Thiswasneceffaryin theirmannerofjudg-ing; it wasnecefl'aryto fixtheffateofthequeftion,thatthe peoplemighthaveit alwaysbeforetheireyes: otherwife,in alongprocefs,thisffateofthequeflionwouldcontinuallychange,andbeno longerdiftinguilhed.

Henceit followed,thattheRomanjudgesgrant-edor,lythefimpledemand,withoutmakinganyad-dition,deduc"tion,or limitation.But theprwtorsdeviledotherformsofa&ions,whichwerecalledex"bonafide,wherethemethodofpronouncingfentencewasleftto thedifpofitionof thejudge. Thiswasmoreagreeableto thefpiritof monarchy.HenceitisafayingamongtheFrenchlawyers,that,inFrance_,alla_Tionsareax _o_Avm_.

* N_nllguet."__asalqi_nes,re po_ulusprout.vdletinflitueret,¢erta,folemnefqueeffe_dut-

runt.Lib._._§.6.Digefl.deOrig.Jur. - --InFrance,a per£on,thoughruedformorethanheowes,loreshiscoRsif

h_.ha_notofferedtopaytheexactdebt.

CHAP.

CHAP._. THE SPIRIT_OF LAWS. 99

CHAP. V.InwhatGovernmentsthe8overeignmaybe"Judge.MACHIAVEL§ attributesthelofsoftheliberty

ofFlorenceto thepeople'snotjudgingin a bodyincafesofhigh-treafonagainfithemfelves,aswascuf-tomaryat Rome. For thispurpofetheyhadeightjudges: butthefew,faysMachiavel,arecorruptedbyafew. I /houldwillinglyadoptthe maximof thisgreatman: butas, intholecafes,the politicalin-tereftprevails,inromemeafure,overthecivil,(forit isalwaysaninconveniencythatthe peoplelhouldbe judgesin theirowncaufe,)in orderto remedythisevil,the lawsmuffprovideasmuchaspoffiblefor thefecurityofindividuals.

•With this view,the Romanlegiflatorsdidtwothings; theygavetheperfonsaccufedpermiffiontobanilhthemfelvesl}beforefentencewaspronounced¶;andtheyordained,thatthegoodsoftholewhowerecondemnedfhouldbe facred,to preventtheirbeingconfifcatedto thepeople. Wehallfee,in theX[thbook,theotherlimitationsthatwereletto thejudi-catorypowerrefidinginthepeople.

Solonknewhowto preventtheabufewhichthepeoplemightmakeoftheirpowerincriminaljudge-ments. Heordained,that thecourtofAreopaguslhouldre-examinetheaffair; that, if theybelievedthepartyaccufedwasunjuftlyacquitted*,theythouldimpeachhimagainbeforethepeople; that, if theybelievedhimunjuRlycondemned+,theythouldpre-ventthe executionof thefentence,andmakethem

§ Difcourfeon thefirt_decadeofLivy,hook:h chap.7']]Thisiswelle_plainedinCiccro'sorationproC_ecina,towardstheend.

Thiswasa lawat Athenb as appearsby DemoRhenes.Socratesrefaf_tomakeufeofit.* DemoRhenes/_rocorona,p.494, edit.Frankf.an.*604."l",SeePhdoRratus'sLivesofthe5ophifls,bookz. Lifeof ,t]gfeh_

H z re-

1oo THE, SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVI.

re-judge the proceeding. An admirablelaw, thatfubjed._cdthe peopleto the cenfureof the magiffracywhichtheymoltrevered,andevento theirown!

In aft=airsof this kind,it is alwaysproperto throwin romedelays,efpeciallywhenthepartyaccufedisunder confinement;to theend that th.epeoplemaygrowcalm, andgivetheirjudgementcoolly.

In defpoticgovernments,the princehimfelfmaybe judge: but in monarchiesthiscannotbe; theconftitutionby fuchmeanswouldb6fubverted,andthe dependentintermediatepowersannihilated; allt_t formsof judgementwould ceafe; fear wouldtake poffeffionof thepeople'sminds,and palenefs.fpreaditfelfovereverycountenance: the morecon-fidence,honour, affe&ion,and fecurity,in the fub-je&, the moreextendedisthe powerof the monarch.

We thallgive herea fewmoreretie&ionson thispoint. In monarchies,the princeis the party thatprofecutesthe perfonaccutkd,and caufeshim to bepunifhedor acquitted; now, werehe himfelfto fituponthe trial, he wouldbe bothjudgeand party.

In thisgovernmentthepr}ncet:asfrequentlythebe-nefitofconfifcation; fothathereagain,bydeterminingcriminalcaufes,he wouldbe bothjudgeandparty.

Farther, by thismethod, hewoulddeprivehim-fell of the molt glorious-attributeof fovereignty,namely,that of grantingpardon_; for it wouldbequiteridiculousof himtomakeandunmakehisdeci-fions:furely,hewouldnotchocfetocontradi&himfelf.

Betides,this wouldbe confoundingall ideas; itwouldbe impoflqb!eto tellwhethera man wasac-quittedor receivedhispardon.

LewisXIII. beingdefirousto fit injudgementup-on thetrialof thedukeaelaUalette% fontfor rome

Plato doe_not think it right ',hat kizgs, wb% as he lays, a,¢ priefls,/houlapr'_fide_a's _ holepeepcaarec_ndemncd t_,dcath, to exile, or imprifonment,,4

-_ Seefne rel_t.;n cf ti,e ,ri¢lof theduJaedr la Val_tte. It is printed in theMr..-rmn'_v' a_.l_rtr_,'_v,tom, ti, p 6a.. members

CH^P.5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. loz

membersof theparliamentandof the privy-councilto debatethe matter. Upon theirbeingorderedbytheking togivetheiropinionconcerningthe warrantfor hisarret[_,the prefidentdeBe#evrelaid, " That" he foundit veryttrangea princethould palsfen-" tenceupona fiabjee_t: thatkings hadreferredto" themfelvesthe powerof pardoning,and left that" of condemningto theirofficers: thathis m_eity'"' wanted to fee before him at the bara perfon," who,by his decifion,wasto be hurriedawayinto" the other world: that the prince'scountenance" fhouldinl'pirewithhopes,and notconfoundwith" fears: that his pref=ncealoneremovedecclefia[tic" cenfures: andthat fubje&soughtnot to goaway" diffatisfiedfromthe fovereign." When leniencewaspafli:d,thefamemagi[Iratedeclared," This is" an unprecedentedjudgement; to fee, contraryto" the exampleof pall ages, a king of France, in" the qualityof ajudge, condemninga gentleman" to death_."

Again, fentencespaffedbytheprincewouldbeaninexhauftiblefourceof injutticeandabufe; the cour-tiers, bytheirimportunity,wouldalwaysbe able_oextorth_sdeclfions. SomeRoman emperorswerefomadasto fitasjudgesthemf_:lves;theconfequencewas, thatno reignseverfo thrprizedthe worldwithoppreffionand injuffice.

" Claudius,_faysTackusII,)havingappropriated" to himfelf the determinationof lawfuirsandthe" fund'tionof magifl:rates,gaveoccafiontoallmanner" of rapine." But Nero, upon comingto the em-pire afterClaudius,enJeavouredto concilia:ethemindsof the people,by declaring," _Ihathewould" takecarenotto bejudge himfelfinprivatecaufes,

It wasafterwardsrevoked. See the famerelation.[[ Annal. hb. _x.

1] 3 " that

_o2 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogVI°

" thatthepartiesmightnotbeexpofed,withinthe" wallsofa pahce, to theiniquitousinfluenceofa" fewfreedmen§."

" Underthereignof Arcadius,(laysZozimus¶,)" afwarmofcahJmniatorsfpreadthemfelvesoneve-" ryfide,andinfe&edthecourt. Uponapeffon's" deceafe,it wasimmediatelyfuppofedhehadleft" nochildren*; and, in confequenceof this,his" propertywasgivenawaybya refcript.For,as" theprincewasfurprizinglyftupid,andthe em-" prefsexcef/ivelyenterprizing,/he was a flareto" them_/_tiableavariceof her domefficsandconfi-" dents; infomuch,that,to anhoneftman,nothing" couldbemoredefirablethandeath."

" Formerly,(laysProcopius%) thereufedto be" veryfewpeopleatcourt; but,inJuff_inian'sreign," asthe judgeshadnolongerthelibertyof admi-" nifferingjuffice, their tribunalsweredeferted," whiletheprince'spalacerefoundedwiththeliti-,' giousclamoursof the feveralparties." Everybodyknowswhata proftitutiontherewasof publicjudgements,andevenof theverylawsthemfelves,at theemperor'scourt.

Thelawsaretheeyeof theprince; bythemhefeeswhatwouldotherwifeefcapehis obfervation.Shouldheattemptthefun&ionofajudge,he wouldnot then labourfor.himfelf,but for impoftors,wholeaimistodeceivehim.

C H A P. VI._hat,inMonarchies,Miniflersoughtnottoflt as_'udges.

IT is, likewife,a verygreatinconveniency,inmonarchies,for theminiftersof theprinceto fitas

_ Annal.lib.13. litHill.llb.5.ThefamedLfo_d=happenedunderTheodofiustheyoongero•]. Se_¢tHi_ory.

judges.

CnAe.?. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. io$judges.Wehavef_illinflancesofftateswherethereisagreatnumberofjudgestodecideexchequercau-fes,andwherethe minifters,neverthelefs,(athingmoil:incredible,)wouldfaindeterminethem. Ma-nyaretheretie&ionsthatherearife; butthistingleonewillfufliceformypurpofe.

Thereis, in theverynatureof things,akindofcontrat'¢betweena prince'scouncilandhiscourtsofjudicature.The king'scounciloughtto becorn-poledofa fewperfons,andthecourtsofjudicatureof agreatmany.Thereafonis,intheformer,things/houldbeundertakenandcondu&edwithakindofwarmthandpaffion,whichcan hardlybe expe&edbutfromfourorfivemenwhomakeittheirfolebu-finefs.On thecontrary,in courtsof judicature,acertaincoolnefsis requifite,andan indifference,inromemeafure,to allmannerofaffairs.

CHAP. VII.

OfatingleMagiflrate.A magiftracyof thiskind cannottakeplacebut

in adefpoticgovernment.We haveaninftance,intheRomanhiftory,howfara tinglemagiftratemayabufehispower. Mightit notbeverywellexpe&-ed that.4ppius,on histribunal,thouldcontemnalllaws,afterhavingviolatedthatofhisown:_ena&ing?Livyhasgivenus the iniquitousdiftin&ionof thedecemvir.Hehadfuborneda manto reclaimVir-ginia,in hisprefence,ashisflare: Virginia'srela-tionsinfifted,that, by virtueof hisownlaw,thethouldbecontignedto themtiUthedefinitivejudge-mentwaspaired.Uponwhich,hedeclared,thathislawhadbeenenactedonlyinfavourof thefather

Seethe2dlaw_§ z4, frodeOrig._*r,

H 4 and

_e+ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVI.

and that, as Virginiuswasabfent,noapplicationcouldbemadeofittoti_epreffntcati:II.

C H A P. VIII.Of_ccufalionin differentGavernmeJ_ts.

AT Rome§ itwaslawfulforonecitizentoaceufeanother: thiswasagreeableto thefpiritofarepub-lic, whereeachcitizenoughtto havean unlimitedzealfor thepublicgood,andisfuppofedtoholdalltherightsof hiscountryin hisownhands. Undertheemperorstherepublicanmaximswerefrillpur-£ued_ar.dinftanttyappeareda pernicioustribe,afwarmofinformers.Craftywickedmen,wlaocouldit_opto anyindignityto fervethe purportsoftheirambition,wereRireto bul_¢themfelvesinthe fearchof criminalswholecondemnationmightbeagreea-ble to theprince: thiswastheroadto honourandpreferment_ : bu_luckilyweareRrangersto it inourcountry.

We haveat prefentan admirablelaw,namely,thatby whichtheprince,whoise_ablifhedfortheexecutionof thelaws,appointsan officerin eachcourtofjudicaturetoprofecuteallfortsofcrimesinhisname: hencetheprofeffionofinformersisathingunknownto us; for,if thispublicavengerwererut;pe&edto abufehisoffice,hewould£oonbeobligedromentionh'sauthor.

ByPlato'slaws*, tholewhonegle&to informoraffiftthemagiftratesareliableto punifhment.Thiswouldnot be fo properinourdays. The publicprofecutorwatchesfor the fafetyofthecitizens; heproceedsinhisofficewhiletheyenjoytheirquietandeafe.

I] Q_odpaterpuellmabefi'er_loeuminjuri_eefferatus. Livlnt_Dec.I. llb.3'§ Andm _ereatmanyothercities.

bee_inTacRtls_therewardsgiventotho/einfoimers.Lib.9.

CHAP.

CHAP.9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS; _o5

CHAP. IX.

Of theSeverityofPun_mentsindiEere3ztGovernments.

THE feverityof puniflnmentsis fitterfor defpoticgovernments,-_.hofeprincipleis terror, than for am.onarchyor a republic,wholelpring is honourandvirtue.

In moderategovernments,the loveof one'scoun-try, fhame, andthe fear of blame,are rettrainiogmotIves,capable of prevelJtinga multitude ofcrimes. Here the greaterpunifhmentof a badac-tion isconvi&ion. The civil laws have, therefore,a fofterwayofcorre&ing,anddonotrequirefomuchforceand£everity.

In tholettates, a goodlegiflatoris lefsbentuponpuniflaing,thanpreventing,crimes; he is moreat-tentiveto infpiregoodmoralsthanto inflictpenalties.

Ir is a conf_antremarkof the Chinefeauthors+,that, the morethepenallawswereincreafedintheirempire, thenearerthey drewtowardsa revolution.This is becaufepunifhmentswereaugmentedin pro-portionasthe publicmoralswerecorrupted.

It wouldbe an eafymatterto prove, that, inall,Oralmof'call, the governmentsofEurope, penaltieshave increafedor diminifhedinproportionas tholegovernmentsfavouredor difcouragedliberty.

In defpoticgovernments,peopleare fo unhappya_tohavea greaterdreadofdeaththanregretforthelotsof life; confequently,their punilhmentsoughtto be morerevere. In moderateRates,theyaremoreafraidof lofingtheirlivesthan apprehenfiveof thepainof dying; tholepunithments,therefore,whichdeprivethemfimplyof life, are fufficienr.

t I/hall/hewhereafterthatChinais_inthisreCpt_jinthefamecarea_aire_ublicoramonarchy,

Io6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BootVL

Men,in excelsofhappinefsor mifery,areequal-ly inclinabletofeverity; wimefsconquerorsandmonks. It is mediocrityalone,and a mixtureofprofperousandadverfefortune,that infpireuswithlenityandpity.

Whatwefee pra&ifedbyindividualsis equallyobfervableinregardto nations.In countriesinha-bitedbyravages,wholeadaveryhardlife, and indefpoticgovernments,wherethereis onlyoneper-fononwhomfortunelaviflxsherfavours,whilethemiferablefubje&slieexpofedto herinfults,peopleare equallycruel. Lenityreignsin moderatego-vernments.

When,in readinghiftory,weobfervethe crueltyof the fultansin the adminifirationof juf'dce,wethudderat theverythoughtof themiferiesofhumannature.

In moderategovernments,agoodlegiflatormaymakeufeofeverythingbywayof punithment,lsit notveryextraordinary,that oneof thechiefpe-nalties,atSparta,wastodepriveaperfonof thepow-eroflendingouthiswife,orof receivingthewifeofanotherman,andto obligehimtohavenocom-panyat homebutvirgins? Inthort,whateverthelawcallsapunilhment,isfucheffe&ively.

CHAP. X.Of theancientFrenchLaws.

IN theancientFrenchlawswefindthetruefpiritof monarchy.Incafesrelatingto pecuniarymul&s,the commonpeopleare lefsfeverelypunithedthanthenobilityJ_:butincriminalIIcafesit isquitethe

Suppofe_foi in_ance_to preventtheexecutionofa decree,thecommonpeoplepaida fineoffortyfous,andthenobilityoffixtylivres.8ow.meRurale,book2.p,_9g. edit.Got.oftheyearx51z.

IISeetheCouncilofFcterD_ontain_s_chap.x3. efpeciallythezzdart.reverfe;

CuA_.Iz.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, 1o7reverfe; thenoblemanlofeshishonourandhisvoicein court,whilethe peafant,whohasnohonourtolore,undergoesa corporalpuniflament.

CHAP. XI.

_hat,whenPeoplearevirtuous,few FunifhmentsareneceJary.

THE peopleof Romehadrome/bareofprobity.Suchwasthe forceof thisprobity,thatthelegifla-torhadfrequentlynofartheroccafionthanto pointoutthe rightroad,andtheywerelure to followit.One wouldimagine,that, infteadof precepts,itwasfufficientto givethemcounfels.

Thepuni/hmentsof the regallaws,andtholeofthetwelvetables,werealmoftall abolifhedinthetimeof the republic,in confequenceeitherof theValerian§ orofthePordanlaw._ It wasneverob-fervedthatthisi_epdidanymannerof prejudicetotheciviladminiftration.

This Valerianlaw,whichre_rainedthe magif-tratesfromufingviolentmethodsagainftacitizenthathadappealedto the people,infli&edno otherpuniflamentontheperfonwhoinfringedit thanthatof beingreputedadithonefcman.*

CHAP. XII.

OfthePowerofPunijhments.EXPERIENCE/hews,that, in countriesre-

markableforthelenityof theirlaws,the fpiri_of§ It wasmadebyValeriusPublltolafo0naftertheexpulfionofthekings,and

was twicerenewed,bothtimesbymagif_ratesofthefamefamily,asLivyob-ferves,lib._o. thequefl:ionwasnot togiveit a greaterforce,butto renderitsinjunCT.ionsmorepeffeC_; diligemiusfauEtum,laysLivy,ibid.

Lex Portia_rot_rgoci,u*umlata. It was madein the4$4th yearof th_foundationof Rome._Vihilultra_uamim_OrobefMtumadjetit.Liv.

the

so8 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVI°

the inhabitantsis as Muchaffc&ed,by flight pe-nalties, as in other countries by feverer pumlh-merits.

If an inconveniencyor abufearifesin the ftate,a violentgovernmentendeavoursIhddenlyto re-drefsit ; and, inl_eadof putting the old lawsinexecution, it efiabliflles£ome cruel punifhment,whichinltantty puts a i_op to the evil. But the.t-pringof governmentherebyloresitselatticity; theImaginationgrowsaccuitomedto the revereaswellas the milder punilhment;and, as the fearo[ thelatter diminithes,they are loon obliged,in everycare, to haverecourfeto theformer. ]tobberiesonthe high-wayweregrowncommonin romecountries.In orderto remedythis evil, theyinventedthepu-nilhmentof breakinguponthewheel; the terrorofwhich put a ftop, for a while,to this mii'chievouspractice: but, loonafter, robberieson tile high-waysbecameascommonasever.

Defertion,inour days, wasgrownto averygreatheight: in confequenceof whichit wasjudged pro-per to puniththot_delinquentswithdeath; andyettheir numberdid notdiminith. The reafonis verynatural: a foldier,accufl:omedto venture his life,defpifes,or affectsto defpite,the dangerof lofingit : he is habkuatedto the fear of lhame: :t wouldhave been, therefore,much better to have conti-nued a punifhment-l-_vhichbrandedhim with in-Famyfor life: the penaltywaspretendedto be in-creared,whileit reallydiminilhed.

Mankindmuff:not be governedwith toomuch£everity: we ought to makea prudentufe of themeans whichnaturehasgivenus to condu&thc_m.If we enquireinto the ci_ufeof all humancorrup-tions, we thallfind thatthey proceedfromthe im-

i _ They fiit his nofc,or cut offhls ears,

punity

Caxr.lz. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. i_

: punityof criminals,and not f;-omthe moderationofpunilhments.

Let us follownature,who has given lhametomanfor hisfcourge; and let theheavieftpartof thepunilhmentbe the infamyattendingit.

i But, if thereberomecountrieswhere[hameis nota confequenceof puniff,ment, this muff:beowingto

" tyranny,which has infli&edthe famepenaltiesonvillainsand honeftmen.

And, if thereareothers wheremenare deterredi only by cruel punithments,we may be fure thati" this muff:,in a great meafure,afire from the vio-i lence of the government,whichhasufedluciape-

naltiesfor flighttranfgreffions.;It often happens,thata legiflator,defirousof re-

medyingan abufe, thinks of nothingelfe: hiseyesi are openonly to this objeCt,and [hut to its incon-

veniences. When the abufe is redreffed,you fee• onlythefeverityof thelegiflator: yet thereremains

an evil in the if:ate,that has fprungfrom this re-: verity; the mindsof the peopleare corruptedand: becomehabituatedto defpotifm.

Lyfander_ havingobtaineda vic"toryover theAthenians,the prifonerswereorderedtobe tried, inconfequenceof an accut_tion,broughtagain_ thatnation, of havingthrownall the captivesof twogalleysdown a precipice,and of havingrefolved,in fullaffembly,tocut offthe handsof tholewhomtheyfhouldchance to makeprifoners. The Athe-nianswerethereforeallmaffac;'ed,except./ldymantes,whohadoppofedthisdecree. Lyfanderreproached_Pbilocles,before he was put todeath, with havingdepravedthe people'sminds,and given leffonsofcrueltytoall Greece.

Xenoph.Hi.'1. llb. 3''_ '_The

it6 THE 8PIR][T OF LAirS. BooKVi.

" TheArgives(laysPlutarchH) havingputfit'-" teenhundredoftheircitizensto death,theAthe-" niansorderedfacrificesofexpiation_thatit might•' pleafethe gods to turntheheartsof the Athe-" niansfromfocruela thought."

Therearetwofortsofcorruption; onewhenthepeopledonotobfervethelaws;theotherwhentheyarecorruptedby thela_s: an incurableevil,be-_caufeit isintheveryremedyitfelf.

C H A P. XIII.Infu_ciencyof theLawsof _ea#an.

EXCESSIVEpunifhmentsmayevencorruptadefpoticgovernment:of thiswehaveaninfianceinjapan.

Herealmoftallcrimesarepunithedwithdeath,§becaufedifobedienceto fogreatanemperoras thatof Japanis reckonedan enormouscrime, Thequeffionis not fo muchto corre&the delinquent,asto vindicatethe authorityof theprince. Therenotionsarederivedfromfervitude,andareowingefpeciallyto this,that,as the emperorisuniverfalproprietor,almoftallcrimesaredire&lyagainfthisinterefts.

Theypunifhwithdeathliesfpokea.beforethemagifcrate¶ ; a proceedingcontraryto naturalde-fence.

Eventhingswhichhavenottheappearanceofacrimearefeverelypuni/hed: forinftancc,a manthatventureshismoneyatplayisputtodeath.

True it is, that the chara&erof thispeople,foamazinglyobffinate,capricious,andrefolute,as to

_ Morals,oftkofe_vboareintrufled,'a.,hhthedire_ionoftheflate.affalts.SeeKempfer._[ Colle&*onof Voyage_that contributedtothe ¢flabliflimentoftheEali-

JndiaCompanyjtom.3"P'4zS.defy

CaAr.l3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. ixtdefyall dangersand calamities,feemsto abfolvetheirlegiflatorsfromtheimputationofcruelty,not-withflandingthe feverityof theirlaws. But aremen,whohavea naturalcontemptof death,andwhoripopentheirbeUiesfor theleaftfancy; arefuchmen, I fay,mendedor deterred,or ratheraretheynothardened,bythecontinualprofpe&ofpunilhments?

The relationsof travellersinformus, with re-fpe&to the educationof the Japanefe,that chil-dren muffbe treatedtherewithmildnefs,becaufetheybecomehardenedto punifhment; thattheirflaresmut'cnot be tooroughlyufed,becaufetheyimmediatelyflandupontheirdefence.Wouldnotoneimaginethattheymighteafilyhavejudgedofthefpirit,whichoughtto reignintheirpoliticalandcivilgovernment,fromthatwhichthouldprevailintheirdomeflicconcerns?

A wife]egiflatorwouldhaveendeavouredto re-,claimpeoplebya jufttemperatureof punifhmentsand rewards; by maximsof philofophy,morality,andreligion,adaptedto tholechara&ers; bya pro-perapplicationof therulesof honour; andbytheenjoymentof eafeand tranquillityof life: and,flaouldhe haveentertainedany apprehenfionthattheirminds,beinginured.tothe crueltyof punifh-ments,wouldnolongerbe reffrainedby tholeofamildernature,hewouldhaveconductedhimfelf* inanothermanner,andgainedhispointbydegrees:in particularcafes,thatadmittedofanyindulgence,he wouldhavemitigatedthe punifhment,till hePnouldhavebeenableto extendthismitigationto allcafes.

* Let this beobferved,as a maximin prac"dce,with regardto cafe_wherethemindsof peoplehavobeendepraved_bytoogreata £everityofpunaPaments.

But

l_z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoozVL

But thefeare fpringsto whichdefpoticpowerisa ffranger: it mayabufeitJ_lf,andthatisallit cando. InJapanit hasmadeitsutmol_effort,andhasfurpaffedevenitfelfincruelty.

Asthemindsof thepeoplegrewwildandintra&-able,theywereobligedto haverecourfetothemo_horridfeverity.

Thisis theorigin,thisthefpirit,of the lawsofJapan. Theyhadmorefury,however,thanforce.They fucceededin theextirpationofChriffianky:but fuchunaccountableeffortsare aproofof theirinfufficiency.Theywantedto eftablilhagoodpo-lity, and they haveflaewngreatermarksof theirweaknefs.

Wehaveonlytoreadtherelationof theinterviewbetweentheemperorandthedeyroatMeaca.t Thenumberof tholewhowerefuffocatedor murderedin that cityby ruffiansis incredible:youngmaidsand boyswerecarriedoffbyforce,andfoundaf-terwardsexpofedin publicplaces,at unfeafonablehours,quitenaked,andfewedinlinenbags,to pre-venttheirknowingwhichwaytheyhadpaffed;rob-berieswerecommittedin allparts; the belliesofhorfeswererippedopen,to bringtheirridersto theground; and coacheswereoverturned,in ordertoRrip the ladies. TheDutch,whoweretoldtheycouldnotpafsthenightontFiefcaffoldswithoutex-poringthemfelvesto the dangerof beingaffaffina-ted, camedown,&c.

I flaallheregiveoneinffancemorefrom"thefamenation. Theemperor,havingabandonedhimfelftoinfamouspleafures,livedunmarried,and wascon-

, fequentlyin dangerof dyingwithoutiffue. The' dcyrolenthimtwobeautifuldamfels_ onehe mar-

-]-Cc_]l_&ionof Voyagesthat contributedto thee_abllfhmemof theEalt-I_diaCompany_tom.5, P,z.

' iie_

_nAP. x_. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Iz5

riedoutofrefpe&,butwouldnotmeddlewithher.Hisnurfecaufed,thefineftwomenoftheempiretobelentfor; but all tonopurpofe.At length,anarmourer'sdaughterhavingpleafedhis fancy,_ihedeterminedto efpoul_her,andhada fon. Thela-diesbelongingto court,enragedto feeaperfonoffuchmeanextra&ionpreferredto themfelves,fl:ifledthechild. The crimewasconcealedfromtheem-peror; for he wouldhavedelugedtheiandwithblood. The'excefllvefever@of thelawshinders,therefore,theirexecution:whenthe punifhmentfurpaffesallmeafure,theyarefrequentlyobliged_oprefer_impunityto it.

C H A P.XIV.

Oftt_eSpiritoftheRomanSenate.

UNDERthe confulateof AciliusGlabrioandPifofhe_lcilianlaw[1wasmade,to preventthein-triguingforplaces. Diolays,§ thatthefenateen-gagedthe confulsto propofeit, by reafonthatC.Cornelius,the tribune,hadrefolvedto caufemorereverepunithmentsto be eftablifhedagainfithiscrime; towhichthepeoplefeemedgreatlyinclined.Thefenaterightlyjudged,that immoderatepunifh-meritswouldftrike indeeda terrorinto people'sminds,_but muffhavealfothis effec"t,that therewouldbenobodyafterwardsto accufeorcondemn;whereas,by propofingmoderatepenalties,thereWotildbe alwaysjudgesandaccufers.

_ Ibld.Theguiltywerecondemnedtoa fine_ theycouldnotbeadmittedintothe

rankoffenatorsjnornominatedtoan_"publicoffice,Dio_book_6,§ Book36.

¥oL.i. I CHAP.

tl 4 THE SPIRI_P OF LAWS. BcogVI.

C H A P., XV.

Of theRomanLawsinRefpe_toPuni.flaments.

I amftronglyconfirmedinmyfentiments,uponfindingthe Romanson myfide;andI thinkthatpunifhmentsareconne&edwiththenatureof go-vernment,whenI beholdthisgreatpeoplechanging,in thisrefpe&,their civillaws,in proportionastheyalteredtheirformofgovernment.

The regallawsmadefor fugitives,flares,andvagabonds,wereveryrevere. Thefpiritof a re-publicwouldhaverequiredthat the decemvirs/houldnot haveinfertedtholelawsintheirtwelvetables; but menwhoaimedat tyrannywerefarfromconformingto a republicanfpirit.

Livylays,_[inrelationtothe punifhmentofMe-tiusSuffetius,di&atorofAlba,(whowascondemn-dd, byTulliusHoftilius,to befattenedto twocha-riotsdrawnbyhorfes,andto be tornafunder,)thatthiswasthefirfi and1aftpun,thmentinwhichtheremembranceofhumanityl_emedto havebeenloft.He is mifcaken: thetwelvetablesarefullof verycruellaws.*

Thedefignof the decemvirsappearsmorecon-fpicuousin the capitalpunifhmentpror/ouni:eda-gainf_libellersandpoets. "]"hisis notagreeabletothe geniusof a republic,wherethepeopleliketoIcethegreatmenhumbled.:butperfonswhoaimedat thefubverfionof libertywereafraidof writingsthatmightreviveitsfpirit-}-

_TLib.1._' We findtherethe pun_/hmentof firejandgenerallycapitalptmithments)

theftF_niffiedwithdeath,&c."[ Eylla,animatedwith the famef_irltas the decemviT_,followedtheirex-

_mp_e_in augmca:ingthepenallawsagain_fat,vricalwritten.After

C_/av.z_.THeESPIRIT OF LAWS. I1_Aftertheexpulfionof thedecemvirs,almo_all

thepenallawswereabolifhed.It istrue, theywerenot exprefslyrepealed; but, asthePorcianlawhad

: ordainedthatnocitizenof Romefhouldbeput to: death,theywereofnofartherufe.:, Thisisexactlythetimeto whichwemayreferwhat

Livyfays_ oftheRomans,thatnopeoplewereever: fonderofmoderationinpunifhments.

But,if, tothelenityofthepenallaws,weaddtherightwhichthepartyaccufedhadof withdrawingbeforejudgementwaspronounced,we/hallfindthactheRomansfollowedthefpiritwhichI haveobfervedtobenaturaltoa republic.

Sylla,whoconfoundedtyranny,anarchy,andIt-,betty,madetheCornelianlaws. He feemedto havecontrivedregulationsmerelywitha viewto createnewcrimes. Thus,diftingui/hi'ngan infinitenum-ber of a&ionsby the nameof murder,he foundmurderersinallparts; and,by a pra&icebut toomuchfollowed,he laidfnares,lowedthorns,andopenedprecipices,wherefoeverthecitizensfet theirfeet.

Almof'callSyUa'slawscontainedonlytheinterdic-tionoffireandwater. TothisCmfaraddedthecon-

i fifcationofgoods*,becaufethe rich,by prefervingtheireffatesinexile,becamebolderintheperpetra-

! tionofcrimes.The emperors,havingeftablilheda militarygo-

vernment,loonfoundthat it wasasterribleto theprinceastothefubjegt; theyendeavoured,therefore,to temperit ; and withthisviewhadrecourfetodignities,andto therefpe&withwhichtholedigni-tieswereattended.

Bookz.* P_-nasfadnoram auxltj cumlocupletesco fa¢iliusfccl_r¢_ obligarent_911o,t

iategris patrimonii_exulareat. ,_uet.in _Ful.Ccefare,

i z

lt6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_VI.

Thegovernmentthusdrewnearera littletomo-narchy,and punii_mentsweredividedintothreeclaffes"l"; tholewhichrelatedtotheprincipalpeffonsinthefl:ate_,whichwereverymild;tholewhichwereinfli_edonperfonsof an inferiorrank 1],andwhichweremorerevere; and,infine,fuchascon-cerned6nlyperfonsoftheloweI_condition§, whichwerethemoffrigorous.

Maximinus,thatfierce,thatftupid,prince,increa-fedtherigourofthe militarygovernmentwhichheOughttohavefoftened.The fenatewasinformed,_faysCapitolinus4, that/omehad beencrucified,_othersexpofedto wildbears,orfewedup in the/kinsof beaffslatelykilled,withoutanymannerofregardtotheirdignity. Itfeemedasifhewantedtoexercifethemilitarydifcipline,onthemodelof"whichhepretendedtoreguqatetheciviladminiffration.

IntheConfiderationsontheRifeandDeclenflonofthe__omanGrandeur,we findin whatmannerConffan-tine changedthe militarydefpotifmintoa militaryandcivilgovernment,anddrewnearerto monarchy.Therewe maytracethedifferentrevolutionsofthisftate,andfeehowtheyfellfromrigourto indolence,andfromindolencetoimpunity.

CHAP. XVI.OfthejuflProportionbetwixtPuni/hmentsandCrimes.

IT isaneffentialpoint,thattherelhouldbea cer-tainproportioninpuniihments,becaufeitiseffentialthatagreatcrimefhouldbe avoidedratherthanafinaller,andthatwhichis moreperniciousto focietyratherthanthatwhichislefs.

"1"S_e the _d law, §. le_isad leg. Cornel. de flcarils_and a vail numberofothers in the Digettandinthe Codex.

_ Subhmiores. UMedio_.ln£mo%leg. 3" §. leglsad leg. Cornel. de/karli:°Jul.Cain.Maxirninidu_."

Cn^P.x6. THE _PIRIT OF LAWS. i17" Animpoftore,whocalledhimfelfConfhntine

" Ducas,raileda greatinfurre&ionat Conftantino-" ple. Hewastakenandcondemnedto bewhipt;" but, uponinformingagainltfeveralperfonsof" dif_inc'tion,hewasfentencedto beburntasa ca+" lumniator."It is veryextraordinarythat theyfhouldthusproportionthepunifhmentsbetwixtthecrimeofhigh-treafonandthatofcalumny.

Thisputsmein mindof a layingofCharlesILking of Great-Britain.He fawaman,oneday',ltandingin thepillory; uponwhich,heatkedwhatcrimethe manhadcommitted.Hewasanfwered,Fleafeyourmajefly,behaswrittena libelagainflyour,nini[ters.if'befool! laidthe king, whydidnotbewriteagainfl,me? theywouldbaredonenothingtobira.

" Seventyperfonshavingconfpiredagainftthe" emperorBafilt,heorderedthemtobewhipt,and" the hair of theirheadsandbeardsto be burnt." At_ag,oneday,havingtakenholdofhimbythet' girdlewithhishorn,oneof hisretinuedrewhis" fword,cutthegirdle,andfaredhim;uponwhich,_' he orderedthatperfon'sheadto be cut off,for" having,faidbe,drawnhisfwordagainfthisfore-" reign." Whocould.imaginethatthefameprincecouldeverhavepairedtwofuchdifferentjudgements?

It isa greatabufeamongf_us tocondemnto thefamepunilhmentaperfonthatonlyrobsonthehigh-way,andanotherwhorobsandmurders.Surely,for the publicfecurity,romedifferencelhouldbemadeinthepunifhment.

In China,tholewhoaddmurderto robberyarecut in pieces_; butnotfotheothers: to thisdil2ferenceit is owing,that,thoughtheyrobia thatcountry,theynevermurder.

Hill ofNieephorus,patriarchofCoaf_antin_le.InNicephorus'shiflory.

_.Dahalde,tom.i. p.6.

I 3 In

178 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooxVI.

In ,Ruffia,wherethe puniflamentof robberyandmurderis the fame,they alwaysmurdertl. Thedead,faythey,tellnotales.

Wherethereisnodifferencein thepenalty,there!houldbe romein theexpe&ationof pardon. InEnglandtheynevermurderonthehighway,becauferobbershaveromehopesof tranfportation,whichisnotthecareinrefpe&totholethatcommitmurder.

Lettersof graceareof excellentufein moderategovernments.Thispowerwhichtheprincehasofpardoning,exercifedwith prudence,is capableofproducingadmirableeffe&s.Theprincipleof def-poticgovernment,whichneithergrantsnorreceivesany"pardon,deprivesitof thefeadvantages.

C H A P. X¥II.OftheRack.

THE wickednefsof mankindmakesit neceffaryforthelawsto fuppofethembetterthantheyreallyare. Hencethedepofitionof two wimeffesisfuffi-cientinthepuniflamentofallcrimes. The lawbe-lievesthem,asif theyfpokebythemouthof truth,Thuswejudgethateverychildconceivedin wed-lockislegitimate; thelawhavingaconfidenceinthemother,asiflhewerechaftityitfelf. Buttheufeoftherackagainf'ccriminalscannotbedefendedonalikepleaot neceltity.

Wehavebeforeustheexampleofanation,bleffedwithanexcellentcivilgovernment§, where,withoutanyinconveniency,thepra&iceof rackingcriminalsIs rejected.It is not, therefore,in itsownnature,._eceffary¶.

• So][ Prefent_ateofRuffia_byPerry.

TheI/ngli/h._The eitizen_ofAthenscouldnot heputtotherack(Lyfl_J,oraz.i_Ago-

raz,) u_lefsit wasforh_gh-trealbn.The torturesca_uledwithinthirtydayt• after

CHA._oJ9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, ,l9

Somanymenof!earningandgeniushavewrittenagainftthecuftomoftorturingcriminals,thatafterthemI durftnotprethmeto meddlewiththefubjec"t.I wasgoingto fay,thatit mightfuitdefpoticRates,_here_hateverinfpiresfearisthepropereftfpringofgovernment; I wasgoingto fay,that theflavesamongtheGreeksandRomans Butnaturecriesoutaloud,andaffertsherrights.

C H A P. XVIII.Ofpecuniaryandcorpora]Punifkraents.

OURanceftors,theGermans,admittedof nonebutpecuniarypunifhments.Tholefreeandwarlikepeoplewereofopinion,thattheirbloodoughtnottobefpiltbut withfwordin hand. On thecontr_.ry,therepunilhmentsarereje&edbytheJapanefe*,un-derpretencethat the rich mighteludethem. Butarenottherichafraidof beingftrippedoftheirpro-perty? .Andmightnotpecuniarypenaltiesbe pro-portionedtopeople'sfortunes? And,infine,mightnotinfamybeaddedto tholepuniflaments?

A goodlegiflatortakesajufl;medium; heordains_neitheralwayspecuniary,nor alwayscorporal,pu-niflaments.

C H A P. XIX.

Of theLaw of Retaliation.THE ufe of the lawof retaliationtisveryfre-

quentindefpoticcountries,wheretheyarefondofaftercondemnation.(Cur/usFortunatus,Rhetor.SchoLlib.z.) Therewasnopreparatorytorture. In regardtothe Roman,,the 3dand4thlawadleg._ul.=ajefl..flmw,that birth,dignity,and the militaryprofeflion_exemptedpeoplefromtherack,exceptincafesof hzgh-treafon.Seethe_udentre_i,Stiomofthispra&,cemadebythelawsoftheVJfigoths.

* SeeKempfer."t"It is eflab)ilhedinthe Koran. Seethechapteroftl_ cow.

I 4 _ fimple

_zo THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVL,

fimplelaws. Moderategovernmentsadmitof itfometimes; butwiththisdifference,thattheformerexercifeit infullrigour,whereas,amongthelatter,it everreceivesfomekindoflimitation.

The tawofthetwelvetablesadmittedtwo; firff,it nevercondemnedtoretaliationbutwhentheplain-tiffcouldnotbefatisfiedinanyothermanner_ : fe-condly,aftercondemnationtheymightpaydamagesandintereffll,and then thecorporalwaschangedintoapecuniarypuniihment§.

CHAP. XX.

OJ the Puni./braentof Fathersfor tbeCrimesof theirChildren.INChina,fathersarepunifhedfor the crimesof

theirchildren.Thiswaslikewifethecuftomof Pe-ru,; acuftomderivedfromthe notionof defpoticpower.

Littledoesit fignifyto fay,that, in China,thefatheris punilhedfornothavingexertedthatpater-nal authoritywhichnaturehaseftablilhedand thetawsthemfelveshaveimproved.Thisfrillfuppofesthat thereis no honouramongthe Chinefe.A-mongftus, parents,whofechildrenare condemnedby thelawsof theircountry,andchildren*,wholeparentshaveundergonethelikefate,are as fevere-ly puniPaedby fhame,astheywouldbe, in China,bythe!orsoftheirlives.

Simembrumrapit_nicure¢opacit_tal!oeffo. /lul. Gelliu_llb.zo.c. r,_tSeeKempfer.

SeealfothelawoftheVifigoths_book6. tit. 4' §. 3'and5-._"SeeGarcila2_o, hff_oryofthecivilwarsof theSpaniards.• Infleadofpanffhingthem.laysPlato,theyoul_htto becommendedfornot

h.avjngfollowedtheirfather'sexample, Boo_9. ofLabor.

CHAP.

Cm_r,Zh THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. xzl

CHAP. XXI.Of theClemencyof the_rince.

CLEMENCY is the chara&eriflicof monarchs.In republics,wholeprincipleis virtue, it is not foneceffary.In defpoticgovernments,wherefearpre-dominates, it is lefs cuflomary,becaufe the greatmenare to bereflrainedbyexamplesof feverity. Icis moreneceffaryin monarchies,wherethey arego-vernedby honour,which frequentlyrequireswhattheverylawforbids. Difgraceis hereequivalenttochaflifement; andeventhe formsof juf_iceare pu-nilhments. This is becaufeparticularkinds of pe-nalty are formed by thame, which on every fideinvadesthedelinquent.

The greatmen,in monarchies,arefo heavilypu-nifhedby difgrace,bythe lofs (thoughoftenimagi-nary) of their fortune, credit, acquaintances,andpleafures,that rigour, in refpe&to them, is need-let_: it can tendonlyto divefl the fubje&of theaffe&ionhe hasfor the perfonof his prince,and ofthe refpe&he oughtto havefor publicpoflsandem-ployments.

As the inflabilityof the great is naturalto a def-poticgovernment,fotheirfecurityis interwovenwiththe natureof monarchy.

S0manyare the advantageswhichmonarchsgainbyclemency,fogreatlydoes it raifetheir fameandendearthem to their fubje&s, that it is generallyhappyfor themtohavean opportunityof difplayingit i which,in thispartoftheworld,is feldomwant-ing.

Some branch, perhaps,of their authority,butneverhardlythe whole,will be difputed: and, ifthey fometimesfight for their crown,theydo not.fightfor theirlife."

But

lzz THE SPtRI.T OF LAWS. BooxVIL

But fomemayark, Whenis it properto punitb,and when topardon? m Thisis a pointeafierfeltthanprefcribed. When thereis dangerin theex-ercifeof clemency,it is vifible: nothingfo eafyasto.difcinguifhit fromthat imbecillitywhichexpofespnncesto contemptand to the veryincapacityofpuni_ing.

The emperorMaurice_-made a refolutionneverto fpillthebloodof his fubjec'_s. Anaffafius_ pu-nilhed no crimes at all._ IfaacAngelus took anoath, thatno onemould be,putto deathduringhisreign. TholeGreek emperorshad forgot that itwas not fornothing they wereintruffedwith thefword.

B O O K VII.

CON_EO_ENCES OF THE DIFFERENT PRINCIPLES OFTHE THREE GOVERNMENTS: WITH RESPECT TOSUMPTUARY LAWS_ LUXURY, AND THE CONDITIONOF WOMEN.

CHAP. I.

Of Luxury.

LUXURY is everin proportionto theinequalityof fortunes. If the richesof a Rateareequallydi-vided, there will be no luxury; for it is foundedmerelyon'theinconveniencesacquiredbythe labourof Others.

In order to have this equal diftributionof riches,the law ought to give to eachman onlywhatis ne-ceffaryfor nature. If they exceedtherebounds,

afE_agr.hi/LFragmentaofSuidat_inConflant.Por_h2rog,

rome

x

C_^v.x. THE SPIRIT OF LAW_. _¢5

fomewillfpend, andotherswillacquire; by whichmeansan inequalitywillbeeftablitlaed.

Supporingwhat is neceffaryfor the fupportofnature to beequal to a givenrum, the luxuryofthofewhohaveonlywhatis barelyneceffarywill beequalto a typber: if a perfonhappens,tohavedou-ble that rum, his luxury will be equalto one: hethat hasdoublethe:latter'sfubflancewillhavea lux-ury equal to three: if this be Rill doubled,_herewillbe a luxuryequal to feven: fo that the pro-pertyof the fubfequentindividualbeingalwaysfup-poleddouble to zhat of thepreceding,theluxurywill increafedouble, andan unit willbe alwaysad-ded, in this progreffion,o, I, 3, 7, _5, 3_, 63,I2 7.

In Plato'srepublic11luxurymighthavebeenex-a&lycalculated. There werefour fortsof cenfufes,or ratesof eRates. The firR wasexa&lythe termbeyondpoverty; the fecondwasdouble_ thethirdtriple; the fourth quadrupleto the firft. In the_rt_cenfus luxurywas equal to a _ber; in thefecond,to one; in the third, to two; in the£ourth_to three; and thus it followedin an arithmeticalproportion.

,Confideringthe luxuryof differentnationswithrefpe&to oneanother,it is, ineachRate_Jna com-poundproportiontO the inequalityof :fortunesa-mong the fubje&s,and to the inequalityof wealthin differentRates. In Poland, for example,thereis an extremeinequalityof fortunes: but thepo-verty of the whole hindersthem from havingfo_muchluxuryas ina moreopulentgovernment.

Luxuryis alfo inproportionto the populoufnel_of thetowns,and efpeciallyof the capital; fo that

UThefirf_cenfoswasthehereditaryfharein land; andPlatowouldnotal-lowthemtohavejmotherefl_e"tsjabovea tripleof the hereditarythare. ,_tbisLaws,book5"

it:

tz¢ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVIL

it is in a compoundproportionto the richesof theRate, to the inequalityof privatefortunes,and tothenumberof peoplefettledinparticularplaces.

In proportionto the populoufnefsof towns,theinhabitantsarefilledwithnotionsof vanity, andac-tuated by an ambitionof diffinguitlaingthemfelvesby trifles§. If they areverynumerous,and moi_of them ftrangersto one another,theirvanityre-doubles,becaufetherearegreaterhopesof fuccefs.As luxury infpirestheft hopes,eachmanaffumesthemarksof a fuperiorcondition: but, byendea-vouringthusat diffin&ion,everyonebecomesequal,and diftin&ionceafes; as allare defirousof refpe6t,nobodyis regarded.

Hencearifesa generalinconvenience.Tholewhoexcel in a profeffionlet whatvalue they pleafeontheirlabour: this exampleis followedbypeopleofinferiorabilities; and thenthereisan endof all pro-portionbetweenour wantsandthe meansof fatisfy-ing them. When I am forcedto go to law,I muffbe able to fee council: when I am tick, I muffhaveit in mypowerto fee a phyfician.

It is theopinionof feveral,that theaffemblingfogreata multitudeof peoplein capitalcitiesis an ob-ftru&ionto commerce,becaufethe inhabitan:tsarenolongerat a properdit_ancefromeachother: butI cannotthink fo; formenhavemoredefires,morewants,morefancies,whentheylivetogether.

§ Inlargeandpopulou*¢ities_fsys theauthoroft/beFableof theBeet_tom.I.P-97, theywearcloathsabovetheirrank_and_confequelltly_havethepteafureof beinge_eemed_by avat_majorityt notaswhattheyare,butwhattheyappearto be._ Theyhavethefatlsfa_inntoimaginethat theyappearwhattheywouldhei which,toweakminds,isa pleafureslmoftas fubltaatialas they¢otaldreapfromtheverya¢_ompli_meatoftheirwillaes.

CHAP.

CsaP.z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. xz5

CHAP. II.

OffumptuaryLawsina Democrag.

WE haveobferved,that,in a republicwhererichesare equallydivided,therecanbe no fuchthingasluxury; and,aswehavelhewn,in the5thbook,¶ that thisequaldiftributionconftitutestheexcellencyofarepublicangovernment,henceitfol-lows,that,thelefsluxurythereisin arepublic,themoreit isperle&. TherewasnoneamongtheoldRomans,noneamongtheLacedmmonians_and,inrepublicswherethis equalityisnotquiteloft, thefpiritof commerce,induftry,andvirtue, renderseverymanableandwillingto liveonhisownpro-perty, and confequentlypreventsthe growthofluxury.

Thelawsconcerningthe newdivifionof lands,infifteduponfo eagerlyin romerepublics,wereofthemoftfalutarynature. Theyaredangerousonlyasth_:yarefubitaneous.By reducinginftantlytheweakhof rome,andincreafingthatofothers,theyformarevolutionineachfamily,andmuftproduceageneraloneintheftate.

In proportionas luxurygainsgroundina repub-lic, themindsofthepeopleareturnedtowardstheirparticularinterefts.Thole,whoareallowedonlywhatisneceffary,havenothingbuttheirownrepu-tationandtheircountry'sgloryinview: buta lbuIdepravedby luxuryhas manyother defires,andloonbecomesanenemyto thelawsthatconfineit.Theluxuryin whichthegarrifonof Rhegiobegantolivewasthecaufeoftheirmaffacringtheinhabitants.

NofoonerweretheRomanscorruptedthantheirdefiresbecameboundlefsandimmenfi:.Of thiswe

Chap.4.,rid5'may

rz6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoorVII.

mayjudge by the pricetheyfet on things. Apitcherof Falernianwine* wasfoldfora hundredRomandenarii; a barreloffahmeatfromtheking-domofPontuscoil:fourhundred; agoodcook/'ourtalents; and, forboys,nopricewasreckonedtoogreat. Whenthe wholeworld,impelledby theforceof corruption,is immerfedin voluptuoufnefs,-["whatmuffthenbecomeofvirtue?

C H A P. III.

Offumptuar2tLawsin a_t.4riflocracy.THEREisthisinconvenienceinanill-conflituted

ariffocracy,thatthe wealthcentersinthenobility,andyettheyarenotallowedto fpend';for, aslux-ury iscontraryto thefpiritof moderation,it muffbebanifhedfromthence, q-hisgovernmentcom-prehends,therefore,onlypeoplewhoareextremelypoor, and cannotacquire; andpeoplewhoarevaftlyrich,andcannotfpend.

InVenicetheyarecompelledbythelawsto mo-deration.Theyarefohabituatedto patrimony,thatnonebutcourtezanscanmakethempartwiththeirmoney. Suchis themethodmadeufeof for thefupportof induftry: the moltcontemptibleofwo-men may be profufewithoutdanger,whitfttholewhocontributeto theirextravaganceconfumetheirdaysin thegreateftobfcurity.

Admirable,in thisrefpe&,weretheinfdtutionsoftheprincipalrepublicsof Greece. Therichem-ployedtheir moneyin feftivals,muficalchorufes,chariots,horfe-races,andchargeableoffices,Wealthwasthereforeas burthenfomethereaspoverty.

**Fragmentofthe36thbookofDiodorus,quotedbyConff.Porphyrogen.|zhis extra_ o3c_vlrtuesand_vices.

"l"Cure maxlmu_omaium impetusa,.llaxtJriameffet. Ibid.

CHAF.

CnA_.4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. ,z7

CHAP. IV.OffumptuaryLawsina ,Monarchy.

TACITUS e_fays, " That theSuiones,aGer=

" mannation,hay a particularrefpe&forriches;" for whichreafontheyliveunderthegovernment" ofoneperfon." This /hewsthatluxuryis ex-tremelyproperfor monarchies,andthatunderthisgovernmenttheremuf_benofumptuarylaws.

As riches,bytheveryconftitutionofmonarchies,areunequallydivided,thereis aa abfolutenecef-fityforluxury. Weretherichnotto belavi/h,thepoorwouldftarve. It is evenneceffaryherethattheexpencesoftheopulentfhouldbein proportionto the inequalityof fortunes,and thatluxury,aswehavealreadyobferved,/houldincreafein thisproportion. The augmentationof privatewealthis owingto its havingdeprivedonepartof theciti-zensoftheirneceffaryfupport; thismufftheretbreberet%oredto them.

Henceit is, that,forthe prefervationof a mo-narchicalftate,luxuryoughtcontinuallytoincreafe,and to growmoreextenfive,asit riftsfromthela-bourerto theartificer,tothemerchant,to the ma-git_rate,tothenobility,to thegreatofficersofftate,upto the veryprince; otherwifethenationwillbeuiadone.

In thereignofAuguftusa propofalwasmadeintheRomanfenate,whichwascompofedof gravemagiftrates,learnedcivilians,and of men whole ""headswerefilledwiththe notionof the primitivetimes,to reformthemannersandluxuryofwomen.It is curiousto fee,in Dio,llwith whatart thisprinceeludedtheimportunatefollicitationsofthole

Demorib.German, IIDioCafliusI lib, 54"fefla'.ors.

:z$ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVI[.

fenators.Thiswasbecaufehewasfoundinga too-narchy,anddiffolvinga republic.

UnderTiberius,the a:dilespropofed,in thefe-nate, there-eRabli/hmentof theancientfumptuarylaws.§ This prince,who didnotwantfenfe,op-poledit. " TheRate(faidhe)couldnot poftibly" fubfifl:in the prefentfituationof things. How" couldRome, howcouldthe provinces,live?" We werefrugalwhilewewereonlymaRersof" onecity: nowweconfumethe richesof the•' wholeglobe,and employboth themarkersand•' theirflaresinourfervice."He plainlyfawthatfumptuarylawswouldnotfuittheprefentformofgovernment.

Whena propofalwasmade,underthefameem-peror,to thefenate,to prohibitthegovernorsfromcarryingtheirwiveswiththemintothe provinces,becaufeof the diffolutenefsandirregularitywhichfollowedthofeladies,the propofalwasreje&ed.Itwaslaid," that the examplesof ancientauRerity" hadbeenchangedintoamoreagreeablemethod•' of living."¶ They foundtherewasa neceftityfordifferentmanners.

Luxuryis thereforeabfolutelyneceffaryin mo-narchies; asit isalfoindefpoticRates. In thefor-mer, it is theufeofliberty; in thelatter,it is theabufeof fervitucle.A flave,appointedbyhismaf-ter to tyrannizeoverotherwretchesofthefamecon-dition,uncertainof enjoying,to-morrow,the bier-tingsof to-day,hasnootherfelicitythan thatofgluttingthe pride,the paflions,and voluptuoufonefs,oftheprefentmoment.

Hencearifesa verynaturalreflexion.Republicsendwithluxuryi monarchieswithpoverty.*

§ Tacit.Annal.lib.:_.q[MultaduritL'iveterummelluset lm,_iusmutata.'Tacit.A(nnal.lib._.

• op_l_nti_Writ_atoo,eS_,e_.V_or_,,lib._. CHAP.

C_,Ap.5. TI_E SPigIT OF LAW_ 1,9

CHAP. V.

In whatCafesfimptuaryLawsareufefu_in a MoaBaYch_.

WHETHER it wasfrom a republicanfpirit,or fromromeotherparticularcircumftance,lump_tuarylawsweremadein Arragon,in themiddleofthe thirteenthcentury. JamestheFirftordained,thatneithertheking, noranyofhisfubje&s,/houldhaveabovetwo fortsof dilhesata meal,andthateachdi/h/houldbedreffedonlyoneway,exceptitweregameoftheirownkilling.J-

InourdaysfumptuarylawshavebeenalfoenactedinSweden; butwitha differentviewfromtholeofArragon.

A governmentmaymakeft_mptuarylawswithaviewto abfolutefrugality. This is the fpiricoffumptuarylawsinrepublics; andtheverynatureofthe thing/hewsthatfuchwasthedefignoftholeofArragon.

Sumptuarylawsmaylikewifebeeftablifhedwitha defignto promotea relativefrugality.Whenggovernment,perceivingthatforelgnmerchandizes,being.attoohigha price,willrequirefuchan ex;portauonofhomemanufactures,asto deprivethemofmoreadvantages,by thelofsof the latter,than_theycanreceivefromthe poffcflionof theformer,theywillforbidtheirbeingintroduced:a'ndthis i_the fpiritofthelawswhichin ourdayshavebeer,paffedin Sweden.1: Sucharethe fumptuarylaw_properformonar/:hies.

"1"ConftitutionofJamesI. in the year,z34, a_rticle6, ia MarcaHifpan_ca',p. ,4z9.

Theyhaveprohibitedrichwinesandothercofllymerchandizesl

VoL.I. K Ia

x3o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS: B0oKVII,Ingenera],thepoorera/}ate,themoreit is.ruined

by its relativeluxury, andconfequentlythe moreoccafionit has for relativefumptuarylaws. Therichera /}ate,the moreit thrivesby its relativeluxury; forwhichreafon,it mufftake particular

.carenottomakeanyrelative£umptuarylaws. Thisweihallbetterexplainin the bookoncommerce*;herewetreatonlyofabfoluteluxury.

CHAP. VI.

OftheLuxuryofChina.SUMPTUARYlawsmay,in romegovernments,

be neceffary,for particularreafons.The people,by the influenceof the climate,maygrowfo nu-merous,andthemeansof fubfiffingmaybe foun-certain,asto renderanuniveffalapplicationtoagri-cultureextremelyneceffary.As luxury,in tholecountries,isdangerous,theirfumptuarylaws/houldbe very revere. In order,therefore,to beabletojudge whetherluxuryoughtto be encouragedorprofcribed,wethouldexamine,firft,whatrelationthereis betweenthenumberofpeopleandthe faci-litytheyhaveofprocuringfubfi/}ence.In England,thefoilproducesmoregrainthanisnece_aryforthemaintenanceof£uchascultivatetheland,andoftholewho are employedin the woollenmanufa&ures.Thiscountrymaybethereforeallowedto haverometriflingarts,andconfequentlyluxury. In France,tikewife,thereiscornenoughforthefupportofthehu/bandmanand of the manufa&urer.Betides,aforeigntrademaybringin fomanyneceffaries,in_eturnfor toys,thatthereisnodangerto beappre-hendedfromluxury.

_'Seebook20. chai,,zo. Ou

CHAI..6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _3I

On thecontrary,in China,thewomenarefopro-lific, and"the humanfpeciesmultipliesfo fa_, thatthe lands, though never fo much cultivated, arefcarcelyfufficientto fupportthe inhabitants. Here,therefore,luxury is pernicious,andthe fpiritof in-duftryandceconomyisasrequifiteasinanyrepublic*.Theyareobligedto purfuethe neceffaryarts, andtothun tholeof luxuryand pleafure.

This is the fpirit of the excellentdecreesof theChinefeemperors. " Our ancet_ors(laysan empe-*t:rorof the familyof the Tangsrl')held it as alit:maxim,that, if therewasa manwhodidnotwork,licor a womanthat wasidle, fomebodymuff £uffer" coldor hungerin theempire." Andonthisprin-ciplehe ordereda vaf'cnumberof the monafteriesofbonzesto be deftroyed.

The third emperorof the one-and.twentiethdy-nafty_, towhomfomepreciousttoneswerebroughtthat'had beenfound.ina mine, orderedit to be fhutup, not choofingto fatiguehispeoplewithworkingfor a thingthatcouldneitherfeednorclothethem.

" So great is our luxury, laysKiayventitl,that" peopleadornwith embroiderythe [hoes of boyslit:

and.girlswhomtheyare.obhged',to fell." Io-em-ploymgfomanypeoplemmaking cloaths for oneperfonthe-wayto preventa great manyfrom want-ingcloaths? There areten menwhoeat the fruitsof the earthto one employedin agriculture; andis thisthe meanstopreti:rvenumbersfromwantingnourifhment?

# Luxuryhasbeenherealwaysprohibited.-_ InanordinaneequotedbyfatherDuHalde,torn._. p.497"

Hif_oryofChina,zxf_dynat_:yinfatherDuHalde'sworlcjtom.X_Ina difcoarfecitedbyfatherDuHalde_tom.z. l_,4z$.

K a CHAP,

_3z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVH.

CHAP. VII.

FatalC:nfequencesofLuxuryinChina.IN thehifforyofChina,wefindit hashadtwenty-

twofucceffivedynaf'ties;that is, it hasexperiencedtwenty-twogeneral,withoutmentioningaprodigiousnumberof"particular,revolutions."/'hethreefirftdynaftiesfarteda longtime,becaufetheywerewifelyadminiffered,andtheempirehad not fo greatanextentasit afterwardsobtained.But we mayob-reeve,in general,thatall tholedynaf_iesbeganverywell. Virtue,attention,andvigilance,areneceffa-ry in China;thereprevailedin the commencementofthedynaxqiesandfailedin theend. It wasnatu-ral, thatemperors,trainedup in militarytoil,whohad compaffedthedethroningofafamilyimmerfedinpleafure,thouldadhereto virtue,whichtheyhadfoundfoadvantageous,andbeafraidofvoluptuouf-hers,whichtheyknewhadprovedfofatalto thefa-milydethroned.But, afterthe threeor fourfirfl:princes,corruption,luxury,indolence,andpleafure,poffeffedtheirfucceffors; theyfllutthemfelvesupina palace_theirunderftandingwasimpaired; theirlifewasfhortened; thefamilydeclined; the gran-deesrofeup; theeunuchsgainedcredit; nonebutchildrenwerefetonthethrone; the palacewasatvariancewiththe empire; alazyletofpeople,thatdwelledthere,ruinedtheinduftrious.partofthena-tion; the emperorwaskilledor deftroyedbyanufurper,whofoundeda family,thethirdorfourthfuccefforofwhichwentandfhuthimfelfup intheveryfamepalace.

CHAP.

CsAP.9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 133

CHAP. VllI.

OfpublicContinency.SOmanyare the imperfe&ionsthatattendthe

lofsof virtuein women,andfogreatlyaretheirmindsdepravedwhenthisprincipalguardis remo-ved, that, in a popularftate,publicincontinencymaybeconfideredasthelaftofmiferies,andasacer-tainfore-runnerofa changeintheconftitution.

Henceit isthatthe ragelegiflatorsofrepublican/'fateshaveeverrequiredofwomenaparticulargra-vity of manners.They haveprofcribednot onlyvice,buttheveryappearanceofit. Theyhaveba-nifhedevenallcommerceofgallantry; acommercethatprodu(esidlenefs,thatrendersthe womencor-ruptersevenbeforetheyarecorrupted,thatgivesavalueto trifles,anddebafesthingsof importanceacommerce,infine,thatmakespeoplea&entirelybythemaximsofridiculerin whichthe womenarefoperfe&lyfkilled.

CHAP. IX.OftheConditionorStateof I¢.romenin differentGo.

vernment_. I

IN monarchieswomenarefubje&to verylittlere-t_raint;becaufe,asthedifiin&ionof rankscallsthemto court,theretheyaffumeafpiritof liberty,whichisalmofttheonlyonetoleratedin thatplace. Eachcourtieravailshimfelfo£theircharmsand patfions,inordertoadvancehisfortune: and,astheirweak-nefsadmitsnotofpride,butof vanity,luxurycon-ftantlyattendsthem.

Indefpoticgovernments,womendonotintroduce,butarethemfelvesanobje&of, luxury.Theymuff:beinattateof the mofltrigorousfervitude.Every

K 3 one

134 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_VIL

onefollowsthefpiritofthegovernment,andadoptsin hisownfamilythecuftomshe feeselfewhereeffa-blilhed. As the lawsareveryrevereandexecutedonthefpot, theyareafraidleftthelibertyof womenthouldexpofethemto danger. Theirquarrels,in-difcretions,repugnances,jealoufies,piques,andthatart,in fine,whichlittletbulshaveofintereftinggreatones,wouldbeattendedrheiewithfatalconfequences.

Betides,as princes,in tholecountries,makeafportofhumannature,theyallowthemfelvesa mul-titudeofwomen; anda thoufandconfiderationso-bligethemtokeeptholewomeninclofeconfinement.

In republicswomenarefree bythe laws,andre-_rainedbymanners; luxuryisbanilhedfromthence,andwithit corruptionandvice.

In thecitiesof Greece,wheretheywerenotun-dertherefirai_tof areligion,whichdeclares,that,evenamongftmen,regularity/)fmannersisa partof virtue; wherea bend paffiontriumphedwithaboundlefsinfolence,and loveappearedonly in athapewhichwedarenot mention,whilemarriagewasconfideredas nothingmorethanfimp!efriend-t 1alp%fuchwasthevirtue,fimplicity,andchat_ity,ofwomen,intholecities,that,in thisrefpe&,hard-lYanypeoplewereeverknownto havehada betterandwiferpolity"l-.

CHAP. X.

OfthedomeflicTribunalamongtheRomans.THE Romanshadnoparticularmagiftrates,llke

theGreeks,toinfpe&theconduc"tofwomen.The

In refpec"ttotruelove_faysPlutarch,thewomenhavenothingto faytoit,Inhis_'reatifeofLo,ve_p. 6Go. Hefpokein the fiyleot his time. See Xeno-phon, inthe dia]ogueint*tiedHicro.

afAt Athenstherewasa l_a_tit_l.armagi/_ratewhoinft_ec"tedthe condu_of_omen.

cenfor$

CHAP.IO, THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. i35

cenforshadnotaneyeoverthembutasoverthereftoftherepfiblic.Theinftitutionof thedomeftictri-bunal§ fupptiedthe magiftracyeftablifhedamongtheGreeks11.

The huibandfummonedthewife'srelations,andtriedherin theirprefence5" This tribunalprefer-red the mannersof therepublic,and,atthefametime,tholevery mannersmaintainedthistribunal.Forit decidednotonlyin refpe&to theviolationofthelaws,but alfoof manners:now,in order tojudgeofthe violationofthe latter,mannersarere-quifite.

Thepenaltiesinfli&edby this tribunaloughttobe, andacCtuallywere,arbitrary: forallthatrelatesto manners,andto therulesof modefty,canhardlybe comprifed underonecodeoflaws. It iseafy,in-deed,to regulatebylawswhatweoweto others,butit isverydifficulttocomprifeallweoweto ourfelves.

The domel_ictribunalinfpe&edthe generalcon-du&of women.Buttherewasonecrime,which,betidethe animadverfionof thistribunal,waslike-wifetubje&to apublicaccufation: thiswasadultery:whetherthat,inarepublic,fogreatadepravationofmannersintereftedthegovernment; orwhetherthewife'simmoralitymight renderthe hutband'sfufope&ed; orwhether,in fine,they wereafraidleft:

§ Romulusia_itutedthistribunal,as appearsfrom DionytlusHalicarnaff.book2. p,96.

[[See,inLivy,book_q. theufethatwasmadeofthlstribunalat thetimeoftheconfpiracyof theBacchanalians.Theygavethenameof confpiracyagaing¢therepublictoaffembliesin whichthemoralsof womenandyoungpeopleweredebauched.

It _ppears,fromDionyf.Hallcarn.lib.o. that Romulus'sinfiitutionwin,that, inordinarycafes,thehuPoand/houldfitas_ndgeintheprefenceofthewife'srelations,buttfiat, inheinouscrimes,he flaoulddetermineinconjun_ionwithfiveofthem. HenceUl_ian,tit,6. §. 9"x:. _ I3. diftingui/hes,inrefpec"ttothedifferentjudgementsofmann=rs,betweentholewhichh¢ callsimportanb andtholewhicha_elefsfoi graviores_le_iores.

K 4 eveni

136 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVIL

eyen hone_peoplemightchoofethat this crimemouldratherbeconcealedthanpuni/hed.

CHAP. XI.

InwhatMannertheInflitutionschangedat Rometoge.tberzvitbtheGovernmant.

ASmannerswerefuppofedbythedomeftictribu-nal,theywerealfofuppofedbythe publicaccufa-tion: andhenceit isthattheretwothingsfelltoge-therwiththe publ!cmanners,and ended withtherepublic*.

Thee_ablilhingof perpetualqueffions,thatis,the divifionof jurifdi&ionamongtheprmtors,andthe CuRom,graduallyintroduced,of'the prmtorsdeterminingall caufesthemfelves% weakenedtherifeof thedomeltictribunal. This appearsbythe_urprizeofhift9rians,wholookuponthedecifions,whichTiberiuscaufedto begivenbythis tribunal,as fingu!arfa&s, andas a renewalof the ancientCourfeof pleading.

Theet_ablifhmentof monarchyandthechangeof mannersput,likewife,an endto publicaccufa-tions. It mightbe apprehended,lel_a difhonefl:man,affrontedat theflight/hewnhimbya woman,vexedat her refufal:andirritatedevenbyhervir-tue, fl4ouldforma defignto def_royher. The _'u-lianlawordained,thata woman/houldnotbeaccu-fedofadulterytillafterherhuPoandhadbeenchar-gedwithfavouringherirregularities; whichlimitedgreatly,and annihilated,as it were,thisfortofac-cufation$.

*__udiciodem,ribu*(_tuodanteaguldeminantlguislegi_u,pofltumerat,nonau-_emfre_uentabatur)penitu,abolito_leg. tI. Cod.derepud." t ffuds'ciaextraordmaria.

It wasentirelyaboli/hedbyConffantine.a It isa/hame,faidhe, thatfet-_cfledmarriageslhouldbedifturbedbytheprefumptioaoIfirangers."

Sixtus

CflA_.s3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z37SixtusQuintusfeemedto havebeendefirousof

revivingthepublicaccufationII. Butthereneedsve-rylittleretie&ionto t_ethatthislawwouldbemoreimproperinfuchamonarch),ashisthaninanyother.

C H A P, XII,Of theGuardian ofl¢TomenamongtheRomans.

THE Romanlawsfubje&edwomento a perpe-

tualguardianfhip_excepttheywereundercoverandfubje&tOtheauthorityof a hu/band*.Thisguar-dianfhipwasgivento thenearefl:of the malerela-tions; and,byavulgarexpreffiont,itappearsthey

• wereverymuchconfined. This wasproperfor arepublic,butnotat allneceffaryina monarchy,.

ThatthewomenamongtheancientGermanswere

likewifeunderaperpetualtutelage,appearsfromthedifferentcodesofthelawsofthebarbarians§. This

i cuftomwascommunicatedto themonarchiesfound-edbythofepeople,butwasnotofalongduration.?: C H A P. XII[.

Ofthe Puni.[bmentsdecreedbyEmperorsagainIt theIn-continencyof I47omen.

THE _ulianlawordaineda punilhmentagaint_adultery. Butfo far wasthis law,anymorethantholeafterwardsmadeonthefameaccount,frombe-inga markof regularityof manners,that,on tilecontrary,it wasaproofoftheirdepravation.

I1$1xtusQ,Eintusorclained,that, ifa hufbanddidnotcomearielmakehiscorn-, plainttohimofhiswife'sinfidelityjhe _ouldbeputto death, SeeLeti.

N_ eowoen_entinmanuremlri,4FNeff mibipatruusoro.

ThePapianlawordained,underAugaf_us,thatwomenwhohadbor_ thfe_ehi}dren/houldbeexemptfromthis tutelage.' _ "Thistutelagewas_bI¢theGermaasjcalledMundeburdiura° The

I38 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVILThewholepoliticalfyf_em,inregardto women,

receiveda changein the monarchicalftate. Thequeftionwasnolongerto obligethemtoaregularityofmanners,but to punilhtheircrimes.Thatnewlawsweremadeto puniththeircrimeswasowingtotheirleavingtholetranfgreffionsunpuni/hedwhichwerenotoftb criminala nature.

"Ihefrightfuldiffolutionofmannersobliged,in-deed,the emperorsto ena&laws,in orderto put£omeftop to lewdnefs; but it wasnottheirinten-tion to eftablifha generalreformation.Of this,the pofitivefactsrelatedby hiftoriansare a mucht"trongerproofthan all therelawscanbe of thecontrary. Wemayfee,in Z)io,the condu&ofAu-guftusonthisoccafion,andin whatmannerhe elu-ded, bothinhispra:torian,andcenforianoffice,therepeatedinftancesthatweremadehim§forthatpur-pole.

It is true, thatwefind,in hi_orians,very rigidfentences,paffedinthe reignsof Augu_usandTi-berius,again_thelewAnefsof romeRomanladies.But, by /hewingus the fpiritof tholereigns,atthefametime,theydemont_ratethe fpiritof tholedecifions.

The principaldefignof AuguffusandTiberiuswasto punifllthe diffolutenefsof theirrelations.It wasnot theirimmoralitytheypunilhed,buta

§ Upon theirbringingbeforehima youngmanwhohadmarrieda womanwithwhomhehadbeforecarriedonan illicit ¢ommeree_he hefitateda longwhile,notdaringtoapprovecr topunifhtherethings. At length,reeolle£tinglaimfelf,fedltians,lays he,ba_ebentheeaufe_f _erygreate_itJ; let ,_forgetthem.Dio_book54" The fenatehavingdefiredhim to givethemromeregula-tionsinrefpe_towomensmora/s_he evadedtheirpetitionbytellingthem, thattheyflaouldehaffifetheirwivesin thefamemanneras hedidhis : uponwhich,they defiredhimtotell themhowhe behavedto hiswife. (I think, a veryin-_ifcreetqaeltion,

particular

a

C_xv.13.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 139

! particularcrimeof impietyor high-treafon_ of their} owninvention,whichfervedto promotea refpe&

for majefty,andanfweredtheir privaterevenge._ Henceit isthatthe Romanhiftoriansinveighfobit-{ terlyagainftthistyranny.i The penaltyofthe_utianlawwasfmall"I'. The° emperorsinfiftedthat,inpallingfentence,thejudges• fhouldincreafethe penaltyof thelaw. Thiswas

the fubje&of the inve&ivesof hifforians.Theydidnotexaminewhetherthe womenweredeferring

• of punilhment,but whetherthey hadviolatedthelaw, inorderto punifhthem.

Oneof the mofftyrannicalproceedingsof Tibe-rius_ wasthe abufehe madeof theancientlaws.Whenhewantedto extendthepunifhmentofaRo-manladybeyondthatinfli&edbythe3ruSanlaw,herevivedthedomeftictribunal.11

Theferegulationsin refpe&to womenconcernedonlyfenatorialfamilies,but not the commonpeo-ple. Pretenceswerewantedto accufethe great,whichwereconffantlyfurnifhedbythediffolutebe-haviouroftheladies.

In fine, what I haveaboveobferved,namely,thatregularityof mannersis not the principleofmonarchy,wasneverbetterverifiedthanunderthofefirfl:emperors; andwhoeverdoubtsofit needsonlyreadTacitus,Suetonius,Juvenal,or Martial.

Culpamintervlroset f_mlnasvulgatamgravinominela_farumreliglonumappellando,clementiammajorumfuafqueipfelegesegrediebatur._racit.Annal.lib.3.

af Thislaw is giveninthe DJgd[_ but withoutmentioningehepenalty. Itwasfuppofedit wasonlyrelegatio_becaufethat of irlceftwas onlydeportatio.Leg.fl quisw;duam,ft.dequmft,

Pr0priumid Tiberiofuit,fceleranuperrepettaprifds verbisobtegereo_'adt.11Adulteriigraviorempmnamdepreeatus,utexemploma,jorumpropinquisfuis

ultradueentefimumlapidem,emoveretur,fuafit. AdulteroManlioItahflatclu=Atric_interdi_umel'_.Wacit.Annul.hb. _.

CHAP.

14o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooeVIL

C H A P. XIV.

SumptuaryLawsamongtheRomans.WE havefpokenofpublicincontinence,becaufe

it is the infeparablecompanionof luxury. If weleavethe motionsof theheartatliberty,howfhallwebeabletoreftraintheweakneffesofthemind?

At Rome,betidesthe generalinftitutions,thecenforsprevailedon themagiftratesto ena&feveralparticularlawsformaintainingthefrugalityof wo-men. This wasthe defignof the Fannian,Lici-nian,andOppian,laws. We mayfee,in Livy,§thegreat fermentthe fenatewasin whenthewo-meninfiftedupontherevocationoftheOppianlaw.The abrogationof thislawis fixedupon,byVale-riusMaximus,as the periodfromwaencewemaydatetheluxuryof theRomans.

CHAP. XV.

Of DowriesandnuptialAdvantagesindifferentConfli-tutions.

DOWRIESoughtto be confiderablein monar-chies,in orderto enablehufbandsto fupporttheirrank and the eftablilhedluxury. In republics,whereluxurylhouldneverreign,*theyoughtto bemoderate: buttherefhouldbe hardlyanyat allindefpoticgovernments,wherewomenare in romemeafureflares.

The communityof goods, introducedby theFrenchlaws,betweenman andwife,isextremelywelladaptedto a monarchicalgovernmenti becaufe

§ Deead.IV. lib.4") Marfeilleswasthe w;feffof allthe republicsin itstime: hereitwasor-

dainedthat dowr)es/houldnotexceeclonehuadzcdcrownsin moat'/, andfiveinclo_th%as$.traboobferve.%lib.4"

the

CHAr.x6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. x41

thewomenaretherebyintereftedin domefficat_airs,and compelled,as it were,to takecareoftheirfa-mily. It is lefsfoin a republic,wherewomenarepoffeffedofmorevirtue. But it wouldbequiteab-furd in defpoticgovernments,wherethe womenthemfelvesgenerallyconffituteapartofthemaffer'sproperty.

Aswomenarein a ftatethat furnilhesfufficientinducementsto marriage,theadvantageswhichthelawgivesthemover thehufband'spropertyareofnofervicetofociety: but, inarepubhc,theywouldbe extremelyprejudicial,becauferichesare pro-du&iveof luxury. In defpoticgovernmentstheprofitsaccruingfrom marriageoughtto be merefubfiftence,andnomore.

CH A P. XVI.

AnexcellentCuflomoftheSamnites.THESamniteshadacuflom,which,in fo fmall

a republic,and efpeciallyin theirfituation,muff:havebeenproductiveof admirableeffe&s. Theyoungpeoplewereall convenedinoneplace,andtheirconductwasexamined.He thatwasdeclaredthe bef'cofthewholeaffemblyhadleavegivenhimto take whichgirlhepleafedforhiswife; thefe-condbeff:chofeafterhim; andfoon+. Admira-ble inftitution! The only recommendation,thatyoungmencouldhaveonthisoccafion,wastheirvirtueandthe fervicesdone theircountry. Hewhohad the greateffflaareof thereendowmentschorewhichgirlhelikedoutof the wholenation.Love, beauty,"chaftity,virtue, birth, and evenwealthitfelf,wereall, in romemeafure,thedowry

_f Fragmentof N|colausDamafceau_t_kenfromStobaus,inthe colle_ion@fCoai_ant_n¢Porphyrogemtu,.

of

x4Z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BOOKVX[_.

ofvirtue. A noblerand granderrecompence,leftchargeabletoa pettyRate,andmorecapableofin-fluencingbothfexes,couldfcarcebeimagined.

TheSamnitesweredefcendedfromthe Laceda:-monians; and Plato,wholeinRitutesare onlyanimprovementoftholeof Lycurgus,enactednearlythefamelaw._

CHAP. XVII.

Of Feraale-_/idminiflratian.IT is contraryto reafonandnaturethatwomen

/houldreigninfamilies,as wascut_omaryamongthe./Egyptians; butnotthattheythouldgovernanempire. In the formercare,theftateoftheirnatu-ralweaknefsdoesnotpermitthemto,havethepre-eminence;in thelatter,theirveryweaknel_gene-rallygivesthemmorelenityandmoderation; qua-lificationsfitterforagoodadminiftrationthanrough-nefsandfeverity.

In the Indiestheyare veryeafyundera femalegovernment; andit isfettledthat, if themaleiffuebe notof a motherof thefameblood,the femalesbornofa motheroftheblood-royalmu_fucceed-f-.Andthentheyhavea certainnumberofperfonswhoaffi_themto bearthe weightof the government.Accordingto Mr.Smith,_ theyare very eafyinAfricaundera femaleadminifiration.If, to this,weaddtheexampleofEnglandandRuf/ia,wethallfindthat theyfucceedalikebothii_moderateanddefpoticgovernments.

Heevenpermitsthemto havea morefrequentinterviewwlthoneanother. !-/-Edif)ingLetters,14theolleEfion.

Voyageto Guinea_partthefecond_of theki,.g_omof Angolajon the /GoldenCoaf_.

BOOK

_sAP. 2. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _43

B 0 0 K VIII.-.

OF THE CORRUPTIONOF THE PI_INCIPLESOF THETHREE GOVERNMENTS.

CHAP. I.GeneralIdeaofthisBook.

THE corruptionof eachgovernmentgenerallybeginswiththatof theprinciples.

CHAP. II.OftheCorruptionofthePrinciplesofDemocracy.

THE principleof democracyis corrupted,notonlywhenthefpiritof equalityis extin&,butlike--wifewhentheyfallintoa fpiritofextremeequality,andwheneachcitizenwouldfain be upona levelwith tholewhomhe haschofento commandhim.Then the people,incapableof bearingthe verypowertheyhavedelegated,wantto manageeverythingthemfelves,to debatefor the fenate,to exe-cuteforthemagii_rate,andtodecideforthejudges.

Whenthis is the cafevirtuecan nolongerfub.,fifein therepublic. The peoplearedefirousofex-ercifingthefun&ionsofthe magif_rates; whoceafeto berevered.The deliberationsof thefenateareflighted: all refpe&isthenlaidafidefor the lena-tots, andconfequentlyfor oldage. If thereis nomorerefpe&foroldage,therewillbe nonepre-fentlyforparents: deferenceto hu/bandswillbetikewifethro_vnoff, andfubmiffionto maf'cers.Thislicentioufnefswillloon becomegeneral,and thetroubleofcommandbeasfatiguingasthat ofobe-_tience.Wives,children,flares,willflaakeoffalt

fubje&ion.

'44 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Bo6gVI_t.

fubjec"tion.No longerwilltherebeanyfuchthingsasmanners,order,or virtue.

Wefind,inXenophon'sBanquet,a verylivelyde-fcriptionof a republicin whichthepeopleabufedtheirequality.Eachgueftgives,in his turn, thereafonwhyhe is fatisfied." ContentI am, lays•' Chamides,becaufeof mypoverty. WhenI was" rich,I wasobligedto paymycourtto informers," knowingI wasmoreliableto be hurt by them•' thancapableof doingthemharm. Therepublic" conftantlydemandedromenewtaxof me_ andI" couldnotdeclinepaying.SinceI am grownpoor," I haveacquiredauthority; nobodythreatensme;•' I ratherthreatenothers. I cangoor fraywhereI•' pleafe. Therichalreadyrifefloratheirfeatsand•' givemetheway. Iama king; Iwas beforea" flare: Ipaidtaxesto therepublic; nowit main-" rainsme: I amnolongerafraidof lofing,but I" hopeto acquire."

Thepeoplefallintothismisfortunewhentholeinwhomtheyconfide,defirousof concealingtheirowncorruption,endeavourto corruptthem. To dif-guiletheirownambitiofi,theyfpeaktothemonlyofthegrandeurof thefcate; to concealtheirownava-rice,theyinceffantlyflattertheirs.

Thecorruptionwillincreafeamongthecorrupters,andlikewifeamongthofewhoarealreadycorrupted.Thepeoplewilldividethepublicmoneyamongthem-felves,and,havingaddedtheadminiftrafionof af-fairsto their indolence,willbeforblendingtheirpovertywiththeamufementsof luxury. But,withtheirindolenceandluxury,nothingbut the publigtreafurewillbeableto fatisfytheirdemands.

Wetournotbefurprizedtofeetheirfuffragesgi-venformoney. It isimpoffibleto makegreatlar-geffcsto thgpeoplewithoutgleatextortion: and,

t0

C'_Az,.z. THE SPIRIT OF DAWS. 145

tOcompafsthis, the Rate mut_befubverted._ Thegreatertheadvantagestheyfeemto derivefromtheirliberty,thenearertheyapproachtowardsthecriticalmomentof lofingit. Petty tyrantsafire,whohaveall thevicesofa tingletyrant. The fmallremainsoflibertyloonbecomeinfupportable; a tingle tyrantitartsup, andthe peopleareRrippedof everything,evenof theprofitsof theircorruption.

Democracyhath,therefore,two exceffestoavoid;the fpiritof inequality,"whichleadsto ariRocracyormonarchy;and the fpiritof extremeequality,whichleads to defpoticpower,as the latter is completedbyconqueR.

True it is, that thole, whocorrupted the Greekrepublics,didnotalwaysbecometyrants. Thiswasbecaufetheyhad a greaterpafllonforeloquencethanfor the militaryart. Betides,therereignedan im-placablehatredin the breaRsof the Greeksagainfttholewhofubverteda republicangovernment_ and_for this reatbn,anarchydegeneratedintoannihila-tion, inReadof beingchangedinto tyranny.

But Syracufe,being fituatedin the midftof agreatnumberof pettyRates,wholegovernmenthadbeen changed from oligarchyto tyranny_, and.beinggovernedbyafenate* fcarcelyevermentionedin hiRory,underwentfuchmiferiesas aretheconfe-quence of a morethanordinarycorruption. Thiscity, ever a prey to licentioufnefst or oppreffion,equallylabouringunderthefuddenandalternatefuc-celtionof libertyand fervitude,and,notwithffanding

_"S_ Plutarch,inthelivesot TimoteonandDio.It wasthatofthefixhundred_cfw_:ommentionis madel_yDiodorus.

"l"Upontheexpu]fionof thetyrants_theymadecitizensofecxangersandmer-cenarytroops_whichgaverifetocivilwars. d_ot. Pdzt.lzb.5"cap.3" Thel_oplehavingbeenthecaufeof thevi_oryovelthe.Atheniansthereprablicwaschanged,1bid.cap.4, Thepaflionof'.woyoungmagiflrates,oneofwhomoar-tiedofftheother'sbo)'_aad_m revenge,theotherdebauchedhis wife_wagat-tandedwitha changeIn thef_'_ofthl9 republic.Ibid,lib,7. ca_._.

Voz.I. L her

,46 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo*_VIII.herexternalf_rength,conftantlydeterminedto a re-volutionbytheleaffforeignpower; thiscity,I fay,hadin herbofomanimmenfemultitudeof people,wholefateit wasto havealwaysthis cruelalterna-tive,eitherofchoofinga tyrantto governthem,or

a&ingthetyrantthemfelves.C H A P. Ill.

OftheSpiritofextremeE_uali_.ASdiftantasheavenisfrom"earth,fois thetrue

fpiritofequalityfromthatofextremeequality.Thetormerdoesnotimplythateverybodythouldcom-mand,or thatnoonelhouldhe comm_inded,butthatweobeyorcommandourequals.It endeavoursnottothakeoff theauthorityof a mafter,butthatksmaftersthouldbenonebutitsequals.

In the ftateof nature,indeed,allmenarebornequal_ but theycannotcontinuein thisequality:locietymakesthemloreit, andtheyrecoverit onlybytheprote&ionofthetaws.

Suchis the differencebetweena wellregulateddemocracyand onethatisnotfo, that, inthefor-mer,men areequalonlyas citizens,but, in thelatter,theyareequalalfoasmagiftrates,asfenators,asjudges,asfathers,ashul"bands,orasmailers.

Thenaturalplaceofvirtueisnearto liberty; butitisnotnearerto exceffivelibertythantofervitude.

CHAP. IV.

ParticularCaufeoftheCorruptionofthePeople.GREATfuccefs,efpeciallywhenchieflyowingto

the people,intoxicatesthemto fuchadegreethatit isimpoffibleto containthemwithinbounds. Jea-lousof theirmagifirates,theyloonbecomejealous

likewife

C.AP._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. *4Y

likewifeof the magif%racy;enemiesto thofewhogovern,theyloonproveenemies£1foto theconftitu-tmn. Thusit wasthatthevic%ryoverthePerfians,inthe ftraitsof Salamis,corruptedtherepublicofAthens_;andthusthedefeatof theAtheniansru-inedtherepublicofSyracufell.

Marfeillesneverexperiencedthofegreattranfitionsfrom lownefsto grandeur; thiswasowingto theprudentcondu&of thatrepublic_whoalwayspre-ferredherprinciples.

CHAP. V.

OftheCorruptionof thePri_ipleof/lriflocracy.ARISTOCRACYis corruptedif thepowerof

thenoblesbecomesarbitrary: whenthisisthecafe,therecannolongerbeahyvirtueeitherin thego-vernorsorthegoverned.

If thereigningfamiliesobfervethelaws,it is amonarchy_ithfeveralmonarchs,and,initsownna-ture,oneofthemoltexcellent; foralmot_all theremonarchsare tieddownbythe laws. But,whentheydonotobfervethem,it isadefpotict_ate,fwayedbyagreatmanydefpoticprinces.

Inthelattercare,therepublicconfiftsonlyinthenobles: the bodygoverningistherepublic;andthebodygovernedisthedefpoticftate; whichformtwoofthemoftheterogeneousbodiesintheworld.

Theextremityofcorruptioniswhenthepowerofthenoblesbecomesheredkary§; for thenthe),cauhardlyhaveanymoderation.If theyareonlya few_theirpoweris greater,buttheirfecuritylet_; if theyarea largernumber,their poweris lefs,andtheirfecuritygreater: infomuch,thatpowergoesonin.,

Ari_,otPollt,lib.5. cap,4. IIIbid.Theariflocracyisct/angedintoanoligarchy.

L z crea_ng,

x48 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo, VIII.

creating,andfecuritydiminifhing,up to the verydefpoticprince,whoisencircledwithexcelsofpow-eranddanger.

Thegreatnumber,therefore,ofnobles,in anhe-reditaryariRocracy,rendersthegovernmentlefsvio-lent: but,asthereis lefsvirtue,theyfallintoa fpi-rit offupinenefsandnegligence,by whichtheff.atelofesallitsRrengthanda&ivity_.

Anariffocracymaymaintainthefullvigourofitsconftitution,ifthelawsbefuchasareaptto renderthenoblesmorefenfibleof theperilsandfatigues,thanof the pleafure,ofcommand; andif thego-vernmentbein fucha fituationastohavefomethingto dread,whilefecuritytheltersunderitsprote&ion,anduncertaintythreatensfromabroad.

Asacertainkindofconfidenceformsthegloryandffabilityof monarchies,republics,onthecontrary,mu_havefomethingtoapprehend*. A fearof thePertiansfupportedthe la'_sof Greece. Carthage_andRomewerealarmedandffrengthenedby eachother. Strange,that, the greaterfecuritytholeRatesenjoyed,themore,likeRagnatedwaters,theywerefubje&tocorruption!

CHAP. VI.OftheCorruptionofthe_PrincipleofMonarchy.

AS democraciesare fubvertedwhenthe peopledefpoilthefenate,the magiftrates,andjudges,oftheirfunCtions,fo monarehiesare corruptedwhenthe princeinfenfiblydeprivesfocietiesor citiesof

VeniceisOneoftholerepublics'thathasena_qedthebefflaw8forcofferingthe inconveniencesofanhereditaryari/iocracy.

* _uRinattributesthe extin&ionof Athenianvirtueto thedeathof _Epaml-nondas.Havingnofartheremelation,theyfpenttheirrevenuesinfeat'csi a'ge"]?fruentiusfcenam_uamcaflra_ifcntcs.Thenit wasthattheMacedoniansemerged

omobfcurity:1.6.their

C_Av.7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. x49

theirprivileges. In theformercafe,the multitudeufurps the power, in the latter, it is ufurpedby alingleperfon.

" The deftru&ionof the dynaftiesof Tfinand" Soiii(laysa Chinefeauthor)wasowingto this,,the" princes,infteadof confiningthemfelves,liketheir" anceftors,to a generalinfpe&ion,the only one" worthyof a fovereign,wanted to governevery" thing immediatelybythemfelvest."

The Chinefeauthorgivesus, in this inftance,thecaufeof the corruptionof almoftallmonarchies.

Monarchyis deftroyed,when a princethinks hethewsa greaterexertionof powerinchanging,thanin conformingto, theorderof things; whenhe de-privesromeof his fubje&sof theirhereditaryem-ploymentsto beftowthem arbitrarilyupon others;andwhenhe isfonderof beingguidedbyfancythanjudgement.

Again, it is deftroyed,whentheprince,dire&ingeverything entirelyto himfelf,callstheftate to hiscapital,the capitalto hiscourt, andthecourtto hisownperfon.

It is deftroyed,in fine,whenthe princemiffakeshis authority,hisfituation,and theloveof his peo-ple; and whenhe isnot fullyperfuadedthat a mo-narchought to think himfelffecure,asa defpoticprinceought to think himfel:fin daoger.

CHAP. VII.

gbefameSubjec'_continued.

THE principleof monarchyis corruptefl,whenthe firftdignitiesare marks of the firf'tfervitude,whenthe greatmenare deprivedof publicrefpe&,andrenderedthe lowtoolsof arbitrarypower.

"1"Compilemcntofworksmadeunderthe2V/in_"b byfatherDuHalde.

L 2/ It

150 THE sPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogVIII,

It is_illmorecorrupted,whenhonourisfetup incontradi&iontohonours,andwh_enmenarecapableofbeingloaded,at theveryfametime,withinfamy_andwithdignities.

ft iscorrupted,whentheprincechangeshisjufticeintofever@; whenhe puts,liketheRomanempe-rors,aMedufa'sheadonhisbreaffII; andwhenheaffumesthatmenacingandterribleair whichCorn-modusorderedto begiventohisfcatues§.

_Again,it is corrupted,whenmeanand abje&foul_growvainof the pompattendingtheirfervi-rude,and imaginethat the motivewhichinducesthemto be entirelydevotedto theirprinceexemptsthemfromalldutyto theircountry.

But if it be true,(andindeedtheexperienceofallageshasfhewnit,)that,inproportionasthepowerofthemonarchbecomesboundlei_andimmenfe,hisfecuritydiminilhes,isthe corruptingof thispower,andthealteringofitsver_nature,a lefscrime_har_thatofhigh-treafonagainfftheprince

CHAP. VIIL

Z)_ngeroftheCorruptionofthePrincipleofmonarchicalGovernment.

THE dangerisnotwhentheRatepaffesfromonemoderateto anothermoderategovernment,(asfrom

UnderthereignofTiberiust flameswereere_edto, andtriumphalornaJmentsconferredou_informers; whichdebafedtherehonoursto fuchadegree,that tholewhohadreallymeritedthemdtfd_inedtoacceptof them. Frog,9¢4D/o,book58. takenfromtheextraftof_irtue_and_ices,byConflantinePorph.y-tog. See,inTadtus_in whatm_nner_ero,onthedifcoveryandptani_mentof a pretendedconfpiracy,heflowedtriumphalornameot_onPctroniusTgtpifia-nus, Nerva_andTigellinue./2nual.bookx4, See_likewife,howthegeneralsrdfufedtoferve,beeaufetheycontemnedthemilitaryhonoursi _et_lgatistrium-8hiinflgnlbus.Tacit.Aanal.book13.

[IInthisftate_the princeknewextreme!ywellthe principleof hi_govern-ment.

§ Hemdlan.a

Char.9. "I_HESPIRIT OFLAWS I$Ia republictoa monarchy,or froma monarchyto arepublic,)butwhenit precipitatesfroma moderateto adefpoticgovernment.

Moi_of theEuropeannationsare fl:illgovernedby_he:principlesof morality.But if, fromalongabufeof power,or thefury of conquer,defpoticfwaythouldprevailto a certaindegree,neithermo-ral_norclimatewouldbeabletowithRandits bale-fulinfluence: andthenhumannaturewouldbeex-pofed,forrometimeatleaR,evenin thisbeautifulpartof theworld,to theinfultswithwhichthe hasbeenabufedintheotherthree.

CHAP. IX.HowreadytbeNobilityare¢odefendtbeThrone.THE Englithnobilityburiedthemfelves,with

Charlesthefirft,undertheruinsofthethrone;and,beforethattime,whenPhilipthefecondendeavour-edtotempttheFrenchwiththeallurementofliberty,the crownwascont_antlyfupportedby a nobilitywhothinkit anhpnourto9beyaking,butconfiderit astheloweftdifgracetotharethepowerwith thepeople.

ThehoufeofAuftriahaseverufedherendeavoursto opprefsthe Hungariannobility; littlethinkinghowferviceablethatVerynobititywouldbe onedayto her. Shewouldfainhavedrainedtheircountryofmoney,ofwhichtheyhadnoplenty; buttooknonoticeofthemen,withwhomit abounded.Whenprincescombinedto difmemberherdominions,thefeveralpartsofthatmonarchyfell motionlefs,asitwere,One"uponanother. No lifewasthento befeenbutinthofeverynobles,who,relentingthe af-frontsofferedto the fovereign,andforgettingtheinjuriesdoneto themfelves,tookup armstoavenge

L 4 her

XSz THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVIII,

hercaut_,and confideredit as the higheftglorybravely_todie_ndto forgive.

CHAP. X.Of the Corruptionof thePrincipleof defpoticGovern-

ment.

THE principleof defpoticgovernmentis fubje&to a continualcorruption,becaufeit is, eveninitsnature,corrupt. Othergovernmentsaredeftroyedby particularaccidents,whichdo violenceto theprinciplesof eachconftitution; thisis ruinedbyitsownintrinficimpeffe&ions,whenromeaccidentalcaufesdo not preventthe corruptingof its prin-ciples. It maintainsitfelf,therefore,only whencircumfiances,drawnfromtheclimate,religion,fi-tuation,or geniusof the people,obligeit to con-formtoorder,andtoadmitofromerule. Bytherethingsitsnatureisforced,wkhoutbeingchangeditsfi:rocityremains; andit is madetameandtra&-ableonlytot a time.

CHAP. XI.NaturalEffeCTsof the GoodnefsandCorruptionof tke

Principlesof Government.WHEN oncetheprinciplesof governmentare

corrupted,theverybe_lawsbecomebad,andturnagainftthe flate: but, whenthe principlesarefound,evenbadlawshavethefameeffe&asgood;theforceoftheprincipledrawseverythingto it.

TheinhabitantsofCreteufeda veryfingularme-thod,to keepthe principalmagifh'atesdependenton thelaws; whichwasthat of infurre_Tion.Partof thecitizensrofeUPinarms,_ putthemagiftrates

• _ /zrh'tot.Polit.book2jchap.Io.t_o

C_Av.lX, THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 153

to flight,and obliged them to return to a privatelife. "/'hiswasfuppofedto bedone inconfequenceof the law. Onewouldhave imaginedthatan in-ttitution of this nature, whicheftablifhedfeditionto hinderthe abufeof power,wouldhavefubverted_tnyrepublicwhatfoever; andyet it didnot fubvertthatof Crete. The reafonis this:*

When the ancientswouldexprefsa people thathad the firongef'taffe&ionfor their country, theywerefureto mentionthe inhabitantsof Crete: Ourcountry,laid Plato,t a namefo dear to theCretans.They calledit bya namewhichfignifiesthe loveofa motherfor herchildren._ Now, the love ofourcountryletseverythingto right.

The lawsof Polandhave likewifetheirinfurrec-tins: but the inconveniencesthencearifingplainlythewthat thepeopleof Cretealonewere capableofufingfucha remedywithfuccefs.

The gymnicexercifes, ef'cablifhedamong theGreeks,had the famedependenceon thegoodnefsof the principleof government. " It wasthe La-" ceda:moniansand Cretans(laidPlatoll) that o-" penedthole celebrated academieswhich gave" themfo eminenta rank in the world. Modef'cy" at firffwasalarmed; but it yieldedto the public" utility." In Plato's time thefeinfl:itutionswereadmirable,§ as they had a relationto a veryim_

Theyalwaysunitedimmediatelyagainf_foreignenem|es_whichwascalledfyncret_m.Plur.Mot. p.88.

Repuh.lib.9"_ Plutarch'sMorals,tr+eatife_vb_tberamanadvancedinyearsougbttomeat�,

•oitbpubhcaffairs.II.Repub.lib.5.§ The gymn:cart wasdividedinto two parts,dane:ngand¢orO?!in_. Ia

Cretetheyhadthe armeddancesof the euretesi at Spa*tatheyhad tholeofCaftorandPdlux_ at Athensthearmeddancesof Pallas_whichwereextremelyroper/'orthvfethat werenot yetofageformilitaryfervice, Wre_lingistbzmageofwar,/'aidPlato_oflairs,hook7. He commendsantiquityfo-having

efhbliPaedonlytwo dances,the pacificand the Pyrrhic, Seehowthelatter"_laacewasappliedtothemilit;_Jyart, ,Platojibid.

portant

I_4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVIIL

portantobje&,whichwasthe militaryart. But,whenvirtuefledfromGreece,the militaryartwasdeftroyedby thereinftitutions; peopleappearedthen on the arena,not for improvement,butfordebauch.

Plutarchinformsus,* thatthe Romansin histimewereof opinionthatthofegameshadbeentheprincipalcaufeof theflaveryintowhichtheGreekswerefallen. On thecontrary,it wastheflaveryofthe Greeksthatcorruptedtholeexercifes.In Plu-tarch'stime-]-theirfightingnakedintheparks,andtheirwreftling,infe&edthe youngpeoplewith afpiritof cowardice,inclinedthemto infamouspaf-fions,andmadethem meredancers:but, underEpaminondas,the exercifeof wreftlingmadethe_hebanswinthefamousbattleofLeuc2ra.

Thereare very fewlawswhichare notgood,whilethe ftateretainsits principles.HereI mayapplywhatEpicurusfaidof riches: " It isnotthe,, liquor;buttheveffel,thatiscorrupted.'"

C H A P. XII.

7"befameSubje_lcontinued.

IN Romethe judgeswerechofenat firftfromtheorderof fenators. This privilegethe Gracchitransferredto the knights: Drufusgaveit to thefenatorsand knights; Syllato the fenatorsonly;Cotta to the fenators,knights,andpublictreafu-rers: Cmfarexcludedthelatter: Antonymadede-curiesof fenators,knights,andcenturions,

q[. : .... ,¢utlibidlnof_LedcasLaced6emonispalae]tra.Martllib.4, ep.55, .

* Plutarch'sMorals,in thetreatifeentitled,_xSeflions¢oncerningtoeaffairsoftb_Romans.

"i"Ibid.Plutarch'sMoral%_'ablePrq_ofi¢ions_bookz. When

CgAp.r3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. xS_Whenoncea republicis corrupted,thereis no

poffibitityof remedyinganyof the growingevils,i butbyremovingthecorruptionandreftoringitsloft:

principles: everyothercorre&ioniseitherufelefsor! a newevil. WhileRomepreferredherprinciples

entire,thejudicialpowermight,withoutanyabufe,belodgedinthehandsof fenators: but, asloonasthis city becamecorrupt, to whateverbodythatpowerwastransferred,whetherto thefenate,totheknights,to thetreafurers,totwooftholebodies,toall threet_ether, or to anyother; mattersfrillwentwrong. Theknightshadnomorevirtuethanthefenate; thetreafurersnomorethantheknights;andthereasIittleasthecenturions.

: Afterthe peopleof Romehadobtainedthepri-vilegeof flaaringthemagiftracywiththepatricians,it was naturalto think that theirflattererswouldimmediatelybecomearbitersof the government.But nofuchthingeverhappened.It wasobferva-ble, that the very people,whohad renderedthe

! plebeianscapableof publicoffices,everfixedtheirchoiceuponthepatricians.Becaufetheywerevir-tuous,theyweremagnanimous; and,becaufetheywerefree,they had a contemptof power. But,

! whentheirmoralswerecorrupted,themorepowertheywerepoffeffedof, the lefsprudentwas theircondu&; till, at length,uponbecomingtheirown

: tyrantsandflares,theylofttheftrengthof liberty,to fallintotheweaknefsandimpotencycf licentiouf.hers.

C H A P. XIII.The_ffe_ofanOathamongvirtuousPeople.

THEREisnonation,fays[.ivy[I,thathasbeen• 19ngeruncorruptedthanthe Romans; no nation

!l Bookx:where

x56 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVIIL

wheremoderationandpovertyhavebeenlongerre-fpe_ed.

Suchwastheinfluenceof an oathamongtholepeople,that nothingboundthemflrongerto theJaws.They oftendidmore,for theobfervanceofanoath,thantheywouldever haveperformedforthethirt_ofglory,or fortheloveof theircountry.

WhenQuintusCincinnatustheconfulwantedtoraifean armyin thecityagain_theAY_uiandthel/olfci,thetribunesoppofedhim. " Well,laidhe," letallthole,whohavetakenanoathto thecon-" ful of theprecedingyear,marchundermy ban-*' her."§ Invaindidthe tribunescryoutthatthisoathwasno longerbinding,and that,whentheytookit, O_intuswasbutaprivateperfon: thepeo-ple weremorereligiousthanthofewhopretendedto directthem; theywouldnot liftento thedif.tine_tionsorequivocationsofthetribunes.

Whenthefamepeoplethoughtofretiringto the8actedMount,they felt1braeremorfefromtheoaththeyhad takento theconfulsthattheywouldfol-lowthemintothefield._ They enteredthenintoa defignof killingtheconfuls,butdroppeditwheatheyweregivento underftandthattheiroathwould/_illbebinding. Now,it is eafyto judge of thenotiontheyentertainedof theviolationofan oath,fromthecrimetheyintendedtocommit.

_Afterthebattleof Canna:thepeoplewerefeizedwithfuchapanic,thattheywouldfainhaveretiredto Sicily: but, Scipiohavingprevaileduponthemto fweartheywouldnot frirfromRome,thefearof violatingthisoathfui'paffedall otherapprehen-fions. RomeWasa thipheldby twoanchors,re-ligionandmorality,in themidt_ofa furioustem-pefl:.

§ Livy_book3" _ Ibid,book3' CHAP.

CHAP. I_. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. I57

C H A P. XIV.

HowthefmalleflChangeof the ConflitutionisattendedwiththeRuinof itsPrinciples.

ARISTOTLE mentionsthe cityof Carthageasa wellregulatedrepublic. Polybiustellsus,* thatthere was this inconvenience,at Carthage, in thefecondPunicwar, that the fenatehad loftalmoftalltheirauthority. We are informed,by Livy, that,when Hannibal returned to Carthage, he foundthat the magiftratesand the principalcitizenshadabufed their power,and convertedthe publicre-venues to their private emolument. Thevirtue,therefore,of the magiftrates,and the authorityofthe fenate,both fell at the fametime; andallwasowing_tothe famecaufe.

Every one knowsthe wonderfuleffeCtsof thecenforfhipamong the Romans. There wasa timewhen it grew burthenfome; but frill it was fup-ported,becaufethere was more luxury than cor-ruption. Claudiust weakenedits authority; bywhich means the corruptionbecamegreater thanthe luxury, and the cenforlhipdwindledawayofitfelf._ After variousinterruptionsand refump-uons, it was entirely laid afidetill it becamealto-getherufelefs; that is, till the reigns of Auguftusand Claudius.

CHAP. XV.

&treMethodsofprefervingthethree_Principles.I flaallnot be ableto makemyfelfrightlyunder-

flood, till the readerhasperufedthefourfollowingchapters.

'* Abouta hundredyearsafter."1"Seebookllth, chap.z_.th.

" _ SeeDio,book38. Cicero'slifein Plutarclb CicerotoAtt_eus,book4th,letterzoand r5" Ali:oniusonCiceroded;.oinatt_xr.

CHAP.

_58 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVIII.

C HAP. XVI.

Diflin_tkvtPropertiesofa Republic.

IT isnaturalfora republictohaveonlya fmallterritory;otherwifeit cannotlongfubfit_.Inanextenfiverepublictherearemenof largefortunes,andconfequentlyofleftmoderation:therearetruffstoocontiderableto beplacedin anytinglefubje&;hehasinteref_sof hisown; heloonbeginsto thinkthathemaybehappyandgloriousbyoppreffinghisfellow-citizens;andthathemayraifehimt_lftogran-deurontheruinsofhiscountry.

Inanextenfiverepublic,thepublicgoodisfacri-ricedto athoufandprivateviews; it is fubordinatetoexceptions,anddependsonaccidents.Ina,fmallone,theintereffof thepublicismoreobvious,betterunderf_ood,andmorewithinthereachofeveryciti-zen; abnfeshavelefsextent,and ofcourfeare lefsprote&ed.

Thelongdurationoftherepublicof Spartawasowingto herhavingcontinuedinthefameextentofterritoryafterall her wars. TheroleaimofSpartawasliberty; andtheroleadvantageofherlibertyglory.

It wasthe fpiritoftheGreekrepublicsto be ascontentedwith theirterritoriesas withtheirlaws.Athenswasfirfffiredwithambition,and gaveit toLacedmmon; butit wasanambitionratherofcom-mandingafreepeoplethanofgoverningflares; ra_ther of dire&ingthanof breakingtheunion.Allwaslof'cupontheRattingupof monarchy,agovern-mentwholefpiritis moreturnedtoincreafeofdomi-nion.

Excepting

CHAp.I7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 159Exceptingparticularcircum_ances®,itisdif/icult

for anyotherthana republicarigovernmentto rub-ffftlongerin a tingletown. Aprinceof fopettya_atewouldnaturallyendeavourtoopprefshisfubje&s,becaufehispowerwouldbegreat,whilethe meansofenjoyingit,orofcaufingitto berefpe&ed,wouldbeinconfiderable.Theconfequenceis, he would

trampleuponhispeople. Ontheotherhand,fucha princemightbeeatilycru/hedbyaforeign,orevena domefde,force; the peoplemighteveryinRa,atuniteandrifeupagainf_him. Now,asloonasthefovereignof atingletownisexpelled,the quarrelisover;but,if hehasmanytowns,it onlybegins.

C H A P. XVII.Di.flin_ivePropertiesofa Monarchy.

Amonarchicalftateoughttobeof a moderateex-tent. Were it fmall,itwouldformitfelfintoa re-public; wereitverylarge,thenobility,poffeffedofgreatettates,farfromtheeyeof the prince,withariVatecourtoftheirown,andfecuremoreoverfromddenexecutions,by thelawsandmannersof the

country,fuchanobility,I fay,mightthrowofftheirallegiance,havingnothingtofearfromtooflowandtoodiftantapunilhment.

Thus,Charlemagnehadfcarcefoundedhisempirevchenhewasobligedto divideit : whetherthego-vernorsof the provincesrefufedtoobey; or whe-ther,in orderto keepthemmoreunderfubjec"tion,therewasa neceffityof parcellingtheempireintofeveralkingdoms.

Afterthedeceafeof Alexander,hisempirewasdivided. Howwasit poffiblefor tholeGreekand

* As whenapettyfoverelgnf,,pportshimfelfbetwixttwogreatpowersbymeansofthelrmetualjealoefy} butthen.hehasonlya precariousexil_enee.

Macedonian

Z6o 'THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoaKVflr_

Macedonianchiefs,whowereeachofthemfreeandindependent,orcommandersat leafcof the vi&o-riousbandsdifperfedthroughoutthat vaf'cextentofconqueredland,howwasit poffible,I fay,forthemto obey?

Attila'sempirewaddiffolvedfoonafterhisdeath;fucha numberofkings,whowerenolongerunderre_raint,couldnotrelumetheirfetters.

Thefuddeneltabli/hmentofunlimitedpowerisaremedy,which,in thofecafes,maypreventadiffolu-tion. But howdreadfultheremedy,which,aftertheenlargementof dominion,opensanewfceneofmiferyI

Therivershafcento mingletheirwaterswiththelea; and monarchieslore themfelvesin defpoticpower.

C H A P. XVIII.

ParlicMarCareoftheSpanifloMonarchy.LETnottheexampleofSpainbeproducedagain_

me_ it ratherproveswhatI affirm. To preferveAmerica,/he dtd whatevendefpoticpoweritfelfdoesnotattempt; thedefl:royedtheinhabitants.Topreferve.hercolony,/hewasobligedto keepit de.pendente'venfor itsfubfiftence.

In the Netherlands,fileeffayedto renderherfelfarbitrary,and,asfoonaslheabandonedtheattempt,her perplexityincreafed.On the onehand,theWalloor/swouldnotbegovernedbySpaniards; and,ontheother,theSpanifhfoldiersrefufedtofubmi_to Walloonofficers-['.

In Italy,/hemaintainedhergroundmerelybyex-hauf_ingherfelfandbyenrichingthatcountry.Forthole,whowouldhavebeenpleafedtohavegot rid

-[-SeethehifloryoftheU_kcd-Pmvince_jbyMonf.LeCleft.

of

CsAP.zr. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 161

ofthekingofSpain,werenotina humourtorefufchisgold. C H A P. XIX.

DiflinlYivePropertiesofa defpoticGovernment.Alargeempirefuppofesadefpoticauthorityinthe

perfonwhogoverns.It isneceffarythatthequicknefsoftheprince'srefolutionsthouldfupplythe diffanceof theplacestheyarelentto; thatfearfhouldpre-venttheremiffnefsofthediftantgovernoror magif-trate; thatthelawlhouldbederivedfrom_afirJg/eperfon, and/hould/hilt continually,accordingtothe accidentswhichinceffantlymultiplyin a t_ateinproportiontoitsextent.

CHAP. XX.

Confe_uenceoftheprecedingChapters.IF it be thereforethe naturalpropertyof fma]l

t_atesto be governedasa republic;ofmiddlingones,to be fubje&to amonarch; andof largeem-pires,to befwayedbyadefpoticprince; thecon-fequenceis, that, in orderto prefervetheprinciplesoftheeftabliflaedgovernment,theRatemuffbefup-portedin theextentit hasacquired,and thatthefpiritofthisftatewillalterinproportionasit con-tra6tsorextendsitslimits.

CHAP. XXI.

Of theEmpireof China.BEFOREI concludethisbook,I fhallanfweran

objectionthatmaybemadetotheforegoingdo_'trine.Ourmiffionariesinformusthatthegovernmentof

theraftempireof Chinaisadmirable,and thatithas"a propermixtureof fear,honour,andvirtue.

VoL.I. M Con-

16z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKVIII.

Confequently,Imuffhavegivenanidlediftin&ion,ineftablifhingtheprinciplesof thethreegovernments.

ButI cannotconceivewhatthis honourcan be,amongapeoplewhoa&onlythroughfearof beingbaftinaded_.

Again,ourmerchantsarefarfromgivingus anyfuchaccountsofthevirtuefomuchtalkedofbythemiltionaries; weneedonlyconfultthemin relationto therobberiesandextortionsof the mandarinesI1.I likewifeappealto anotherunexceptionablewimefs,thegreatlordAnfon.

Betides,father.Perennin'sletters,concerningtheemperor'sproceedingsagainftfomeoftheprincesoftheblood§,whohadincurredhisdifpleafurebytheirconverfion,plainlylhewusafettledplanoftyranny,andbarbaritiescommittedby rule, thatis, in coldblood.

Wehave,likewife,monfieurdeMairan's,andthefamefather_Perennin's,lettersonthegovernmentofChina. I find,therefore,that, aftera few properqueftionsandanfwers,thewholemyfferyisunfolded.

Mightnotourmiffionarieshavebeendeceivedbyanappearanceoforder? Mightnottheyhavebeenftruckwiththatconftantexercifeof a tingleperfon'swill? an exercifebywhichtheythemfelvesarego-verned,andwhichtheyarefopleafedto findinthecourtsof theIndianprinces; becaufe,as theygothitheronlyinordertointroducegreatchanges,itismucheafierto perfuadethofeprincesthat therearenoboundstotheirpower,thanto convincethepeo-plethattherearenoneto theirfubmiflion¶.

lt isthecudgdthatgovernsChina)laysfatherDuHalde.Amongothers,DeLangt'srelation.§ OfthefamilyofSoarmama.EdifyingLetters)18thCollodion._j"See)in fatherDeHalde)howthemifllonariesavailedthemfdvesof the

authorityof Canhitofilencethemandarines,whoeonflantlydeclared)thab bythe/awsof thecountry,noforeignwoi_ipcouldbeethblifl2edinthe¢mifir¢.

Ia

C_Ae._h THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. mG3

Infine,thereisfrequentlyromekindoftruthevenin errorsthemfelves.It maybeowingtoparticular,andperhapsveryextraordinary,circumflances,thatthe Chinefegovernmentis not fo corruptas onemightnaturallyexpe&. The climate,and fomeother phyficalcaufes,may,in that country,havehadfoflronganinfluenceontheirmorals,as,in romemeafure,to producewonders.

TheclimateofChinaisfurprizinglyfavourabletothepropagationofthehumanfpecies.Thewomenarethemoilprolificinthewholeworld. Themoil:barbaroustyrannycanputnoflopto theprogrefsofpropaation Theprincecannotfaythere,likePha-g • . .raoh," Letusdealwifelywiththemle_ theymul-_' tiply." He wouldratherbereducedto Nero'swilh,thatmankindhadall but onehead. In fpiteof tyranny,China,bytheforceof itsclimate,willbeeverpopulous,andtriumphoverthetyrannicaloppreffor.

China,like all othercountriesthat live chieflyuponrice,isfubje&to frequentfamines.WhenthefPeeoplearereadyto flarve,theydifperfe,inorderto

ek fornouriflament:in confequenceof which,gangsof robbersareformedoneveryfide. Moltofthemareextirpatedin theirveryinfancy,othersfwell,and arelikewifefuppreffed.Andyet, infogreata numberoffuchdiflantprovinces,romebandorothermayhappento meetwithfuccefs. Inthatcare,theymaintaintheir ground,flrengthentheirparty,formthemfelvesintoa militarybody,marchup to the capital,andplacetheirleaderon thethrone.

Fromtheverynatureofthings,abadadminiflra-tionis hereimmediatelypunithed.The wantoffubfiftence,infopopulousa country,producesfud-dendiforders.Thereafonwhytheredrefsof abu-

M z fes,

_64 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo, IX.

fes,inothercountries,is attendedwithfuchdiffi-culty,is, becaufetheireffe6tsarenot immediatelyfelt; the princeis not informedinfofuddenandfenfibleamannerasin China.

The emperorof Chinais nottaught,likeourprinces,that, if"hegovernsill, hewillbe lefshap-pyintheotherlife,lefspowerfulandlefsopulentinthis. Heknows,that,ifhisgovernmentbenotjuff,

, hewillbeftriptbothofempireandlife.As Chinagrowseverydaymorepopulous,not;

withftandingtheexpofingofchildren*,the inhabi-tantsareinceffantlyemployedin tillingthelandsfortheirfubfiffence.Thisrequiresaveryextraordinaryattentionin the government.It istheirperpetualconcernthateverymanlhouldhaveit inhispowerto work,withouttheapprehenfionofbeingdeprivedofthefruitsofhislabour. Confequently,thisisnotfomuchacivil,asa domeftic,government.

Suchhasbeentheoriginoftholeregulationswhichhavebeenfogreatlyextolled.Theywantedtomakethe lawsreignin conjun&ionwithdefpoticpower;butwhateverisjoinedto thelatterlofesall itsforce;In vair_did thisarbitraryfway,labouringunderitsowninconveniences,defireto befettered_ it armeditfelfwithitschains,andisbecomefrillmoreterrible.

Chinaisthereforeadefpoticftate,wholeprincipleisfear. Perhaps,intheearlieffdynat_ies,whentheempirehadnot fo largean.extent,thegovernmentmighthavedeviateda littlefromthisfpirit; butthe.careisotherwifeatprefent.

SeetheorderofTfongtoufortillingtheland_intheEdifyingLetters__zP¢cdle6tion.

BOOK

"_ C_AP.x.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 165

_ B 0 OK IX.()F LAWS, IIq THE RELATION" THEY BEAR TO A

i DEFENSIVE FORCE.

i CHAP. I.i InwhatMannerRepublicsprovidefor theirSafety.I IF arepublicbefmall,itisdeftroyedbyaforeign

force if it belarge,it isruinedbyaninternalim-perle&ion.

_ To this twofoldinconveniencydemocraciesandarif'toeraciesareequallyliable,whethertheybegoodor bad. Theevilis intheverythingitfelf,andno

: formcanredrefsit.7

It isthereforeveryprobablethat mankindwouldhavebeen,atlength,obligedto liveconftantlyun-

' derthegovernmentofa tingleperfon,hadtheynot• contrivedakindofconffitutionthathasall the in-

ternaladvantagesofarepublican,togetherwiththeexternalforce of a monarchical,government.Imean,a confederaterepublic.

Thisformof governmentis a convention,bywhichfeveralpettyftatesagreetobecomemembersof a largerone,whichtheyintendto et_ablifh.Itisa kindof affemblageoffocieties,thatconftituteanewone,capableofincreatingby meansoffartheraffociations,tilltheyarriveto fuchadegreeofpov¢-er,asto be ableto providefor thefecurityof thewholebody.

It wasthereaffociationsthat fo longcontributedto the profperityofGreece.By theretheRomansattackedthe wholeglobe; and by therealonethewholeglobewitht_oodthem. For,whenRomewas;vrivedto herhigheftpitchof grandeur,it wasthealToeiationsbeyondtheDanubeandtheRhine,afro-

M 3 ciations

165 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogIX.

ciationsformedbytheterrorofherarms,thatena-bledthebarbariansto refifther.

Fromhenceit proceedsthatHolland% Germa-ny, andtheSwifsCantons,areconfideredinEuropeasperpetualrepublics.

Theaffociationsof citieswereformsrlymorene-ceffarythaninourtimes. A weakdefencelefstownwasexpofedtogreaterdanger. Byconquer,it wasdeprivednotonIyof the executiveandlegiflativepower,asat prefent,but moreoverof all humanproperty_.

A republicofthiskind, ableto withftandan ex-ternalforce,mayfupportitfelfwithoutanyinternalcorruption; the form of thisfocietypreventsallmannerof inconveniences.

If a tinglememberlhouldattemptto ufurpthefupremepower,hecouldnotbefuppofedto haveanequalauthorityandcreditinalltheconfederateftates.Werehe to havetoogreat an influenceoverone,thiswouldalarmthereft; wereheto fubduea part,thatwhichwouldftillremainfreemightoppofehimwith forcesindependentof tholewhichhe hadufurped,andoverpowerhimbeforehecouldbefet-tledinhisufurpation.

Shouldapopularinfurrec"tionhappenin one oftheconfederatel'fates,theothersareabletoquellit.Shouldabufescreepintoonepart,theyarereformedbytholethatremainfound. Thei°catemaybede-ftroyedon onefideandnotonthe other; thecon-federacymaybediffolved,andtheconfederatespre-fervetheirfovereignty.

Asthisgovernmentiscompofedof pettyrepub-lics,it enjoysthe internalhappinefsof each; and,

_"Itiseompofedof aboutfiftydifferentrepublics)alldifferentfromoneaao.ther.Stateof theUnited-Pro,oiuces,byM.Janiffon.

Civil|ibe,t_,goods#wives.)¢hildrt_templehand¢ycabur_'ing.places,with

CnAr.Z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z67

withregardto itsexternalfituation,bymeansoftheaffociation,it poffeffethall theadvantagesof largemonarchies.

CHAP. II.

ThataconfederateGovernmentoughtto becompofedofStatesofthefameNature,efpeciallyof therepublican

i l(a'nd.THE CanaanitesweredeRroyedby reafonthey

werepettymonarchies,thathadno unionnor con-federacyfortheircommondefence:and,indeed,aconfederacyisnotagreeableto thenatureof pettymonarchies.

AstheconfederaterepublicofGermanyconfiftsoffreecities,andof pettyRatesfubje&to different

! princes,experienceihewsus, thatit is muchmoreimperfe&thanthatofHollandandSwifferland.

Thefpiritofmonarchyis warandenlargementofdominion: peaceandmoderationisthe fpiritofarepublic.Theretwokindsof governmentcanno_naturallyfubfiRina confederaterepublic.

Thus we obferve,in the Romanhiftory,that,whentheVeienteshadchofena king,theywereim-mediatelyabandonedbyall theotherpettyrepublicsofTufcany. Greecewasundoneas foonas thekingsof Macedonobtaineda featamongtheAm-phi_yons.

Theconfederaterepublicof Germany,compofedofprincesandfreetowns,fubfiRsbymeansofachief,whois,infomerefpe&s,themagiRrateoftheunion,in others,themonarch.

M 4 CHAP.

168 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BOOKIX.

C H A P. III.

OtherRequi/itesi_a co_federateR@ublic.IN therepublicof Holland,oneprovincecannotconcludean alliancewithoutthe confentof the

others. This law,whichis an excellentone,andevenneceffaryina confederaterepublic,is wantingin theGermanicconftitution,whereit wouldpreventthemisfortunesthatmayhappento thewholecon-federacythroughtheimprudence,ambition,orava-rice,ofa tinglemember. A republic,unitedbya

" politicalconfederacy,hasgivenitfelfentirelyup,andhasnothingmoretorefign.

It isdifficultfor theunited/_atestobeallofequalpowerandextent. TheLycian*republicwasanaffociationof twenty-threetowns; thelargeoneshadthreevotesin the commoncouncil,the middlingonestwo,andthefmalltownsone. TheDutchre-publicconfiftsoffevenprincesofdifferentextentofterritory,whichhaveeachonevoice.

ThecitiesofLycia'l-contributedto the expencesoftheRateaccordingto theproportionof fuffrages.Theprovincesof theunitedNetherlandscannotfbl-lowthisproportion; theymuff:bedire&edby thatoftheirpower.

InLyciall,thejudgesandtownmagiftrateswereele&edbythecommoncouncil,and accordingtothe proportionalreadymentioned.Inthe republicof Holland,theyare not chofenbythecommoncouncil,buteachtownnamesitsmagiftrates.WereI to giveamodelofanexcellentconfederaterepub-lic, I IhouldpitchuponthatofLycia.

5trabojJib,I4. "]-Ibid. 11/bid,

CHAP.

CHAP.5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _69

: CHAP. IV.

In whatMan_erdefpoticGovernmentsprovidefor theirSecurity. "

_! AS republicsprovidefor theirfeeuritybyuni-ring,defpoticgovernmentsdoitbyfeparating,andby keepingthemfelves,as it were,tingle. They

_ facrificea part of the country;and, byravaginganddefolatingthe frontiers,theyrendertheheart

_ oftheempireinacceflible.! It is a receivedaxiom,in geometry,thatthe

greatertheextentofbodies,themoretheircircum-ferenceisrelativelyfmall. Thispra&ice,therefore,

i of layingthe frontierswaire,is moretolerablein! largethanin middlingflates.

A defpoticgovernmentdoesallthe mifchiefto_ itfelfthat couldbe committedby a cruelenemy_ whofearmsitwereunableto refiir.

It prefervesitfelf,likewife,by anotherkind ofi fe.paration,whichis byputtingthemoltdiltantpro-. vmcesintothehandsofagreatvaff¢l.TheMogul,

thekingofPerfia,andtheemperorsofChina,havetheirfeudatories;andthe Turkshavefoundtheiraccountin puttingthe Tartars, the Moldavians,

i the Walachians,andformerlytheTranfylvanians,i betweenthemfelvesandtheirenemies.

C H A'P. V.In whatMannera monarchicalGovernmentprovides

for itsSecurity.-A monarchyneverdeirroysitfelflikea defpotic

government.Buta kingdomof a moderateextentisliableto fuddeninvafions: it muirthereforehavefortreffestodefenditsfrontiers,andtroopstogar-rifon

17o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo,IX.rifonthofefortreffes.The leaftfpotofgroundisdifputedwithmilitary/killandrefolution.Defpo-tic_atesmakeincurfionsagainffoneanother:it ismonarchiesonlythatwagewar.

Fortreffesare properformonarchies:defpoticgovernmentsareafraidof them. They darenotintrut_theirofficerswithfuchacommand,asnoneof themhaveanyaffe&ionfor the princeorhisgo-vernment.

CHAP. VI.Of thedefenflveForceof_tatesingeneral.

TOprefervea Rateinitsdueforce,it tourhavefuchanextent,asto admitofa proportionbetweentheceleritywithwhichit maybeinvaded,andthatwithwhichit maydefeattheinvafion. As anin-vadermayappearon everyfide,it isrequifitethatthet'_ateslhouldbeableto make,oneveryfide,itsdefence; confequendyit tlaouldbe of a moderateextent,proportionedto thedegreeof velocitythatnaturehasgivento man,to enablehim to movefromoneplacetoanother.

FranceandSpainareexa&lyofa properextent.Theyhavefoeafya communicationfortheirforces,as to be ableto conveythemimmediatelyto whatpart theyhavea mind:thearmiesuniteand palswithrapidityfromonefrontierto another,withoutanyapprehenfionoffuchdifficultiesasrequiretimetoremove.

It is extremelyhappyforFrancethatthecapi-talftandsnearto thedifferentfrontiersin propor-tionto theirweaknet_; and theprincehasa betterviewofeachpart of hiscountry,accordingas it ismoreexpofed.

But, whena vaf_empire,likePerfia,isattacked,it is feveralmonthsbeforethe troopsareaffembled

in

_ CHAr.7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 17t

! inabody; andthentheyarenotableto makefuckforcedmarches,for that fpaceof time, as theycouldfor fifteendays. Shouldthe armyon thefrontiersbe defeated,it is loondifpeffed,becaufethereisnoneighbouringplaceofretreat. Thevic-tor, meetingwithno refiftance,advanceswithallexpedition,fits downbeforethe capital,and laysfiegeto it, whenthereis fcarcetimefufficienttofummonthe governorsof the provincesto itsre-lief. Thofewhoforefeean approachingrevolutionhaftenit bytheirdifobedience: for men,wholefi-delityisentirelyowingto thedangerofpunilhment,are eafilycorruptedasloonas it becomesdiftant;theiraimistheirownprivateintereft: the empireisfubverted,thecapitaltaken,andtheconquerordif-putesthefeveralprovinceswiththegovernors.

The realpowerof a princedoesnotconfiftfomuchin the facili[yhe meetswithin makingcon-.quet_s,asinthedifficultyanenemyfindsin attack..mg him,and, if I mayfo fpeak,in theimmuta-bilityof hiscondition. But the increafeof terri-toryobligesagovernmentto layiffelfmoreopentoanenemy.

Asmonarchs,therefore,oughttobeenduedwithwifdominorderto increafetheirpower,theyoughtlikewifeto havean equalthareofprudenceto con-fineit withinbounds. Uponremovingthe incon-veniencesof tootinalla territory,theyfhouldhavetheireyeconftantlyontheinconvenienceswhichat-tenditsextent.

C H A P. VII.

I1Reflexion.THE enemiesofa greatprince,whofereignwas

protrac"tedtoanunufuallength,haveveryoftenac-cufed

17z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKIX.cufedhim,rather,I believe,fromtheirownfears,thanuponanyfolidfoundation,of havingformedand carriedon a proje&of univerfalmonarchy.Hadhe attainedhisaim,nothingwouldhavebeenmorefatalto hisfubje&s,to himfelf,to hisfamily,and to all Europe. Heaven,thatknowsourtrueinterefts,favouredhim more, by preventingthe£uccefsof his arms,than it couldhavedonebycrowninghimwithvi&ories.Infteadoffairinghimto be the onlyfovereignin Europe,it madehimhappierbyrenderinghimthemoltpowerful.

The fubje&sof this prince,who,in travellingabroad,areneveraffe&ed.butwithwhattheyhaveleft at home; who,on quittingtheirownhabita-tions,look upongloryas theirchiefobje&,and,in diftantcountries,as anobftacleto theirreturnwhodifgut_youevenby theirgoodqualities,be-caufetheyaretaintedwithfo muchvanity; who,arecapableof fupportingwounds,perils,andfa-tigues,but not of foregoingtheirpleafures; whoare fupremelyfond of gaiety,andcomfortthem-felvesforthelofsofa battlebya longuponthege-neral;tholefubje&s,I fay,.wouldneverhavethefolidityrequifitefor an enterptizeof this kind;which,ifdefeatedin onecountry,wouldbe unfuc-cefsfuleverywhereelfe;and,ifonceunfuccefsful,wouldbefoforever.

cIqAv.Vm..,I particularCafe,in whichthedefen/iveForceof a

8toteisinferiortotheoffen./ive.IT wasa layingof thelordof Coucyto king

CharlesV. " that the Englifhareneverweaker," noreafierovercome,thanintheirowncountry.".ThefamewasobfervedoftheRomans; thefameof

the

CHAP.IO. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, i73

theCarthaginians; andthe famewillhappentoe-verypowerthatfendsarmiesto diffanrcountries,inorderto re-unite,bydifciplineand militaryforce,thofewhoaredividedamongthemfelvesbypoliticalor civilinterefts.ThePratefindsitfelfweakenedby"thediforderthatPrillcontinues,andmorefobytheremedy.

ThelordofCoucy'smaximisanexceptionto thegeneralrule,whichdifapprovesof warsagainftdif-tant countries:andthisexceptionconfirmslikewifetherule,becaufeit takesplaceonlywithregardtotholebywhomfuchwarsareundertaken.

CHAP. IX.OftherelativeForceof States.

ALL grandeur,force,and power,are relative.Care,therefore,muffbetaken,that, inendeavour-ingto increafetherealgrandeur,therelativebenotdiminilhed.

Underthe reignof LewisXIV. Francewasatits higheftpitchof relativegrandeur. Germanyhadnotyetproducedfuchpowerfulprincesashavefinceappearedin thatcountry. Italywasinthefamecare. EnglandandScotlandwerenot yetformedintooneunitedkingdom.Arragonwasnotjoinedto Caftile: thediprantbranchesof the Spa-nifhmonarchywereweakenedbyit, andweakenedit intheirturn: andMufcovywasaslittleknowninEuropeasCrim-Tartary.

CHAP. X.

OftheWeaknefsofneighbouringStates.WHENSOEVERa Prateliescontiguoustoan-

otherthat happensto beinits decline,the formerought

174 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo, X,

oughtto take particularcarenotto precipitatetheruinof thelatter,becaufethisisthehappie_fitua-tionimaginable; nothingbeingfoconvenientasforoneprinceto benearanotherwhoreceivesforhimall therebuffsandinfultsoffortune: andit feldomhappensthat, by fubduingfucha ftate, therealpowerofthe conquerorisas muchincreafedastherelativeisdiminilhed.

_ _. i i iii i i .

BOOK X.

OFLAWS,IN THERELATIONTHEYBEARTOOFFEN-SIVEFOROE.

CHAP. I.

Of Force.OFFENSIVEforceis regulatedby the lawof

nations; whichisthe politicallawofeachcountry,confideredin itsrelationtoeveryother.

CHAP. II,

Of W'ar.THE life of governmentsis like that of man.

The latterhasa righttokillin cafeof naturalde-fence_ theformerhavearightto wagewarfortheirownprefervation.

In the cafcof naturaldefenceI havearighttokill, becaufemylifeis, inrefpe&to me, whatthelifeof my antagoniftisto him. In the fameman-nera ftatewageswar,becaufeitsprefervationislikethatof anyotherbeing.

With

! C_AP.e. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 175

With individualsthe right of naturaldefencedoes not imply a neceflkyof attacking. Ini_eadof attacking,theyneed onlyhaverecourfeto pro-per tribunals. They cannot, therefore,exercife

i this right of defence, but in fuddencafes,whenimmediatedeathwouldbe the confequenceof wait°ing forthe affiftanceof thelaw. But, withftates,the right of naturaldefencecarriesalong withit:fometimesthe necefl_tyof attacking; as, for in-france,when one nationfees that a continuanceofpeacewillenableanotherto deftroyher, and thatto

i attack thatnationinftantlyis the only way to pre-vent herowndeffruc_ion.

Fromthence it follows, that petty i_ateshaveoftenera right to declarewarthan great ones,be-

: caufetheyare oftenerin thecareof beingafraidofdeftru&ion.

: The right, therefore,of waris derivedfromne-ceffityand ffrid'tjuffice. If thole whodirec"ttheconfcienceor councilsof princesdo not abide bythis maxim,the confequenceis dreadful. Whenthey proceedon arbitraryprinciplesof glory, con-venience,and utility,torrentsof bloodtour over-fpreadtheearth.

But, aboveall, let them notplead fuchan idlepretextas the gloryof theprince:his glory is no-thing butpride_ it is apattion,andnotalegitimateright.

It is truethe fameof his powermight increafethe ftrengthof his government; but it might beequallyincreafedby the reputationof hisjultice.

CHAP.

r?6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoorX.

C HAP. III.

Of theRightof Conquer.FROMtherightofwarcomesthatof conqueft;

whichis the confequenceof thatright,andoughtthereforetofollowitsfpirit.

The righttheconquerorhas_over a conqueredpeopleisdirectedby fourfortsof laws; thelawofnature,whichmakeseverythingtendto theprefer-rationof the fpecies; the lawof naturalreafon,whichteachesusto do tootherswhatwewouldhavedoneto ourfelves; thelawthatformspoliticalfoci-eties,wholedurationnaturehasnotlimited; and,infine,thelawderivedfromthe natureofthethingitfelf. Conquef'cis anacquifition,andcarrieswithit thefpiritofprefervationandufe,notofdeftru&ion.

Theinhabitantsofa conqueredcountryaretreat-ed bytheconqueroroneof thefourfollowingways:eitherhe continuesto rulethemaccordingtotheirownlaws,andaffumestohimfelfonlytheexercifeofthepoliticalandcivilgovernment; orhe givesthemnewpoliticalandcivilgovernment;or he deAroysanddifperfesthefociety_ or, in fine,heexterminatesthepeople.

Thefirffwayisc°nf°rmabletothelawofnationsnowfollowed;thefourthismoreagreeableto thelawof nationsfollowedbytheRomans;in refpe&towhich,I leavethereaderto judge howfarwehaveimproveduponthe ancients.We muff:givedu_commendationsto ourmodernrefinementsinreafon,religion,philofophy,andmanners.

Theauthorsofourpubliclaw,guidedbyancientbiffories,withoutconfiningthemfelvesto cafesof_ri& neceffity,havefallenintoverygreaterrors.They haveadoptedtyrannicalandarbitraryprinci-ples,byfuppofingtheconquerorstobeinvertedwithI knownot whatrightto kill: fromthencethey

have "

CaAP.3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. I77

. havedrawnconfequencesas terribleas theveryprin-ciple, andeftablilhedmaximswhichthe conquerorsthemfelves,whenpoffeffedof thelear grainof fenfe,

! neverprefumedto follow. It is a plaincare,thar,whenthe conquer is completed,the conquerorhas

_ nolongera righttokill,becaufehe hasno longerthe: pleaof naturaldefenceandfelf-prefervatjon.

What hasledtheminto thismittakeis, that theyimaginedthe conquerorhad a right to deRroytheRate_from whencetheyinferred,thathehad a righttodeRroythementhatcompofeit : a wrongconfe-quencefrom a falfe principle. For, from the de-ftru&ionof theRate, it does not at all r%llow,thatthepeople,whocompofeit, ought tobeallbdeftroy-ed. The Rateis theaffociationof men, andnotthemen themfelves; the citizenmay perifll,and themanremain.

From therightof killing, in the cafeof conquefi,politicianshavedrawnthaiof reducingto flavery_ aconfequenceasill groundedastheprinc!ple.

Thereisno fuchthingas a right of reducingpeo-ple to flavery,butwhenit becomesneceffaryfor theprefervationof theconqueR. Prefervation,andnotfervitude,is theend ofconquer; thoughfervitudemayhappenfometimesto be a neceffarymeans ofprefervation.

' Even in that careit is contrary to the nature ofthingsthat the flaveryihould be perpetual. Thepeopleenflavedought tobe renderedcapableof be-comingfubje&s. Slaveryin conquef_sis an acci-dentalthing. When,aftertheexpirationofa certainfpaceof time, all thepartsof"theconqueringRateareconne&edwith the conquerednation, by cuftom,marriages,laws, affociations,and by a certaincon-fortuityof difpofition,thereought to be an endofthe flavery. For the rights of the conquerorare

VoL.I. N founded

178 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo, X,

foundedentirelyontheoppofitionbetweenthetwonationsinthofeveryarticles,whenceprejudicesafireandthewantofmutualconfidence.

A conqueror,therefore,whoreducesthe con-queredpeopleto flavery,oughtalwaystorefervetohimfelfthemeans(formeanstherearewithoutnum-ber)of reftoringthemtotheirliberty.

Therearefarfrombeingvagueanduncertainno-tions. Thusour anceftorsacted; thofeanceftorswhoconqueredtheRomanempire. Thelawstheymadeintheheatandtranfportofpaffion,andinxheinfolenceof vi&ory,weregraduallyfoftened; tholelawswereatfirfttevere,but wereafterwardsren-deredimpartial. TheBurgundians,Goths, andLombards,wouldhavetheRomanscontinuea con-queredpeople; butthe lawsof Euric,Gundebald,andRotharis,madetheRomansandbarb_iansfcl-,low-citizens.* ,

Charlemagne,to tametheSaxons,deprivedthemoftheirlibertyandproperty.LewistheDebonnairemadethemafreepeople"t; andthiswasoneofthemoltprudentregulationsduringhis wholereign.Timeandfervitudehadfoftenedtheirmanners,andtheyeverafteradheredto himwiththegreatefl:fi-delity.

CHAP. IV.

SomeAdvantages_fa conqueredPeople.INSTEADof inferringfuch deftmcq:iveeonfe-

quencesfrom the rightof conquefl:,muchbetterwouldithavebeenforpoliticiansto mentionthead-vantageswhichthisveryrightmayfometimesgivetoaconqueredpeople; advant_/geswhichwouldbe

* Seethecodeofbarbarianlaws."t"Seetheanonymousauthorof the lifeof LewistheDebonnaire2ia Du-

¢he£ne'_¢o11¢2ion_tom.z. p.z96.more

CH,P.4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 179

i_ morefenfiblyandmoreuniverfallyexperienced,were- our.lawof .nationsexa&lyfollowed,andeftabliflaedi ineverypart of theglobe.

Conqueredcountriesare, generallyfpeaking,de-i generatedfromtheiroriginalinftitution. Corrup-i tionhascreptin, theexecutionof the lawshas been

negle_ed, andthe governmentis grownoppreflive.Whocanqueftionbut fucha ftatewouldbe a gainer,andderiverome advantagesfromthe veryconquefl:itfelf, if it didnot provedeftru&ive? When a go-vernmentis arrivedto thatdegreeofcorruptionastobeJncapable of reformingitt_lf, it would not lofemuchby beingnewmoulded. A conqueror,whoenterstriumphantintoa country,wherethemoneyedmenhave,by a varietyofartifices,infenfiblyarrived

at innumerablewaysof encroachingon } " -ubhc,the

where the miferablepeople,whofeeabufe growninto laws,arereadyto rink underthe weightof op-preffion,yet think they haveno right toapplyforredrefs; a conqueror,I fay, may make a totalchange_ and thenthe tyrannyof tholewretcheswillbethefirftthingexpofedto hisrefentment,

We havebeheld,for inftance,countriesoppreffedbythefarmersof the revenues,andearedafterwardsbythe conqueror,whohad neithertheengagementsnorwantsof the legitimateprince. Even theabu-feshavebeenoftenredreffedwithoutanyinterpofitionoftheconqueror.

Sometimesthefrugality of a conqueringnationhasenabledthem to allowthe conqueredthole ne-ceffariesof whichthey had beendeprivedunderalawfulprince.

A conquefcmaydeft;royperniciousprejudices,andlay, ifI mayprefumeto ufe theexpreffion,the na-tion undera bettergenius.

N z 3¥hat

*$o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_;X.

WhatgoodmightnottheSpaniardshavedonetotheMexicans? Theyhadamildreligionto impartto them,buttheyfilledtheirheadswitha franticfuperftition: theymighthaveletflavesat liberty;theymadefreemenflares: theymighthaveunde-ceivedthemwithregardtotheabufeofhumanfacri-rices; infteadofthat,theydeftroyedthem. NeverthouldI havefinithed,wereI to recountall.thegoodtheymighthavedone,andallthemifchieftheycommitted.

It isaconqueror'sbufinefsto repaira partofthemifchiefhe has occafioned.Theright,therefore,of conquefl:I definethus: a neceffary,lawful,butunhappy,power,whichleavestheconquerorundera heavyobligationof repairingtheinjuriesdone-tohumanity.

CHAP. V.

Gelon,KingofSyracufe.

THE noblefttreatyof peaceevermentionedinhiftoryis, in myopinion,that whichGelonmadewiththeCarthaginians.Heinfiftedupontheirabo-]ifhingthe cuftomof facrificingtheir children_t;Gloriousindeed!Afterhavingdefeatedthreehun-dredthoufandCarthaginians,herequiredaconditionthatwasadvantageousonlytothemfelves; or,rather,heftipulatedinfavourofhumannature.

TheBa&riansexpofedtheiragedfathersto bede-vouredbylargemaftiffs: a cuftomfup.preffedbyAlexanderll,wherebyheobtaineda fignaltriumphoverfuperftition.

SeeM.Barbeyra¢'sc_lle&ion,ml".I Iz.[1_Strabo,lib.2.

CHAP.

C._av.6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. ISz

C I-I A P. VI.

OfConquefls_adebya .Republic.IT is contraryto thenatureof things, that, ina

confederategovernment,one Ratefllouldmakeanyconqueffoveranother,as in ourdays we havefeenin Swifferland.§ In mixt confederaterepublics,wheretheaffociationis betweenpettyrepublicsandmonarchiesof a lmallextent, thisis not foabfurd.

Contraryit is aifoto the natureof thingsthatademocraticalrepublic fhouldconquertownswhichcannotenterinto thefphereof its democracy. It isneceffarythat the conqueredpeopleflqouldbe ca-pableof enjoyingthe privilegesof fovereignty,aswas fettledin the verybeginningamong the Ro-mans, The conqueftought to be limitedto thenumberof citizensfixtfor the democracy.

If a democraticalrepublic fubduesa nationinorderto governthemas fubje&s,it expofesits ownliberty, becaufeit intruftstoogreata powerto tholewhoareappointedto thecommandof theconqueredprovinces.

How dangerouswouldhavebeenthe fituationoftherepublicof Carthagehad Hannibalmade him-felt"mafterof Rome! What wouldnothe havedonein hisown countryhad he beenvi_orious,he whocaufedt"omanyrevolutions"in it afterhis de.,feat?*

Hanno could never have diffuadedthe fenatefrom fendingfuccoursto Hannibalhad he ufed noother argumentthan his ownjealoufy. The Car-thaginianfenate,whofewifdomis fo highlyextolledby Ariftotle,(and whichhas beenevidentlyproved

§ WithregardtoTotkenburg.Hewasat theheadof a fac2ion.

N 3 by

iSz THe'. SPIRIT'OF LAWS. Boo_X.

by the profperityof that republic,)couldneverhavebeendeterminedbyotherthan folidreafons.Theymuffhavebeenftupidnottofeethatanarmy,at the diftanceof three hundredleagues,wouldneceffarilybe expofedto loffeswhichrequiredrepa-ration.

Hanno'sparty infiftedthat Hannibal/houldbedeliveredupto the Romans.t They couldnotatthattimebeafraidoftheRomans; theywerethere-foreapprehenfiveof Hannibal.

It wasimpoltible,romewillfay, for them toimaginethatHannibalhadbeenfofuccefsful.Buthowwasit poffibleforthemtodoubtofit ? Couldthe Carthaginians,a peoplefpreadover all theearth,beignorantof whatwastranfa&ingin Italy?No: theywerefufficientlyacquaintedwithit, andfor thatreafontheydidnot careto fendfuppliestoHannibal.

Hannobecamemorerefoluteafter thebattleofTrebia,afttr thebattleof Thrafimenus,afterthatofCannm: it wasnot hisincredulitythatincreafed_buthisfear.

CHAP. VII.ThefameSubjeflcontinued.

THERE is frillanotherinconveniencein con-queftsmadebydemocracies.Theirgovernmentiseverodiousto the conqueredllates. It is appa-rentlymonarchical: but, inreality,itismuchmoreoppreffivethanmonarchy,as theexperienceof allagesandcountriesevinces.

The conqueredpeopleare in amelancholyfitu-ation: theyneitherenjoytileadvantagesofa repub.lic, northofeof amonarchy.

t HannowantedtodeliverHannibalup totheRomans,asCatowouldfainhavedeliveredup Ca:fartotheGauls.

What

C_av. 9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. i83

WhathasbeenherefaidofapopularRateisap-plicabletoariRocracy.

CHAP. VIII.if'befame8ubjegtcontinued.

WHENa republic,therefore,keepsanotherna-tioninfubje&ion,it /houldendeavourto repairtheinconveniencesarifingfromthe natureof itsfitua-tion,by givingit goodlaws,bothforthepoliticalandcivilgovernmentofthepeople.

Wehaveanint_anceof aniflandintheMediter-ranean,fubje&to anItalianrepublic,wholepoliti-calandcivillaws,withregardto theinhabitantsofthat ifland,wereextremelydefe&ive.The a&ofindemnity,"bywhichit ordainedthatnoonelhouldbecondemnedto bodilypunilhmentinconfequenceof the privateknowledgeof the governor,exin-formataeonfcientia,isRillrecentin everybody'sme-mory. Therehavebeenfrequentinflcancesof thepeople'spetitioningfor privileges:herethefore-reigngrantsonlythecommonrightofallnations.

CHAP. IX.OfConqueflsmadebya Monarchy.

IF a monarchycanlongfubfiitbeforeit is weak-enedby its increafe,it will becomeformidable;anditsRrengthwillremainentirewhilepentup bytheneighbouringmonarchies.

It oughtnot, therefore,to aimatconqueftsbe-yondthenaturallimitsof itsgovernment.Soloonasit haspairedtherelimitsit is prudenceto Rop.

* Of the 13thof O&ober_I738, printedat Genoa,byFranchelli.Vie-ti_moalnoffrogeneralgoveraatoreindettaifoladi condannareinavennirefola-menteexin/ormatacor.fcientiaperfonaalcuaanazionaleinpenaafflittiva; potral_enfiarre_areed incareerarele perfoneche glifarrannofofpette_falvodiren-_erne[_oianoicontofollecitamcate.Art.6.

N 4 In

x84 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:X.

In thiskindof conqueftthingsmuff be left astheywerefound; thcfamecourtsofjudicature,thefamelaws,the famecuRoms,the fameprivileges:thereoughtto be no otheralterationthanthatofthearmyandofthenameofthefovereign.

Whena monarchyhasextendeditslimitsbytheconquerof neighbouringprovinces,it fhouldtreattholeprovinceswithgreatlenity.

If a monarchyhas beenlongendeavouringatconquers,theprovincesof its ancientdemefnearegenerallyill-ufed: theyareobligedto fubmitbothto thenewandto theancientabufes,andto bede-populatedbya vaRmetropolisthatfwallowsupthewhole. Now, if, after havingmadeconquersroundthisdemefne,theconqueredpeopleweretreatedliketheancientfubje&s,theRatewouldbeundone;the taxes¢lentbytheconqueredprovincesto thecapital,wouldneverreturn; the inhabitantsofthefrontierswouldbe ruined,andconfequentlytilefrontierswouldbe weaker; thepeoplewouldbedifaffe&ed; andthefubfiftenceof thearmiesde-figned,to a&andremaintherewouldbecomemoreprecarious.

Suchis the neceffaryffateof a conqueringmo-narchy;a fhockingluxuryin thecapital;miferyin the provincesfomewhatdiftant;andplentyinthemoil:remote. ]t is thefame_vithfucha mo-narchyas withourplanet; fireat the center,ver-dureonthefurface,and,betweenboth,adry, cold!andbarren,earth.

CHAP.. X,OfoneMonarchythatfubduesanother.

SOMETIMESone monarchyfilbduesanother.Thefmallerthelatter,thebetterit isover-awedby

fortreffes,

CHAP.IZ. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. x_5

fortreffes; and, thelargerit is, thebetterwillit bepreferredbycolonies.

CHAP. XI.

qf theMannersofa conguered_People.IT isnotfufficient,in thofeconquers,to letthe

conquerednationenjoytheirownlaws; it is per-hapsmoreneceffaryto leavethemalfotheirman-ners,becaufepeoplein generalhavea f_rongerat-tachmentto the/'ethanto theirlaws.

The FrenchhavebeendrivenninetimesoutofItaly,becaufe,as hiRoriansfay,-[-oftheirinfolentfamiliaritieswiththefairrex. It is toomuchforanationtobeobligedto bear,notonlywiththeprideof conquerors,but with theirincontinenceandin-difcretion: thefeare,withoutdoubt,moil:grievousand intolerable,as theyarethefourceof infiniteoutrages.

C H A P. XII.

Ofa Lawff Cyrus.FAR amI fromthinkingthatagoodlawwhich

Cyrusmadeto obligethe Lydianstopra_ifenonebut meanor infamousprofeffions.It istrue,hedire_edhisattentionto an obje&of thegreateftimportance; hethoughtofguardingagainftrevolts,andnotinvafions: but invafionswilllooncome,whenthePerfiansandLydiansuniteand corrupteachother. I wouldthereforemuchratherfup-port, bylaws,the fimplicityand rudenefsof theconqueringnation,thantheeffeminacyof thecon-quered.

SeePuffcndorf'_UaiveffalHi/_ory.Ariftodemus,

|

185 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKX.

Ariftodemus,tyrantof Cumin,_ ufedall his en-deavoursto banithcourage, and to enervate themindsof youth. He orderedthatboysflaouldlettheir hair growin the famemanneras girls; thatthey flaoulddeck it with flowers,and wearlongrobesof differentcoloursdownto theirheels; that,whenthey went to their maftersof muficanddan-cing, they thould havewomenwiththem to carrytheir umbrelloes,perfumes,and fans, and to pre-lent themwithcombsand looking-glaffeswheneverthey bathed. This educationlaLtedtill theageoftwenty; an educationthat could be agreeabletonone but to a petty tyranqwhoexpofeshisfove-reigntytodefendhis life.

C H A P. XIII.

C H A Ii L E $ XII.

THIS prince, whodependedentirelyon his ownftrength, haftenedhis ruin by formingdefignsthatcouldneverbe executedbut bya longwar_ a thingwhichhiskingdomwasunableto fupport.

It wasnot.a decliningftatehe undertookto fub-vert, but a tiring empire. The Ruffiansmadeufeof the war, he wagedagainftthem, asof a militaryfchool. Every defeat brought themnearerto vic-tory; and, lofing abroad, they learnt to defendthemfelvesat home.

Charles,in thedefertsof Poland, imaginedhimfelffovereignof the wholeworld. Here he wandered,and withhim, in fome-meafure,wanderedSweden;whilt_his capitalenemy acquirednew ftrengtha-

--" -- -- Og .gainfthlm, locked him up, madefettlementsalon_,the Baltic,deftroyedor fubduedLivonia.

_[Dionyf.Halicar.L7.Sweden

C_Av.I$. THE SFIRIT OF LAWS. 187

Swedenwaslike a river, wholewatersarecut offat the fountain-head,inordertochangeits courfe.

I_wasnot theaffairof PultovathatruinedCharles.Had he notbeendeflroyedat that place, he wouldinanother. The cafualtiesof fortuneareeafilyre-paired; but whocanbeguardedagainfieventsthatinceffantlyarifefrom thenatureof things?

But neithernaturenor fortune wageverfo muchagaini_him ashe himfelf.

He was not dire&edby the prefentfituationofthings, but bya kind of planof his forming; andeventhishe followedveryill. He wasnor anA-lexander; but he wouldhavemadean excellentfol-dier underthatmonarch.

Alexander'sproje&fucceededbecaufeit waspru-dentlyconcerted. The badfuccefsof the Perfiansin theirfeveralinvafionsof Greece,the conquersofAgefilaus,andthe retreatof the ten thoufand,had/hewnto demonftrationthefuperiorityof theGreeksin theirmannerof fighting andin theirarms; andit waswellknownthatthePerfiausweretooproudtobecorre&ed.

It was no longer po/fiblefor them to weakenGreecebydivifions: Greecewasthen unitedunderonehead,who couldnot pitch upon a better me-thodof renderingher infenfibleof her fervitude,thanbyflatteringhervanitywith the defl:ru&ionofher hereditaryenemy,and with the hopes of theconquei_of Aria.

Anempire,cultivatedby the moltindufiriousna.tion in theworld, thatfollowedagriculturefromaprincipleof religion; anempire,aboundingwitheveryconveniencyof life; furnil'hedtheenemywithallneceffarymeansof fubfifting.

It waseafyto judge, by the prideof tholekings,vchoin vainweremortifiedby their numerousde-

_feats_

_Sg THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_X.

feats,thattheywouldprecipitatetheirruinbytheirforwardnefsin venturingbattles; andthattheflat-teryof theircourtierswouldneverpermitthemtodoubtoftheirgrandeur.

Theproje&wasnotonlywife,butwifelyexecuted.Alexander,intherapidityof hisconquefts,evenintheimperuofityofhispaffion,had,if I mayfoex.prefsmyfelf,aflaflaofreafonbywhichhewasdire&ed,andwhichthole,whowouldfainhavemadea ro-manceof his hiftory,andwholemindsweremorecorruptthanhis, couldnotconcealfromourview.Letusdefcendmoreminutelyintohishiftory.

C H A P. XIV._LEXAND]_R.

HEdidnotletoutuponhisexpeditiontillhehadfecuredMacedoniaagainfttheneighbouringbarba-riansandcompletedthe redu&ionof Greece;heavailedhimfelfofthisconqueftfornootherendthanfor theexecutionof his grandenterprize; heren-deredthejealoufyoftheLaced_emoniansofnoeffe&_he attackedthemaritimeprovinces; he caufedhislandforcestokeep clofeto thefencoaff,thattheymightnotbefeparatedfromhi;sfleet; he madeanadmirableufeof difciplineagainffnumbers; hene-verwantedprovifions; and, if it be true,thatvic-torygavehimeverything,he,inhisturn,dideverythingto obtainit.

Inthe beginningof hisenterprize,a timewhentheIeafl:checkmighthaveprovedhis deftru&ion,hetruftedverylittleto fortune; but, whenhisre-putationwaseftabtifhedby a feriesof profperousevents,he fometimeshad recourfeto temerity.When,beforehis departureforAria,he marchedagainffthe Triballiansand Illyrians,you findhe

waged

Cr_AP.I4. THE 'SPIRIT OF LAWS. i_9

wagedwar* againfttholepeoplein theveryfamemanncrasC_[arafterwardscondu&edthatagainf_theGauls. Uponhisreturnto Greece-]-,it wasiaromemeafureagainf_hiswillthathetookandde-RroyedThebes. Whenhe invertedthe city,hewantedthe inhabitantstocomeintotermsofpeace;buttheyhaftenedtheirownruin. Whenit wasde-batedwhetherhethouldattackthePerfianfleetS,itis Parmeniothatfhewshisprefumption,Alexanderhiswifdom.HisaimwastodrawthePerfiansfromthe fea-coaft,andto lay themundera neceltityofabandoningtheirmarine,in whichtheyhada mani-leftfuperiority.Tyrebeingfromprincipleattachedto thePerlians,whocouldnot fubfifl:withoutthecommerceandnavigationof that city,Alexanderdeftroyedit. He fubduedEgypt, whichDariushadleftbareoftroops,whilehewasaffemblingim-menfearmiesinanotherworld.

To thepaffageof theGranicusAlexanderowedtheconqueftoftheGreekcolonies; to thebattleof1flus,theredu&ionof TyreandEgypt; to thebat-tleofArbela,theempireoftheworld.

After the battleof Iffus,he fufferedDariustoefcape,andemployedhistimeinfecuringandregu-latinghisconquefts: afterthebattleof Arbela,hepurfuedhimfoclofe11as to leavehimno placeo£lhelterin hisempire. Dariusentershis towns,hisprovinces,to quit themthe next moment; and.Alexandermarcheswithfuchrapidity,thattheem-pireoftheworldfeemsto berathertileprizeofanOlympianracethanthefruitofagreatvi&ory.

Inthismannerhecarriedonhisdonquet_s; letusnowfeehowhepreferredthem.

* SeeArrian.deexpedit.Alexandri,llb.I. t"/bid, _ Ibld.1[SeeArrian,deexpedit.Alexandri,

He

19o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_X.

HeoppofedtholewhowouldhavehadhimtreattheGreeksas maffers§_andthePerfiansasflares.He thoughtonlyof unitingthetwonations,andofabolithingthediffin_ionsofaconqueringandacon-queredpeople. Afterhe hadcompletedhisvi_o-ties, he relinquilhedall tholeprejudicesthat hadhelpedhimto obtainthem. Heaffumedthe man-netsof thePerfians,thathemightnotchagrinethemtoomuchbyobligingthemtoconformto tholeoftheGreeks.It wasthishumanitywhichmadehim1hewfogreatarefpe&,for the.wifeandmotherofDarius; andthzsthatmadehimfocontinent.Whata conqueror!he is lamentedbyallthenationshehasfubdued! Whatanufurper!at hisdeath,theveryfamilyhehasca_fromthethroneisallintears.Therewerethe mo_ gloriouspaffagesin hislife,andfuchashif'corycannotproduceaninffanceof inanyotherconqueror.

Nothing confolidatesa conquef_morethantheunionformedbetweenthetwonationsbymarriages.Alexanderchorehiswivesfromthe nationhe ha_lfubdued; heinfiRedonhiscourtiersdoingthefame;andtheref'cofthe Macedoniansfollowedtheexam-ple, TheFranksandBurgundianspermittedthofemarriages_[: theVifigothsforbadthem in Spain,andafterwardsalIowedthem*. By theLombardstheywerenotonlyallowedbutencouraged%WhentheRomanswantedto weakenMacedonia,theyor-deredthatthere/houldbenointer-marriagesbetweenthepeopleof differentprovinces.

§ ThlswasArh_otl_'sAdvice. P|utareh'sMoral&ofthefortuneandvlztueofAlexander.• if(SeethelawoftheBurgundiam.tit. _z. art._.

* SeethelawoftheVlfig0ths,book3' tit *. §.1. whiehabrogatesthean-cientIgor,that had/i'io_¢regard,it fayh tothedifferenceof natio1_,thantothato_people'sconditions.

1"Seethe lawoftheLombard%bookz. tit. 7. §. 1.&z.

Alexander,

CHAPolZ_'. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. r9I

Alexander,wholeaimwasto unitethetwona-tions,thoughtlitto eRabliihinPerfiaagreatnum-berof Greekcolonies.He built,therefore,amul-titudeoftowns; andfoRronglywereallthepartsofthisnewempirecemented,that, afterhis deceafe,amidRthediRurbaneesandeonfufionof the moil:frightfulcivilwars,whentheGreekshad reducedthemfelves,as itwere,toaRateofannihihti0n,nota tingleprovinceofPerfiarevolted.

To preventGreeceandMacedonfrombeingtoomuchexhauf_ed,helentacolonyofJews_ toAlex-andria: themannersoftholepeoplefigni.fiednothingto him,providedhecouldbelureoftheirfidelity.

Henotonlyfufferedtheconquerednationsto re-taintheirowncuRomsand manners,but tikewifetheircivillaws; andfrequentlythe verykingsandgovernorsto whomtheyhad beenfubje_. TheMacedoniansllheplacedat theheadof the troops,and the nativesof thecountryat theheadof thegovernment; ratherchoofingtorun thehazardof aparticulardifloyalty(whichfomerimeshappened)thanof a generalrevolt.

Hepaida greatrefpec°cto theancienttraditions,andtoallthepublicmonumentsof thegloryorva-nityofnations. ThePerfianmonarchshavin_de-f'croyedthetemplesoftheGreeks,Babylomans,andEgyptians,Alexanderrebuiltthem§. Fewnationsfubmittedto hisyoketo wholereligionhedidnotconform:andhisconquersfeemto havebeenin-tendedonlyto makehimtheparticularmonarchofeachnation,andthefirfl:inhabitantof eachcity.TheaimoftheRomans,inconqueR,was,todeRroy;

_.ThekingsofSyrla,abandoningtheplanlaiddownbythefounderof theempire,refolvedtoobligethe|ewstoconformtothemannersoftheGreeksi azcfolotionthatgavethemo/_terrible/hocktotheirgovernment.

_lSccArrian.docxI_eAit.AlexandriIlib.3.andothers, § Ibid,

his,

192 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogX'.

his, to preferve: and, whereverhedire&edhisvic-toriousarms, his chief viewwasto atchieverome-thing, from whencethat countrymightderiveanhacreafeof profperityand power. To attainthisend, he wasenabled,firftof all, by thegreatnefsofhis genius; fecondly,by hisfrugality andprivatececonomy_ ; thirdly,by hisprofufioninmattersofimportance.He wasclofeandreferredinhis privateexpences,butgenerousto thehigheffdegreein tholeof a publicnature. In regulatinghishoufehold,hewas the privateMacedonian; but, in payingthetroops, in iharing his conquet_swith theGreeks,and in hislargeffesto everyfoldierin his army, hewasAlexander.

He committed two very bad a&ions,in letting_erfepolisonfire,and flayingC|ims; but he ren-dered themfamousby hisrepentance. Henceit isthat hiscrimesareforgot,whilehisregardforvirtuewas recorded: theywereconfideredrather as un-lucky accidents,than as his own deliberateac_s.Pofferity,t_ruckwith the beautyof his mind,evenin the midft of his irregularpaffion,canviewhimonlywithpity, butneverwithan eyeof hatred.

Let usdrawa comparifonbetweenhimandCaffar.The Roman general, by attemptingto imitatetheAfiaticmonarch,flunghisfellow-citizensintoa ffateof defpairfora matterof.mereoffentation; theMa-cedonianprince, bythe fameimitation,dida thingwhichwasquiteagreeableto his original£chemeofconquefL

CHAP. XV.

NewMetbods_ofprefervingaCon_uefl.

WHEN a monarchhas fubdueda largecountry,he maymakeufe of an admirablemethod,equally

SeeArrian._e¢xj?edit',Alcxandri,lib,3. andother.%proper

(_AV.16. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. x9_

properformoderatingdefpoticpowerandforprefer-vmgthe conqueft:it isa methodpra&ifi:dbytheconquerorsofChina.

In orderto preventthevanquiflaednationfromfallingintodefpair,the vi&orsfromgrowinginfo-lentandproud,thegovernmentfrombecomingmi-litary,and to containthetwonationswithintheirduty,theTartarfamily,nowonthethroneofChi-na, has Ordainedthat everymilitarycorpsin theprovincesthouldbe compofedhalf of Chinefeandhalf Tartars, to the endthat the jealoufybetweenthetwonationsmaykeepthem_vithinbounds.Thecourtsofjudicaturearelikewit;ehalfChinefeandhalfTartars. Thisis produ&iveof feveralgoodeffe&s.I. The two nationsarea checkto oneanother.2. Theybothprefervethecivilandmilitarypower,andoneisnotdeftroyedbytheother. 3' Thecon-queringnationmayfpreaditfelfwithoutbeingweak-enedand loft. It is likewifeenabledto withftandcivilandforeignwars. The wantof fo wifeanin-ftitutionas thishasbeenthe ruin of almoftalltheconquerorsthateverexifted.

C H A P. XVI.

OfGon_ueflsmadebyadefpoticPrince.WHENa conquefthappensto bevaftlylarge,it

fuppofesa defpoticpower; andthenthearmydif-perfedin the provincesis not fufficient.Therelhouldbealwaysa bodyoffaithfultroopsneartheprince,readyto fallinftantlyuponanypartof theempirethat maychanceto waver. Thismilitarycorpsoughtto awethereft,andtoftriketerrorintothole,who,throughneceffity,havebeenintruftedwithanyauthorityinthe empire. TheemperorofChinahasalwaysa largebodyof Tartarsnearhis

VoL.I. 0 perfon,

t94 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XL

perfon,readyuponalloccafions.In India,in Tur-key, in Japan, theprincehasalwaysa body-guard,independentoftheotherregularforces. This parti-cularcorpskeepsthedifperi_dtroopsinawe.

C H A P. XVII._'hefameSubje_continued.

"WEhaveobferved,thatthecountriesfubduedbya defpoticmonarchoughtto beheldby a vaffal.Hiftoriansareverylavifhoftheirpraifesonthege-nerofityof tholeconquerorswhoreftoredtheprincestothethronewhomtheyhadvanquilhed.Extremelygenerous,then,weretheRomans,whomadefuchanumberof kings,inorderto haveinltrumentsof fla-veryt". A proceedingofthatkindis abfolutelyne-ceffary.If the conquerorintendsto prefervethecountrywhichhehasfubdued,neitherthegovernorshe fendswillbe ableto containthe fubje&swithinduty, nor he himfelfthe governors.He willbeobligedto fcriphisancientpatrimonyof troopsinorder to fecurehisnewdominions.The tuileriesofeachnationwillbecommontoboth; civilbroilswillfpreadthemfelvesfromoneto the other. Onthecontrary,if theconquerorreftoresthe legitimateprinceto thethrone,hewillofcourfehaveanally;bythe.jun&ionofwhofeforceshisownpowerwillbeaugmented.We havea recentinftanceof thisinShahNadir,whoconqueredthe Mogul,feizedhistreafures,andlefthimin poffeffionoflndoftan.

t Uthaberentinfa,umentafervitutis&rege3.

BOOK

CHAP.z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 19_

BOOK XL

OF THE LAWS WHICH ESTABLISH POLITICAL LI-BERTY_ WITH REGARD TO THE CONSTITUTION.

CHAP. I.

tl generalIdea.I makea diitin&ionbetweenthelawsthatei_a-

bliihpoliticalliberty,asit relatestothecon_itution,and tholebywhichit iseftablifhed,as it relatestothecitizen. The formerfhallbethefubje&ofthisbook_ thelatterI thallexaminein thenext.

CHAP. II.

DifferentSignificationsof theWord,Liberty.THERE is nowordthatadmitsof morevarious

fignifications,and hasmademoredifferentimprefofionson the humanmind, than that of liberty.Somehavetakenit for a facilityofdepofinga per-fonon whomtheyhad conferreda tyrannicalau°thority:others,for the powerof choofinga fupe-nor whomthey areobligedto obey; others,forthenht" of bearingarms,andofbeingtherebyen-abledgtoufeviolence:others,in fine,for the privi-legeof beinggovernedby a nativeof theirowncountry,or bytheirownlaws.* A certainnation,foralongtime,thoughtlibertyconfiftedin thepri-vilegeof wearinga longbeard.11Somehavean-nexedthisnameto oneformofgovernmentexclu-

• I havecopied,I'a_*Cicero,Scmvo!a'sedit, whichpermitsthe Gree_stoterminatetheirdifferenceamongthemfelvesaccordingto theirownlaws: this_akes themconfiderthemfelvesas a freepeople.

_JTheKuffiaascouldnot bearthat CzarPeter/houldmakethemeatit off.0 z five

x96 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boos:XLfiveofothers: tholewhohada republicantafl:eap-pliedit to thisfpeciesof polity: tholewholikedamonarchicalRategaveit to monarchy.-]-Thustheyhaveallappliedthe nameof libertyto thego-vernmentmo_fuitableto theirowncuffomsandin-clinations; andas, in republics,the peoplehavenot fo con/_antand foprefenta viewof thecaufesof theirmifery,andasthe magit_ratesfeemto a&onlyin conformityto the laws,hencelibertyisge-nerallylaidtorefideinrepublics,andto bebanithedfrommonarchies.In fine,as in democraciesthepeoplefeemto a&almoftastheypleafe,thisfortofgovernmenthasbeendeemedthe moltfree, andthepowerof thepeoplehasbeenconfoundedwiththeirliberty.

C H A P. III.

XnwhatLikertyconfifls.

IT is truethat,in democracies,the peoplefeemto ac"tas theypleafe; butpoliticallibertydoesnotconfif'cin anunlimitedfreedom.In governments,that is, in focietiesdire&edby laws,libertycanconfit_onlyin thepowerof doingwhatweoughtto will,andin notbeingc6nffrainedto dowhatw,oughtnottowill.

We mu_ havecontinuallyprefentto ourmindsthe differencebetweenindependenceand liberty.Libertyis arightof doingwhateverthe lawsper-mit; and,ifa citizencoulddowhattheyforbid,hewouldbeno longerpoffeffedof liberty,becaufeallhisfellow-citizenswouldhavethefamepower.

The Cappadociansrefafedtheconditionof a republicanftat¢_whichwas¢ff_edthgmbytheRomans.

CHA_

C_AP.5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. I97

CHAP. IV.g'hefame8ubje;'lcontinued.

DEMOCRATICand ariftocraticftatesarenotin theirownnaturefree. Politicallibertyis to befoundonlyin moderategovernments; andeveninthereit is notalwaysfound. It isthereonlywhenthereis noabufeofpower: butconftantexperience/hewsus that everymaninvertedwithpoweris aptto abufeit, and to carryhisauthorityas far as itwillgo. Is it notftrange,thoughtrue, tofay,thatvirtueitfelfhasneedoflimits?

To preventthis abufe,it isneeefl'ary,fromtheverynatureof things,powerlhouldbea checktopower. A governmentmaybe fo conftituted,asnomanthallbecompelledto do thingstowhichthelawdoesnotobligehim,norforcedtoabftainfromthingswhichthelawpermits.

CHAP. V.

OftheEndorViewofdifferentGovernments.THOUGHalluovernmentshavethefame_ene-

ralend,whichis t_atofprefervation,yeteac'hhasanotherparticularobje&. Increafeofdominionwastheobjee'tofRome; war,thatofSparta; religion,thatof theJewilhlaws;commerce,that of Mar-fellies_ publictranquillity,thatofthelawsof Chi-na*; navigation,thatofthelawsofRhodes; natu-ral liberty,thatof the policyof theravages; ingeneral,the pleafuresof the prince, that of def-poticftates; thatof monarchies,the prince'sandthekingdom'sglory: the independenceof indivi-

* Thenaturalendofafhtethathasnofordgacnemiesjorthatth}aksitfelffccureciagainftthembybarriers.

0 3 duals

19S THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _Boo_Xl.dualsis the endaimedatbythelawsof Poland;fromthencerefultsthe oppreltionof thewhole.T

One nationthereis alfoin theworld,thathas,for the directend of its conffitution,politicalli-berty. Wefhallprefentlyexaminetheprinciplesonwhichthis libertyis founded:if theyare found,libertywillappearin itshigheftperfection.

To difcoverpoliticallibertyin a conf'titution,nogreatlabourisrequifite.If wearecapableoffee-ingit whereit exifts,it isloonfound,andweneednotgofarin fearchofit.

CHAP. vI.of theConflitutionof England.

iN everygovernmentthereare threefortsofpower: thelegiflative; theexecutiveinrefpe6ttothingsdependenton the lawof nations; andtheexecutivem regardto mattersthatdependon thecivillaw.

Byvirtueof the firft,the princeor magiftrateena&stemporaryorperpetuallaws,andamendsorabrogatestholethathavebeenalreadyenac"ted.Bythe fecond,he makespeaceor war,fendsor re-ceivesembafties,eftabliflaesthepublicfecurity,andprovidesagainftinvafions.By the third,he pu-nilhescriminals,or determinesthedifputesthata-rife betweenindividuals.The latterwelhallcallthejudiciarypc;wer,andtheother,fimp!y,theexe-cutivepoweroftheRate.

The politicallibertyofthe fubje&is a tranquil-lity ofmindarifingfromthe opinioneachperfonhasofhisfafety. In ordertohavethisliberty,itisrequifitethe governmentbe fo con_itutedas onemanneednotbe afraidofanother.

_"Inconve_eneyoft_eLibtrum_et¢_When

Cuav.6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z99Whenthe legiflativeand executivepowersare

unitedin thefameperfon,or in thefamebodyOfmagiftrates,therecanbe no liberty; becaufeap-prehenfionsmayarife,leftthe famemonarchor re-antePaouldena&tyrannicallaws,toexecutetheminatyrannicalmanner.

Again,thereis no libertyif thejudiciarypowerbenotfeparatedfromthelegiflativeandexecutive.Wereit joinedwiththe legiflative,thelifeandli-bert',/of the fubje&wouldbeexpofedto arbitrarycontroul; for the judge wouldbethenthelegifla-tot. Wereit joinedto the executivepower,thejudgemightbehavewithviolenceandoppreflion.

Therewouldbe anendofeverything,werethefameman,orthefamebody,whetherofthenoblesor of the people,to exercifethofethreepowers,thatofena&inglaws,that of executingthepublicrefolutions,andoftryingthecaufesofindividuals.

Mo_kingdomsin Europeenjoya moderatego-vernment,becaufethe prince,whoisinvertedwiththetwofirf'cpowers,leavesthethirdto hisfubje&s;

In Turkey,wherethefethreepowersareunitedin thefultan'sperfon,the fubje&sgroanunderthe_noftdreadfuloppreflion.

IntherepublicsofItaly,wherethefethreepowersare united,there is lefs libertythanin ourmo-narchies. Hencetheir governmentis obligedtohaverecourfeto asviolentmethods,for itsfupport,aseventhatof the Turks; witherstheftate-inquifi-tots,* and the lion'smouthinto whicheveryin-formermayat all hours throwhiswrittenaccufa-tions.

In whata fituationmui'cthe poorfubje&be,un-dertholerepublics[ Thefamebodyofmagiffratesarepoff_ffed,asexecutorsof thelaws,of thewhole

• AtV_I¢¢.

O 4 power

2o0 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXI,

powertheyhavegiventhemfelvesin qualityof le-giflators.Theymayplunderthe_atebytheirge-neraldeterminations; and,as theyhavelikewifethejudiciarypowerin theirhands,everyprivateci-tizenmayberuinedbytheirparticulardecifions,

The wholepoweris hereunitedin onebody;and,thoughthereis noexternalpompthatindicatesa defpoticfway,yet the peoplefeeltheeffe&sof iteverymoment.

Henceit is thatmanyof theprincesof Europe,wholeaim has beenlevelled:at arbitrarypower,haveconftantlylet out withuniting,in theirownperfons,all thebranchesof magiftracy,and all thegreatofficesofftate.

I allow,indeed,that the merehereditaryarifio-cracyof the Italianrepublicsdoesnot exa6tlyanf..werto the defpoticpowerof the Eafiernprinces,The numberofma.giftratesfometimesmoderatesthepowerof themaglRracy; thewholebodyof theno-blesdonot alwaysconcurin thefamedefign_ anddifferenttribunalsareere&ed,thattempereacho-ther. Thus, at Venice,the legiflativepoweris inthecouncil,theexecutivein thepregadi,andtheju-diciaryin thequarantia.But themifchiefis, thatthefedifferenttribunalsarecompofedof magiftratesallbelongingto the famebody; whichconRitutesalmofl:oneandthefamepower.

The judiciarypoweroughtnot to begivento af_andingfenate; it [houldbe exercifedby perfonstakenfromthe bodyofthepeople,*atcertaintimesof theyear,andconfifl:entlywithaformandmannerprefcribedbylaw,in orderto ere&a tribunalthatthouldla_onlyfolongasneceffityrequires.

Bythismethod,thejudicialpower,foterribletomankind,not beingannexedto anyparti_larftate

:.a,_atAthen.,.or

Ct_AP.&THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. ,ol

orprofeffion,becomes,asit were,invifible.Peoplehavenotthenthejudgescontinuallyprefenttotheirview; theyfeartheoffice,butnotthemagifl:rate.

Inaccufationsofadeepandcriminalnature,it ispropertheperfonaccufedflaouldhavethe privilegeof choofing,inromemeafure,hisjudges,inconcur-rencewiththelaw; or, at leaft,he flaouldhavearightto exceptagainftfogreata n_mber,that theremainingpartmaybedeemedhisownchoice.

Theothertwopowersmaybegivenratherto ma..giftratesor permanentbodies,becaufetheyarenotexercifedonanyprivatefubje&; onebeingnomorethan thegeneralwilloftheftate,andtheothertheexecutionofthatgeneralwill.• But, thoughthetribunalsoughtnotto befixt,the

judgementsought; andto fucha degree,as to beeverconformableto the letterof thelaw. Weretheyto be theprivateopinionofthejudge,peoplewouldthenliveinfocietywithoutexa&lyknowingthenatureoftheirobligations.

Thejudgesoughtlikewifeto beofthefamerankastheaccufed,or, in otherwords,hispeers; to theend,thathe maynotimaginehe isfallenintothehandsof perfonsinclinedtotreathimwithrigour.

If thelegillatureleavesthe executivepowerinpoffefflonof a rightto imprifontholefubje&swhocangivefecurityfortheirgoodbehaviour_thereisanendofliberty; unlefstheyaretakenup inorderto anfwer,withoutdelay, to a capitalcrime; inwhichcaretheyarereallyfree,beingfubje&onlytothe powerofthelaw.

BUt,thouldthe legiflaturethinkitfelfin danger,byfomefecretconfpiracyagainftthe ftate,orbyacorrefpondencewitha foreignenemy,it mightau-thorizetheexecutivepower,fora fhortandlimitedtime,to imprifonfufpe&edperfons,who,in that

cafe,

zoz THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XI."

care,wouldloretheirlibertyonlyforawhile,topre-ferveitforever.

Andthisistheonlyreafonablemethodthatcanbefubfl:itutedtothe tyrannicalmagifl:racyoftheEpbari,andto the flatein_uifitorsof Venice,whoarealfodefpotical.

As, in a countryof liberty, everymanwho isfuppofedafreeagentoughtto behisowngovernor,thelegiflativepowerthouldrefideinthewholebodyofthepeople. But, fincethis isimpofllblein largeflates,andin fmallonesisfubje&tomanyinconve-niences,it is fit the peopleflaouldtranfa&by theirreprefentativeswhattheycannottranfa&by them-felves.

The inhabitantsof a particulartownaremuchbetteracquaintedwithitswantsandintereflrsthanwiththoleofotherplaces; and arebetterjudgesof thecapacityoftheirneighboursthanofthatofthe refl:of theircountrymen.The members,therefore,ofthe legiflaturethouldnotbechofenfromthegeneralbodyofthenation; butit is proper,that, in everyconfiderableplace,areprefentative/houldbeele&edbythe inhabitants.

The greatadvantageof reprefentativesis, theircapacityof difcuffingpublicaffairs.Forthis,thepeoplecotle&ivelyareextremelyunfit,whichisoneof thechiefinconveniencesofa democracy.

It isnotatallneceffarythatthereprefentatives,whohavereceivedageneralinffru&ionfromtheirconffi-tuents,thouldwaitto bedire&edoneachparticularaffair,asispra&ifedin thedietsofGermany.Trueit is, that,by thiswayofproceeding,the fpeechesof the deputiesmight, withgreaterpropriety,becalledthevoiceof thenation; but, on the otherhand,thiswouldoccafioninfinitedelays; wouldgiveeachdeputya powerof controllingthe affembly

and,

CHa_.6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 203

and,onthemofturgentandpreflingoccafions,thewheelsof governmentmightbeRoppedbythe ca-priceofa tingleperfon.

Whenthedeputies,as Mr.Sidneywellobferves,reprefenta bodyof people,as in Holland,theyoughttobeaccountableto theirconffituents; but itis a differentthingin England,wheretheyare de-putedbyboroughs.

All the inhabitantsof thefeveraldiffri&soughtto havea rightofvotingat thede&ionof a repre-fentative,exceptfuchasarein fomeanatituationastobedeemedto havenowilloftheirown.

Onegreatfaulttherewasin moltof the ancientrepublics,thatthepeoplehadarightto a&iverefo-lutions,fuchas requirefomeexecution,a thingofwhichtheyareabfolutelyincapable. They oughttohavenofhareinthegovernmentbutfortl_echoo-ringof reprefentatives,whichis withintheir,each.For,thoughfewcantell theexa&degreeofmen'scapacities,yet thereare nonebut arecapableofknowing,ingeneral,whethertheperfontheychoofeisbetterqualifiedthanmol'cofhisneighbours.

Neitheroughtthereprefentativebodytobecholerafortheexecutivepart of government,forwhichitis notfofit; but fortheena&ingof laws,orto feewhetherthelawsinbeingaredulyexecuted; athingfuitedto theirabilities,andwhichnoneindeedbutthemfelvescanproperlyperform.

Infuchaflare,therearealwaysperfonsdiPdnguilh-ed by theirbirth, riches,or honours:but, weretheyto beconfoundedwiththecommonpeople,andto haveonlytheweightof atinglevote,likethetel'c,thecommonlibertywouldbetheirflavery,andtheywouldhavenointerefl:infupportingit,asmoltofthepopularrefolutionswouldbe againftthem. The!haretheyhave,therefore,in thelegiflatureoughtto

be

zo4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXI.

be proportionedtotheirotheradvantagesintheffate;whichhappensonlywhentheyforma bodythathasa rightto checkthe licentioufnetsof thepeople,asthepeoplehavea right to oppofeanyencroachmentof theirs.

The legiflativepoweris, therefore,committedtothebodyof the nobles,and tothatwhichreprefentsthe people;eachhavingtheiraffembliesanddelibe-rationsapart, eachtheirfeparateviewsandinterefts.

Of the threepowersabovementioned,the judici-aryis, inromemeafure,next to nothing: therere-main,therefore,onlytwo: and, as therehaveneedof a regulatingpowerto moderatethem, thepartofthelegiflativebodycompofedof thenobilityis ex-tremelyproperforthispurpofe.

The bodyof the nobilityought to be hereditary.]n thefirftplace, it isfo inits ownnature; and, inthe next,theremuffbea confiderableinterefttopre-ferveitsprivileges:privileges,that,inthemfelves,areobnoxiousto popularenvy, andof courfe,ina freeflare,arealwaysindanger.

Bur, asan hereditarypowermightbe temptedtopurtueitsownparticularinterefts,andforgettholeofthe people,it is proper,that, wherea fingularad-vantagemaybe gainedbycorruptingthe nobility,as in thelawsrelatingto the fupplies,theyfhouldhavenoothertharein thelegiflationthan the powerof reje&ing,andnor thatof refolving.

By thepowerof refalvilTg,I mean, therightof or-dainingbytheirownauthority,or of amendingwhathas beenordainedby others. Bythepowerof reje_.ing, I wouldbeunderftoodtomean, the rightof an-nullit_ga refolutiontaken by another; which wasthepowerof the tribunesat Rome. And, thoughthe perfonpoffeffedof the privilegeof reje&ingmayhkewifehavetherightof approving,yetthisappro-

bauon

CHAP.6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 20_

bationpaffesfornomorethana declarationthatheintendsto makeno ufeofhis privilegeof rejecting,andisderivedfromthat veryprivilege.

Theexecutivepoweroughtto be in thehandsofa monarch,becaufethisbranchof government,ha-.vingneedofdifpatch,is betteradminifteredbyonethanbymany: ontheotherhand,whateverdependsonthe legiflativepower,is oftentimesbetterregu-latedbymanythanbyatingleperfon.

But, if therewerenomonarch,andtheexecutivepowerfhouldbe committedto a certainnumberofperfOns,fele&edfromthe legiflativebody,therewouldbeanendofliberty,byreafonthetwopowerswouldbeunited; as thefameperfonswouldrome-timespoffefs,andwouldbealwaysableto poffefs,atharein both.

Were the legiflativebodyto be aconfiderabletime withoutmeeting,thiswouldlikewifeput anendto liberty. For, oftwothings,onewouldna-turallyfollow; eitherthattherewouldbenolongeranylegiflativerefolutions,andthentheftatewouldfallintoanarchy;or thattheferefolutionswouldbetakenbytheexecutivepower,whichwouldrenderitabfolute.

It wouldbeneedlet_for the legiflativebody tocontinuealwaysaffembled.Thiswouldbetrouble-rometo thereprefentative,andmoreoverwouldcu_outtoomuchworkfor theexecutivepower,foastotakeoff its attentionto its office,andobligeit tothinkonlyofdefendingitsownprerogativesandtherightit hastoexecute.

:.Again,werethe legiflativebodyto be alwaysaf-fembled,it might happento bekept up only byfillingtheplacesof the deceafedmemberswithnewreprefentatives; and,in thatcare,if the legiflativebodywereoncecorrupted,theevilwouldbepail:all

remedy.

zo6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XI.

remedy. When differentlegiflativebodiesfucceedoneanother,thepeople,whohavea badopinionofthatwhichis a&uallyfitting,mayreafonablyenter-tain romehopesof the next: but, wereit to bealwaysthe famebody,the people,uponfeeingitoncecorrupted,wouldno longerexpe&anygoodfromits'laws; and,of couffe,theywouldeitherbe-comedefperateorfallintoa ffateOfindolence.

The legiflativebodylhouldnotmeet of itfelf,Fora bodyis fuppofedto haveno willbutwhenitis met: andbetides,wereitnottomeetunanimoufly,it wouldbeimpoflibletodeterminewhichwasreallythe legiflativebody,thepartaffembled,ortheother..And,if it hadaright to prorogueitfelf,it mighthappenneverto beprorogued; whichwouldbeex-tremelydangerous,in careit Paouldeverattempttoencroachon the executivepower. Betides,therearefeafons(romemoreproperthanothers)for af-femblingthelegiflativebody: it isfit,therefore,thatthe executivepowerfhouldregulatethe time ofmeeting,aswellastheduration_of tholeaffemblies,accordingto the circumftancesand exigencesof aRate,knownto itfelf.

Weretheexecutivepowernot to havea rightofreftrainingtheencroachmentsofthelegiflativebody,thelatterwouldbecomedefpotic: for, as it mightarrogateto iffelfwhatauthorityit pleafed,it wouldfoondeftroyalltheotherpowers.

But it is notproper,on theotherhand,thatthelegiflativepowerfhouldhavea rightto Raytheexe-cutive. For, astheexecutionhasitsnaturallimits,it is ufelefstoconfineit : betides,theexecutivepow-er is generallyemployedinmomentaryoperations.The power,therefore,of theRomantribuneswasfaulty,asit put a ftopnot onlyto the legiflation,

but

Ca_..6, THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. zo7

butlikewifeto theexecutivepartof government;whichwasattendedwithinfinitemifchiefs.

But, if thelegiflativepower,in a freef_ate,hasno rightto t_aythe executive,it hasa right,andoughtto have themeans,of examiningin whatmanneritslawshavebeenexecuted; anadvantagewhichthisgovernmenthasoverthatof CreteandSparta,wherethe CofmiandtheEphorigavenoaccountoftheiradminiflration.

But,whatevermaybe the iffueofthatexamina-tion,thelegiflativebodyoughtnotto havea powerofarraigningtheperfon,nor,ofcourfe,thecondu&,of himwhois entruRedwiththeexecutivepower.Hisperfonflaouldbefatted,becaufe,asit isnecefofary,forthegoodoftheRate,to preventthe legifolativebodyfromrenderingthemfelvesarbitrary,themomenthe isaccufedortriedthereis an endof li-berty.

In thiscare,theftatewouldbeno longera mo-narchy,buta kind of republic,thoughnota freegovernment.But, astheperfon,intruftedwiththeexecutivepower,cannotabufeit withoutbadcoun-fellors,andfuch as hate the laws as minit_ers,thoughthelawsprote&them,as fubjec"tstheremenmaybeexaminedandpunifhed: anadvantagewhichthisgovernmenthasoverthatof Gnidus,wherethelawallowedofnofuchthingascallingthe,4mymones_to anaccount,evenaftertheiradminiRration-]-_ andthereforethepeoplecouldneverobtainanyfatisfac-tionfortheinjuriesdonethem.

Though,in general,the judiciarypoweroughtnottobeunitedwithanypartof thelegiflative,yet

Therewcrcmagiflrateschofenannuallyby thepeople.SeeStephenof"_yz_,ntium.1"It waslawfultoaecufctheRomanmagiRratesaftertheexpirationof their

fcv_a!oflicea,8ccj,in Dionyf,Halicarn.I.9' thcaffairof G_nutius_the tribune.

this

zo8 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXL

this is liableto threeexceptions,foundedontheparticularintereRofthepartyaccufed.

Thegreatarealwaysobnoxiousto popularenvy;and,weretheyto bejudgedbythepeople,theymightbein dangerfromtheirjudges,andwouldmoreoverbe deprivedof the privilege,whichthemeanePcfubje&ispoffeffedof in afreeRate,of be-ing triedby hispeers. The nobility,for thisrea-fon,oughtnottobecitedbeforethe ordinarycourtsofjudicature,butbeforethatpartof the legiflaturewhichiscompofedoftheirownbody.

It ispoffiblethat the law,whichis clear-lightedin onefenfe,and blindinanother,might,in romecafes,be too revere. But,aswehavealreadyob-ferved,the nationaljudgesare no more thanthemouththatpronouncesthe wordsof the ]aw,merepaffivebeings,incapableof moderatingeitheritsforceorrigour. Thatpart, therefore,of thelegif-lativebody,whichwehavejuRnowobfervedto bea neceffarytribunalonanotheroccafion,isalfoane-ceffarytribunalin this: it belongsto its fupremeauthorityto moderatethelawin favourof thelawitfelf,bymitigatingthefentence.

It mightalfohappen,thata fubje&,intrudedwiththe adminiRrationof publicaffairs,mayinfringethe rightsof the people,and beguiltyof crimeswhichthe ordinarymagif'crateseithercouldnot, orwouldnot,punith. But, ingeneral,thelegiflativepowercannottry caufes; andmuchlefscan it trythis particularcare,whereit reprefentsthe partyaggrieved,whichisthepeople. It canonly,there-fore,impeach.Butbeforewhatcourtfhallit bringits impeachment? Mutt it go and demeanitfelfbeforetheordinarytribunals,whichareitsinferiors,and,beingcompofedmoreoverofmenwhoarecho-fen fromthepeopleasweltas itfelf,willnaturallybe

Cs,_P.6. THE'SPIRIT OF LAWS. 2o9

be fwayedby theauthorityof fo powerfutanac-curer? No: in ordertoprefervethedignkyof thepeopleandthefecurityotthefubje&,thelegiflat:vepart whichreprefentsthe peoplemuff:bringinitschargebeforethelegiflativepartwhichreprefentsthe nobility,whohaveneitherthe fameinteref'csnorthefamepaflions.

Hereisan advantagewhichthisgovernmenthasovermoil:of theancientrepublicswherethisabufeprevailed,that the peopl_were_atthe fametimebothjudgeandacculer.

Theexecutivepower,purfuantto whathasbeenalreadylaid,ought.tohavea fharein :he]egiflatureby,theEowerof reje&ing; otherwifeit wouldloonbeffrippedof iisprerogative.But,fnoutdthele-giflat!vepowerufurpa fhareof theexecutive,thelatterWouldbeequallyundone.

If ,he princewereto havea partin thelegifla-tureby the powerof refolving,libertywouldbe10ft:.But, as it is neceffaryhelhouldhavea thareinthe legiflaturefor the tbpportof hisownprero-gative,this :lharemutt confiRin thepowerof re-jecting.

Thechangeof governmentat Romewasowingto this,thatneitherthefenate,whohadonepartofthe:executivepower,northemag_ffrates,whowereentruRedwiththeother,hadthe rightof reje&ing,whichwasentirelylodgedin theEeople.

Here,then, is shefundamentalconltitutionoftl;egovernmentwearetreatingof. Thelegiflativebodybeingcompofedoftwoparts,theycheckoneanotherbythemutualprivilegeot rrie&ing.Theyare bothrd_rainedbytheexecutivepower,as theexecutiveisbythelegifiative.

Therethreepowersthouldharurallyformaflareofrepofeorinadkioo: but, astllereisa neceffitytor

Vo,.I. P movement

rio THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXI.

movementin the courfeof humanaffairs,theyareforcedtomove, but frillinconcert.

As the executivepowerhas no other partin thelegiflativethanthe privilegeof rejecting,it canhaveno flaarein the publicdebates. It is not evenne-ceffarythat it fhould propofe; becaufe,asit mayalwaysdifapproveof the refolutionsthatlhall beta-ken, it may likewifereje&the decifionson tholepropofalswhichweremadeagainftits will.

In rome ancientcommonwealths,,wherepublicdebateswerecarriedon by thepeople in a body, itwas naturalfor theexecutivepowerto propofeanddebate in conjuneqionwith the people; othe/'wifetheir refolutionsmuff have been attendedwitha_rangeconfufion.

Were the executivepowertodeterminetheraifingof publicmoney otherwifethan bygiving its con-lent, libertywouldbe at an end; becaufeit wouldbecomelegiflativein the mof'cimportantpointoflegiflation.

If the legiflativepowerweretofettlethefubfidies,not from year to year, but for ever, it woutdruntherifk of lofing its liberty, becaufetheexecutivepowerwouldbe no longerdependent;and, whenonce it was poffeffedof fucha perpetualright, itwouldbe a matterof indifferencewhetherit helditof itfelf orof another. The famemaybe faidif itfhoutdcometo a refolutionof intruffing,not an an-nual, but a perpetual,commandof the fleetsandarmiesto theexecutivepower.

To preventthe executivepowerfrom being ableto opprefs,it is requifitethatthe armieswithwhichit is mtrul_edlhouldconfi_of the people,and havethe fame tpirit as the people,as was the careatRon'e till tl_etime of Marius. To obtainthisend,there are only two waysl either that the'perfons

employed

CHA_'.6.THE sPIRIT OF LAWS. zil

employedin the armyfhouldhavefufficientpro-pertyto anfwerfor theircondu&to theirfellow-fubje6ts,and be enliltedonlyfora year,as wascuttomaryatRome; or, if therethouldbea ftand-ing-armycompofedchieflyof the moltdefpicablepartofthenation,thelegiflativepowerlhouldhavea rightto difbandthemasloonas it pleafed; thefoldiersflaouldliveincommonwiththereftof thepeople_ andno feparatecamp,barracks,orfort-refs,fhouldbefuffered.

Whenonceanarmyisef'cablifhed,it oughtnotto dependimmediatelyonthe]egifiative,butontheexecutive,power; andthisfromtheverynatureofthething,itsbufinefsconfiftingmoreinactionthandeliberation.

It is naturalfor mankindto let a highervalueuponcouragethan timidity,ona&ivitythanpru-dence,on ltrengththancounfel.Hencethearmywilleverdefpifea fenate,andrefpe&theirownof-ricers: they will naturallyflightthe ordersfentthemby a bodyof menwhomtheylookuponascowards,andthereforeunworthytocommandthem:fo that,as foonas the troopsdependentirelyonthe legiflativebody,it becomesa militarygovern-ment; and, if the contraryhaseverhappened,ithasbeenowingto fomeextraordinarycircumf'cances.It isbecaufethearmywasalwayskeptdivided; itis becaufeit wascompofedof feveralbodies,thatdependedeachon a particularprovince_ it isbe-caufethecapitaltownswereftrongplaces,defendedby theirnaturalfituation,andnot garrifonedwithregulartroops. Holland,for inftance_is ftitlfaferthanVenice; flaemightdrownorftarvetherevoltedtroops; for, astheyarenotquarteredin townsca-"pableof furnilhingthemwithneceffaryfubfiltence,thisfubfiffenceisofcourfeprecarious,P a In

_12 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:XI.

In peruringthe admirabletreatifeof Tacitusonthe mannersof the Germans,* wefindit isfromthatnationthe Englilhhaveborrowedtheideaoftheir politicalgovernment.ThisbeautifulfyRemwasinventedfiritin thewoods.

.Asallhumanthingshaveanend, thef_atewearefpeakingof willloreitsliberty,willperifh. Havenot Rome,Sparta,and Carthage,perilhed? Itwillperifhwhenthe legiflativepowerflaallbemorecorruptthantheexecutive.

It isnotmybufinefstoexaminewhethertheEng-lifha&uallyenjoythisliberty,or not. Sufficientitis formypurpofeto obferve,thatit iseRablifhedbytheirlaws;andI inquirenofarther.

NeitherdoI pretendbythisto undervalueothergovernments,norto faythat thisextremepoliticallibertyoughtto give uneafinefsto tholewhohaveonlya moderatefhareof it. How fnouldI haveanyfuchdeiign; I whothinkthateventhehigheftrefinementofreafonis notalwaysdefirable,andthatmankindgenerallyfindtheiraccountbetterin me-diumsthaninextremes?

Harrington,in hisOceana,hasalfoenquiredintothe utmoftdegreeof libertyto whichthe conffitu-tion of aRatemaybe carried. But, ofhim, in-deed,it maybe laid,that,for wantof knowingthenatureof realliberty,heburiedhimfelfin pur-fuitofanimaginaryone; andthathebuilta Chal-cedon,thoughhehadaByzantiumbeforehiseyes.

C H A P. VII.Of theMonarchiesweareacquaintedwith.

THE monarchieswe are acquaintedwithhavenot, likethatwehavebeenfpeakingof, libertyfor

Deminwibusrebusprincipestonfuhant,demajorlbusatones_ ira tamenutea f"_uofluej fuor_mBeuesplebematbttrium_, aaoudprincipespertra_entur. their

CHAP.8. THE sPIRIT OF LAWS. zl3

their dire&view: theonlyaim is the gloryof thefubjec%of the Rate, and of the fovereign. Butfrom hencethere refultsa fpirit of liberty,which,in thot_ Rates,is capableof atchievingas greatthings, and of contributingas much, perhaps,tohappinefs,aslibertyitfelf.

Here the three powersare not difl:ributedandfoundedon the modelof the conftitutionabove-mentioned: they have each a particulardii_ribu-tion, accordingto which they bordermoreor lefsonpolitical.liberty; and, it theydidnotborderup-on it, monarchywoulddegenerateintodefpoticgo-vernment.

C H "A P. VIII.

WhytheAncientshadno:aclearIdeaofMonarchy.

THE ancientshad nonotionof a governmen_foundedon a bodyof nobles,and much lefson alegiflativebodycompofedof the reprefentativesofthe people. The republics of Greeceand Italywerecitiesthat had eachtheirownformof govern-ment, and convenedtheirfubje&swithintheirwalls.BeforeRomehadfwallowedup all the otherrepub-lics, therewasfcarceanywhereaking to befound,no, not in Italy, Gaul, Spain,or Germany; theywereallpettyftatesorrepublics. EvenAfricaitfelfwasfubje&to a greatcommonwealth,andAriaMi-nor wasoccupiedby Greekcolonies. Therewas,therefore,no inftanceof deputiesof townsor af-fembliesof theRates: one mu_havegoneasfar asPerfiato finda monarchy.

I am not ignorantthat there were confederaterepublics,in whichfeveraltownslentdeputiestoanaffembly;but I affirmthem wasno monarchyonthat model.

P _ The

2t4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooxXL

The firRplan,therefore,ofthemonarchiesweareacquainted_vithwas thusformed. TheGermannations,that conqueredthe Romanempire,werecertainlyafreepeople. Of thiswe maybe con-vincedbyonlyreadingTacitusOntheMannersoftheGermans.The conquerorsfpreadthemfelvesoverallthecountry; livingmoftlyin thefields,andverylittleintowns. Whentheywerein German_,,thewholenationwasabletoaffemble.Thistheycouldno longerdo,whendifperfedthroughtheconqueredprovinces.Andyet,as itwasneceffarythatthena-tionflaoulddeliberateonpublicaffairs,purfuanttotheirufualmethodbeforetheconqueR,theyhadre-courfeto reprefentatives.Suchis theoriginof theGothicgovernmentamongfl:us. At firf_,it wasmixtwithariftocracyandmonarchy; a mixtureat-tendedwiththis inconveniency,thatthe commonpeoplewerebond-men. The cuffomafterward_i£ucceededofgrantinglettersofinfranchifement,andwasfoonfollowedbyfo perle&a harmonybetweenthecivillibertyofthe people,theprivilegesof thenobilityandclergy,and the prince'sprerogative,thatI reallythinkthereneverwasintheworldago-vernmentfo welltempereda,sthat of eachpartofEurope,f0long as it laffed. Surprizing,thatthecorruptionof thegovernmentofa conqueringnationthouldhavegivenbir.thto the beltfpeciesofconffj.tutionthatcouldpoffibly"beimaginedbyman!

CHAP. IX.

_riflotle'sMau_erof thinking.ARISTOTLEis greatlypuzzledin treatingof

_gnarchy% He makes:fivefpccics;andhcdqcs•Pollt.book]_chap.:[4.

CnAv.lh THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. zlS

notdi_inguiPnthemby theformofconftitution,butbythingsmerelyaccidental,asthevirtuesandvicesof the prince; or by thingsextrinfecal,fuchas ty-rannyufurpedorinherited.

Among the numberof monarchies,he ranks thePerfianempireandthe kingdomof Sparta. Butisit not evidentthat the one was a defpoticRate andtheothera republic?

The ancients,whowereftrangersto thediffribu-tionof thethreepowersinthegovernmentof a tingleperfon, couldneverformajuft ideaof monarchy.

CHAP. X.

WhatotherPoliticiansthought.TO tempermonarchy,Arybas,king-t-ofEpirus,

foundno otherremedythana republic. The Mo-loffi,not knowinghow to limit the fame power,made two kings_; by which meansthe iratewasweakenedmorethanthe prerogative: theywantedrivals, andthey createdenemies.

Two kings weretolerablenowherebut at Spar-ta ; herethey did not form, butwereonlya partof, the conftitution.

C H A'_P. XI.

OftheKingsoftheheroicTimesof Greece.IN theheroictimesof Greece,a kindof monar-

chy arofethat was notof longdurationI1. Thole,whohad beeninventorsof arts, whohadfoughtintheir country'scaufe,whohad eftablifhedfocieties,or diftributedlandsamongthe people,obtainedthe

5"_eJu_in,book17.t Atilt. Poht, book 5, chap. g,Anflot. Polit. book.3_ chap. s4.

P 4 regal

_t6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XL

regal power,and tranfmittedit to their children.They werekings,priefts,andjudges. Thiswasoneof thefiveipeciesof monarchymentionedby Arif-totle_"; and the onlyonethatcangive us any ideaof the monarchicalconffitution. But the planofthis conl_itutionis oppofiteto thatof our modernmonarchies.

The threepowersweretheredilbibutedin fuchamanner, that the peoplewere thelegiflature*, andthe kinghad theexecutive,togetherwith the judi-ciary, power; whereas,in modernmonarchies,theprinceis invertedwith theexecutiveand legiflativepowers,o-, atleaff,withpart of thelegillative,butdoesnotac%inajudiciarycapacity.

In thegovernmentof thekingsof theheroictimes,the three powerswereill-diftributed. Hence tholemonarchiescould not long fubfifL For, as loonasthe peoplegot thelegiflativepowerinto theirhands,theymight, as theyeverywheredid, uponthe verylea_ caprice,(ubverttheregalauthority.

Amonga freepeople,poffeffedof the legiflativepower,andenclofedwithinwalls,whereeverythingtendingtowardsoppreffionappearsfrillmoreodious,it is the maffer-pieceoflegiflationto know wheretoplaceproperlythejudiciarypower. Butit couldnotbe inworfehandsthan.intholeof theperfontowhomthe executivepowerhad beenalreadycc_mmitted.Fromthatvery inftantthemonarchbecameterrible.But, at the fametime, as he had no [harein thele-giflature,he couldmakenodefenceagainf_it _ thushis powerwas,inonefenfe,toogreat, inanother,toolittle.

_[ Arit}ot.Polit. book3"chap.*4"Seew_.atPlutarchlays, intheLifeof ¢Tbefetas,SeelikewlfeThuc#ide.%book.b

They

C_Ar. lz. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. :_17

Theyhadnotasyetdifcoveredthat the truefunc-tionof a princewastoappointjudges,andnottofitasjudge himfelf. Theoppofitepolicyrenderedthegovernmentofatingleperfoninfupportable.Henceall therekingswerebanifhed.The Greekshadnonotionof theproperdif_ributionof thethreepowersin thegovernmentofoneperfon; they could fee itonlyin thatof many; andthiskindof cont_itutiontheydiftingui_hedby thenameofpolityt.

C H A P. XII.

Of theGovernmentof theKingsofRon2e,andin what.MannerthethreePowersweretherediflributed.

THE governmentof thekingsof Romehadromerelationto that of the kingsofthe heroictimesofGreece. Its fubverfion,likethelatter's, wasowingto its generaldeft&, though, in its ownparticularnature,it wasexceedinggood.

In orderto givean adequateideaof this govern-ment, I/hall diftinguifhthat of the firftfivekings,that of ServiusTullus, andthatofTarquin.

The crown wasele&ive; and, under the fivefirftkings, the fenatehad the greateftfhare in theele&ion.

Upontheking'sdeceafe,the fenateexaminedwhe-ther theythouldcontinuetheeftablifhedformof go-vernment. If they thought properto continueit,theynameda magiftrate_ takenfromtheir ownbo-dy, whochorea king: thefenatewereto approveoftheele6tion,the peopletoconfirmit, andtheaugursto declarethe approbationof the gods. If anyof"therethreeconditionswerewanting,they wereobli-gedto proceedto anothereleCtion.

"["Ariffot.Polit.book4, chap,$.DJ0uyf,Halicastl0book2, p. IzO,&book4' P'z4z &243"

The

sl_ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXL

The conftitutionwasa mixtureof monarchy,arif-tocracy,and democracy; and fuchwastheharmonyof power, that therewas noinl_anceof .jealoufyordifpute in the firft reigns. The kingcommandedthe armies,andhad thedire&ionof the facrifices;he had the powerof determiningIIciviland crimi-nal§ caufes_he calledthefenatetogether,convenedthe people, laidromeaffairsbeforethe larter_andregulatedthe re_ withthefenate®.

The authorityof thefenatewasverygreat. Thekings oftentimespitchedupon fenatorswith whomthey fatin.judgement; and theyneverlaid anyaf-fair beforethepeopletill it hadbeenpreviouflyde-batedt in thataugu_affernbly.

The people had the right of choofing_ magif-trates, of confentingto the newlaws,and, withtheking's permiffion,of makingwar and peace:butthey had not the judicial power. When Tullus

• I-Ioftiliusreferredthe trialof Horatiusto thepeople,he had hisparticularreafons,whichmaybe feeninDionyfiusHalicarnaffeus§§.

The conftitutionalteredunderIll]ServiusTullus.The fenatehadno/hare in his ele&ion; he caufedhimfelftobe proclaimedbythe people; he refignedthe powerof hearingcivilcaufes_[, referringnoneto himfelfbut thofeof a criminalnature; he laidali

]]SeeTana_u/l'sdifcoorfeonLiW, book_ dec.I. and the _gulat]onsofServiusTullosjin Dionyf.Halicarn.book4, P-zz9.

SeeDionyf.Halicarn,hookz, p.118.a_ldbook3, P' z71-It wasbyvirtueofa fenatuseonfultumthatTullusHo_liusorderedAlbato hed_l_royed.Dionvf.Halicara.hook3, P' _67andx7z.

_!"Ibid.b.4, P.z76._2/bid.hookz. .Andyettheycouldnothavethenora|nationofall ofllces_

_nceValeriusPublicolamadethatfamous]aw,by whicheverycitizenwasfor-bidtoexercifeanyemplo_menb ualel_hehadob_aiae.dit bythefuffrag¢of _epeople.

§§ Book_, p. z59._ Dionyf.Halicam.hook4-qTHed!veftedhimfdfofhalftheresa_powe;,laysDioa_f.Halicara,hook4_

_. z29.affairs

C_A_.IJ. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. zx9

affairsdire&lybeforethepeople; eafedthemofthetaxes,andimpofedthewholeburthenonthe patri-cians. Hence,in proportionas he weakenedtheregal,togetherwiththe fenatorian,power,heaug-meritedthatoftheplebeians*.

Tarquinwouldneitherbechofenbythefenatenor: by thepeople: heconfideredServiusTullusas an

ufurper,andfeizedtkecrownashishereditaryright.He deftroyedmoil:of the _nators;thofewhore-mainedhe neverconfulted;nordid he evenfo

i muchasfummonthemto af/ii_athisdecifions-t-.Thushis powerincreafed: but theodiumof thatpowerreceivedanewaddition,byufurpingalfotheauthorityof the people,againffwhofeconfentheena_edfeverallaws. Thethreepowerswere,bytheremeans,re-unitedin his perfon; butthepeo-iPle,at a criticalminute,recolle_edthattheywereegiflators,andtherewasancodofTarquin.

C H A P. XIILGeneralRefleaionsontheStateofRomeafter1heExpuI-

,/ionofitsKings.IT isimpoffibieto betiredof foagreeablea fub-

je& as ancientRome: thusttrangers,at prefent,leavethe modernpalacesof thatcelebratedcapitaltovifittheruins; andthustheeye,afterrecreatingitfelfwiththeviewofflowerymeads,is pleafedwiththewildprofpe&ofrocksandmountains.

The patricianfamilieswereat alltimespoffeffedof greatprivileges.Therediftin&ions,whichwereconfiderableunderthekings, becamemuch moreimportantaftertheirexpulfion.Hence arofethe

_*Itwasthoughtsthat_if he hadnotbeenpreventedbyTarquin,hewouldhave eflablifheda populargovernment. Dloa_f. Hallgara, book4J P. z43.

_"?ipnyf.Halicara._ok4.jealoufy

zzo THE _PIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXL

jealoufyof the plebeians,_ho wantedto reducethem. The conteftftruckat the conftitutionwith-out weakeningthe government; for it wasveryin-differentof whatfamilywerethemagiftrates,provi-dedthe magiftracypreferveditsauthority._ --

An ele&ivemonarchy,likethat of Rome, necef-farilyfuppofetha powerfulariftocratit_bodyto fup-port it ; withoutwhichit changesimmediatelyintotyrannyorintoa popularframe. But apopular i]:atehasnoneedof"thisdiftin&ionoffamiliesto maintainitfelf. To thisit wasowingthat thepatricians,whowerea neceffarypart of the confHtutionunder theregalgovernment,becameafuperfluousbranchun-der the confuls; the peoplecould fupprefsthemwithouthurtingthemfelves,and change the confti-tutionwithoutcorruptingit.

AfterServiusTultus hadreducedthe patricians,it wasnaturalthat Romelhouldfallfrom the regalhandsintotholeof the people. But the peoplehadno occafionto be afraidof relapfingundera regalpowerby reducingthepatricians.

•A ftatemayaltertwodifferentways; eitherbytheamendment,or by the corruption,of thecontUtu-tion. If it haspreferredits principles,andthe con-flitutionchanges, this is owingto its amendmentif, uponchangingthe conftitution,its principlesare1ot_,thisis becaufeit hasbeencorrupted.

The governmentof Rome, afterthe exputfionofthe kings, ihouldnaturallyhavebeena democracy..Thepeoplehadalreadythe legiflativepowerin their.hands_ it wastheirunanimousconfentthat hadex-pelledthe Tarquins; and, if theyhad notcontinuedl_eadyto tholeprinciples,the Tarquins mighteafilyhavebeenreftored. To pretendthat theirdefigninexpellingthemwasto renderthemfelvesflaresto afewfamilies,is quiteabfurd. "1he lituation,there-

fore)

CHAPol 4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _zi

fore,of thingsrequiredthatRomefhouldhaveform-ed a democracy,and yetthisdidnothappen. There

i •wasa neceftitythat thepowerof the principalfami-lies lhould be tempered,and that the laws flaouldhavea biastodemocracy.

The profperityof Ratesis frequentlygreater,inthe infenfibletranfitionfromoneconftitutionto ano-

i ther, than ineitherof tholeconftitutions. Then itis that all the fpringsof governmentareupon theftretch; that the citizensafferttheirclaims; that

! friendfhipsorenmitiesareformedamongt_thejarringparties; and thatthereis a nobleemulationbetweenthofewhodefendthe ancient,and tholewhoaret_re-nuousinpromotingthenew, conftitufion.

,: C H A P. XIV.In whatMannertheDiflribution_ thethreePowersbe-

gantochange,aftertheEX2Ul./ionof theKings.THERE werefour thingsthatgreatlyprejudiced

• the libettyofRome. The patricianshad engroffedto themfelvesallpub!icemploymentswhatever; an

- exorbitantpo_er wasannexedto the confulate; thepeoplewereofteninfulted; and, in fine, they hadfcarceanyinfluenceat allleftin the publicfuffrages.'-!herefourabufesvcereredreffcdby the people.

zf_.It wasregulated,that theplebeiansmightaf-piretoromemagif_racies; and by degreesthey-wererenderedcapableof themall, except that of inter-reX.

20. the confulatewasdiffolvedinto feveralothermagiftracies_: prmtorswerecreated,on whom thepowerwasconferredof tryingprivatecaufes; queer-tots *werenominatedfor determiningtholeor"a cri-

Livy, I decad, book 6._6eflora2arrltidti.Pompoaiuss leg.2.ft.deorig.Jur.

miral

_z TH_ SPIRIT OF LA_$. _ooK_(I.

minal nature, mdiles were eftablilhedfor the civiladminiffration;treafurersJlweremadefor thema-nagementof the publicmoney; and, in fine,by thecreationof cenfors,theconfulsweredivertedof thatpart of thelegflativepowerwhichregulatesthemo-ralsof the cltlzens,and the tranfientpolityof thedifferentbodiesof theRate. The chiefprivilegesleftthemwere,topretidein thegreatmeetings-]-of thepeople, to affemblethe fenate,andto commandthearmies.

3_. The facredlawsappointedtribunes,whohada powerof checkingtheencroachmentsof the patri-cians,and preventednot onlyprivate,but likewitepublic, injuries.

In fine, the plebeiansincreafedtheirinfluenceinthe generalaffemblies. The peopleof Rome weredividedinthreedifferentmanners; bycenturies,bycurim,and by tribes; and, whenever they gavetheirvotes, theywereconvenedone of thole threeways.

Inthe firft, the patricians,the leadingmen, therich, and the fenate,whichwasvery nearthefamething, had almoftthewholeauthority; in thefecondtheyhadlefs, andlefsRillin thethird.

The divifionintocenturieswasa divifionratherofe_ates and fortunesthan of perfons. The wholepeople weredil_ribt_tedintoa hundredand ninety-three centuries_, whlch had each a tingle vote.The patriciansand leadingmencompofedthe firft:ninety-eightcenturies; and the other ninety-fiveconfit2edof the remainderof thecitizens. In thisdivifion,therefore,the patriciansweremaffersof thefuffrages,

II Plutarch, Life _ l_ublicola.t C_mit;isCemurtatis.

SeeLl_'ys book 1. and Dions.f.Haiicar,Lbook¢ and 7' •In

' CsAl*.Z4.THE SPIRIT OF LAw$, 2i3

In thedivifionintocuriae§, the patricianshadnotthe fameadvantages: fume,however,theyhad; for

: it wasneceffarytoconfultthe augurs,whowere un-der the dire&ionof thepatricians; andno propofalcouldbe madethereto thepeopleunlefsit hadbeen

_ previouflylaidbeforethefenate,and approvedof bya fenatusconfultum. But, in thedivifioninto tribes,theyhad nothing todo either with the augursorwith the decreesof the fenate; andthe patricianswereexcluded.

Now, the peopleendeavouredconftantlyto havetholemeetingsbycuriaewhichhad been cut_omaryby centuries; andbytribes, tholetheyufedto havebeforeby curiae: by whichmeans,thedire&ionofpublicaffairsloondevolvedfromthepatriciansto theplebeians.

Thus, whenthe plebeiansobtainedthe poweroftrying the patricians,a powerwhichcommencedintheaffairof Coriolanus_, they infifteduponaffem-bling by tribes*,and notby centuries: and,whenthe new magiftracies"]-of tribunesanda_dileswereeftablilhedin favourof thepeople,thelatter obtain,,ed that theyflaouldmeetby curiae,inordertonomi-nate them; and, after theirpowerwasquite fettled,they gained_ fofar theirpoint as to affemblebytribes, to proceedto thisnomination.

§ Dionyf.Hallcam. book9_ P" 595.Ibld. book7'

Contrary to the ancient curare, a8 may be xe¢cnin Dionyf. Hal;catrnatr,book 5. P. 320.

"l"Dionyf.Haticarn. book6, p, 41o and 4II,SeeDionyf.Halicarn. book9, P"65°.

CHAP,

2z4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo,eXt.

CHAP. XV.

In whatMannerRome,in theflourifhingStateof thatRepublic,fuddenlyloftits Liberty.

IN the heatof thecontefisbetweenthe patriciansand plebeians,the latterinfifiedupon having fixtlaws, to the endthat the pub!ic,judgementslhouldno longerbetheeffectsof capriciouswillor arbitrarypower. The fenate,aftera greatdealof refiftance,acquiefced,anddecemvirswerenominatedto com-pofi:thole laws. It was thoughtproper to granttheman extraordinarypower,becaufetheywere togivelawsto partieswhot_viewsand interel_sit wasalmoftimpoffibleto unite. The nominationof allmagiffrateswasfufpended; and thedecemvirswerechofenin the comitiaroleadminiRratorsof the re-public. Thus theyfound themfelvesinvertedwiththeconfularand withthetribt_nitianpower. Byone,they had the privilegeof affemblingthefenate; bythe other, that of conveningthe people: but theyaffembledneitherfenatenorpeople. Ten menonlyof therepublichad the wholelegiflative,the wholeexecutive,andthe wholejudiciary,power. Romelaw herfelfenflavedby ascruela tyrannyasthatofTarquin. When Tarquin trampledon the libertyof that city, filewasfeizedwith indignationat thepowerhehadufurped; whenthedecemvirsexercifedeveryaC"tof oppreffion,fhewasafionilhedat the ex-traordinarypowerflaehad granted.

VChata Rrangefyf'cemof tyranny! A tyrannycarrieclon by menwho had obtainedthe politicaland militarypower merelyfrom theirknow_edgeincivilaffairs; and who, at that very juncture,itoodin need of the courageof tholecitizensto protec"rthem rbroad, whofo tamelyfubmitted to domeRicoppreltion.

The

CaA_._6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. =z_

:_ The fpe&acleof Virginia'sdeath, whomherfa-ther immolatedto chaitityandliberty, put an endto the powerof the decemvirs. Everymanbecame

i free, becaufeevery man had been injured: eachfhewedhimfelfa citizen, becaufeeach had the tie! of a parent. The fenateandthe peoplerefumeda

libertywhichhad beencommittedto ridiculousty-

i rants., No peoplewerefoeafilymovedwithpublicfpec-taclesasthe Romans. That of the impurpledbodyof Lucretia put an end to theregalp_overnmenr,

i The debtor, who appearedin the forum coveredwithwounds,cauledan alterationin the republic;The decemvirsowed theirexpulfionto thetragedyof Virginia. To condemnManlius,it wasnecef-fary to keep the people from feeingthe Capitol.Cmfar'sbloodygarmentflungRomeagainintofla-very.

C H A P. XVI.

Of thelegiflativePowerin tbe2_omcnRepublic.

THERE wereno rightsto conteftunderthede,-cemvii's_but, upon the reftorationof liberty,jea-loufiesrevived_ and, fo longas the patricianshadanyprivilegesleft, theywere lure to be ftrippedofthembythe plebeians.

The mifchiefwouldnot havebeenfo great hadthe plebeiansbeenfatisfiedwith this fuccefs; butthey alfo injuredthe patriciansas citizens. Whenthe people affembledby curiae,or centuries,theywere-compofedof fenators, patricians, and ple-beians. In theirdJfputesthe plebeiansgainedthispoint,II that they alone,without patriciansor re-hate, lhould ena& the lawscalledplebifcita; and

I[ Dionyf,Halicarn.bookxI, F.7_5,

VoL.I. Q the

•z6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooxXL

theaffemblies,in whichthey weremade,hadthenameof comitiabytribes. Thustherewerecafesin whichthe patricians* hadnoflaareinthelegif-lativepower,butt werefubje&to thelegiflationofanotherbodyoftheftate. Thiswastheextrava-ganceofliberty.Thepeople,toe_ablifhademo-cracy,a&edagainfltheveryprinciplesof thatgo-vernment.Onewouldhaveimaginedthatfoex-orbitantapowermuffhavedeftroyedtheauthorityof the fenate. But Romehadadmirableinftitu-tions. Twoof therewereefpeciallyremarkable;onebywhichthelegitlativepowerofthepeoplewaseftablifhed,andtheotherbywhichit waslimited.

The cenfors,and,beforethem, the confuls,_modelledandcreated,as it were,everyfiveyears,the bodyof thepeople: theyexercifedthelegifla-tionon the verypartthatwaspoffeffedof thele-giflativepower." TiberiusGracchus(laysCicero)" caufedthefreed-mento be admittedinto the•' tribes,notbytheforceofhiseloquence,butby_' a word,bya gefture; whichhadhenoteffe&ed," therepublic,,_hofedroopingheadWeareat.pre-" featfcarceabletouphold,wouldnotevenextff."

Or, the otherhand,thefenatehadthepowerofrefcuing,as it were,the republicoutofthehandsofthe people,bycreatinga di&ator,beforewhomthetbvereignbowedhishead,andthemoltpopularlawswerefilent.§

By thefattedlaws the plebeianshada powerof makingtheplehlfcitabythemfelves,withoutadmittingthepatriciansintotheiraffembly.Dionyf.Hali-cam. book6, p.41o. andbook7, P"43°.

Jf Bythelawena&edaftertheexpulfionof thedecemvirsthepatriciansweremadefubje&to the plebifcita,thoughthey had not a rightof votingthere.Livysbook3. andDlonyf.Halicarn.booklI, p. 7_5. This law was con-firmedbythatofPubllusPhilo,the Oi&ater_intheyearof Rome416. LivDbook8.

II_theyear3I:_of Rometheconfulsperformedflillthebufinefsof furvey-iNgtheptopleandtheircreates,asappearsbyDionyf.Halicarn.bookII.

§ Such as tholevy whichit wasallowedtoappeal,fromthe decifionsof allthemagiflrates,to thepeople, CHAP.

CHAP.I7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _7

: C H A P. XVII.OftheexecutivePowerinthefameRepublic.

JEALOUSasthepeoplewereoftheirlegiflative! power,yet theyhad no greatuneafinefsaboutthe_, executive.This theyleft almoftintirelyto there-

hateand to theconfi_ls,refervingfcarceanythingi moreto themfelvesthantherightof choofingthe° magit_rates,andofconfirmingthea&softhefenate_ andof thegenerals.

Rome,wholepaffionwasto command,whofe_'r ambitionwasto conquer,wholecommencement

and progrefswereonecontinuedufurpation,hadconftantlyaffairsof the greateftweightuponherhands; her enemieswereeverconfpiringagainfther,or/he againftherenemies.

As Ihe wasobligedto behaveonthe onehandwithheroiccourage,andon the otherwithcori-fummateprudence,it wasrequifite,ofcourfe,thatthemanagementof affairsfhouldbe committedtothefenate. Thusthepeopledifputedeverybranchofthelegi°llativepowerwiththefenate,becaufetheywerejealousof theirliberty_ but theyhadnodif-putesaboutthe executive,becaufetheywereani-matedwiththeloveofglory.

Sogreatwasthefharethefenatetookin theexe-cutivepower,that, as Polybius"I"informsus, fo-reignnationsimaginedthat Romewas anarifto-cracy. The fenatedifpofedof thepublicm0ne_',and farmedouttherevenue; theywerearbitersofthe affairsof theirallies;theydetermim:dwarorpeace,and direc"ted,in this refpec%the confuls;theyfixedthenumberof theRomanandof theal-liedtroops,difpofedoftheprovincesandarmiesto

-_Book6.

Q_2 the

z28 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:XI.

the confulsor praetors,and,uponthe expirationoftheyearof command,hadthepowerofappoint-ingfucceffors_ theydecreedtriumphs,receivedandlentembaffies; theynominated,rewarded,punith-ed, andwerejudgesof kings,declaredthemalliesoftheRomanpeople,orfl:rippedthemofthattitle.

Theconfulsleviedthetroopswhichtheyweretocarryintothefield; hadthecommandoftheforcesby lea andland; difpofedof the forcesof theal-lies; wereinveltedwiththe wholepowerof there-publicin the provinces; gavepeaceto thevan-quifhednations,impofedconditionson them,orreferredthemto thefenate.

In the earliefttimes,whenthepeoplehadromefharein the affairsrelatingto waror peace,theyexercifedrathertheirlegiflativethantheirexecutivepower. Theyfcarcedid anythingelfebutconfirmthe actsof the kings,and,aftertheirexpulfion,tholeof the confulsor t_-nate.Sofarweretheyfrom beingthe arbitersof war,that wehavein-ttancesof its havingbeenoftendeclared,notwith-Randingtheoppofitionofthetribunes.But, grow-ingwantonintheirprofperity,theyincreafedtheirexecutivepower. Thusthey*createdthem_itarytribunes,the nominationof whom,till then,hadbelonged:to the generals; and,rometime beforethe firfl:Punicwar,theydecreed,that onlytheirown bodythouldhave the rightt of declaringwar.

a In the yearof Rome444. Livy3I i_eead,book9. As thewaragainf_Perfeusapflearedfomewhatdangerous,it wasordained,bya feaatus-confultum,thatthis law fliouldbefufpended_andthe peopluagreedto it. Livy_dee.5_bo:kz.

t Theyextortedit fromthefenate_laysFrelnfbet_iu_dec.z_ book6_

CHAP.

; CHAP.:8. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. ¢29

C H A P. XVIII.

Of thejudiciaryPowerin theRomanGovernment.THE judiciarypowerwasgivento the people,to

I thefenate,to the magif_rates,andto particularjud-ges. We multtkeinwhatmannerit wasdiltributed,

• beginningwith theircivilaffairs.The confulshad_ thejudiciary powerafter the

_ expulfionof thekings, as the praetorswerejudgesaftertheconfuls. ServiusTu]lushaddivertedhim°tell of the power of determiningof civil caufes,

:_ whichwasnotrefumedbytheconfuls,exceptin romeveryrare[Icafes,forthatreafoncalledextraordinary§.Theywerefatisfiedwithnamingthejudgesand et_a-blifllingthe feveraltribunals. By adifcourfeof ..4p-

, pius Claudius,in Dionyfius¶ Halicarnaffeus,it ap-! pears, that, foearlyas the259thyearofRome,this' waslookeduponas a fettledcuftomamongthe Ro°

roans; andit is nottracingit veryhigh to referit toServiusTullus.

Everyyear,the praetormadea lift:-[-of fuchashechoreforthe officeof judges duringhis magiRracy.A fafficientnumberwaspitcheduponforeachcaufe;a cufcomverynearthe fameasthat nowpra&ifedinEngl_nd. And what was extremelyfavourabletoliberty*was,thepi'_etor'sfixingthejudgeswiththe[I

There is nomanner of doubt but the confulshad the power of tryingcivilcaufes bcfi)_ethe creation of the pr_tors, See Livy_dec, :b book z_ p, I9.DionyLHaliearn. book _o, p. 6z7. and the famebook_ p. 645.

[[ The tribunes frequentlytried caufesby themfelvesonly ; but nothingren-der:d them moreodious. Dionyl_Hahcarn, book _I, p. 7o9.

ffudieiacxtraordinaria. See the Inftitute%book 4.Book 6, p. $6o.

_ Alburnjudietum,,t.. Our ancefl:ors_fay_CiceroproCluentlo_wouldnot fufferany man, whom

cc the partieshad not agreedtos to bejudge of the lea/_[_ecuniaryaffair, much" lefsof a citizen's reputation."

II See, in thefragmeatsof the Servillan,Cornelian_andother laws_ in whatm_nner thefe l_vs api_ointedjudges for the crimesthey propofed to puni/h.They wereoften p_tchedupon by choice_ fometimes by lot j or_ in fine_by

lot m,xt togetherwah choice. Q' 3 confent

230 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XI,

confentoftheparties, Thegreatnumberofexcep-tions,thatcanbemadeinEngland,amountsprettynearto thisverycuffore.

The judgesdecidedonlythequeffions* relatingto mattero_fa&: for example,whetherarumofmoneyhadbeenpaidor not; whetherana& hadbeencommittedornot. But, asto queffionsof -_la,v,as thererequireda certaincapacity,theywerealwayscarriedbeforethetribunalofthecentumvirs§.

The kingsreferredto themfelvesthejudgementof criminalaffairs,andinthiswerefucceededbytheconfuls.It wasinconfequenceofthisauthoritythatBrutusputhischildren,andalltholewhowerecon-cernedintheTarquilfianconfpiracy,to death. Thiswasanexorbitantpower. The confuls,alreadyin-vef_edwiththemilitarycommand,extendedtheex-ercifeofiteventocivilaffairs;andtheirprocedures,beingf'rrippedof allformsof juf'cice,wereratherexertionsofviolencethanlegaljudgements.

ThisgaverifetotheValerianlaw,bywhichitwasmadelawfulto appealto thepeoplefromeveryde-cifionof the confulsthatendangered-thelifeof acitizen. Theconfulshadnolongerapowerofpro-nouncingfentencein capitalcafesagainfl:aRomancitizen,withouttheconfentofthepeople_.

We fee,in thefirfl:confpiracyfor therefforationof theTarquins,that the criminalsweretried byBrutustheconful; in1;hefccond,thefenateandco-mitiawereaffembledto trythem_.

The laws,diPcinguilhedby the nameof facred,allowedthe plebeianstheprivilegeofchoofingtri-

# SeneeadeBenefic.lib.3, cap'7,inJine.SeeQ._intiliaa,lib.4_P, 54,jn fol.edit.of Paris,754I,

_ L¢£_. ft. deOrig._ur. MagiRrates,whowerecalkddecemvirs,prefidedin court,theWholeundera pra._tot'sdi_e4.qion.

Quoniamdee_pitecivJsRomani,injaffopopuliRomani,nonerat,p_rmif-rumconfuhbusjusdieere. SeePompoaiu_jLg, z._, deOrig._ur.

_Jonj,f.Halicam.book5, _"3zz. bUI"IC,_i

Caa_.z$.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 231bunes; fromwhencewasformeda body,wholepre-

tenfionsatfirftwereimmenfe.It is hardtodeterminewhichwasgreater,theinfolenceof theplebeiansindemanding,or the condefcenfionof the fenatein

! granting. TheValerianlawallowedof appealsto_{ thepeople; thatis, to thepeoplecompofedoffena-

tors, patricians,and plebeians. The plebeiansmadea law thatappealsflaouldbe broughtbefore

d_ theirownbody. A queftionwasfoonafterffarted,

i whethertheplebeianshada rightto trya patrician:thiswasthefubje&ofadifputetowhichtheimpeach-a mentofCoriolanusgaverife,andwhichendedwith ,

that affair. WhenCoriolanuswasaccufedbythe

tribunesbeforethepeople,heinfifted,contrarytothefpiritof theValerianlaw, that,ashewasa pa-{ trician,none but the confulshad a powerto try_ him: on the otherhand,the plebeiansalfo,con-

traryto thefpiritof thatfamelaw,pretended,thatnone but theirbodywereempoweredto be hisjudges,andaccordinglytheypronouncedfentenceuponhim.

Thiswasmoderatedby the lawof thetwelvetables; wherebyit wasordained,thatnonebutthegreataffembliesof thepeople"l-flaouldtry a citizenm capitalcafes. Hencethebodyof theplebeians,or (whichamountsto theveryfame)thecomitiabytribes,hadnolongeranypowerof hearingcriminalcaufes,exceptfuchas werepunilhedwithfines.To infli&acapitalpuniPament,a lawwasrequifite;but, to condemnto a pecuniarymul&,therewasoccafiononlyforaplebifcitum.

Thisregulationof the lawof the twelvetableswasextremelyprudent. It producedanadmirablebalancebetweenthebodyof theplebeiansandthe

"l"The eomitiaby centuries. Thus ManliusCapitoliauswastriedin therecomitia,Livyjdec.I, book6_ p.60.

Q,.at fenate:

•3z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooxXL

fenate: for, asthe full judiciarypowerof bothde-pendedonthegreatnefs'ofthepunilhmentandthenatureof the crime,it wasneceffarythey fhouldbothagree.

TheValerianlawaboliflaedalltheremainsof theRomangovernmentanywayrelativeto thatof thekingsof the heroictimesof Greece.Theconfulsweredivertedofthepowertopunifhcrimes.Thoughall crimesarepublic,yet we muffdifiinguifhbe-tweenthofewhichmorenearlyconcernthemutualintercourfeofcitizens,andtholewhichmore imme.diatelyinterefttheftatein therelationit bearstoitsfubje&s.The fir_are calledprivate;thefecond,.public.The_atterweretriedby the people;and,m regardto theformer,theynamed,by particularcommlfl3on,a qua_ftorfor theprofecutionof eachcrime. Theperfonchofenby the peoplewasfre-quentlyoneof themagiftrates,fometimesaprivateman. Hewascalledthequ,eflorofparricide,andismentionedin thelawof thetwelvetables._

The qu_eflornominatedthejudge of thequefotion,whodrewlotsfor thejudges,and regulatedthetribunal,in whichheprefided.II

Hereit ispropertoobfervewhat/harethefenatehad in thenominationof thequml_or,thatwemayfeehowfarthetwopowerswerebalanced.Some-timesthe fenatecaufeda di0.atorto bechofen,inorderto exercifethe officeof qumfior§; at othertimestheyordainedthatthepeoplefhouldbecon-venedbya tribune,witha viewof proceedingto

Por_ponius,in thefecondLawin theDige_deOrig.Jut.USeeafragmentofU/plan,whogivesanotheroftheCornelianlaw: it is to

bemetwithintheCollation_J:th, MofaicandRvmanLa_s, tit. I. deficariishomicidiis.

§ Thistookplace,efpeclallyin regardto or|rotscommittedinItalyswhichwerefubj-c'-tchieflyto theinfpe&ioaof thefenate. SeeLivy_t decad._ook9-concerningtheconfpiracieo,of Capua,

the

Cr_AP.tS. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 23S

thenominationof a qumftor_: and,in fine,thei people frequentlyappointeda magiftrateto make

hisreportto thefenateconcerninga particularcrime,_ and to defirethem to name a qu_eftor,asmaybe

feenin thejudgementuponLucius,3"ctpio_inLivy.-[-In the year of Rome6o,t, fome of therecom-

i miffionswere renderedpermanent._ All criminal; caufeswere graduallydividedintodifferentparts;•_ to whichthey gavethename of _erpetual_ueflons.

Differentprmtors were created,to each of whomi fume of thole queftionswere afl'igned. They had: a power,conferredupon them for theterm of a: year,of trying_hchcriminaleaufesas wereanyway

relativeto tholequeftions,and thentheywerelentto governtheirprovince.

At Carthagethefenateof thehundredwas corn-poledof judges whoenjoyedthatdignityfor lifeII:But, at Rome, the praetorswereannual; andthe

_ judges were notevenfor fo longa term, but were! nominatedfor eachcaufe. We havealreadylhewn,• in the fixth chapter of this book, howfavourable

thisregulationwas to liberty in particulargoVern-ments.The judges werechofenfrom the orderof fena-

tors, till thetime of the Gracchi. _iberiusGrac-chuscaufeda la_vto pafs,that theylhouldbe takenfrom the equeffrianorder; a changefoverycon-fiderable,that the tribune boaftedof havingcut,by one rogationonly, the finewsof the fenatorian

: dignity.

This wasthe carein the ptofecutionfor the murderof Poffhumiusjin theyear ]4o of Rome. SeeLivy.

# Thisjudgementwaspaffed in the yearof Rome 567.t" Book8.

_ Ciceroin Bruto.

[IThi_ is provedfromLivy3book 4S_ whofay, th,it Hannibalrenderedtheirmagifl:racyannual,

It

z34 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XL

It is neceffaryto obferve,that the threepowersmaybeverywelldi_ributedinregardto theliberty

"of the conRitution,thoughnot fo wellinrefpe&tothe libertyof thefubjec't. At Romethe peoplehadthe greateft fhare of the ]egiflative,a part of theexecutive, and part of the judiciary,power; bywhich meansthey had fo greata weightin thego-vernment,as requiredromeother powerto balanceit. The fenate,indeed,hadpart of theexecutivepower,and romelhareof tne tegiflative§; but thiswas not fufficientto counterbalancethe weightofthe people. It wasneceffarythat theylhouldpar-take of the judiciarypower; andaccordinglytheyhad a lharewhen the judges werechofenfrom a-mong the fenators. But, when the Gracchi de-prived _he fenatorsof thejudicialpower¶, there-hate wereno longer able to withftandthe people.To favour, therefore,the liberty of the tubje&,theyftruckat thatof the conftitution: but the for-mer perifhedwiththelatter.

Infinitewerethemifchiefsthat fromthencearofe.The conftitutionwas changedat a time whenthefireof civildifcordhadfcarceleftany fuchthing asa conftitution. The knightsceafedto be that mid-dle order which united the people to the fenate;andthe chainof theconftitutionwasbroke.

There were evenparticularreafonsagaihfftranf-ferringthe judiciarypowerto the equeftrianorder.The conftitutionof Romewasfoundedon thisprin-ciple, that none thould be inliftedas foldiersbutfuchas weremenof fufficientpropertyto anfwerfortheir condu&to the republic. The knights,asperfonsof the greateftproperty, formedthe ca-

§ Thefenatus-confultumswereof forceforthefpaceof a year,thoughnotconfirmedby the people.Divnyf.Halicara.book9J P'595"andbookii,P. 735-

la_ yea_6_o. valry

CHAP.18. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z3_

valryof the legions. But,_whentheir dignityin-creafed,theyrefufedto ferveanylongerin thatca-pacity,and anotherkind of cavalrywasobligedtobe railed. _ThusMariusinliftedall fortsof peopleinto hisarmy, andloonaftertherepublicwasloft.*

Betides,the knightswere the farmersof the re-venue; men wholegreatrapacioulhrfsincrealbdthepublic calamities. Infteadof giving to fuch asthofe the judicialpower, they ought to havebeenconftantlyunder the eyeof the judges. This wemuff:fay in commendationof the ancientFrenchlaws,that they havea&ed towardsthe officersofthe revenuewithasgreat a di_dence as would beobfervedbetweenenemies. When the judiciarypowerat Rome was transferredto the publicans,there was then an end of ail virtue,polity, laws,and government.

Ot this we find a very ingenuousdefcriptionin£omefragments of Diodorus Siculus and Dio." MutiusScevola(lays Diodorus-]-)wantedto re-" rive the ancientmannersandthe laudablecuftom_' of foberand frugalliving; for his predeceffors," havingenteredinto a contra&withthe farmersof" the revenue,who at that timewerepoffeffedof" the judiciarypowerat Rome, had infe&edthe" provincewith all mannerof corruption. But" Scevolamadean exampleof the publicans,and" imprifonedthofeby whomothers had beencon-" fined."

Dio informsus_, that PubliusRutilius,his lieu-tenant,was equallyobnoxiousto the equeftrianor-der, and that, uponhis return, they accufedhimofhavingreceivedromeprefents,and condemnedhim

Ca,pitecen[osplero_fil,ueSallu_.de]_elloJugurth,•1"Fragm_.ntof th_sauthobbook36_in theCollecq:ionof ConflantinePor-

_hyrogenitus,of _irtuesar.d_:ices,_.Fr_gmeotofi-_i_hiaor7,takenf_'orntheE_ctra_ofvirtuesanti.ices,

to

236 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XL

to a fine; upon which he inf_antlymadea ceffionof hisgoods. His innocenceappearedin this, thathe was found to be worth a great deal lets thanwhat he waschargedwith havingextorted,and helheweda juft title to what he poffcfl'ed:but hewouldnot liveanylongerin the tamecitywithfuchprofligatewretches.

[1The Italians,lays Diodorusagain,boughtupwholedrovesof flaresin Siczly,to till theirlands,and to take careof theircattle; but refufedthemaneceffaryfubfiftence. There wretcheswere thenibrcedtogo androb on the highways,armedwithlancesand clubs, coveredwith beat,s fldns, andfollowedby large maftiffs. Thus the wholepro-vincewas laid waffe,and the inhabitantscouldnotcalt anythingtheirown but what was fecuredbyfortreffes. Therewasneitherproconfulnor prmtorthat could or wouldoppofe this diforder,or thatprefumedto punil'hthet_ flares, becaufetheybe-longed to the knights,who, at Rome, were pof-feffedof the judiciarypower§. And yet thiswasone of the caufesof the warof the flares. But Iflaalladd onlyonewordmore. A profeffion,deafand inexorable,that can have rro other viewthanlucre, that wasalwaysafldng and never granting,that impoveriflaedthe rich and increafedeventhemiferyof thepoor;, fucha profeffion,.I lay, lhouldneverhave beenmtruftedwiththe judiciarypowerat Rome.

[ Fragmentofthe _4thbook_intheExtra_ofvirtuesand_ites.Pe_,esquosRommturnjuditiaeranr,arqueexeque_riordinefolerent£or-

tito judicesehgiincaufapra_torum&procoafaltlmjquibuspoRadminiitratamprovinciamd_esdi6tacrat.

CHAP.

CHAr.I9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 237

CHAP, XIX.

Of theGovernmentof tke.RomanProvinces.SUCH was the diftributionof the threepowers

in Rome. But they werefar from beingthus dit2tributedin the provinces: libertyprevailedin thecenter, andtyrannyin the extremepar_s.

While Romeextendedherdominionsno fartherthan Italy, the people weregovernedasconfede-rates, and thelawsof eachrepublicwerepreferred.But, when fhe enlargedherconquefts,and there-hate had no longer an immediateinspectionoverthe provinces,northe magiffratesrefidingat Romewereanylonger capableof governingthe empire,they were obligedto fendprmtorsandproconfuls.Then it wasthat the harmonyof the three powerswasloft. The perfonsappointedto thatofficewereintruftedwitha powerwhichcomprehendedthatofall the Roman magiftracies; nay, eventhatof thepeople¶'. They were defpotic magiffrates,ex-tremelywelladaptedto the diftanceof theplacestowhichtheyweredeffined. They exercifedthethreepowers; and were, if I mayprefumeto ufethe ex-preffion,the bafhawsof the republic.

We haveelfewhereobferved,that, in a common-wealth,thefamemagiRrateought to be poffeffedoftheexecutivepower,aswellcivilas military.,Hencea conqueringrepubliccanhardlycommunicatehergovernment,andrulethe conqueredRateaccordingto herownconftitution. And, indeed,as the ma-giftratelhefendsto governis inveftedwiththeexe-cutivepower,bothcivil and military,he muftalfohave the legiflative: for whois it that couldmakelaws withouthim? Ir is neceffary,therefore,that

Theymadetheiredictsuponenteringtheprovinces,the

z38 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXLthe governor/he fendsbe intruftedwiththethreepowers,aswaspra&ifedintheRomanprovinces.

It is moreeafyfor amonarchyto communicateits government,becaufethe off:leersit fendshave,rome thecivil,andothersthe military,executivepo_ver; whichdoesnot neceffaTilyimplyadefpotieauthority.

It wasa privilegeof the utmoftconfequencetoa Romancitizento havenonebutthepeopleforhisjudges. Wereit notforthis, he wouldhavebeenfubjecCt,in theprovinces,to thearbitrarypowerofa proconfulor of apropraetor.Thecityneverfeltthetyranny,whichwasexercifedonlyonconquerednations.

Thus, in the Romanworld,asat Sparta,thefreemenenjoyedthehigheftdegreeofliberty,whilet_hofewhowereflaveslabouredundertheextremityof fervitude.

Whilethecitizenspaidtaxestheywererailedwithgreatjufticeandequality.The'regulationof Ser-viusTulluswasobtbrve_whohaddiftributedthepeopleintofix claffes,accordingto theirdifferenceofproperty,andfixedthcfeveralfharesofthepub-lic impoRsinproportionto thatwhicheachperfonhadin thegovernment.Hencetheyborcwiththegreamefsof the tax,becaufeof their proportion-ablegreatnet_of credit;and confoledthemfelvesfor the fmallnefsof theircredit, becaufeof thefmallnefsofthetax.

Therewasalfoanotherthingworthyof admira-tion, whichis, that, as ScrviusTullus'sdivifionintoclaffeswas in fomemeafurethefundamentalprincipleoftheconffitution,it thencefollowedthatanequallevyingof thetaxeswasfoconne&edwiththis fundamentalprinciple,thatthe onecouldnotbeabotilhedwithouttheother.

But,

CsA_.2o; THE SPIRrT OF LAWS. z39

But,whilethecitypaidthetaxesas/hepleafed,or paidnoneat al!*, theprovinceswereplunderedbytheknights,whowerethefarmersof thepub-lic revenue. We havealreadymadementionoftheiroppreffiveextortions,withwhichallhifl:orya-bounds.

" All Aria(faysMithridates-]')expe&sme as" her deliverer; fo greatis thehatredwhichthe" rapacioufnefsof the proconfuls_, the confifca-" tionsmadebytheofficersoftherevenue,andthe" quirksandcavilsof judicialproceedingsIJ,have" excitedagainfftheRomans."

Henceit wasthatthe ffrengthof the provincesdidnotincreafe,but ratherweakened,theffrengthof therepublic.Henceit wasthattheprovinceslookeduponthelofsofthelibertyof Romeastheepochaoftheirownfreedom.

CHAP. XX.

_heEndof thisBook.I thouldbe gladto inquireintothedifiribution

ofthethreepowersin all.themoderategovernmentsweareacquaintedwith,inordertocalculatethede;.greesof liberty_vhicheachmayenjoy. But wemuPcnotalwaysexhauftarubieS,fo asto leavenoworkat all for the reader. Mybufinefsisnot tomakepeopleread,buttomakethemthink.

* Aftertheconque_ofMace-JoniatheRomanspald-notaxes.']"SpeechtakenfromTrogusPompeiusjandrelatedbyju_in_book3g.

Seetheorationsagainf_Verres.I1It is wellknownwhatfortof a tribunalwasthst of Var_ whichpro..yokedtheGermaastorevolt.

BOOK

s4o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIL

B 0 0 K XII.

OF TH]_ LAWS THAT FORM POLITICAL LIBERTY, AS

RELATIVE TO THE SUBJECT.

CHAP. I.

Ideaof thisBook.IT isnotfufficientto havetreatedofpoliticalli-

bertyas relativeto theconftitution; wemu_exa-mineit likewifcin therelationit bearsto thefub-jea.

We haveobferved,that, in the formereafe,i_arifesfroma certaindiltributionof thethreepow-ers; but, in the latter,we muftconfiderit in an-otherlight, h confiftsin fecurity,or in theopi-nionpeoplehaveoftheirfccurity.

Theconf_itutionmayhappento befree,andthefubje&not. The fubje&maybefree,andnot theconftitution.In tholecafestheconftitutionwillbefreebyright,and not in fa&; the fubje&willbefreein fa&,andnotbyright.

It is thedifpofitiononlyofthelaws,andevenofthe fundamentallaws,thatconftituteslibertyinre-lationto the conftitution.But, as it regardsthefubje&,manners,cuftoms,or receivedexamples,maygiverifeto it, andparticularcivillawsmayen-courageib aswefhaliprefentlyobferve.

Farther; as, inmoltRates,libertyismorecheck.ed ordepreffedthantheirconfl:itutionrequires,it isproperto treat of theparticularlawsthat,in eachcont_itution,are apt to affiftorchecktheprincipleofliberty,whicheachftateiscapableofreceiving.

CHAP.

Caae.z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 541

CHAP. II.

Of tbeLibertyof theSubje_7..PHILOSOPHICAL liberty confiftsin the free

exercifeof the will_ or, at leaff, if wemufffpeakagreeablytoall fyftems,in an opinionthat wehavethe freeexercifeof our will. Politicallibertycon-riftsin fecurity; or, at leaft,in the opinionthat weenjoyfecurity.

This fecurityis nevermore dangerouflyattackedthan in public or privateaccutations. It is there-foreonthegoodnefsof criminallawsthat the libertyof the fubje&principallydepends.

Criminallawsdidnot receivetheirfullperle&ionallat once. Even in placeswherelibertyhasbeenmoff fought after it has not been alwaysfound.Ariftotle* informsus, that, at Cuma:,the parentsof the accufermight be wimeffes. So imperfectwasthe law, underthekingsof Rome, thatServiusTullus pronouncedfentenceagainftthe childrenofAncusMartius, who werechargedwithhavingaf-fatfinatedthe king hisfather-in-law-[-.Underthefir_ kings of France, Clotariusmadea law1:, thatnobodyfhouldbe condemnedwithoutbeingheard';which[hewsthat a contrarycuftomhad prevailedin rome particularcage,or amongrome barbarouspeople.' It wasCharondasthat firfteftablithedpe-naltiesagainft falfewitneffesII. Whenthe fubjecq:has nofenceto fecure his innocence,he has nonefor hisliberty.

The knowledgealreadyacquiredin romecoun-tries, or that may be hereafterattainedin others,

Politics,book_."l"TarquiniusVrifcus.SeeDionyf.Halicarn.book4.

Soearlyastheyear560.[l Anflot.Polit.bookat chap.t:t. He gavehis la_s at Thurium_in the

$4thOJympiad.

VoL.I. R coacerning

_4z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIL

concerningthe fureftrulesto beobfervedin crimi-naljudgements,is moreintereffingtomankindthananyotherthingintheworld.

Libertycan be foundedon thepra&iceof thisknowledgeonly; and, fuppofingaRateto havethebelt lawsimaginablein thisrefpe&,aperfontriedunderthatRate,andcondemnedto be hangedthenext day,wouldhavemuchmorelibertythanabafhawenjoysinTurkey.

C H A P. III.

_befameSubjectcontinued.THOSE laws,whichcondemna manto death

on the depofitionof a tinglewithers,are fataltoliberty. In rightreafontherelhouldbetwo; be-caufea wimefswhoaffirms,andtheaccufedwhodenies,makean equalbalance,and a thirdmuffinclinethefcale.

The Greeks§ andRomans_ requiredonevoicemoreto condemn: but ourFrenchlawsinfiftupontwo. The Greekspretendthat theircuftomwaseftablifhedbytheGods*_butthismorejuftlymaybelaidofours.

CHAP. IV.

_batLibertyisfavouredbytheNatureand_Proportionof Punifbments.

LIBERTYis in itshighef_peffe&ionwhencri-minallawsderiveeachpuniflamentfromtheparti-cularnatureof thecrime. Therearethennoarbi-trarydecifions; the punifhmentdoesnotflowfromthe capricioufnefsof the legiflator,but from the

§ SeeArif_i_.Orat.in Minervam._I"Dionyf.Hahcarn.on thejudgementof Ceriolanus_book7.

Miner_a_calculus.very

CSA_.4.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _verynatureof the thing;andmanufesnoviolence

_, to man.Therearefourfortsofcrimes.Thofeof thefirfl:

fpeciesare prejudicialto religion;thefecond,tomorals; the third,to the publictranquility;andthefourth,tothefecurityof thetiabje&.The pu-nifhmentsinfli&edfortherecrimesoughttoproceedfromthenatureofeachoftherefpecies.

In theclafsofcrimesthat co_cernreligionI rankonlytholewhichattackit dire&ly,fuchasallfimplefacrileges: for, asto crimesthatdit_urbtheexercifeof it, theyare of thenatureof tholewhichpreju-dicethe tranquilityorfecurityof thefubje&,andoughtto bereferredtothc_feclaffes.

In ordertoderivethepunithmentoffimplefacri-legesfrom.thenatureofthething-l-,it fhouldcon._riftin deprivingpeopleof theadvantagesconferredbyreligion,in expellingthemout of thetemples_in a temporaryorperpetualexclufionfromthe fo-oleryof the faithful,inthunningtheirprefence,inexecrations,comminations,andconjurations.

Inthingsthatprejudicethetranquilityorfecurity"of the Rate,fecreta&ionsarefubje&tohumanju-rifdi&ion:but, in tholewhichoffendthe Deity,wherethereis no publica&,therecanbenocri-minalmatter; the wholepaffesbetwixtmanandGod,whoknowsthe meafureandtimeofhisven-geance.Now,if magiftrates,confoundingthings,/houldinquirealfointo hiddenfacrileges,thisin-quifitionwould"be dire&edto a'kindof a&ionthatdoesnotatallrequireit; the libertyof thefubjecq:wouldbe-fubvertedbyarmingthezealoftimorous,aswellasofprefumptuous,confciencesagainfthim.

a_St. Lewismade_achreverelawsagainf_tholewhofwore,thatthero0ethoughth_mfelfobligedto admoni/hhimforit. Thisprincemoderatedhiszeal_andlbftenedhislaws,_ SeehisOrdinances,

R 2 The

z4_ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooxXIL

The mifchiefarifesfrom a notion, ,,hich fomepeoplehaveentertained,of revengingthe caufeofthe Deity. But we muff:honour the Deity, andleavehim to avengehis owncaufe; And, indeed,were we to be dire&edby fuch a notion, wherewouldbe theend of puniflaments? If humanlawsare to avengethe caufeof an infiniteBeing, theywillbedire&edby hisinfinity,and notbytheweak-hers, ignorance,andcaprice,of man.

An hifl:orian_ of Provencerelatesa fa&, whichfurnilb.esus withan excellentdefcription"of thecon-fequencesthat mayarife, in weak capacities,fromthe notion of avengingthe Deky'scaufe. A Jewwasaccufedof havingblafphemedagainff:the virginMary; and, uponconvi&ion,wascondemnedto befleadalive. A ffrangefpe&aclewasthenexhibited:gentlemen marked, with knives in their hands,mountedthe fcaffolcl,and drove awaythe execu-tioner, inordertobe theavengersthemfelvesof thehonourof the bleffedvirgin.! I do not herechoofeto anticipatethe retie&ionsof the reader.

The fecondclafsconfiffsof thofecrimeswhichareprejudicialtomorals. Suchis the violationof pub-lic or privatecontinence;that is, of the policedi-re&ingthe mannerin whichthepleafureannexedtothe conjun&ionof the fexesis to be enjoyed. Thepuniflmlentof thofecrimesought to be alfoderivedfrom the nature of the thing. The privationoffuchadvantagesas focietyhasattachedto thepurityof morals, fines, fhame,neceffityof concealment,public infamy, expulfionfrom home and fociet)',and, in fine, all fuch punifhmentsas belongtoacorre&ivejurifdi&io_l,aretufficientto reprefsthete-merity of the twofexes. In cffc&,therethingsare

FatherBougerd.lefs

_: CHAP.4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 245

lefsfoundedon malicethanon careleflq_efsandfell-neglect.

We fpeakhere of norrebut crimeswhichrelatemerelyto morals; for, as to tholethatarealfopre-judicial to the publicfecurity,fuchas rapes, they

i belongto thefourthfpecies.The crimesof the thirdclafsare tholewhichdif-_- turbthepublictranquility. Thepunifhmentsought! therefbletobederivedfromthenatureof the thing,

and to be relativeto this tranquility;fuch as im-i prifonment,exile,andotherlikechaffxfements,pro-

per forreclaimingturbulentft0iritsandobligingthemtoconformto the effablifhedorder.

! confinethole crimesthat injurethepublictran-quilityto thingswhichimplya bareoffenceagainfl:the police; for, as to thole which,by ditturbingthe publicpeace,attackat thefametimethefecurityof thefubje&,theyoughtto berankedin thefourthclafs.

The punifhmentsinfli_ed uponthe lattercrimesarefuchasareproperlydiffinguiflaedby that name.They are a kindof retaliation,by whichthe fooleryrefules lecurityto a memberwho has a&uallyorintenti'onallydeprivedanotherof hisfecurity. Therepun:fb.mcnr.sare derived from the nature of thethi_ig,foundedon reafon,and drawnfrom theverytburceof good and evil. A man defervesdeathwhen he has violatedthe fecurityof the fubje&fofar as to deprive,or attempt to deprive,anothermanof his life. "/his p_niflamentof death is theremedy,as it were,of a tick fociety. Whenthereis a breachof fecufitywith regardtoproperty,theremaybe fomereafonsfor inflldtinga capitalptmifh-nlent: btzt it would be muchbetter, and perhapsmorenatural,that crimescommittedagainffthe fe-curityot propertythouldbe punithedwith thelois

R 3 of

z¢6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BOOKXI_,;

ofproperty; and thisoughtindeedto bethecafeif mensfortuneswerecommonor equal But, astholewhohavenopropertyof theirownaregene-rallythe readie_to attackthat of others,it hasbeenfoundneceffary,inffeadof a pecuniary,tofubfl;ituteacorporal,punifhment.

All thatI haeehereadvancedis foundedinna-ture,andextremelyfavourableto thelibertyof thefubje&.

C_H A P. V.

Of ccr.'ain./iccufationsthatrequireparticularModera-!ionandPrudence.

IT is an importantmaxim,thatweoughtto bevery circumfpe&in the profecutionof witchcraftandherefy. The accufationof theretwocrimesmay be vaftlyinjurioustoliberty,andprodu&iveof infiniteoppre//ion,if the legiflatorknowsnothow to let boundsto it. For, as it doesnotdi-re&lypointat a perfon'sa&ions,butat hischarac.ter_it growsdangerousin proportionto the igno-ranceof thepeople;and thena manis lureto bealwaysin danger,becaufethemottunexceptionablecondu&,the pureftmorals,and theconRantprac-ticeof everyduty inlife,arenota fuflS.cientfecu-rityagainftthe fufpicionof his beingguiltyof thel.ikecrimes.

UnderManuelComnenus,the proteflator* wasaccufedof havingconfpiredagainftthe emperor,andofhavingemployed,forthatpurpofe,romeIe-_:retsthatrendermeninvifible.It is mentioned,int._elifeofthisemperor,J-.thatAaronwasdete&ed,as he wasporingover a bookof Solomon's,the

" _ _,_icaas,LifeofManuelComnenus_book_..t Ibid.reading

C_AP._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 247readingof whichwasfut_cientto conjureupwholelegionsof devils. Now,byfuppofingapowerinwitchcraftto roufetheinfernalfpiritsto arms,peo-ple look upona man whomtheycallaforcererasthe perfonintheworldmutt:likelytodifturbandfubvertfociety;and,of courfe,theyaredifpofedto punilhhimwiththeutmoftfeverity.

But theirindignationincreafeswhenwitchcraftisfuppofedto havea powerof fubvertingreligion.The hiftoryof Conffantinople* informsus, that_

" in confequenceof a revelation,madeto a bifhop,of a miracle'shavingceafedbecaufeof themagicpra&icesof a certainperfon,boththatperfonandhis funwereputtodeath. Onhowmanyfurpfi-zing thingsdid not this tinglecrimedepend!--Thatrevelationslhouldnotbeuncommon; thatthebithopthouldbe favouredwithone; thatitwasreal; that therehad beena miracleinthecafe;thatthis miraclehad ceafed;thattherewasanartmagic_ thatmagiccouldfubvertreligion; thatthisparticularperfonwasa magician; and,in fine,thathehadcommittedthatmagica&.

Theemperor_heodorusLafcarisattributedhisill-nefsto witchcraft,q holewhowereaccufedof thiscrimehad no other refourceleft thanto handlearedhotironwithoutbeinghurt, Thus,amongtheGreeks,a perfonoughtto havebeena forcerer,tobeableto clearhimfelfof theimputationof witch-craft. Suchwastheexcet_oftheirftupidity,that,to themoltdubiouscrimeintheworld,theyjoinedthemuffdubiousproofsof innocence.

UnderthereignofPhiliptheLongtheJewswereexpelledfromFrance,bringaccul_dofhavingpoi-foncdthe fpringswiththeirlepers. Soablhrdan

Hi_oryof theemperorMauriee_byTbeol_k3,1acTus_cl:ap,lz.

R 4 accufatioa

_8 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, BooKXIL

accufationoughtto makeusdoubtof allthofethatarefoundedonpublichatred.

I havenothereaffertedthat herefyoughtnot tobepuniihed; I laidonlythatweoughtto beex-tremelycircumfpe&inpuniflaingit.

CHAP. VI.

OftheCrimeagainflNature.GODforbidthatI thouldhavethe leaftinclina-

tion to diminilhthepublichorroragainfta crimewhichreligion,morality,and civilgovernment,e*quallycondemn.It oughtto beprofcribedwereitonlyforitscommunicatingto onerextheweakneffesoftheother,andfor leadingpeople,by a fcanda-lousproftitutionof theiryouth,to an ignominiousoldage. WhatI lhallfayconcerningitwillnowaysdiminilhitsinfamy,beinglevelledonlyagainttthetyrannythat mayabufethe veryhorrorweought

. to haveagaini_thevice.Asa naturalcircumflanceof thiscrimeisfecrecy,

therearefrequentinRancesof its havingbeenpu-ni[hedby legiflatorsuponthedepofitionofa child.Thiswas openinga verywidedoorto calumny.,' Juflinian(laysProcopius+) publiiheda lawa-" gainPcthiscrime:he orderedan inquiryto be" made,not onlyagainftthofewhowereguiltyof" it aftertheena&ingof thatlaw,butevenbefore.'" Thedepofitionof atinglewimefs,fometimesof" a child,fometimesof a flave,wasfufficient,el-" peciallyagaini_fuch as wererich, and again_•' tholeof thegreenfa&ion."

It is veryoddthattherethreecrimes,witchcraft,herefy,andthatagaini_nature; (ofwhich,thetir_mighteafilybeprovednot to exiR;the fecond,to

#SecretHif_0ry. be

C_A_.7.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 249t

befufceptibleof aninfinitenumberof difl:incq:ions,interpretations,andlimitations; thethird,to beof.ten obfcureand uncertain;) it is veryodd,I fay,

; that thefethreecrimesthould,amongftus, bepu-nithedwithfire.

I mayventureto affarm,that the crimeagainfl:naturewillnevermakeanygreatprogrefsinfociety,unlel_peoplearepromptedto it byromeparticularcultom; as amongthe Greeks,wherethe youthsof thatcountryperformedall theirexe_cifesnaked;asamongftus, wheredomefticeducationisdifufed;asamongtheAfiatics,whereparticularperfonshavea greatnumberofwomenwhomtheydefpife,whileotherscanhavenoneatall. Let therebenocur-tomspreparatoryto thiscrime;letit, likeeveryo-ther violationof morals,be feverelyprofcribedbythecivilmagiOrate; andnaturewillloondefendorrefumeher rights. Nature,thatfond, thatindul-gent,parent,hasttrewedherpleafureswithaboun-teoushand; and,whilePaefillsus _,irhdelights,fhepreparesus, bymeansofouriffue,(inwhomwefeeourfelves,asit were,reproduced,)the preparesus, 1 fay,forfuturefatisfaaionsof a moreexqui-ritekindthantholeverydelights.

C H A P. VII.

Of theCrimeof Higb4ereafon.IT is determined,by the lawsof China,that

whofoever[hewsanydifrefpec'tto the emperoristobepunilhedwithdeath. As theydonotmentioninwhatthisdifrefpe&confifts,everything mayfur-nilhapretextto takeawaya man'slife,and to ex-terminateanyfamilywhaffoever.

Twoperfonsofthatcountry,whowereemployedto writethe court-gazette,havinginfertedfomecir-

cumftances

zSo THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXILcumftancesrelatingto a certainfa&that werenottrue, it waspretendedthatto tella liein thecourt-gazettewasa difrefpe&/hewnto thecourt; incon-fequenceof whichtheywereput to death"." Aprinceofthebloodhavinginadvertentlymaderomemai'kon a memorialfignedwiththe red pencilbytheemperor,it wasdeterminedthathehadbehaveddifrefpec2i-'ullyto the fovereign;whichoccafionedoneof themoltterribleperfecutionsagainftthatfa-milythateverwasrecordedinhiftory"l'.

If the crimeof high-treafonbe indeterminate,thisaloneis fufficientto makethegovernmentde-generateintoarbitrarypower. I lhaUdefcantmorelargelyonthisfubje&whenI cometo treat:_ofthecompofitionof laws.

CHAP, VHI.

Of the _adA2plicationof theNameof SacrilegeandHigb-ff'reafon.

IT is likewifea fhockingabufeto givetheap-pellationof high-treafonto ana6tionthatdoesnotdeferveit. By an imperial"law§ it wasdecreed,thattholewhocalledin queffiontheprince'sjudge-ment,or doubtedof the meritof fuchashehadchofenfor a publicoffice,fhouldbeprofecutedasguiltyof facrilege[l.Surelyit was the cabinet-councilandtheprince'sfavouriteswhoinventedthatcrime. Byanotherlawit wasdeterminedthatwho-foevermadeanyattemptto injuretheminiftersandofficersbelongingtothefovereign.fhouldbedeemed

FatherDuHalde)tom.x, p.43"t" FatherParennin)in theEdifyingLetters."_Book29.§ Gratian,Valentinian,andTheedofius.Thisis the fe¢ondintheCodede

¢rimin.faoiL_lSaorilegilinflareft dubitarean isdlgnusft _uemeIegeritimperator.1bin

Thislawlervedasa modelto thatofRoger)nthecon/fituuoaofNaples_tit.4_

guilty

C_AP.8. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. zSt

guiltyofhigh-treafon,asifhehadattemptedtoin-jure thefovereignhimfelf_[.Thishtwisowing.totwoprinces*, remarkablefortheirweaknefs; pr,n-ces whowereled by theirminifters,asflocksby"fhepherds; princeswhowereflaresin thepalace,childreninthecouncil,frangersto thearmy; prin-ces,in fine,whopreferredtheirauthorityonlybygivingit awayeveryday. Someof tholefavouritesconfpiredagaint%theirfovereigns.+Nay,theydidmore; theyconfpiredagainfftheempire; theycal-ledin barbarousnations; and,whentheemperorswantedto flop theirprogrefs,thefcatewasfoen-feebled,as to beunderaneceflhyof infringingthelaw,and of expofingitfelfto the crimeof high-treafon,inorderto punifhtholefavourites.

Andyetthis is theverylawwhichthe judgeofMonfieurde Cinq-MarsbuiltuponI-, when,en-deavouringto provethatthelatterwasguiltyofthecrimeofhigh-treafonforattemptingto removecar-dinalRichelieufromtheminiftry,helays," Crimes" that aimat theperfonsof miniftersaredeemed," by the imperialconfitutions,of equalconfe-" quencewiththolewhicharelevelledagainftthe" emperor'sownperfon. A miniferdifchargeshis" dutyto hisprinceandtohiscountry: toattempt," therefore,to removehim,isendeavouringtode-" privetheformeroneof his arms_t,andthelat-" terofpartof itspower." It isimpofliblefor themeanef'ctoolsofpowertoexprefsthemfelvesinmorefervilelanguage.

By anotherlawofValentinian,Theodofius,andArcadius§, falfecoinersaredeclaredguiltyof high-

In"The5thlawadleg._uA_¢a].* Arcadiusanc]Honorius."I"Memoirsof M_ntrefor,tom.*.

2Vami2oflibarscorSorimnoflrifuut. +The'famelaw of th_Co_eadleg._uI._j.

§ It is the9thof the CodeTheodof.defalfamoneta,treafon.

25z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XILtreafon. But is not this confoundingthe ideasofthings? Is not the very horrorof high-treafondi-minilhedbygivingthat nameto anothercrime?

CHAP. IX.

7"hefame 8ubje_conlinued.

PAULINUS having writtento the emperorA-lexander,that " he waspreparingto profecute,for•' high-treafon,a judge who haddecidedcontrary" to hiseditor,'' the emperoranfwered," that un-" der his reigntherewas no fuch thingas indire&"' high-treafon*."

Fauftinianwrote to the fame emperor,that, ashe had fwornby the prince'slife neverto pardonhis flare, he found himfelftherebyobligedto per-petuatehis wrath,left he flaouldincur the guiltofl,efamajeflas_ uponwhichtheemperormadeanfwer,"' Yourfearsaregroundlefs"t-,and youarea ftran-" get to myprinciples."

It was determined, by a fenatus-eonfultum_-,that whofoevermelteddown any of the emperor'sRatues,which happenedto be reje&ed,fhouldnotbe deemedguilty of high-treafon. The emperors,Severus and Antoninus, wrote to Pontius§, thattholewhofoldunconfecratedftatues of theemperor/hould not be charged with high-treafon. Thefameprinceswrote to JuliusCaffianus,that, if aperfon, in flinginga ftone, thouldby chanceftrikeone of the emperor'sftatues,he fhouldnot belia-ble to a profecutionfor high-treafon[1. The Julianlawrequiresthis fort of limitations_ for, in virtue

•* Etiamexaliiscauflsmajeflatis¢riminatenantraeofeeculo.Leg.x.eod.adleg,

of.dhenarnfe_Tcemecefdlidtudlnem¢oncepifli,Leg.z. cod.adleg.Ju|. Maj.Seethe4th lawin ri. adleg._ul.Maj.

§ Seethe5thlaw,ibid.IIIbid.

of

CHAr.I:.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. "53

ofthislaw,the crimeof high-treafonwascharged,notonlyupontholewhomelteddowntheemperor'sftatues,but l_kewifeon thofewhocommittedany

: fuchlikea&ion*, whichmadeitanarbitrarycrime.! Whenanumberofcrimesof l,efamajeflashadbeen

eftablifhed,theywereobligedto diffinguiflathefe-veralforts. HenceUlpian,the civilian,afterfay-

.. ing that the accufationof lwfamajeflasdidnotdiewith the criminal,adds, that this doesnot re-late to afall the treafonablea&seftablilhedbytheJulianlaw,but only to that whichimpliesanat-tempt againftthe empireor againfttheemperor'slife.

CHAP. X.if'hefameSubje_continued.

THERE was a lawpaffedinEngland,underHenryVIII.bywhichwhoeverpredi6tedtheking'sdeathwasdeclaredguiltyof high-treafon.Thislaw w_sextremelyvague: the terrorof de[?oticpoweris fo great,that it recoilsupontholewhoexercifeit. In thisking'slaftillnefsthe phyficianswouldnotventureto fayhe wasindangerlandfurelytheya&edveryright5"

CHAP. XI.

OfThoughts.M.4RS2r'/1$dreamtthat he hadcut Dionyfius's

_hroat§. Dionyfiusput him to death,pretendingthathewouldneverhavedreamtoffucha thingbynightif hehadnotthoughtofit byday. Thiswas

.,41iud_e_uldflmileadmiferlnt.Leg,6. ft.adle6,Jel. Maj,In tilelaf_lawinft. adleg.ffuLdeadulteris. - ,

_t SeeBurnet'5Hiftoryofthe Reformation,§Plutarcb°*LifeofDionyliuh

a mot_

Z54 THE SPIRIT ()FLAWS. BoozXIL

amoi'ttyrannicalacCtion; for,thoughithadbc'enthefubje&ofhisthoughts,yethehadmadenoat-temptIItowardsit.Thelawsdonottakeuponthemtopunifhanyotherthanoverta&s.

C I--IA P. XII.

OfindifcreetSpeeches.NOTHINGrendersthe crimeof high-treafon

morearbitrarythan declaringpeopleguiltyof itfor indifcrcetfpeeches. Speechis £othbje&to in-terpretation_ thereis fogreatadifferencebetween]ndifcretionandmalice;andfrequentlyfolittleisthereofthelatterin thefreedomofexpreffion,thatthelawcanhardlyfubje&peopleto acapitalpunifla-mentfor words,unlefsit exprefslydeclareswhatwordstheyare*.

Wordsdo not conftitutean overta&; theyre-mainonlyin idea. Whenconfideredbytl_emfelves,theyhave generallyno determinatefignificationfor thisdependson thetonein whichtheyare ut-tered. Itoftenhappensthat,in repeatingthefamewords,they havenot thefamemeaning:this de-pendson tlieirconne6tionwithotherthings; andfometimesmoreis fignifiedbyfflencethanbyanyexprcffionwhatever.Sincetherecanbenothingfoequivocalandambi.guousasallthis, howisit pof-fibleto convertit into a crimeof high-treafon?Whereverthis lawis eftablifhed,thereis an end,_aotonlyofliberty,butevenof itsverythadow.

In the manifeftoof the lateCzarinaagaint_thefamilyof theD:OIgoruckys-[-,oneof thereprincesis condemnedto deathfor hwcingutteredromein.

1{The thoughtrnuftbejoin-.dwithromefortoration.Sinontalefit denHum,neuod.aelfcripturalegisdcfcenditreeladexem_lum/eg?#

_ind.,candum_) laysModeRinus_in the_venthtaw_in#if',adleg.fful. 2Vtajo

t I_47_o. decent

Cnar.Iz. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. ¢5_decentwordsconcerningherperfon; another,forhavingmaliciou_interpretedher imperiallaws,

i and for having_"_endedherfacredperfonbydifre-fpe&fulexpreffions.NotthatI pretendto diminilhthe juft indigna-tionofthepublicagainfttholewhoprefumeto ;cainthegloryof theirfovereign: whatI meanis, that,if defpoticprincesare willingto moderatetheirpower,a milderchaflifementwouldbemoreproper,ontholeoccafions,thanthechargeof high-treafon,a thingalwaysterribleevento innocenceitfelf_.

Overt a&sdo nothappeneveryday; theyarei expofedtotheeyeof thepublic; andafalfecharge

withregardtomatr'ersoffa& maybe eafilydete_t-ed. Words,carriedintoa&ion,affumethenatureof thata&ion. Thusa man,whogoesintoa pub-lic market-placeto incitethe fubje&to revolt,in-curstheguiltof high-treafon,becaufethewordsarejoinedto the a&ion,andpartakeof itsnature. Itis notthewordsthatarepunilhed,but ana&ioninwhichwordsare employed.Theydonotbecomecriminal,but whentheyare annexedto a criminala&ion. Everything is confoundedif wordsareconftruedintoacapitalcrime,infteadofconfideringthemonlyasa markof thatcrime.

The emperors,_'heodofius,Arcadius,and Hono-flus,wrotethusto Rufinus,whowasprwfecTusprw.torio: " Thoughamanflaouldhappento fpeaka-"' milsofour peffon,or government,we donot" intendto punifhhim§ : ifhehasfpokenthrough" levity,we muffdefpifehim; if throughfolly," we muf_pityhim; and,if he wrongsus, we" muffforgivehim. ' Therefore,leavihgthingsas

Nee lubr_cumlingute ad paznamfacile trabtndumeft, Mode/_in.in the 7thlaw,i,,ff.a_@,y_t.M,j.§ Si ld ex levitate_rocefferlt,¢antemnendum¢ ; fl e_ infan_a,mlferatianedig.m'F_nu_,. mi fl ab inj_rias remittendum.Leg. unionCod. $i _ui_ir_erat, mated.

" they

•f5 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XII:_' theyare,you areto informus accordingly,thatc, wemaybeableto judge of wordsby perfons,,candthatwemaydulyconfiderwhetherweought"' to punifhoroverlookthem."

C H A P. XIII.Ofl¢1ri,ings.

IN writingsthereis fomethingmorepermanentthanin words; but, whentheyarenowayprepa-rativeto high-treafon,theycannotamountto thatcharge.

And yet Auguflusand7"iberiusfubje&edfatyricalwritersto the tamepunilhmentasfbrhavingvio-latedthe law of majefty_Auguitus[hbecaufeofromelibelsthathadbeenwrittenagainftperfonsofthefirftquality_ Tiberius,becaufeof thofewhichhe fufpe&edto havebeenwrittenagainfthimfelf.Nothingwasmorefatal to Romanliberty. Cremu-tiusCorduswasac(ufedof havingcalledCaffms,inhisannals,thelagoftheRomans_'.

Satyricalwritingsare hardlyknownin defpoticgovernments,wheredeje&ionof mindontheonehand,and ignoranceon the other, affordneitherabilities,norwill,towrite. Indemocraciestheyarenothindered,for theveryfamereafonwhichcau-festhemto beprohibitedinmonarchies: beingge-nerallylevelledagainftmenof powerandauthority,theyflatterthemalignancyof thepeople,whoarethe.governingparty. In monarchiestheyarefor-bidden; butratherasa fubjeCtof civilanimadver-fion,thanasa capitalcrime. Theymayamufethegeneralmalevolence,pleafethemalcontents,dimi-niththeenvyagainftpublicemployments,givethe

[[TacituFsAnnalr, book I. This continuedunder the following reigns,See the fir/l"law in the Codedefamoflslibellit.

rr_,,,a_n_l,book4. people

C_AP.I4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z57peoplepatienceto fuffer,and makethemlaughat

, theirfufferings.But no governmentis foaverfetofatyricalwri-

tingsastheariftocratical.Therethemagiftratesarepettyfovereigns,but not greatenoughto defpifeaffronts. If, in a monarchy,a fatyricalftrokeisdefignedagaini_theprince,heis_placedonfuchaneminencethatit doesnotreachhim; butanarifto-craticallordis piercedto the veryheart. Hencethedecemvirs,whoformedanariftocracy_punifhedfatyricalwritingswithdeath*.

C H A P. XIV.BreachofMode_yinpuni.[hingCrimes.

THEREarerulesofmodeftyobfervedbyalmofteverynationin theworld: now,it wouldbeveryabfurdto infringetheferulesinthepunifhmentofcrimes,theprincipalviewof whichoughtalwaystobetheel_ablifhmentof order.

Was it the intentof tholeorientalnationswhoexpofedwomento elephantstrainedupforana-bominablekindof punifhmenc,wasit, I fay,theirintentto eRabli/honelawby thebreachof ano-ther?"

By anancientcuftomof theRomansit wasnotpermittedto put girlsto deathtilltheywereripefor marriage.Tiberiusfoundoutanexpedientofhavingthemdebauchedbytheexecutioner,beforetheywerebroughtto theplaceof punilhment-]-:thatbloodyandfubtletyrantdeftroyedthemoralsofthepeople,to prefervetheircuftoms.

Whenthemagiftratesof Japancaufedwomentobe expofednakedinthemarket-places,andobliged

Thelawof thetwelvetables,"]"Suetonius_in_riberio.

VoL.I. S them

238 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoonXII.

themtogo uponall fourlikebeat}s,modet}ywasfhocked_ : but, whentheywantedtocompelamo-ther---whentheywantedto forcea fon---I c/m-notproceed: evennatureherfelfisftruckwithhor-ror°

CHAP. XV.Of the Infranchifementof Slaves,in Orderto accufe

theirMailer.AUGUSTUSmadea law, that the flaresof

tholewhocont]_iredagainfthisperfon/houldbefoldto thepublic,that theymightdepofeagainiltheirmailer§. Nothingoughtto be neglectedwhichmaycontributeto thedifcoveryof a heinouscrime:it isnatural,therefore,that,in agovernmentwherethereare flares,they/houldbeallowedtoinform;but theyoughtnotto beadmittedaswimeffes.

Vindexdilcoveredthe confpiracythat had beenformedinfavourof Tarquin; but he wasnotad-•mitreda wimefsagainftthechildrenof Brutus. Itwasrightto givelioertyto a perfonwhohadren-deredfo greata ferviceto hiscountry;but it wasnotgivenhimwith a viewof enablinghimto ren-derthisfervice.

Hencethe emperorTacitusordained,thatflares/houldnot be admittedas wimeffesagainfttheirmailers,evenin the cal_of high-treafonII:a lawwhichwasnot infertedinJuflinian'scompilement.

CHAP. XVI.OfCalumny,withRegardtotheCrimeofHigh-Ureafo_.

TO dojufticeto theC_efars,theywerenotthefirftdevifersof the horridlawswhichtheyena&ed.

Collectionof voyagesthat contributedto the effabli/hmentof th_l/a_-IndJaCompanyjtom.5_partz.

§ Dio,in Xiphilinus.I1Fla,oiusVopifcus_inl_islife. It

CsaP.17. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 259

It is Sylla* th_attaught them that calumniatorsought not to be punifhed: but the abufewaslooncarriedto fuchexcelsas to rewardthem-]-.0_

C H A P. XVII.Of theRevealittgof Confpirades.

IF tbybrother,thefon of thymother,ortbyfon, ori tbydaughter,or the wife of thybofora,orthyfriend,• v:hicbis aathine,ownfoul, e_ticetheeficretly,fayivg,! Let usgd_nd ferve"othergods, thouflaaltfurelykill_" hi_:_,thoufbaltflonehim_. This lawof Deutero-} .n0mycannotbe acivillawamongmQffof the ha-! tions known to us, hecaufeit wouldpavethe way

for all manner0f wickcdnefs.No lcfs revere is the law of feveralcountries,

whichcommandsthefubje&s,onpain of death, todifc!ofeconfpiraciesin which they are not even fomuch.asconcerned. Whenfucha lawis eftabli/hedina monarchicalgovernment,it is very proper itthouldbe underromereftric"tions.

It oughtnot tobeapplied, in itsfullfeverity,buttO the ftrongeFtcafesof high-treafon. In tho£ecountriesit is of the utmoftim ortancenotp . . tO con-found the differentdegreesof this crime. In Ja-pan, wherethe laws fubvei-tevery idea of humanreafon,the crimeof concealmentis appliedeventothemoffordinarycafes.

A _:ertainrelation§ makesmentionof twoyoungladi_es,who_,eret'hut up for lifein a boxthickfet

Syll:rmade a law of majeRy, which is mentionedin Cicero's orations, proCluentio_Art. _. tn PifonemlArt. _,I. zd again/]:Verres_Art. 5'. FamiliarE-plRles_hook 3, letter II. C_far andAuguflus ilfferted them m tae Julianla,vs i othersmadeadditions tothem,

t _t quo_uisdiflinc?ioraecufator_eo magithonoresaffefueb_tur,ac _elutifacro-faneTuserat. Tacit.

Deuteron. chap.xiii. v. 6.§ eolleEtionof voyagesthat contributedtothe efiablithmcntof the 'l_aR-]ndia

CompanD p,4z% bookS_partzd.S 2 with

z6o THE _PIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXII.

withpointednails; one for havinghada lovein-trigue,andtheotherfornotdifclofingit.

C H A P. XVIII.

Howdangerousit is, inRepub!ics,tobetoofevereinpunifloingtheCrimeofHigh-_ereafon.

AS loonasa republichascompaffedthedeffruc-tionof thofewhowantedto fubvertit, therefhouldbeanendofterrors,punithments,and evenof re-wards.

Greatpunilhments,andconfequentlygreatchan-ges,cannottakeplacewithoutinveRingromeciti-zens withan exorbitantpower. It is thereforemoreadvifeable,in thiscare,to exceedin lenity,thanin feverity; to banilhbut few, ratherthanmany_ and to leavethemtheire_ates,infieadofmaking'avaf_numberof confifcations.Underpre-tenceof avengingthe republic'scaufe,the aven-gers wouldeRabli/htyranny.The bufinefsisnotto deRroytherebel,buttherebellion.Theyoughtto returnasquickaspoffibleintotheufualtrackofgovernment,in whicheveryoneisprote&edbythelaws,andnooneinjured.

TheGreekslet no boundsto thevengeancetheytook of tyrants,or of tholetheyfufpe&edof ty-ranny: they put their childrento deathll; nay,fometimesfiveof theirnearerrelations* ; andtheyprofcribcdaninfinitenumberoffamilies.Byfuchmeanstheir republicsfufferedthe moil violentthocks: exiles,orthe returnoftheexiled,wereal-wa.ysepochasthatindicateda changeof the confli-tUtlOn.

UDionyf.Hal_.carn.RomanAntiqu;ties,bookg.* "Tyran.oocc_fo,cui#_uedusproxira:s¢ognationemagiltratusuecato.Cic.delnvc_Jt,hb.z, • "

The

CsaP.*8.THE SPIRI'T OF LAWS. z6,

TheRomanshadmorefenfe. VV'henCaffiuswasput to deathforhavingaimedat tyranny,thequef-tionwaspropofed,whetherhischildrenfhouldun-dergothe famefate: but they were preferred." They,faysDionyfiusHalicarnaffeus¶, whowant-

._ " ed to changethislawat theendoftheMartian: " andcivillaws,andtoexcludefrompublicoffices

" thechildrenofthofewhohadbeenprofcribedby_ " Sylla,areverymuchtoblame.".: Wefind,inthewarsofMariusandSylla,towhat" excefstheRomanshadgraduallycarriedtheirbar-

barity. Suchfcenesofcruelty,itwashoped,wouldneverbe revived.But, underthe triumvirs,theycommittedgreatera&sofoppreffion,thoughwithromeappearanceof lenity; andit is provokingtofeewhatfophifmstheymakeufeof to covertheirinhumanity.Appianhasgivenus§theformulaofthe profcriptions.Onewouldimaginetheyhadnootheraimthanthe goodoftherepublic; withfuchcalmnefsdo theyexprefsthemfelves;fuchadvan-tagesdotheypointoutto the ftate; fuchexpedi-encydo theyfhewin the meanstheyadopt_ fuchfecuritydotheypromifeto theopulent;fuch tran-quilitytothepoor; foapprehenfivedotheyfeemofendangeringthe livesofthecitizens; fodefirousofappearingthefoldiers;fuchfelicity,infine,dotheyprefageto thecommonwealth*.

Romewasdrenchedin bloodwhenLepidustri-umphedover Spain: yet,byanunparallelledab-furdity,he orderedpublicrejoicingsin thatcity,uponpainof profcription%

In"Book8,p. 547'§ Ofthecivilwars,book4'

_Q_od feintfaultumquellt,Sacrisa _.li_dentbuntdiem: 9uif_:utfaxit irlt_ _rofcri/fo$ gt_oq

S 3 CHAP.

z6z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XII.

C H A P. XIX.

In what Maimerthe U/e_f LiberUis JufpendedinaRepublic.

IN countrieswherelibertyis moRef{eemedthereare lawsby whicha tingleperfonis deprivedof it,in order to preferve it for the .hote community.Such are, in England,whattheycallbillsofattain-der§. Therearerelativeto tholeAthenianlawsbywhich a privateperfonwascondemned'%providedthey were made by the unanimousfuffrageof fixthoufandcitizens. They are relativealfoto tholelawswhichweremadeat Rome againRprivateciti-zens, and werecalledprivilegeJ% Therewerene-ver pafl_:dbut in the greatmeetingsof the people.But, in what mannerfoeverthey were ena&ed,Cicero was for havingthem aboli/hed,becaufetheforce of a taw confiRsin its being madefor thewhole community_. I tour own, notwithftand-ing, that the pra&iceof the freer nationthat everexiRedinducesme to think that there arecafesinwhich a veil fhould be drawnfor a whileoverli-berty, as it was cuftomaryto cover the Ratuesofthe gods.

§ It is notfufl:iclent,in thecourtsof .]ufIiceof thatkingdom,thattheevbdencebeoffucha natureastofatisfythejudges; theremuPcbealegalproofiandthelawrequiresthedepofitionof twowitoeffesagainf[theaccufed.Noo-therproofwilldo, Now_if a p_rfon_wlioisprefumedguiltyof high-treafon,thouldcontrivetofeeretethewimeffes,fo as to renderit imp6flibleforhimtohelegallycondemned,thegovernmentthenmaybringa bi:lof attainderagalnfl:him_ thatis, they may ena&a particularlawforthattinglefa&. Th,ypro-ceedthenin thefamemanneras in allotherbillsbroughtintoparliament: itmaltpalsthetwohoufes,andhavetheking'seonfent_ otherwifeiris nota bill,thatis, a fentenccofthe legil]ature.The per[onaccufedmay pleadagainftthehillbycounfel_andthemembersoftheboulemayfpeakindefenceofthe bill.

Legemde fingularialiquonerogato_nififaxmi,qibu$iravifum, _'x_n-dc,cldedemyfleriis.Thisis whattheycalledoffracifm.

af D_"privishominibuslata_.Ciccrodeleg. lib.3'Scitumeffjultumindrones.¢ieero_/bid,

CHAP.

CnAt,.Zt.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 263

; , CHAP. XX.' Of LawsfavourabletotheLiber:yof theSubjex7in a

Re?ublic.IN populargovernmentsit oftenhappensthat

accufationsare carriedoninpublic,andeveryman_ is allowedto accufewhomt_verhepleafes.This

renderedit neceffary'toeRablifhproperlaws,inor-der to prote&the innocenceof the fubje&.AtAthens,if an accuferhad notthefifthpartofthe_voteson his fide,he wasobligedto payafineof;

_ a thoufanddrachms.1Efchines,whoaccufedCte-fiphon,wascondemnedto pay this fine§. At

: Romea falfeaccuferwasbrandedwithinfamy*,by markingthe letterK onhisforehead.Guards

• werealfoappointedto watchtheaccufer,inorder_o preventhis corruptingeitherthe judgesorthe

: witneffes"J-.I havealreadytakennoticeof that Athenianand

Romanlaw,bywhichthepartyaccufedwasallowed,towithdrawbeforejudgementwaspronounced.

C H A P. XXI.Of the Cruellyof Laws,in Refpet7to Debtors,ina

Republic.GREAT is the fuperioritywhichone fellow-

fubje&has alreadyoveranother,by lendinghimmoney,whichthe latterborrowsin orderto tpend,and,ofcourfe,hasnolongerinhispoffetfion.Whatmuff"bethe confequenceif thelawsof a republic

§ See Pbil_ratus,bookf, Livesof the Sophifls_lifo of .tt£fehines.Seelike,ireP/utarchan,_Phocius.

_' BytheRemmianlaw.l'lutatdb in a treaufeentitled_Hozvapcrfonmayreapad,vantagefrombls

t_emle$.

S 4 make

_64 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_X[I.make a farther addition to thisfervitudeandfub-je&ion?

At Athens and Rome* it wasfirftpermittedtofellfuchdebtorsaswereinfolvent. Solonredreffedthisabufeat Athenst, byordainingthat no man'sbodylhouldanfwerfor hiscivildebts. But thede-cemvirs_ didnot reformthe famecuf_omat Rome;and, thoughtheyhadSolon'sregulationbeforetheireyes,yet theydidnot choofeto followit. This isnot the onlypaffageof the lawof the twelvetablesinwhichthedecemvirsflaewtheirdefignof check-ing thefpiritof democracy.

Often did thofecruel lawsagainfl:debtorsthrowthe Romanrepublicinto danger. A man, all co-veredwithwounds,madehis efcapefromhis credi-tor's boule, and appearedin the forum§. Thepeople were movedwith this fpe&acle,and othercitizens,whomtheircreditorsdurftnolongercon-fine, broke loofefrom theirdungeons. They hadpromifesmade them, whichwere all broke. Thepeople, uponthis, havingwithdrawnto the SacredMount, obtainednot an abrogationof tholelaws,but a magiftratetodefendthem. Thus theyquit-ted a Rateof anarchy,but werefconin dangeroffallingundertyranny. Manlius, to renderhimfelfpopular, was going to let tholecitizensat liberty,who by theirinhumancreditorsIIhadbeenreducedto flavery. Manlius'sdefignswereprevented; butwithoutremedyingthe evil. Particular laws faci-litatedto debtors the means of paying_ ; and, in

A greatmanyfold theirchildren to pay their debts. Plutarch_life of So-lon.

i°/utareb, life of Solon.It appears,from hiftory,that this enflom wasettablifhedamong theRo-

mans beforethe lawof the twelvetables. Li*._ I dec. book z.

Dionyf.IJalicarn. Rom. An. book 6.Plutarch, life of FuriusCamillus._" See what follows, in the 2¢th chapterof the hook of lawsj as relativeto

the ,nfeof money.the

CsAv._z.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 265the year of Rome428, the confulspropofedalaw*, whichdeprivedcreditorsofthepowerofcon-finingtheirdebtorsin theirownhoufest. Anu-furer,by namePapirius,attemptedto corruptthechattityof a youngmannamedPublius,whomhekeptinirons. 8extus'scrimegaveto Romeitspo-liticalliberty:thatof Papiriusgaveit alfothe ci-vil.

Suchwasthe fateof thiscity,thatnewcrimesconfirmedthe libertywhichthofeof a morean-cientdatehadprocuredit. _Ippius'sattemptuponVirginiaflungthe peopleagaininto that horroragainfttyrantswith whichthe misfortuneof Lu-cretiahad firttinfpiredthem. Thirty-fevenyearsafterIIthecrimeof theinfamousPapiriusana&ionof the like criminalnature1:wasthecaufeof thepeople'sretiringto the_aniculum§, andof givingnewvigourto the lawmadeforthefafetyofdebt-ors.

Sincethattimecreditorswereoftenerprofecutedby debtorsfor havingviolatedthelawsagain_u-fury,than the latterwerefuedfor refutingto paythem.

(2 H A P, XXII.

Of _hingsthatflrikeat Libertyin Monarchies.LIBERTYoften has beenweakenedin mo-

narchiesbya thingof the lear ufein theworldtot Onehundredandtwentyyearsafterthe lawof the twelvetables,.eoann*

plebiRoman,_.vetutaliud_nitiumhbertatisfaeTumefl__uodneEtide/ierunt.Livy,lib._.1"Bonadebit_rls,_o_corpusobuoxiume_et. Ibid,UTheyearof Rome465.

_Jhat of Platius_whomadean attemptuponthe bodyof Veturius.Vak-viusMaximus,book6j art.9" Thefetwoeventsoughtnetto lmconfoundedi_heyareneitherthe fameperfonsnorthefametimes.§ Seea fragmentofDaon_/'.Ilaliearn.intheextra&ofvirtuesandvices;

_,ivy'sepitom_abook2_ an__'rea,fl_mi,_sjbook_.the

_66 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXH.

_theprince: ibis isthenamingof commiftionerstotryaprivateperfon.

The princehimfelfderivesfoverylittleadvan-tage fromt,hofecommiltioners,thatit is networthwhileto change,fbr tl_eirfake,the commoncourfe_f things. He is morallylurethathehasmoreeft"chefpiritof probityandjufticethanhiscommif-fioners,whothink themfelvesfufticientlyjuffifiedbyhisnominationandorders,bya vagueintereftofRate,andevenbytheirveryalrprehenfions.

Uponthearraigningofa peer,underHerrryVIII.it wascuftomary_otryhimbya committee,ofthehoufeof lords: by _vhichmeansheputto deathas.manypeersashe pleafed.

C H A P. XXIII.

OfSpiesinMonarchies.

SHOULDI be afkedwhetherthere_sany he-eeflhyforfpiesin monarchies,myanfwerwouldbe,_hattheufualpra&iceofgoodprincesisnotto em-ploy them. Whena manobeysthelaws,hehasdifchargedhisdutyto hisprince: he oughtat leaf_to havehis ownboule:foranafy|um,andthereftof hiscondu&lhouldbeexemptfrominquiry.Thetradeof a fpy mightperhapsbetolerablewereitpra&ifedbyhoneffmen; but the neceffaryinfamyof the perfonis fu_cientto makeus judgeof theinfamyof the thing. A princeoughtto a&to-wardshis fubje&swith candour,franknefs,andconfidence.He that has t_ muchdifquiet,ft_fpi-cion,and fear, is an a&orembarraffedin playinghispart. Whenhefindsthat the lawsare gene-rallyobfe_edand refpe&ed,he mayjudgehimfelffare. The behaviourof thepublicanfwersforthatof everyindividual.Let him not be afraid: he

Cal_nOt

C_P_4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS_ 267cannotimaginehownaturalit isforhispeopleto

_i lovehim. Andhowlhouldtheydootherwifethanlovehim, finceheisthe fourceof almoftallboun-

i tiesandfavours; puni{hn_entsbeinggenerallychar-gedto theaccountof the laws?. He neverthews_ himfelfto hispeoplebutwitha ferenecountenance:_ theyhaveevena {hareof hisglory,andtheyare:i protededbyhispower. A proofof hisbeingbe-

lovedis, thathis fubje&shaveaconfidenceinhim:whatthe minifterrefufes,theyimaginethe prince

: wouldhavegranted.Evenunderpubliccalamitiesi theydonotaccufehisperfon: theyareapt_ocom-

plainof hisbeingmifinformedor befetby corruptmen: DidSheprincebutknow,faythepeople: therewordsare a kindof invocation,anda proofof theconfidencetheyhavein hisperfon.

C H A P. XXIV.

OfanonymousLetters.

THE Tartarsareobligedto put theil"namestotheir arrows,that the arm maybe knownwhichfnootsthem. WhenPhilipofMacedonwaswound-ed at thefiegeof acertaintown,therewordswerefoundon the javelin: AfterhasgiventhismortalwoundtoPhilip% If theywhoaccufeaperfondiditmerelyto fervethepublic,theywouldnot carrytheircomplaintto the prince,whomaybeeafilyprejudiced; butto themagiftrates,whohaverulesthat are formidableonlytocalumniators.Bur,iftheyare unwillingto leavetheJawsopenbetweenthemandtheaccuti_d,it is aprefumptiontheyhavereafonto be afraidof them; andtheleaftpuni{h-menttheyoughtto fufferis, not to becredited.

*Plutarch'sMorals,CoraparifonoffomeRomanandGrceklt_oria,torn.z,P.487.NO

268 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXII°

No notice,therefore,fhouldeverbetakenof tholeletters,exceptin cafesthatadmitnotofthedelaysof theordinarycourfeof juftice,andin whichtheprince'swelfareisconcerned.Thenit maybeima-gined thatthe accuferhasmadeaneffort,whichhas untiedhis tongue. But, in othercafes,oneoughtto fay,withtheemperorConftantius: " We" cannotfufpe.c_a perfonwhohaswantedanaccu-" fer,whiltthedidnotwantanenemyt-."

CHAP. XXV.OftheMannerofgwoerninginMonarchies.

THE royalauthorityis a fpringthatoughttomovewiththe greateftfreedomand eafe. TheChinefeboaftof oneof their emperors,whogo-verned,theyfay,liketheheavensi thatis, byhisexample.

Thereareromecafesinwhicha fovereignoughtto exertthe full extentof his power,andothersin whichhethouldreduceit withinnarrowerlimits.The fublimityofadminiftrationconfiftsin knowingtheproperdegreeofpowerwhich/houldbeexertedondifferentoccafions.

The wholefelicityof monarchiesconfiftsin theopinionwhichthe fubje&sentertainof the lenityof thegovernment.A weakminifieris everreadyto remindus of our flavery.But, grantingeventhatweare flares,he /houldendeavourto concealourmiferyfromus. Allhecanfayor writeis, thatthe princeis uneafy,thathe is furprifed,andthathe willredrefsall grievances.Thereisa certaineafeincommanding: the princeoughtonlyto en-courage,andletthelawsmenace*.

_"Lef.VL C0d.Theod.defamoflslibel/is.'*Nerva,faj, _'acilu_,increafedthe¢af¢of government.

CHAP.

CHA1,.Z7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 269

C H A P. XXVI.

_i if'bat,in a Monarchy,the Princeoughttobeof eafy4cc .

THE utilityofthismaximwillappearfromtheinconveniencyattendingthecontrarypractice."The" CzarPeterI. lays the fieurPerry_, haspub-

: " lifheda newedict,bywhichheforbidsanyof his" fubje&sto offerhima petitiontillafterhaving" prefentedit to twoofhisofficers.In cafeofre-

: " fufalof juf[ice,theymayprefenthima third" butuponpainof deathif theyarein the wrong.

-" After thisno oneeverpretumedto offerape-" titi0nto theCzar."

C H A P. XXVII.' Of theMannersof a Monarch.

THE mannersof a princecontributeasmuchas the lawsthemfelvesto liberty: like there,hemaytransfermenintobrutes,andbrutesintomen.If heprefersfreeandgenerousfpirits,hewillhavefubjec"ts:if he likesbafedaftardlyfouls,hewillhaveflares. Wouldhe knowthegreatartofru-ling,let him callhonourandvirtuetoattendhisperfon,andlet himencourageperfonalmerit. Hemayevenfometimescaftaneyeontalentsandabili-ties. Lethimnotbeafraidoftholerivalswhoarecalledmenofmerit_ heistheirequalwhenoncehelovesthem. Let him gainthe heartsof hispeo-ple, withoutfubduingtheirfpirits. Let himren-der himfelfpopular:he oughtto be pleafedwiththeaffcc"tionsof theloweffof hisfubje6ts; for theytooaremen. Thecommonpeoplerequirefovery

Stat¢ofRuffha_p,x73-Parisedition,_717. ' litde

_7a THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogXlL

little condefcention,that it is fit they /houldbe hu-moured: the infinitedifiance.hetweenthetovereignandthemwillfurelypreventthem fromgiving himanyuneatinefs.Let him be exorableto fupp!ica-tion, and refolute againftdemands. Let himbefenfiblc,in fine, that his people havehis refutals,whilehiscourtiersenjoyhisfavours.

C H A P. XXVIII.

Of theRegardwhichMonarchsoweto tbeirSubjeCts.

PRINCES ought to be extremelycircumfpe&with regardto raillery. It pleafeswithmoderation,becaufeit is an introdu&ionto familiarity_ but afatiricalrailleryis lefsexcufablein them thanin themeanet_of their fubje6ts; for it is they alonethatgiveamortalwound.

Much lefs flaouldthey offera publicaffronttoany of theirfubje&s: kings wereinftitutedto par-donandtopunilh; but neverto infult.

Whentheyaffronttheirfubje&stheirtreatmentismore cruel thanthatof the Turk or theMufcovite.The infults of there are a humiliation,not a dif-grace: but both mufffollowfromthe infolentbe-haviourof monarchs.

Suchis the prejudiceof the cafternnations,thatthey look upon an affrontfrom the prince as theeffe&of paternalgoodnefs; andfuch, on the con-trary, is ourwayof thinking, th'at,betidesthecruelv_ation of beingaffronted,wedefpairof everbe-ing ableto wipeoff thedifg.race.

Princesought to be overjoyedto'have fubje&stowhomhonouris dearerthanlife; an incitementtofidelityaswellasto courage.

They thouldrememberthemisfortunesthat havehappenedto fovereignsfor infultingtheir fubje&s,

the

CH^v.z_. THE S,PII_IT OF LAWS. _71

therevengeofChwrea,oftheeunuchNarfes,ofcount_ulian,anti,in fine,of the duchefsotMont-pe1_er,who,beingenragedaoainft=HenryIII. forhavingpublifhedibmeof"her privatefailings,tor-mentedhimduring_r wholelife.

C H A P. XXIX.

Of the civilLawsproperfor mixingromePortionofLibertyina defpoticGovernment.

THOUGH defpoticgovernmentsare of theirownnatureeverywherethe fame,yet,fromcir--cumffances,fi'oma religiousopinion,frompreju-dice, fromreceivedexarnple_,froma particularturnof mind,frommannersor morals,it ispofli.bletheymayadmitof a confiderabledifference.

It isufefulthatromeparticularnotionsfhouldbeeffablifhedin tholegovernments:thus,in China,the princeisconfideredasthefatherofhispeople;and,at the commencementof the empireof theArabs,theprincewastheirpreacher®.

It is propertherefhouldberomefacredbooktoferveforarule; astheKoranamongtheArabs,thebooksof ZoroaReramongthePerfians,theVedamamongthe Indians,andthe ClafficBooksamongtheChinefe. Thereligiouscodefuppliesthecivil,andfixestheextentofarbitraryfway.

It is not atallamirsthat, in dubiouscafes,thejudgeslhouldconfultthe minifl:ersof religion+:thus,in Turkey,the Cadisconfultthe Molhchs.But,.ifit isa capitalcrime,itmaybeproperfortheparticularjudge,if fuchtherebe, to takethego-vernor'sadvice,to theendthatthecivilandeccle-fiafticpowermaybetemperedalfoby thepoliticalauthority.

Thecaliphs."!"HiftoryoftheTartars_3dpart_p,_77_intheremarI_. CHAP.

• ?z T H:E S PIRI T OF LA:_W_$. BookXlII.f

5:_,_;::_._:.... CO!llttlll ,._._.NDTHING.bUt,.theveryexcels.andrageof.def-poticpowerordainedthatthefather'sdifgracelhoulddragafterit thatofhiswifeandchildren: theyarewretchedenoughalready,withoutbeingcrimirials.Betides,theprinceoughtto leavefuppliantsorme-diatorsbetweenhimfelfandthe_aceufed,to affuagehiswrath,orto informhisjuftice.

It is an excellentcuftomof the Maldavlans$,that, whena lordisdifgraced;hegoeseverydaytoaYhiscourtto theking, tillheis takenagainantoyour: hisprefencedifarmstheprince'sindignation.In romedefpoticgovernments¶ theyhavea no-

tionthatitis trefpaftingagain_the re£pe&duetotheirprinceto fpeakto himin favourOfa perfonindifgrace.Thefeprincesfeemtoufealltheirendea-yoursto deprivethemfelvesof thevirtueofrcle-mency.. _"_.drcadiusandHonorius,by ataw§ on whlchwe

ahave'alreadydefcanted11,pofitivelydeclarethattli_J_villflaewnofavourto tholewhothaltprefum_topeti_onthemin behalfof the guiltyt This_asa verybadlawindeed,finceit is badevenunderadefpoticgovernment.

Thecuftomof Portia,whichpermitseverymanthat pleafesto leavethekingdomisexcellent; and,thoughthecontrarypra&icederivesits originfrom

_ SeeFranchPirard_ . •.AsatprefcntinPerlla,accordingtofarJohnChard|n: thls¢ut_omisveryancient,TheyputCavades,laysProcopius,intothecarrieofoblivion,Thereisa'iawWhichforbidsany,onetofpeakoftholewhi)are_utuppor=yeato_Uotion their name. " '

Thefifthlawinthecod.adleg,_ul,ll,faj.-Inthe"Sth_chapterofthisbook. ' *"'• FredericcopicdthislawintheConflitutionsofFlal)les, bobt¢x., .....' :'

defpotic

a

C_Ar.r. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, z73

defpoticpower,whichhaseverconfideredthefub-Jfue&Sas flaves%andtholewhoquitthecountryas

gitives,yet the Perfianpra&iceis ufcfuleventoa defpoticgovernment,becaufethe apprehenfionofpeople'swithdrawingfordebtreftrainsormoderatestheoppreffionsofbalhawsandextortioners.

0

B 0 0 K XIII.

OF THE RELATION WHICHTHE LEVYING OF TAXESAND THE GREATNESS OF THE PUBLICREVENUlZ$HAV£ TO LIBERTY.

CHAP. I.Of thepublicRevenues.

THE publicrevenuesareaportionthateachfub-j.e&givesof hisproperty,inordertofecureor en-joytheremainder.

To fixthererevenuesina propermanner,regardlhouldbe had both to the necettltiesof theftateandto tholeof thefubje&.Therealwantsof thepeopleoughtnever to givewayto theimaginarywantsof theffate.

imaginarywantsare thofewhichflowfromthepaffionsand the weaknefsof thegovernors,fromthevainconceitof romeextraordinaryproject,fromthe inordinatedefireof glory,andfroma certainimpotenceof mindincapableof with_andingtireimpulfeoffancy. Oftenhaveminiftcrsof a reft-

"I"In monarchiesthereis generallya lawwhichforl_idsthofewhoareinvegi:edwlta publicemployrhentato _:oout of the kingdomwithouttheprince'sleave.

hi_lawoughtto beef_ab|ifliedalfoin republics: but_in tholethathaveparti-cularint_iturion_,theprohibitionoughttohegene/al_ia orderropreventthein-ftodu6_ioaoffomgamahatma.

VOL.I, T lefs

:_74 THE-SPIRiT OF LA-_;_$.Booe.XltLlefs_difpofitiot_ima#nedthat.thewargs:oftheit.0knmeanandi_noMcfoulsweretholedf,theRate.:'i,_r_

NOthingrequires,morewifdomsndprgden_dttm_theregulationof. th_ portionof'_ich the:fubje_t:isdeprived,andthatwhichheis.ft_ffcredto:rera/m

The :publicr_venue_,fhould_notbe_meafuredtttythe'pebpte'sabilitiesto give, but 'by.whattheyor_ghrtogive; anct,!iftheyaremeafared-bythei_abilitiesto give,it fllouldbeconfidercdwhatxheyareableto givefora conRamy. ,

CHAP. IL

7"batit is badRcafoningtofay thattheGreatnefsffTaxestsgoodinitsownNature,

THERE havebeeninltances,ip particular:mo-narchies,of pettyffates,exemptfrom.taxes,.tha_;have beenas miferab_eas thecircumjace_a_eswhichgroanedundertheweight_o£exac_tio_s,:_:i_Zlaechiefreafonof this is, that thepett_ R_. _anhardlyhaveanyfuchthingasind.uftry_arts,_or.jna-nufa&ures,becaufeof its beingfubje&to _-i_-land reRraintsfrom.the greatftateby._hichit isenvironed.Thegreat_,zteis bleffed,withinduffry,manufa&ures,and arts; and eRabliflaeslawsbywhichtholefeveraladvantagesareprocured..ThepettyRatebecomes,therefore,,necefi_atit_tx_- letit payneverfofewtaxes. •::

And yetromehaveconel,aded,from_e p0,vertyof tholepettyflares,,that, in orderto renderthepeopleindufla'ious,they.fhould_be loadedwithtaxes. Butit wouldbeajuRerinference,that_theyought to payno taxesat all. Nonelive:here.btJtwretcheswhoretirefromtheneighbouringparts_toavoidworking; wretches,who,dilheartenedbyl_-hour,maketheirwholefelicityconfiftin idlenefs.The

evOty,h_ar_¢¢il_i.,a_bido-fl:- fh_t-oft_Ve/'tjr.is,-Eogivebirthto defpair. The formerisexcitedby,qa-bout; thelatterisfoot_:iedb_indolence.

lX_atureis juft.to allmankindfand.repaysthemfor theirindtff_ry: ffaere_aderstfieminduftdousby._intmxing:tewacds-inproport.iorkto-th_ii,tal_dur.Butl,_fa_ arbki'aryprinceffiouldateempt_tod6-privepeople_f_ure's bounty,_ theywould:fatJinto a difrdli/hofinduRryv andtheriiadOlenee_a_dina&ionmuf_betheironlyhappit/ds.

c H AP. tulOf q_xeSin Co_trtesWb_t?Pdtt 6f tb'_PeopTeaYe

Fillai#so¢BondCaen'.:TF_E11ateof vili_iaageis fomefimeseftabliRaed

af6:.ea.ebt_t_ef_;.trfthai_c_fethebor,dman_-orv_-lai_!thaxtiHs_thehindought,o hac'ea-l_ind-ofparr-nerfhipwithhismaiter. Nothingbut a communi-cationof lofsorprofitcaareconciletholewhoaredo0medtolabou/,to fucl_as are bleffedwitha Rateofaft]aortae: "

C H: A P. IV.

WBEI_ a,reisubliehagreduced;rriafiOrito:t:bedrudgeryof cultivatingherlands,the oughtnee,orto.fu_rbrtl_ freefubje6eto havea-powerofinetea-frog.the:ffibot_of _hebcmdman_Tlii, was,n_tt_et_it_e5a_ Sparta, Tholebrave_optetlio_g_tth_ Helotes* wouldbe moreindet_rious:in eulti_.eafi#gtbeiTq_nd,_upon_knowingthaf.fCiei_'fee_rimdewasnotto increafe: theyimaginedlikewifethatthe

# F/dta'reh_

:'.-_ T.a mailers

•76 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIII.

mailerswouldbebettercitizens,whentheydefirednomorethanwhattheywereaccuffomedto enjoy.

CHAP. V.

Of a Monarchyin thelikeCare.WHEN thenoblesof a monarchicalitatecaufe

the landsto be cultivatedfor theirownufebyaconqueredpeople,theyoughtneverto haveapowerofincreafing,the ferviceortribute*. Betides,it isrightthe princefhouldbe fatisfiedwithhisownde-mefneandthemilitaryfervice.But, ifhewantstoraifetaxesonthe vaffalsof hisnobility,thelordsofthe feveraldiltri&soughtto beanfwerableforthetax-I-,and be obligedto payit forthevaffals,bywhom.theymaybeafterwardsreimburfed.If this ,rulebe notfollowed,thelordandthecolle&orsofthe publictaxeswillharrafsthepoorvaffalbyturns,-tillheperilheswithmifery,or fliesintothe-w0ods,

C H A P. VI. -_:_

Of a de/poticGovernmentinthelikeCa_o-'_iTHE foregoingruleis ttillmoreindifpenfa_bly

neceffaryin a defpoticgovernment.The "10rd,mhois everymomentliableto bettrippedof his]andsand his vaffals,is not fo eagerto pref¢rvettiem.'When PeterI. thoughtpropertofollowthermal-

tomof Germany,and to demandhistaxesio _o-hey,he madea veryprudentregulation,whiehlis_l followedin Ruffia. Thegentlemanleviesthetax,onthepeafant,andpaysit to theCzar. If,the

Th|sis whatinducedCharlemagnetomakehisexcellentinflitutionulmnthishead.Seethe5thbookoftheCapitulari_3art.3o3,

"1"Thisisthepra&iccinGermany, _, '_ _number

CHAP. 7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z77

numberofpeaf_ntsdiminilhes,hepaysallthefameifit increafes,he paysnomore; fothatit ishisin;tereftnotto worryoropprefshisvaffals.

CHAP. VII.

of Taxesin.CountrieswhereVillainageis notella-,... b__ed.

WHEN theinhabitantsofa ffateareallfreefub-je&s, andeach manenjoyshis propertywithasmuchrightastheprincehisfovereignty,taxesmay:then:belaideitheron perfons,onlands,onmer-chandizes,ontwoof thefe,oronall threetogether.:_In the taxingof perfons,it wouldbean unju_proportionto conformexa&lyto that of property.Atc&thens_ the peopleweredividedinto four:claffes.Thofewhodrewfivehundredmeafuresofli.quidor dryfruitfromtheirell:arespaidatalent* tothepublic; tholewhodrewthreehundredmeafurespaidhalfa talent; tholewhohadtwohundredmen-lurespaidtenmina_; thofeof thefourthclat_paidnothingatall. The tax wasfair, thoughit wasnot,proportionable: ifit didnotfollowthe meafureof peoplesproperty,it followedthatof theirwants.It wasjudgedthateveryman hadanequallhareofwhat wasneceffaryfor nature; thatwhatfoeverwasneceffaryfornatureoughtnotto be taxed; thattothisfucceededtheufeful,whichoughtto hetaxed,butlefsthanthefuperfluous;and.thatthe largenefsOf the taxes on whatwasfuperfluouspreventedfupe'rfluity. "

. ': In the taxingof lands,it is cuftomaryto makeliftsor regifters,,inwhichthe differentclaffesof

I Polluz,book8_chap.lo, art.j3o.•¢ Or60min_. .

T a ¢ftates

the__diffeeence%and_i_ ano/efo to fi_dpegptethat areno.tinterea_din miR.aki_g:theory,_.m'¢thereforearetwofortsof ifijuftice,_thatof the manandthatofthethi_.g. Bt_t_ifha..generalthetaxbenot exorbitant,anti th/3"peoplecontinueto havepletaty.of:nec.effaries,,therepartictflara&sof"iO.jufticewilldo no harm. On thecontrary,if the e 9 le.reV.mi tdto O ty w ,r

t_y 'foffttb._flejal:e,_e kaft .d@;qporfibflwill,b_:OfxhegreateftConfequence." If rome_fubje&s_do ,notpayermughithe mif,chiefis not fo great; their_:on_:/_jenc,eaa,d eafe_urnalw_Lsto ;he p_bli4:_yatitage:if rome._ri-rate _'eoplepay toomt_ch_theirriJjnrex_o_rgts:'soxhe/publicdetrimeot.If thegov_rnmempropo_-t:'_onsits fortuneto that of indii,idualztthe ¢_(ehndconveniencyof the latter ,,viUloonmiike_fortunerife. The wholedependsUpbna .cr_ti_imoment:/hallthe Ratebt_g]nwhh_mpo_eri/hing_thefubje&sto enrichitfe]_orhadit hetr,er _vairbe _riched byits f_bje_,_ Isit n/ore;adx,j_able_orit':to .hav_,theformerorthehr'terad'vzn(_ge?_'Whichthat_ir chu£e; "cOhegin_or toend,wi_ppnlence? "

The dutiesfeltteaffby thepeopkare tholeo_merchandize,becaufetheirarenotdem_dettoftheminform. Theymaybefoprudentlymanaged,tha¢the-peoplethemfel_es/hallhardlykno._'theypayth/:rfi. For thispurpofeit is:of_heutmoftcon,fequencethatthep_rfonwhofellsthemerch_tndizethouldpaytheduty. Heisveryfenfiblethathedoes

•notpayit forhimfelf;andtheconfumer,whopaysitin themain,confoundsit withthe price. SomeauthorshaveobfervedthatN.eroh_adabotifhedtheduty of the fiveand twentiethpart arifingfromthe

C_A_.8, THE ,SPIRIT O-FLAWS. 279

t;h_fale.of flares¶; andyethe had only ordainedtha4;,it fho_aldbe paid_ theJbtlerinfieadof the

: t:rgrchafer; this,reg_!afion,whichIeft the impofl:mdr,.e,..feemednever_helefstofui_prefsit.

TherearetWOftatesin Europewherethe im-poffsare very heavyupon liquors;in .onethe

: breweralonepaystheduty,,intheotheritis leviedindifcriminate!y.Uponall theconfumers; in thefirftnobodyfeels:therigoroftheimpoft,in the f¢condit i#lookeduponasa grievance,. In theformerthefubjei:'tis fenfibteonlyof .thelibertyhehasof notpaging,_in..th.e.la_:te_"he feelsonl_vthe neceffitythat_OmpdJ_him._o.pay." - ...... . i..i_;h_r,, the.obligingehecorJfc,m'ersto payire-•q.gtr_-gperp'et_al.rummagingand fearchingjfito_thdr,_oufes,Ngw-nothingis;_orecontrarythanth,_S,_tO,liber,ty;y_dthofe who.eftablifhthefefortsd_e.S fig_e'-_nOl:furelybeen.fo happyas tOhit

<-.,__;_=,:-, - - :,'CH-AP VIIL " '• . . , : ) ) . )

_.__n .w_at,gC_aimertheD_ce2tionis pr_'r_; '_:}IiN:_rdcrtO makethe purchafer.confound..theprice of the commoditywith the _mpoPc_._theremut%,befome-.proportionbetweenthe impof'c_andthe..;vatueofthe¢o_mmo:lity; fo.rxvhichreafon,t_.reought,nottobeanexceffivedutyuponmerchandizesof,-!itdevalue..There,ar.ecourrtr_ic_,in__'/4ich_the-dt)tyexceeds,t_:venteen.-oreighteentimesthevalfie_ffxhecommodity,In thiscarl:the pri_cc:rdmOv_s,i_h{,_lif.g_fe_:-'_his_£ubje&sp!ainly.feethe- are,d_,ki,_ith

_b _uiacuremend_torpenderejt,ber*tur_i_part_.P_etii_ra-eibu_ac_rscebat.-_/,t.,a_ii_n._i_.ij -" ', " , .::,-.-,-:c-_,..... 4;',a• . T 4 in

2So THE SPIRIT OF L_A_W!S_, BoogX_I!_

inan unreafonablemanner;_hich-renders_/lerttmbftexquifitelyfenfibleof th¢!r_fer_i'leconditioni_

Betides,the prince,to be able'toteyyadu.t_if_difproportionedto, the valueof the comm0d_k._gmult be himfelfthe vender,andthe peopl¢_rotiftnothaveit intheirpowerto purchafeit elfewhere:a prac"ticcfubje&toa thoufandinco_veniencies.

Smugglingbeingin thiscareextremelylucrative,thenaturaland-molt'¢eafonablepenalty,namely,theconfifcationof themerchandize,becomesincapableof puttinga ftopto!r; efpeciallyas thisveD.mer-chandizeis intrinncallyof an inconfiderable._yalue,Recourfemuffthereforebehadto:extravagant,pu_nithments,fuchastholeinfli&edforcapitalcrimes._All proportionthen of penaltiesis at an e,,mkPerfons,thatcannotreallybeconfideredasvieious¢are punifhedhke the molt infamouscriminals;which,ofall thingsin the world,is themott con,-trary to the fpiritof a moderategovernmenn,._:

Again,in proportionas peopleare tempted_tocheatthefarmeroftherevenues,themorethelatterisenriched,andtheformerimpoverifhed...To<p_ta ftopto fmuggling,the farmermu_ be _inveliedwith extraordinarymeansof opprefiing,and,_heathe_countryis ruined. -::.

CHAP. IX_

Of a badkindof tmpofl;

WE lhallhere,by the way,take noticeof animpoltlaidin particularcountrieson thedifferentarticlesof civilcontra&s.Asthefearethingsfub-je6tto verynicedifquifitions,a raft dealof know-ledgeis neceffaryto make anytolerable_defencea/_iin_thefarmerof therevenues, whointerprer._;"

111

inthatcafeithe!_'egiilations_of th_prince,and_exzercifesma_arbitra_r_power6;¢erpeople'sform%eS.E,kpenencehas '_em_)nfiratedthat a dutyon thefPaaper,,on,which_th6deedsaredrawn,=wouldbeofr_reatcffervi_c.!-"- :_'" _ :,

"C H A P; _X. _:"::'

Tb_ttheGrea'nefs_ _a=sdepends,n tbeHature"_:_., the Government.,- _ .....

-TAXESought"to be very"llghtin defpodcgovernments;Oth6rwifewho-_-outdbe a_t thetroubleof tillingthe land? Betides,howiskpoftibleto payheav_,dutiesin a:governmer_t'thatmakesnomannerof returntothedifferent`contri-butionsof the ftibje&?

The exorbitantpowerof theprince, and theextremedepreltionof thepeople,"requirethatthercthouldnotbeevena poffibilityOfthe lear m]frakebetween'them. The taxesought to be fo eaf¥to colle6_,and fo clearlyfettled,as to leavenoopportunityfor the colic&orsto increafeor di-_minifhthem.A portionof thefruksoftheearth,a c_ipitation,aduty of fo muchpercent.on mer-chandizes,are the onlytaxesfuitableto thatg_vemment.

Merchantsindefpoticcountriesoughtto haveaperfonalfafeguard,to whichallduerefpe&fhouldbepaid. Withoutthis theywouldbe too weakto difputewiththe cufl:om-houfeo_cers. ._.:

- C H A P. XL __:_,

• . Of Condfcations..-" "'WITH ,refpe_to confifcations, .there is,-,one,

thingvery'particular,that, contraryto thegeneral'cuf_on]_

_= THE SP_[RIT OF LAW& BooKXIII.

cuftom,they aremorereverein EtJropethan in-&fla.In E,ampenot onlythemerchandizes,butevenfom_t.imesthe _ips and carriagesart: g0n-fifcated; whichis neverpra&ifedin Aria. Thisis becaufein Europethe.merchantcan havere-courfeto magiffrates,who are ableto thelterhim

_'Omoppreffion;.in Ariathemag_ratesthemfelveswouldbe the.greatePcoppreffors.Whatremedycoold;a merchanthaveagainf_a ball,ave,whowasdeterminedto eonfifeatehisgoods?: TI*eprincethereforechecks:his own power,findir_himfelt"undera necellityof a&iagwithtomekiod of lenity. In Turkeytheyraifeonly=tingledutyfor ,he importationof goods,andaf-terwardsthewholecoun:rt,isopento "themerchant.Smugglingis notattendedwithconfifcationor dn,-crealeof duty. In China* theyneverlook intothebaggageof tholewhoarenormerchants.I_e;fr=udin-gthe ¢uftomsin the territoryof tha M02g0ulis no_punilhedwith confifcation,but with

ublingtheduty. ThePrincesoft Tar_tary,_thorefidein towns,impofefcarceany"dutyat all :onthe goodsthat palsthroughtheir country._ tnJapan,it is true,to cheatthecuftomsis a capitalcome; but this is hecaufethey haveparticularrealbnsfor prohibitingall communicationwithfo;feigners; hencethe fraud_is rathera contraven-tion of the lawsmadefor thefecurityof thego.vernmentthan of tholeof commerce.

FatherduHal_.e,tom.ii. p. 37'-t-_HJt_oryof theTartars2 part3d,p._,90o

Beingwillingto tradewith|oratlgner=withouthavinganycommunicationqk[th_he/n,theyhavepitchedu_ntwo natlbhsfor thatporpofe,theDutchlrorthe commerceof Europe,aladthe Chil_efeforthat of Aria; theyconfinethefac'togsandfailorsiaa kindofprifon_a:adlayrutha rcffraintaltonthema_tire*their,_tigoce. . :,.

_ C:HAP. _iI.i % , .,%

" IT is a generalrulexhat taxesmaybe_e_vier: it) .proportignto the libertyof the fubj¢c%arid

thugthereh in nege_tyfor red..u¢ingthen3in pro-p0_'tiotato the increafeof flavery,This ha_;_l-w_tysbeenand alwayswillbe the cai'e. _[1;is _trule derivedfromnaturethat nevervaries. Wefindit in all lagr,t_, in _nglaz_l,in Holland,andinevery flarewherelibertygraduallydeclines,tillw_e:r.,O._ae.¢o.TtJrky. Sa'.ifferla_lf¢.e:_tObe ute.xcep_aonto this rule,becaufetheypaynotaxes;

;thett_a_icula_reafonfor_hateg........_mptionis wellknown,and'even_onfirm_whatil"have advanced.Inr:tk_f_barrenmoumainsprovifion_are fod_r,and_hecounty is£o popu_t_,chata Swffspaysfour times-m0reto nature,thana Turk,loes tothe;;fuka_._A.c_t_tlering*pe.opie,61eh"asweoeformedyt_e

&daeniamand the Romans,mayrid themfelvesall l:_e_ as theyreig_overvanquil'hednaxiong

Theni;indet:d,the_,donotpayinproportionto theklit_r_v,be_catffein thisref.pec"ttheyareno+longerapeople,buta monarch.

Butthe genei'alrulefrillholdsgood. In mode-ra.tegovernmentsthereis an indemnityfor theweightof thetaxes,whichi_ liberty.-In _efp0.tjccountries• thereisan equivalentforliberty,whichis thelighmefsofthetaxes.

In folnemonar@iesi0_rope ther, are+ par-ticuiarpr0vln¢¢s;w_i_:h,from_he_veryO_hre.Of.

.. n Ruflia x'he taxes are %at fnaaIl ; th*- 'have bee-': - " - - " - : _"ttc power of the -r lcei-e --'_- . _ : - mcreale_nncetheae_o.

r _ xurcllea wttil more moderation. See the _r_/i_o Po_:the Tar ta_s_ gd paLt. ry

I .The .P._*d'_au, wherethe flares of the orovin e_hhc ¢ljga,,. : c alienable to dchherate on

their

SPIRITOFLAWS.Boo XXr._heircivil government,are in a moreflourifhingconditionthan the reiL It is pretendedthattheft:provincesarenotfufficientlytaxed,becaufe,throughthegoodnefsof theirgovernment,theyare able:riob.e'ta_edhigher: hencethe miniftersfeemc.oaoffantlyto altoat deprivingthemof thisver_go-verrlment,from whencea diffufivebleffingis';de-rived,whichredoundsevento the prince'sad-vantage. ::

C H A P. XIII.

In what Government_'axesarecapableof !ncreafe.

TAXES may be increafedin mol_republics,becaufethecitizen,whothinksheis payingh'im-fell, cheaffullyfubmitsto them,and moreoverisgenerallyableto beartheirweightfromthenature.of the government,

In a monarchytaxesmaybe increafed,becaufethe moderationof the governmentis capable_ofprocuringopulence:it isa recompence,asit Were,grantedto theprincefortherefpe&helhewsto thelaws. In defpoticgovernmentstheycannotbe in-creafed,becaufetherecanbeno increafeof theex-tremityof flavery.

C H A P. XIV.

_'batthe Natureof the Uaxesis relativeto theGo.oderttment.

A CAPITATIONis morenaturalto flavery;a dutyon merchandizesis morenaturalto _liberty,byreafonit has not fo directa relationto theperfon.

It is naturalin a defpoticgovernmentfor thdprincenot to givemoneyto his foldiers,,.or to_

thofe

Char.*4.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. *$I

tho_ebelongingto hiscourt, butto diftributelandsamongfcthem,and, of courfe,that therefhouldbe veryfewtaxes. But, if theprincegivesmoney,the molt naturaltax he can raifeis a capitation,Whkhcan neverbeconfiderable.For,asit isim-pofllbleto make differentclaffesof the contribu-toxs,becaufeof theabufesthat mightarifefromthence,confideringthe injufficeand violenceofthegovernment,theyareunderanabfoluteneceffityof regulatingthemfelvesby the rateof whateventhe pooref'cand moltwretchedare able to con-tribute.

Thenaturaltaxof moderategovernmentsis thedutylaidonmerchandizes.As thisis reallypaidby theconfumer,thoughadvancedby the mer-chant, it is a loanwhichthe latter has alreadymadeto the former.Hencethe merchantmu_be confideredontheonefideasthe generaldebtorof the ftate,andon the other as thecreditorofevery individual.He advancesto the flare theduty whichthe confumerwillfometimeor otherrefund; and he has paid for the confumerthe_uty whichhe hasadvancedfor the merchandize.it is thereforeobvious,that,in proportiontothemoderationof the government,to the prevaleni:eof the fpiritof liberty,andto the fecurity:ofprivatefortunes,a merchanthas it in hispowerto advancemoneyto the Rate,and to pay con-fiderabledutiesforindividuals.In Englanda mer-chantlendsreallyto thegovernmentfiftyor fi_poundsRerlingforeverytun of winehe imporfs.Whereis themerchantthatwoulddaredoanyfuchthing_in acountry like Turky? And,were,hefoprefumptuous,howcouldhe do it with_aT_a_yorlhatteredfortune._ ...., ......

CHAP.

sS6 T'I-t_._Pr_IT OP LAW'_g_m_6,xtff.

"- CHAP. X_'. ' :-"-",: .L _j.

.dl,gfi'of L?_erty, ,_,.

'TC)ithefeg,eatadvnr_tagesoflibert_k is 0_ingth,t !ib_t}t.kfelfh_)b_e'aal_afod..!k,caufea ;#_.,_din'atefop/eminent,hasbean.produ_i,¢¢of ad.mi#rabteeffe&s,this_modsrationh_sbeenlaidafid_b_ea_f_grea_ra_ havebeam¢aifed,.theyw_tedto carrythemtaexctffs: nnd_ungratefulm _t)efiandoftib,rtyof_:who_.theyr_ceive_thispr_fen¢,the]raddreffedthemfelvesto flaverywhonevergra_trtstheleafbfa'vour. --

Liberty-producesexcel/Dotaxes) the etge&/if"exceffivetaxes is fl_very; andflaveryprodu6es._diminutiot_.oftfiSute. . _v:-

NIoR:of the edi&_of'fhe eaRer'nmonai'eb/s<ag'Cto exemptereergyearromeprovinceof th_r/eni-pim frompayingtribute'. The miinigefLatiom'_eftheirwillacefavours,Butia.Europethe6di&_b¢princesaredifa_eeabl,evenbeforethey-arefeer_iaecauf_they,al,_aysmakerncntio_of the_ O_/,/i:wants)but nota a,ordof o0rs.

From:a_ u_,pardonabteindolene_i,nthe minif_er_of. tholecountries,°ewir,g to tho natureof thegovernment,and freq_uendyto the climate,th_peoplederivethisadvarrtage,that the,),are notia-,c_ffandyplaguedwith newdemands,The pu_Beexpeneedoesnotinc.reafe;be_aufet,h4min,_t_e_sd_ n6tformnewproje&s_ at,d,if romebycha_¢zre: form=d,_heyar_ f_chas ,ate loon execmed.T'Mgt_verno_sof the ftatedo-notperpetuallytot'-fi_t rh_people;- for they,do notperpetually-tot,.menl;daerrffdves.B_.it is impoffibletheret_trldlaean}'fixedrule in our finam:es,fineeweabvays

'-" - - # Thisisthepra_ieeof-theemperorsof-China.'- ..... -' " : "knOW"

CH_'_16_17. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _'87

knowthat wefh_ll-/,,avefomethingorotherto exe-cute,withouteverknowingwhatit is.

It isno longercuf_omary'with_us to _ve theap-pellationof a greatminifterto a wife_ifpenferofthe piJblicrevenues,bt_t_oa perfonof dex'rerityandcurming,Whois e}everatfirmingoutwhatwe¢all*t_waysandmeans:

CHAP. XVL

Of tbt C_uefls _f t/at_ho_ta_s.IT "wasthis excelsof taxes, thato¢cafioned

theprodigiousfacilitywithwhichthe Mahomet_anscarriedon theirconquefls.Inffeadof a _onti_aMferiesof extortions,deviledbytheft_tle _.vadceoftheGreekemperors,the peoplewerefubje&ed:toa fimpJetribute,,wMchwasp_idand¢oLle_.ed_itheafe, Thus theywerefar happieri_ obeying,abarbarc_usnationthan a.corruptgovernment,inwhich_tbeyfufferedeveryincoavenien_eogh_ li.:_rL¢with,allthehorrorofprefenr,fla,very.

C H A P. XVILC

Of the Augmentationof ffroops.A NEW dif_emperhas fpreadiffelfoverEu-

rope,infe&ingour princes,and inducingthemtokeepup,an exorbitantnumberoftroops. It'hasitsr.e_do.tih_ings_.ar_d_of ne¢_fffitybecomesconragiouLFor,_asf_n+as+oneprinceaugments-l_is forces,the.rd't_.¢ourfedo,daefame;fothatnothingisg-_i'n_the/¢kyhutthe_publioruim Each morlarct__¢pSasmany armieson footas if hispeoplewere:,mda_r of beingexterminated; andtkey:gi_: t,h¢.

Steinhi_c-th_greatnefs_theod_ty_aad-ev_thefolly_oftliofe'tiuces._a iaventeaataxforbr=ath,uag,utFufSuepr__k_tkaed_pt_dwet.

name

_'88 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIIL

nameof:pc _.*to thisgeneraleffortof all againftall. Thus "_'_roperuinedtofucha degree,that,wereprivatel_eo_letobeinthefamefituationas thethreemolt opulentpowersof this part of theglobe,,they wouldnot haveneceffaryfubliflance.We are poor with the richesand commerceofthe wholeWorld; andloon, by thusaugmentingour troops,we/hallbeallfoldiers,andbe reducedtotheveryfamefituationastheTartars%

Greatprinces,not fatisfiedwithhiringorbuyingtroopsof pettyflates,makeit theirbufinefsonalltidesto pay fubfidiesfor alliances,thatis, gene-rallyto throwawaytheirmoney.

The confequenceof fucha fituationis the per-petualaugmentationof taxes;and the mifchief,whichpreventsall futureremedy,is, that theyreckonnomoreupontheirrevenues,but in wagingwaragainfttheir wholecapital. :It is no unufualthingto feegovernmentsmortgagetheirfundsevenin time of peace,andto employwhattheycallextraordinarymeansto ruin themfelves; meansfoextraordinaryindeed,that fucharehardlythoughton bythemopeextravagantyoungfpendthrift.

C H A P. XVIIL

Of anExem2tionfromTaues.

THE maximof the greateat'ternempiresofexemptingfuchprovinces,ashaveverymuchfur-feted,fromtaxes,oughtto'beextendedto monar-chicalflates. Thereare romeindeedwherethisprac"tlceis eRabli/hed; yet the countryis more

tTr, e it |sthat this _ateof effortis the thief£upportof thebalance,be--eavfeit checksthegreatpowers.

f All that is wantiogfor this is, to improvethenew inventionof themilitiaef_abli/hedin moil:pa_s of _urop*S _ carryit to the fameexcelsa_theydotheregals*troops.

oppreffed

_IS_ffdd"than:<_F_fib-fi/6hi:uletook place; be-e_ittfe/>_t'_:_the;:p_:_cS=leviesffiit_neithermorenorJe_,_':t_e"/'daieb_6_mes:boundfor the whole. !no_tte_2to:_afea:;_il[agethat paysbadly,they10_da'n_t/(_cihatp@r_bi_tel;; theformerisnotrelieve_,_:t'he_l_i:ter_is_ruih(_cl.Th_:p_oplegrowdef-p_r_:betwee_;the'neccflqtyof paying,forfearoft-'xa6f,/0ns,ani:t_thedangerofpaying,forfearofnewburdens. " _:;: ' : " ":_Awell;regutaiedgovernmenf'oughtto let afide,

for_hefirfl:articl_'of]ts'expenci_,adeterminatefumto_nfw_rcontingefftcafes. It isWiththe publicaswithindividuals,Whoareruin_edwhentheyliveupexa_lFtb"theirincome." _W:ithregardto an obligationfor the whole_

am6ngf'c:the inMbitantsof thefamevillage,fomepre_n'd% thatit isbutreafonabl6,becaufethereisa,poflibilityof a_fraudulentcombinationon theirfide:bu_wasit _evei-_heardthat uponmerefup.pOfitiorr,weareto effablilha thing in iffelfunjufl:and;_uinousto-'theRate?

,:. .C:H A P. XIX.i¢_bicbismoilfuitableto thePrinceandto thePeople,

thefarmingtherevenues,ormanagingthembycorn=miflion?THE managingof the revenuesby commiflioa

islike_'thecondfi_:of a goodfatherof a family,wh__otte&shis ownrentshimfelfwithogconom7an_t_order.

Bychismanagementof therevenuesthe princeis _ar'liberty:topr(/fsor retardt)ie_levyof the"taxes,eitheraccordingto his.ownwantsor to

t Beg/2fl'r_atO'eoatl_e.Rimau.F/uanee_,chap.ii. printgdat parisbyBrlaffon_I7{°"v , " _ _.... " " ' '

Voi..I. U thole

_9o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogXIII.

thofeof hispeople. Bythishe favesto the Ratetheimmenfeprofitsofthefarmers,whoimpoverifl_it a thoufandways. Bythishepreventsthepeoplefrombeingmortifiedwith'thefightof fuddenfor-tunes. Bythisthepublicmoneypaffesthroughfewhands,goesdirec"rlytothetreafury,andconfequent,-ly.makesa.quicker.return,tothepeople. Bythisthe_prlnceavoldsan'mfimtenumberof badlaws,ex-tortedfromhimbytheimportunateavariceof thefarmers,whopretendto offera prefentadvantagefor regulationsperniciousto poRerity.

Asthemoneyedmanisalwaysthemoltpowerful,thefarmer.a'endershimfelfarbitraryevenover theprincehimfelf:heisnotthelegiflator,butheobli-gesthelegillatorto givetaws.

I acknowledgethatit isfometimesofufeto f_rmout a newduty; for thereisanartin preventingfraudswhichmotivesofinterefcfuggefl,tothefarm-ers, but commifflonersneverthinkon. Now,themannerof levyingit beingonceet_ablithedbythefarmer,it mayafterwardsbe rarelyentruffedto acommiffion.In England,the managementof theexcifeandoftheport-off:icewasborrowedfromthatofthefarmersoftherevenue.

Inrepublics,therevenuesofthet_atearegeneral-ly managedbycommiffion.The contrarypra&icewasa greatdole&in theRomangovernmentt.Indefpoticgovernments,thepeopleareinfinitelyhap-pier wherethismanagementis eRablilhed; withersPerfmand"ChinaS. Theunhappieitofallarethofewheretheprincefarmsouthis leaportsandtrading

_- Cmfarwasobligedtoremovethepublicansfromthe provinceof Afi_,andtoeflabliPathereanotherkindof regulation,aswelearnfromDio: and"llacitusinformsusthatMacedoniaandAchaia,provincesleftbyAuguflustothepeol'leof Rome, andconfeqoentlygovernedpurfuanttotheancientplan,obtainedtobeof thenumberof tholewhichtheemperorgovernedbyhisog/icers.

SeefirJohnChardin'stravelsthroughPcrfia,tom.vi.' cities.

C_AP.¢O. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. -,gx

cities. Thehiftoryofmonarchiesaboundswithrail-chiefsdonebythefarmersof therevenue..

Incenfedattheoppreffiveextortionsofthe publi-cans,Neroformedamagnanimousbutimpra&icablefchemeofabolifhingallkindsofimports.He didnot thinkofmanagingthe revenuesbycommiffion-ers, buthemadefouredi&s: that.thelaws,ena&edagainftpublicans,whichhadhithertobeenkeptfe-cret,thouldbepromulged; that theyfhouldexac't:noclaimsforabovea yearbackward;that there/houldbea pra:toreftablillaedto determinetheirpretenfionswithoutanyformality; and that themerchantsfhouldpaynodutyfortheirveltels.Therewerethehalcyondaysofthatemperor.

C H A P. XX.OftheFarmersoftheRevenues.

WHEN the lucrativeprofeffionot:afarmeroftherevenuebecomeslikewifea poflof honour,theflareisruined. It maydowellenoughin defpotiegovernments,wherethisemploymentisoftentimesexercifedbytheg.overnorsthemfelves.But itis bynomeanspropermarepublic; fincea cuf_omofthelikenaturedefiroyedthatof Rome. Nor isit bet-terin monarchies; nothingbeingmoreoppofitetothefpiritofthisgovernment.All theotherordersoftheflax.earediffatisfied; honourloresits wholevalue_ thegradualandnaturalmeansofdiffih&ionareno longerrefpec"ted; andtheveryprincipleofthegovernmentisfubverted.

It is true, indeed,that fcandalousfortuneswererailedinformertimes_ butthiswasoneoftheca-lamitiesof the fiftyyearswar. Therericheswerethenconfideredasridiculous_ nowweadmirethem.

U 2 Every

_92 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIV,

Everyprofeltionhasitsparticularlot: thatofthetax-gatherersis wealth; andwealthisitsownre-ward. Gloryand honourfallto thelhareof thatnobilitywhoarefenfibleofnootherhappinefs.Re-fpe&andet_eemarefor thofeminifiersandmagif-trateswholewholelifeisacontinuedretiesoflabour,and whowatch"dayandnightoverthewelfareoftheempire.

B O O K XIV.OF LAWS AS R]';LATIVETO THE NATUREOF TH_

CLIMATE.

CHAP. I.GeneralIdea.

IF it betrue, thatthetemperof the mindandthe paffionsof theheartareextremelydifferentindifferentclimates,thelawsoughttoberelativebothto thevarietyof tholepaffions,and to thevarietyoftholetempers.

CHAP. IL

OftheDifferenceofMenindifferentClimates.A coldair*conftringestheextremitiesofthe ex-

ternalfibresof thebody; thisincreafestheirelaft,i-city,andfavoursthe returnof thebloodfromtheextremepartstotheheart. It contra&s_ thofeveryfibres;confequently,it increafesalfo theirforce.Onthe contrary,a warmairrelaxesand lengthenstheextremesof the fibres; ofcourfe,itdiminifllestheirforceandelaiticity.

Thisappearsevenintheeounteaaace:incoldweatherpeoplelookthinner."_Weknowit/ho_tc_sJrom

People

C_AP.z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 293

People are thereforemore vigorousin coldcli-mates. Here, thea&ionof the heartand tee re-a&ionof theextremitiesof the fibresarebetter per-formed, thetemperatureof the humoursis greater,the bloodmovesfreertowardsthe heart, and, reci-procally,the heart has morepower. This fuperi-orityof ftrengthmuffproducevariouseffe&s; forinftance,a greaterboldnefs,that is, morecourage;a greaterfenfeof fuperiority,that is, lefsdefireofrevenge; a greateropinionof fecurity,that is,morefranknefs,lefs fufpicion,policy,and cunning. Inthort, thismuffbeprodu&iveof verydifferenttem-pers. Put a maninto a clofewarmplace,and, forthe reafonsabovegiven, he will feel a greatfaint-hers. If, under this circum_ance,youpropofeaboldenterprizeto him, I believeyou will findhimvery littledifpofedtowardsit : his prefentweaknefswill throw him into a detpondency; he will beafraidof everything, beingin a ftateof total inca-pacity. The inhabitantsof warm countriesare,likeoldmen, timorous; the people in coldcoun-triesare, likeyoungmen, brave. If we retie&onthe late _ wars, (whicharemore recentinour me-mory, and in whichwe canbetterdiftinguilhfome "::,particulareffe&s,thatel'capeus at a greaterdii_anceof time,) we /hall find that the northernpeople,'.tranfplantedintofou.thernregions11,didnotperformfuch exploitsas theircountrymen,who,fighting intheir own climate, poffeffedtheir full vigourand.cOurage.

This ftrength of the fibres, in northernnations,is the caufethat thecoarferjuicesare extraC2edfromtheir aliments. From hence two things refult:one, that thepartsof thechyle,or lymph, aremore

TholeforthefucceffiontotheSpanifl_monarchy,11Forint_aaee_iaS1ain.

U 3 proper,

29¢ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIV,

proper,by real-onof theirlargefurface,to beap-pliedto, andto nourifh,thefibres:theother,thattheyarelefsproper,fromtheircoarfenefs,to giveacertainfubtletyto thenervousjuice. Tholepeoplehave,therefore,largebodiesandbutlittlevivacity.

Thenerves,thatterminatefromall partsin thecutis,formeachanervousbundle; generallyfpeak-ing, thewholenerveis notmoved,buta verymi-nutepart. In warmclimates,wherethe curlsisrelaxed,theends of thenervesareexpanded,andlaidopento theweakefl:a&ionof the fmalle0cob-je&s. In coldcountries,the curlsis confcringedandthepapilla:compreffed; the miliaryglandsarein fomemeafureparalytic;and thefenfationdoesnot reachthebrainbut whenit is veryfirong,andproceedsfrom the wholenerveat once. Now,imagination,tafte,fenfibility,andvivacity,dependonaninfinitenumberoffmallfenfations.

I haveobfervedtheoutermoffpartof a lheep'stongue,where,to thenakedeye, it feemscoveredwithpapillm.On therepapilla:I havedifcerned,thr6ugha microfcope,fmallhairs,or_a kindofdown; betweenthepapitla_werepyramids,lhapedtowardsthe ends likepincers. Verylikelythefepyramidsaretheprincipalorganoftafte.

I caufedthehalfofthistonguetobefrozen,and,obfervingit withthenakedeye,I foundthepapil-la:confiderablydiminifhed; evenfomerowsof themwerefunkintotheirfheath. The outermofl:partIexaminedwiththemicrofcope,andperceivednopy-ramids.In proportionas the froffwentoff,thepapilla_feemedto the nakedeyeto rife, and withthemicrofcopethemiliaryglandsbeganto appear.

ThisobfervationconfirmswhatI havebeenfay-ing, that,in coldcountries,thenervousglandsarelefsexpandedltheyrinkdeeperintotheirfheaths,

or

eaAr. z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. z9_

or theyare fl,ielteredfi'omthe a&ionof externalobje&s;coniequently,theyhavenot fuch livelyfenfations.

In coldcountriestheyhaveverylittlefenfibilityforpleafure; intemperatecountriestheyhavemore;in warmcountriestheirfenfibilityis exquifite.Asclimatesarediffinguifhedbydegreesoflatitude,wemightdiffinguifhthemalfo, in romemeafure,byrhofeoffenfibility.I havebeenat the operaiaEnglandandinItaly,WhereIhavefeenthefamepie-cesandthefameperformers,andyetthefamemuficproducesfuchdifferenteffecq:son thetwonations;oneis fo coldand phlegmatic,and theotherfolivelyandenraptured,that it feemsalmofl:incon-ceiyable.

It is the famewithregardto pain,whichis ex-c!tedbythelacerationof fomefibreof the body.The Authorof naturehasmadeit anefl:ablilhedrule,thatthispainfhouldbemoreacutein propor-tionasthelacerationisgreater:now,it isevident,thatthelargebodiesandcoarfefibresof thepeopleof_theNortharelefscapableof lacerationthanthedelicatefibresoftheinhabitantsofwarmcountriesconfequently,the foulis therelefsfenfibleofpain.Youmuff:flaya Mufcovitealiveto makehimfeel

Fromthisddicacyof organs,peculiarto warmclimates,it follows,thatthe foul is moff:fenl_blymovedbywhateverrelatestothe unionof thetwofexes:"hereeverythingleadsto thisobje&.

In northernclimates,fcarcelyhastheanimalpartoflovea powerofmakingitfelffelt. In temperateclimates,love,attendedbya thoufandappendages,endeavourstopleafebythingsthathave,atfirff:,theappearance,thoughnotthereality,of thispaffion.Inv;armerclimates,itis likedforitsownfake,it istheonlycaufeofhappinefs,it islifeitfelf.

U 4- In

•_6 THE SPIKIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIVIn foutherncountries,a machine,of a delicate

framebutftrongfenfibility,refignsitfelfeitherto alovewhichriles,andis inceffantlylaid,inaferaglio;or toa paffionwhichleaveswomenina greaterin-dependence,andisconfequentlyexpofedto a thou-landinquietudes.In northernregions,a machine,robuftandheavy,findsapleafurein whateveris aptto throwthe fpiritsintomotion;fuch as hunti;ng,travelling,war,andwine. If wetraveltowardstheNorth,wemeetwithpeoplewhohavefew vices,manyvirtues,andagreatthareoffranknefsandfin-cerity. If wedrawneartheSouth,wefancyour-felvesintirelyremovedfromthevergeof morality:heretheRrongeftpaffionsarePrOdu&iveofallman-nerofcrimes,eachmanendeavouring,letthemeansbe whattheywill,to indulgehisinordinatedefires.In temperateclimates,wefindthe inhabitantsin-conftantin theirmanners,as wellasin theirvicesandvirtues: theclimatehasnota qualitydetermi-nateenoughtofixthem.

The heatoftheclimatemaybefoexcefiqveas todeprivethebodyof allvigourandftrength. Thenthe faintnefsis communicatedtothemind: thereisnocuriofity,noenterprize,nogenerofityof fen-timent_ theinclinationsare all pal'five_ indolenceconftitutesthe utmofthappinefs; fcarcelyanypu-nilhmentis fo revereasmentalemployment_ andflaveryismorefupportablethantheforceandvigourofmindneceffaryforhumancondu&.

CHAP,

C_A_.3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _7

c H A P. III.' Contradiftionin theTemperso/fameSoutbernNations.

THE Indians* arenaturallya pufillanimouspeo-ple: even thechildren -]-of Europeans,born inIndia, loretilecouragepeculiarto theirownclimate.But how[hallwereconcilethis with their cuffoms

: and penancesfo full of barbarity? The menvo-! ltmtarilyunde_o the greater hardflaips; and the

womenburn themfelves: herewefind a very oddcompoundof fortitudeandweaknefs.

Nature, havingframedtherepeopleof a texturefo weakas to fill them with timidity, has formedthem,at thefametime, of an imaginationfo lively,that everyobje&makestheffrongeftimpreffionup-on them. That delicacyof organs,whichrendersthem apprehenfiveof death, contributeslikewifetomake themdreada thoufandthingsmorethandeath:the veryfamefenfibilityinducesthem to fly, anddare, alldangers.

As a goodeducationis moreneceffaryto childrenthan to luchas arearrivedto a maturity of under..flanding, fothe inhabitantsof thole countrieshavemuchgreaterneedthanthe European nationsofawifelegiflator. The greater their fenfibility,themoreit behovesthemto receiveproperimpreffion_toimbibenoprejudices,andto let thcmfelvesbedi-r.e&edbyreatbn.

Atthetimeof theRomans,theinhabitantsof,the'_orth of Europeweredeftituteof arts, education,andalmoRof laws: andyetthe goodfenfe,annexedto the gro£sfibresof tholeclimates,enabledthem

OnehundredEuropeanfoldlers_laysTavernie.a'jwould_withoutanygreat•]ifficulty;,beata thoufandIndianfoldiers.""11""EventhePerfianS,whofettlein theIndies,contraCt,in thethirdgenera-

tion,theindolenceand cowardiceof t,',_eIt_dians.SeeBernier_ontheMogul,tom,a, p, _8a.

to

_)$ THE SPIRIT OF I, AW8. Boo_XIV.

to makean admirableftand againfl:the powerofRome,tillthememorableperiodin whichtheyquit-ted theirwoodsto fubvertthatgreatempire.

CHAP. IV.

Caufeof theImmutabilityof_Religion,Manners,Cufloms,andLaws, in theEaflernCountries.

IF, to that delicacyof organswhich renderstheearl:err,nationsib fufceptibleof everyimprett]on,youaddlikewifea fort of indolenceof mind, naturallyeonrw._edwiththat.of the body,by meansof whichtheygrowincapableof anyexertionor effort, it iseafy to comprehend,that, whenonce the foulha_receivedan impreffion,fhecannotchangeit. Thisis the reafonthat thelaws;manners_,_,ndcuffoms,even thole which feernquite indifferent,fuch astheir modeof drefs,arethefameto thisveryday,ineaRerncountries,as theywerea thoufandyearsago.

CHAP. V.

if'hattholearebadlegi[latorswhofavour theVicesoftheClimate,andgoodLegi.flatorswho oppofetholeVices.

THE Indiansbelievethatrepofeandnon-exifteneearethe foundationof all things,and the end inwhichtheyterminate. Hence they confiderentireina&ionas the moil:perle&of all ftates,and the ob-je& _,f their defires. To the fupremeBeingtheygive11the titleof immoveable. The inhabitantsofSiambelievethat theirutmofthappinefs§confiftsin

_.Wefind,bya fragmentof NieolausDamafcenus,¢olle&edbyConRantinePorph)rog.thlt it wasanancientcufiom,inthe Earl,tofendto I_ranglca go-vernorwhohadgivenonyd,fpleathrei it wasinthetimeoftheMedes.

IIPanarnanack.SeeKtrcher.§ La Loubiere.Rela:IonofSiam,p. 446.

not

Cr_AP.6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 2_

not being obligedto anim_:es machineortogivemotiontoabody.

In tholecountrieswherethe excelsof heatener-vatesandexhauftsthebody,reftisfodelicious,andmotionfo painful,that this fyftemof metaphyflcsfeemsnatural;and_[Foe,thelegiflatorof theIn-dies,wasdirectedbyhis ownfenfations,whenheplacedmankindin aftateextremelypattive:buthisdo&fine,arifingfromthe lazinefsof the climate,favoureditalfoinitsturn; whichhasbeenthefourceofaninfinitedealofmifchief.

ThelegiflatorsofChinaweremorerational,when,confideringmennot in the peacefulflare"whichtheyaretoenjoyhereafter,butinthefituationFro-perfordifchargingthe feveraldutiesof life,theymadetheirreligion,phi!ofophy,andlaws,allprac-tical.Themorethephyficaleaufesinclinemankindto ina_ion,themorethemoralcaufeslI_ukleltrarrgethemfromit.

CHAP. VI.OfAgriculturein warmClimates.

AGRI(_ULTUREis the principallabourof'man. The morethe climateinclineshimto thunthislabour,themorethereligionandlawsof thecountryoughttoexcitehimtoit. Thusthe Indianlaws,whichgivethelandsto theprince,anddef'croythe fpiritof propertyamongthe fubje&s,increafethebadeffe&sof theclimate,thatis, theirnaturalindolence.

_"Foe¢odeavouredtoreducethehearttoamerevacuum:¢_Wehaveeyes,c andears,burperfe_io_confiftsinneitherfeeingnorhearing;-amouth,hands," _e. butperfe_iunrequiresthat there membersfllouldheinae"tive."Thisis takenfromthedialogueofaChinefephilofopher,quotedby fathernu Halde,t_m,3,

CHAP.

$0o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIV.

C H A P. VII.

Of Monkery.

THE veryfamernifchiefsrefultfrommonkery:it hadits rife in thewarmcountriesof theEaft,wheretheyarelefsinclinedto actionthantofpecu-lation.

In Aria,thenumberofdervifes,ormonks,feemsto increafetogetherwiththewarmthoftheclimate.TheIndies,wherethe heatisexcefrive,are fullofthem,andthefamedifferenceisfoundinEurope.

In orderto furmountthe lazinefsof the climate,the lawsoughttoendeavourto removeallmeansoffubfiftingwithoutlabour:but,in thefouthernpartsofEurope,theyac"tquitethereverfe; to thole,whowantto livein a ftate of indolence,they affordretreatsthemoil:properfor a fpeculativelife,andendowthemwith immenferevenues.Theremen,wholive in the midftof a plentywhichtheyknownothowtoenjoy,,arein.therighttogivetheirfuper-

' fluitiesawayto thec_mmonpeople. Thepoorarebereftofproperty; and theremenindemnifythembyfupportingtheminidlenefs,foas to makethemevengrowfondoftheirmifery.

CH AP. VIII.

.tinexcellentCuflomofChina.THE hiftoricalrelations_Tof Chinam.entiona

ceremony*ofopeningthegrounds,whichtheem-perorperformseveryyear. The defignof this

FatherDuHalde,Hif_oryof Chln_,tom,I.pag,72.•* Severalofthe kingsofIndia<lothe fame. Relationof the kingdomof

Siam,b)'LaLot_biere,p. 69.

pubiic

CHAP.IO. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3o!

publicand£olemna&is to excite-t"thepeopletotillage.

Farther,theemperoris everyyearinformedofthehufbandmanwhohasdiftinguifhedhimfelfmoll:in hisprofeffion; andhemakeshima mandarinoftheeighthorder.

AmongtheancientPerfians_,thekingsquittedtheirgrandeurandpomp,on theeighthdayof themonthcalledChorrem-ruz,to eatwiththehuiband-men. Thereinffitutionswereadmirablywellcalcu-latedfortheencouragementofagriculture.

CHAP. IX.MeansofencouragingInduftry.

WEthallfhew,inthenineteenthbook,thatlazynationsaregenerallyproud. Now,theeffectmightwellbeturnedagainftthecauff,andlazinefsbede-ffroyedbypride. In the Southof Europe,wherepeoplehavefucha highnotionof thepointofho-nour,it wouldberightto giveprizestohu/bandmeawhohadexcelledin agriculture,or toartiftswhohadmadethegreateftimprovementsin theirfeveralprofeffions.ThispraCticehasfucceededinourdaysinIreland,whereit haseftabliflaedoneof themot_confiderablelinen-manufacturesinEurope.

CHAP. X.OftheLawsrelativetotheSobrietyofthePeople.INwarmcountries,theaqueouspartoftheblood

loftsitfelfgreatlyby perfpirationII;it mufL,there-fore,

af Verity,thethbdemperorofthethirddyn_Pcy,tilledthe landshlmfelf,_mlmadetheempret_andhiswivesemploytheirtimein thefilk-woxksin hJspaolace. HiftoryofChina.

Hyde,religionofthe Perfians.I1Monfieur8ernier,travellingfromLahor to Cachemlr,wrotethos: /I/)'k,

bodyis afete - fcarcdyhaveIf_,all_cveda2_tntof _oater,butIfeeit trarfude,li_ede,m,

3ca THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIV.fore,befuppliedbyalikeliquid. Wateristhereofadmirableufe; ltrongliquorswouldcongealtheglobules§ofbloodthatremainaftertiletranfudingoftheaqueoushumour.

In coldcountries,theaqueouspartof thebloodisverylittleevacuatedby perfpiration.Theymaythereforemakeufeof fpirituousliquors,withoutwhlchthe bloodwouldcongeal.Tangarefullofhumours; confequently,Rrongliquors,whichgiveamotionto theblood,areproperfor tholecountries.

Thelawof Mahomet,whichprohibitsthedrink-ing of wine,is thereforefittedto theclimateofArabia:and,indeed,beforeMahomet'sdine,wa-ter wasthe commondrinkof the Arabs. Thelaw¶, whichforbadtheCarthaginiansto drinkwine,wasalfoa lawof the climate;and,indeed,thecli-mateoftholetwocountriesisprettynearthefame.

Suchalawwouldbeimproperforcoldcountries,wheretheclimatefeemstoforcethemto a kindofnationalintemperance,verydifferentfromperfonatebriety. Drunkennefspredominatesthroughouttheworldinproportionto thecoldnefsandhumidityoftheclimate.GofromtheequatortotheNorthpole,andyou willfindthisviceincreafingtogetherwiththedegreeoflatitude: go fromthe equatoragainto the Southpole, andyouwillfindthe famevicetravellingSouth*,exa&lyin thefameproportion.

It isverynatural,that,wherewineiscontrarytothe climate,andconfeqt_entlyto health,theexcelsofitlhouldbemorefevcrelypunilhedthanin c0un-

draw,out _failmj llmbt, _en tomy,/quotesend,. ! drink ten pints aoday2 and itdoesmenomannerofharm. Bernicr's Travels, tom. iio p. _61.

§ In theblood, there are red globules, fibrousl_arts, v,hite globules_andwa-ter, m whichthe whole fwims.

Plato, bookz, of laws: Arifi'otle, of thecareof dome_icaffairs: ]_ufu-b:u,'Sevangelicalprcparation_book 17. c, '7"

q"his Is feen in the Hottentotsa_d the iahabkants oft,he moRfouthera partChili.

tries

ChAP.It.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3o_tries_here-intoxicationproducesveryfewbadeffe&s

_ totheperfon,fewerto thefociety,andwhereit does! notmakepeoplefranticgndwild,Butonlyftupid

and heavy. Hencetholelaws-l-,whichinflictedadoublepunifhmeatfor crimescommittedindrun-kennefs,wereapplii:ab]eonlytoa perfonal,andnotto anational,ebriety. A Germ_,ndrinksthrough¢,u_om,andaSpaniardby.choice.

Inwarmcounxriesotherehxingof thefibrespro-ducesagreat,eyacuationoftheliquids,butthefolid

' partsarelefstranfpired.Thefil_rcs,whicha&butfaindy,aad haveverylittleelafticity,arenotmuch

' impaired; andafinal!quantityof nutritiousjuiceisfufficienttorepairthem;forwhichreafon,theyeatverylittle.

It isthevarietyof wants,indiffereat,climates,thatfirftoccafioneda differencein themannerof living,andthisgaverifetoavarietyoflaws. W'herepeopleareverycommunicative,theremuff be particularlaws; and otherswherethereisbutlittlecommu-nication,

CHAP. gI.

OftheLawsrelativetotheDiflempersoftheClimate.

HERODOTUS_ informsus, that the Jewifhlaws,concerningthe leprofy,wereborrowedfromthe praCticeof the Egyptians.And,indeed,thefamediftemperrequiredthe fameremedies.TheGreeksandtheprimitiveRomanswereftrangerstotherelaws,aswellas to thedifeafe.The climateof Egyptand Paleftinerenderedthemneceffary;and the facilitywith whichthisdifeafeisfpreadis

"_AsPittaeusdid, accordingtoArlffotle,'Pdit, lib,I, c, _, Helivedin aclimatewheredrunkcaacfsisnotanationalvice.

Bookz,fufficient

304 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIVo

fufficienttomakeusfenfible,of thewifdomandfa-gacityof thofelaws.

Evenweourfelveshavefelttheeffe&sof them.Thecroifadeshadbroughtthe leprofyamongftusbutthewiferegulations,madeatthattime,hinderedit frominfectingthemarlofthepeople.

Wefind,bythelawofthe[1Lombard.%thatthisdifeafewasfpreadin Italybeforethecroifades,andmeritedthe attentionof the legiflature.Rotharisordainedthat a leperlhouldbe expelledfromhishoufe,banifhedto a particularplace,andrenderedincapableofdifpofingofhisproperty;becaufe,fromthe verymomenthehadbeenturnedoutofhishoufe,he wasreckoneddeadintheeyeofthelaw. In or-,der to preventallcommunicationwithlepers,theywererenderedincapableofcivila&s.

I amapttothinkthatthisdifeafewasbroughtintoItalybythe conqueftsof the Greekemperors,inwhofearmiestheremightberomefoldiersfromPa-/effineorEgypt. Bethatasit may,theprogrefsofit wasffopttillthetimeofthecroifades.

It is related,that Pompey'sfoldiers,returningfromSyria,broughtadiffemperhomewiththentnotunliketheleprofy.Wehavenoaccountofany-re-gulationmadeat thattime; butitishighly15robaiSlethat fomefuchffepwastaken,fincethediffemperwascheckedtillthetimeoftheLombards.

It isnowtwocenturiesfincea difeafe,unknownto ouranceftors,wasfiriltranfplantedfromthenewworldto ours,andcametoattackhumannatureevenin theveryfourceoflifeandpleafure.Moil:of theprincipalfamiliesin theSouthofEuropewerefeentoperithbya difremperthatwasgrowntoocommonto be ignominious,andwasconfideredin nooilier

l}Bookz, tit,I. §.3"g'tit.15.§. I.light

C_AI,.Iz.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3o5lightthanin that of its beingfatal. It wasthethirl_ofgoldthatpropagatedthisdifeafe; theEu-ropeanswentcontinuallyto America,andalwaysbroughtbackanewlevenofit.

Reafonsdrawnfromreligionfeemedto requirethatthispunifhmentofguiltlhouldbe permittedtocontinue; but theinfe&ionhadreachedthebofomof matrimony,andgiventhevicioustainteven toguiltlefsinfants.

Asit isthebufinefsoflegiflatorsto watchoverthehealthof the citizens,it wouldhavebeena wifepartinthemto haveftoppedthiscommunicationbylawsmadeontheplanoftholeofMoles.

Theplagueisadifeafewhofeinfe&iousprogrefsis muchmorerapid. Egyptis its principalfeat,fromwhenceit fpreadsoverthewholeglobe. Mofl_countriesinEuropehavemadeexceedinggoodregu-lationsto preventthisinfe&ion,and,in ourtimes,anadmirablemethodhasbeencontrivedto Ropitthisii, byforminga lineof troopsroundtheinfc&-edcountry,whichcutsoffallmannerof communi-cation.

TheTurks§, whohavenofuchregulations,feetheGl_rifiiansefcapethisinfe&ion,inthefametown,andnonebutthemfelvesperifh: theybuytheclothesof the infe&ed,wearthem, andproceedin theiroldway,asifnothinghadhappened.Thedo&rineof a rigidfate,whichdii'e&stheirwholecondu&,i'endersthemagiRratea quietfpe&ator; he thinksthateverythingcomesfromthehandof God,andthatmanhasnothingmoreto do thantofubmit.

§ l[_ir.lmon theOttomaneral_ire_p,:_84.

VoL.L X CHAP,

3o6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoogXIY.

C H A P. XII.

OftheLawsagainflSuicides.WE donotfindinhiftorythatthe Romansever

killedthemfelveswithouta caufe: buttheEnglilhareaptto commitfuicidemoftunaccountably; theydet_roythemfelvesevenin the bofomofhappinefs.Thisa&ion,amongtheRomans,wasthe effe&ofeducation,beingconne&edwiththeirprinciplesandcuftoms; amongtheEnglith,it istheconfequenceof adiftemper*, beingconne&edwiththe phyficalftateofthe machine,andindependentofeveryothercaufe.

In allprobability,itis adefe&ofthefiltrationofthenervousjuice: themachine,wholemotivefa-cultiesare oftenunexerted,iswearyof itfelf_thefoulfeelsnopain,butacertainuneafinefsinexifting.Painis alocalfenfation,whichleadsustothedefireof feeingan endofit; the burthenof life,whichpromptsus to the defireof ceafingto exift,isanevilconfinedtonoparticularpart.

It isevidentthat the civillawsofromecountriesmayhavereafonsforbrandingfuicidewithinfamy:but,in England,it cannotbepunifhedwithoutpu-nilhingtheeffe&sofmadnefs.

C H A P. XIII.

EffetTsarifingfromtheClimateofEngland.IN anation,fo diftemperedbythe climateas to

havea difrelifhofeverything,nay,evenoflife_itisplain,thatthegovernmentmot_-fuirabletothein-habitantsisthatinwhichtheycannotlaytheirunea-

* It mayhecomplicatedwiththefeurTy,which,in romecountriesefpecially,rendersa manwhimfitalandinfupportabl¢to himfch_ SeePirard'svoyages,parez. chap.zl.

finefs

CsAP.I3. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 307

i finefsto anytingleperfon'scharge,andin which,beingunderthedirectionofthe tawsratherthanof

: theprince,it is impoffiblefbr themto changethei governmentwithout fubvertingthe lawsthem-

felves.And,if thisnationhaslikewifederivedfromthe

i climateacertainimpatienceoftemper,whichrendersi themincapableofbearingthefametrainof things

foranylongcontinuance,it isobvious,thatthego-vernmentabove-mentionedisthefitteftforthem.

Thisimpatienceof temperisnotveryconfiderable_: ofitfelf_butit maybecomefo whenjoinedwith

courage.: It is quitea differentthingfromlevity,which

makespeopleundertakeor dropaprojecCtwithoutcaufe; it bordersmoreuponobffinacy,becaufeitproceedsfromfolivelya fenfeofmiferythatit isno.tweakenedevenbythehabitoffuffering.

Thistemper,in a freenation,isextremelypro-perfordifconcertingtheprojectsoftyranny*,whichis alwaysflowandfeeblein its commencements,asin theendit is activeandlively; whichatfirftonlyRretchesouta handto affift,andexertsafterwardsa multitudeofarmstoopprefs.

Slaveryiseverprecededbyfleep. Buta people,whofindnoreftinanyfituation,whocontinuallyex-ploreeverypart, andfeel nothingbut pain,canhardlybelulledto fleep.

Politicsarea fmoothfile,whichcutsgradually,andattainsitsendbya flowprogreffion.Now,thepeopleof whomwehavebeenfpeakingareincapa-bleofbearingthedelays,thedetails,andthecool-nefs,ofnegociations: inthefetheyaremoreunlikely

_'HereI takethiswordforthedefignof fuhvertingtheeffahli/hedpower,andefpeciallythatofdemocracyi thisisthefignificationinwhichit wasunder-floodbytheGreeksandRomans.

X z to

308 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIV.

to fucceedthananyothernation; hencetheyareaptto lofebytreatieswhattheyobtainbytheirarms.

C H A P. XIV.OtherEffeeVsof theClimate.

OURanceftors,theancientGermans,livedundera climatewherethe pamonswereextremelycalm.Theirlawsdecidedonlyinfuchcafeswheretheinju-ry wasvifibleto theeye,andwentnofarther.And,astheyjudgedoftheoutragesdonetomenfromthegreamefsof the wound,theyachedwith11ootherdelicacyin refpecq:to the injuriesdoneto women.The lawoft theGermans,onthisfubje&,isveryextraordinary.If aperfonuncoversawoman'shead,be'paysa fineoffiftyfous; if he uncoversherlegup totheknee,hepaysthefame;anddoublefromthekneeupwards. Onewouldthinkthatthelawmeafuredtheinfultsofferedtowomenaswemeafurea figureingeometry; it didnotpuni/hthecrimeofthe imagination,butthatoftheeye. But,uponthemigrationofaGermannationintoSpain,theclimateloonfoundaneceltityfordifferentlaws. The lawof theVifigothsinhibitedthe furgeonsto bleedafreewoman,excepteitherherfather,mother,bro-ther, fon,or uncle,wasprefent. Astheimagina-tion of the peoplegrewwarm,fodidthatofthelegiflators; thelawfufpec"tedeverythingwhenthepeoplewerebecomefufpicious.

'Ihefelawshad,therefore,aparticularregardforthetwofixes. But,intheirpunifhments,theyfeemrathertohumourthe revengefultemperof privateperfons,thanto adminiflerpublicjuftice.Thus,inmoltcafes,theyreducedboth the criminalsto be

%Chap.58.§. ,. and,.llaves

Csav.15. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3_9

._ flavestotheoffendedrelationsorto theinjuredhuf-band: a free-bornwoman,,whohadyieldedto theembracesofa marriedman,wasdeliveredupto hiswifeto difpofeofherasfhepleafed.Theyobliged

: theflaves§, if theyfoundtheirmaffer'swifeinadul-tery, to bind her, andcarryhertoher huPoand;theyevenpermittedherchildrenIItobeheraccufers,andherflaresto betorturedinorderto convi&her.

: Thustheirlawswerefar betteradaptedto refine,i evento excels,a certainpointof honour,thanto

forma goodciviladminiRration.Wemuffnot,therefore,befurprized,if countJulianwasofopinion,

i thatanaffrontof thatkindoughtto beexpiatedbythe ruinofhiskingandcountry: wemuffnot be

: furprized,if theMoors,withfuchaconformityofmanners,foundit fo eafyto fettleandto maintainthemfelvesin Spain,andto retardthefalloftheirempire.

CHAP. XV.

Of thedifferentConfidencewhichtheLawshavein the_People,accordingtotheDifferenceof Climates.

THE peopleofJapanareoffoRubbornandper-verfeatemper,thatneithertheirlegiflatorsnorma-giffratescanput anyconfidencein them: theyletnothingbeforetheireyes.butjudgements,menaces,andchaftifements; everyfteptheytakeisfubje&totheinquifitionof thecivilmaglftrate."/'hofelaws,which,out offiveheadsoffamilies,eftablifhoneasa magiftrateovertheotherfour; thofelawswhichpunifha familyorawholewardfora tinglecrime;thofelaws,in fine, whichfindno bodyinnocentwhereonemayhappento beguihy,aremadewitha

LawoftheVifig_ths,book3. tit.4"§"9.Ibid.book3, tit.4.§.6. IIibid.bok 3. tit.4. §. I3.

X t defign

_to THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXV.defignto implantin thepeoplea mutualdiflruft,andto mrikeeverymantheinfpe&or,witnefs,andjudge,of his neighbour'sconduCt.

On the contrary,thepeopleof Indiaaremildll[,tender, andcompaffionate.Hence their legiflatorsrepo£ea greatconfidencein them. Theyhaveefta-bliflaed*veryfewpunifhments; therearenotfevere,nor are theyrigorouflyexecuted. They have fub-ice"tednephewsto theirunclesand orphansto theirguardians,as, inothercountries,theyarefubje&edto theirfathers; theyhaveregulatedthe fucceflionby theacknowledgedmeritof thefucceiTor.Theyfeemto think that every individualought toplacean intireconfidencein the good-natureof his fellow-fubje&s.

They infranchifetheirflareswithout difficulty;theymarrythem; theytreatthemas theirchildrent.Happy climate,whichgivesbirthto innocence,andproducesa lenityin the laws!

ill J 18

BOOK XV.IN WHAT MANNER THE LAWS OF CIVIL SLAVERY ARE

RELATIVE TO THE NATURE OF THE CLIMATE.

CHAP. I.

Of dil Slaver[SLAVERY, properlyfo called, is the ef_ablifh-

mentof a right whichgivestoonemanfucha power

_" SeeBernler,tom.2. p. 14o,i See,inthez4thcolic&ionoftheedifyingletters,p.4o_. theprincipallaws

orcultomsoftheinhabitantsofthepeninlulaon thisfidetheGanges._f I hadoncethoughtthatthe lenityof flavcryinIndiahadmadeDiodorus

fay,thattherewasneithermal'_ernorflarein thatcountry_ but Diodorushaaattributedto thewholecontinentofIndiawhab accordingto StraboI lib. z5.belongedonlyto aparticularnation.

over

CHAP. Z, THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3ixoveranother as rendershimabfolutematterof hislife andfortune. The ftateof flaveryis, in its ownnature, bad. It is neitherufefulto the mafternorto the flare; not to theflave,becaufehe candono-thing througha motiveof virtue; norto the matter,becaufe,by havingan unlimitedauthorityoverhisflares, he intimfiblyaccuftomshimfelfto thewantofall moralvirtues,andfi'omthencebecomesfierce,hafty,revere,choleric,voluptuous,andcruel.

In defpoticcountries,wheretheyarealreadyinaftateof politicalfervitude, civilflaveryis more to-lerablethaninothergovernments.Everyoneoughtto be fatisfied,in tholecountries,withneceffariesand life, Hencethe conditionof a flare is hardlymore burdenfomethanthatof a fubje&.

But, in a monarchicalgovernment,whereit is ofthe utmoftimportancethat humarinaturePaouldnotbe debafednordifpirited,thereought to benoflave-ry. In democracies,where they are all uponanequaliw, andinariftocracies,wherethe lawsoughtto ufetheir utmoftendeavourstoprocureasgreatanequalityas thenatureof thegovernmentwillpermit,flaveryis contraryto the fpiritof the conftitution:it only contributesto givea powerand luxurytothe citizenswhichtheyoughtnot to have.

CHAP. II.

Origin of the Right of Slaveryamongthe R_minCivilians.

ON E wouldnever have imaginedthat flaverythould oweits birth to pity, and that this flaouldhavebeenexcitedthreedifferentways.t

_1"Juitlnlarl'sInftitute_jbookI,

X 4 The

3,z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXV.

Thelawofnations,to preventprifonersfrombe-ing put to death,hasallowedthemto be madeflares. The civillawof theRomansempowereddebtors,whowerefubje&to beillufedbytheircre-ditors,to fellthemfelves.Andthelaw of naturerequires,thatchildren,whoma father,inthefl:ateof fervitude,is no longerableto maintain,flaouldbereducedtothefamefl:ateasthefather.

Therereafonsof theciviliansareallfalfe. It isfalfethatkillinginwarislawful,unle_in acafeofabfoluteneceliity: but,whenamanhasmadeano-therhisflare,he cannotbelaidto havebeenunderaneceflkyoftakingawayhislife,fincehe a&uallydidnottakeit away. Wargivesnootherrightoverprifonersthanto difablethemfromdoinganyfar-therharm,byfecuringtheirperfons. Allnations°concurin deterringthe murderingof prifonersincoldblood.

Neitherisit truethata freemancan fellhimfelf.Saleimpliesa price: now,whenaperfonfellshim-felf,hiswholefubftanceimmediatelydevolvesto hisroarer; the mafter,therefore,in that cafe,givesnothing,andthe flarereceivesnothing. Youwillfayhehasapeculium.Butthispeculiumgoesalongvcithhisperton. If it isnotlawfulfora mantokillhimfelf,becaufehe robshiscountryof hisperfon,for thefamereafonhe is notallowedto barterhisfreedom. ThefreedomofeverycitizenconPritutes0 partofthepublicliberty; and, ina democratic_li_ate,isevenapartofthefovereignty.To fellone'sfreedom_ isforepugnanttoallreafonascanfcarcelybefuppofedinanyman. If libertymay be ratedwithref_e&tothebuyer,itis beyondallpriceto the

* ExceptJngafewCanibals.Imeanflaveryina _ric"]:fenfe_asformerlyamongtheRoman_J andatpre-

feaxinourcolonies.

feller.

CsAP.z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3i$

feller. Thecivillaw,whichauthorizesadivifionofgoodsamongmen, cannotbe thoughtto rank,amongfuchgoods,apartof the menwhoweretomakethisdivifion.Thefamelaw annulsallini-quitouscontra&s: furely,then,it affordsredrefsinacontra&wherethegrievanceis mof'cenormous.

Thethirdwayisbirth; whichfallswiththetwoformer:for, if amancouldnotfellhimfelf,muchlefscouldhefellanunborninfant. If aprifonerofwarisnotto bereducedto flavery,muchlefsarehischildren.

The lawfulnefsof puttinga malefa&orto deatharifesfromthiscircumfl:ance; thelaw,bywhichheis pun_thed,wasmadeforhisfecurity.A murderer,for inffance,hasenjoyedthebenefitof theverylastwhichcondemnshim; it hasbeenacontinualpro-teflon to him; hecannotthereforeobjectagainffit.Butit isnotfowiththeflare. The lawof flaverycanneverbebeneficialtohim: itisinallcafesagain&him,withouteverbeingfor his advantage:andthereforethis lawis contraryto the fundamentalprincipleofallfocieties.

If icbepretended,that it hasbeenbeneficialtohim,as hismal_erhasprovidedforhisfubfiffence;flavery,at thisrate, fhouldbelimitedto thofewhoareincapableof earningtheirlivelihood.Butwhowilltakeupwithfuchflares? _Asto infants,na-ture,whohasfuppliedtheirmotherswithmilk,hadprovidedfortheirfuftenance; andtheremainderoftheirchildhoodapproachesfo neartheagein whichtheyaremo_capableof beingof fervice,that hewhofupportsthemcannotbetaidto givethemanequivalent,whichcanentitlehimtobe theirmaffer.

Norisflaverylefsoppofiteto the civillawthantothatofnature. Whatcivillawcanreffrainaflarefromrunningaway,fincehe isnota memberoffo-.

ciety,

Jr4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XV.ciety,andconfequentlyhasno interel_in anycivilinftitutions? He canberetainedonly bya familylaw, thatis, bythemailer'sauthority.

C H A P. III.glnotherOriginoftheRightof Slavery.

I wouldas loonfaythattherightofflaverypro-ceedsfromthe contemptof onenationforanother,foundedona differenceincuftoms.

Lopez_ deGamarrelates," that the Spaniards•' found,nearSt. Martha,feveralba/ketsfullof" crabs,fnails,grathoppers,and locufts,which" provedto betheordinaryprovifionofthenatives:" this the conquerorsturnedto a heavycharge" againftthe.conquered."The authorownsthatthis,with theirfmokingand trimmingtheirbeardsina differentmanner,gaverifetothe lawbywhichtheAmericansbecameflarestotheSpaniards.

Knowledgehumanizesmankind,and reafonin=dinesto mildnefs,but prejudiceseradicateevery?tenderdifpofition.

CHAP. IV."_otberOriginoftheRightofSlavery.

I wouldasloonfaythatreligion"givesitsprofef-forsa right toenflavethofewhodiffentfromit, inordertorenderitspropagationmoreeafy.

Thiswasthenotionthatencouragedtheravagersof Americaintheil"iniquity*.Undertheinfluenceof thisidea,theyfoundedtheirright of enflavingfomanynations: forthererobbers,whowouldabfo-lutelybe bothrobbersandChriftians,werefuper-lativelydevout.

B]blioth.Ang. tom.x3. p._. art.3.* SeeHJ_.oftheConqueftofMexico,bySoliss andthatofPerfbbyGarci-

ladbdela Vega.

Lewist

CMAP._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 31_

LewisXIII.ofwasextremelyuneafyat a law,bywhichalltheNegroesof hiscoloniesweretobemadeflares; but, it beingffronglyurged-tohimasthereadiel]:meansfor theirconverfion,he acquiefcedwithoutfartherfcruple.

CHAP. V.

OftheSlaveryoftheNegroes.WEREI to vindicateourrightto makeflavesof

theNegroes,thefelhouldbemyarguments.TheEuropeans,havingextirpatedtheAmericans,

wereobligedto make /lavesof theAfricans,forclearingfuchvat_tra&sofland.

Sugarwouldbetoodear,if theplantswhichpro-duceit werecultivatedbyanyotherthanflaves.

Therecreaturesareall overblack,andwithfucha flathole,thattheycanfcarcelybepitied.

It ishardlyto bebelievedthatGod,whoisa wifebeing,fhouldplacea foul, efpeciallya goodfoul,in fucha blackuglybody.

It isfonaturaltolookuponcolourasthecriterionofhumannature,that the Afiatics,amongwhomeunuchsare employed,alwaysdeprivetheblacksoftheirrefcmblaneeto us bya moreopprobriousdif- 'tin&ion.

Thecolouroftiletkinmaybedeterminedbythatofthehair,which,amongtheEgyptians,(the befl:philofophersinthe world,)wasoffuchimportance,thattheyputto deathall the red-hairedmenwhofellintotheirhands.

TheNegroesprefera glafsnecklaceto that goldwhichpolitenationsfohighlyvalue; cantherebeagreaterproofoftheirwantingcommon-fenfe?t Lahat'snewvoyagetotheinesofAmeric,_vo].4. P.*'4.inz75:.xamo.

It

5r6 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:XV.

It i_impoffibleforus tofuppofethefecreaturestobemen; becaufe,allowingthemto bemen,afufpi-cionwouldfollow,thatweourfelvesarenotChrif-.tians.

Weakmindsexaggeratetoomuchthewrongdoneto theAfricans. For,werethecareastheyRateit,wouldthe Europeanpowers,whomakefo manyneedlersconventionsamongthemfelves,havefailedto enterintoa generalone, in behalfof humanityandcompaflion?

CHAP. VI.

if'betrueOriginofthe_'ghtofSlavery.

IT is timetoenquireintothetrueoriginof therightofflavery.It oughtto befoundedonthe na-tureofthings: letusfeeif therebeanycafeswhereit canbederivedfromthence.

In alldefpoticgovernments,peoplemakenodif-ficultyin fellingthemfelves; thepoliticalflavery,inromemeafure,annihilatesthecivilliberty.

Accordingto Mr.Perry*, the Mufcovitesfellthemfelvesveryreadily:theirreafonforitisevidenttheirlibertyisnotworthkeeping.

At _lcbirn,everyoneisforfellinghimfelf.Someof the chieflords-[-havenot left thana thoufandflares,all principalmerchants,whohavea greatnumberof flaresthemfelves,andthefealfoarenotwithouttheirflares. Their roarersaretheirheirs,andput themintotrade. In tholef_ates,thefree-men,beingoverpoweredby the government,havenobetterrefourcethanthat of makingthemfelvesflarestothetyrantsinoffice.

PrefectStateofRufliao

_rD_pic,'_vo_ase_,,oJ._. This

Csa1".?.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 31yThisis the trueandrationaloriginof thatmild

lawof flaverywhichobtainsinromecountries: andmilditoughtto be, asfoundedonthe freechoiceamanmakesofa mafLer,forhisownbenefit; whichformsamutualconventionbetwixtthetwoparties.

CHAP. VII.

vinotherOriginoftheRightofSlavery.THERE isanotheroriginoftherightofllavery,

andevenoftiremoltcruelflaverywhichistobefeenamongmen.

Therearecountrieswheretheexcefsof heaten-ervatesthe body,andrendersmenfo flothfulanddifpiritedthatnothingbut thefearof chaftifementcanobligethemto performanylaboriousduty: fla-veryis theremorereconcileableto reafon; andthemaRerbeilagaslazy,withrefpec"ttohisfovereign,ashistlaveis, withregardtohim,thisaddsa politicalto a civilllavery.

.Ariftotle_endeavoursto prove,thattherearena-tural(laves; butwhathelaysisfarfromprovingit.If therebeanyfuch,I believetheyaretholeofwhomI havebeenfpeaking.

But, asall menare bornequal,(laverymu_beaccountedunnatural,though,in romecountries,itbefoundedonnaturalreafon; anda widedifferenceoughtto be madebetwixtfuchcountriesandtholein whichevennaturalreafonrejeCtsit,asinEurope,whereithasbeenfohappilyabolifhed.

Plutarch,in thelifeofNuma,lays,that,in Sa-turn'stime, therewasneitherflarenor mafter.•Chriftianityhasreftoredthatageinourclimates.

_;Polit.lib. x. ?._.

CHAP.

31g THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BOoKXV,

C H A P. VIII.

InutilityofSlaveryamongus.NATURALflavery,then, is to be llmkedto

fome.particularpartsof the world. In allothercountrxes,eventhemoPeferviledrudgeriesmaybeperformedbyfreemen.

Experienceverifiesmyaffertion.BeforeChriffian-ityhadabolifhedcivilflaveryin Europe, workinginthemineswasjudgedtootoilfomeforanybutflaresor malefa&ors; atprefent,therearemenemployedin themwhoareknowntolive_comfortably.Themagit_rateshave,by romefmallprivileges,encou-ragedthisprofeflion; to anincreafeof labourtheyhavejoinedan increafeofgain; and havegonefofarasto makethofepeoplebetterpleafedwiththeirconditionthanwithanyotherwhichtheycouldhaveembraced.

Nolabourisfoheavybutit maybe broughtto alevelwiththe workman'sftrength,whenregulatedbyequityandnotbyavarice.Theviolentfatigueswhichflaresaremadeto undergo,inotherparts,maybe fupphedby a fkilfulufeof ingeniousma-chines. The Turkifhmines,in the BannatofTemefwear,thoughricherthantholeof Hungary,didnotyieldfomuch,becaufetheworkingofthemdependedentirelyontheffrengthoftheirflares.

I knownotwhetherthisarticlebedilatedbymyunder_andingorbymyheart. Poftiblythereis notthat climateuponearthwherethe moPelaboriousfervicesmight not, with properencouragement,be performedbyfreemen.Badlawshavingmadelazymen,theyhavebeenreducedtoflaverybecaufeoftheirlazinefs.

* .AsmaybefeeniatheminesofHartz,inLowerSaxony_andintholeof'Hungary.

CHAP.

C_Ar.lO. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 119CHAP. IX.

SeveralKindsof Slavery.SLAVERYis of twokinds, realandperfonai.

Therealannexestheflareto theland,whichTaci-tusmakes"i-theconditionof flaresamongtheGer-mans. Theywerenotemployedinthe family: aftatedtributeof corn,cattle,or othermoveables,paidtotheirmafter,wasthewholeoftheir£ervitude.Andfuchafervitudefrillcontinuesin Hungary,Bo.hemia,andfeveralpartsofLower-Germany.

Perfonalflaveryconfiftsin domefticfervices,andrelatesmoretothemailer'sperfon.

Theworftdegreeofflaveryis, whenit isatoncebothrealandperfonal,asthatoftheHelotesamongtheLaeed_emonians.Theyunderwentthefatiguesof the field,and fufferedall man/aerof infultsathome. This Helotifmiscontrarytothe natureofthings. Realflaveryistobefoundonlyamongna-tions_remarkablefor theirfimplicityof life; allfamily-bufinefsbeingdonebythewivesandchildren.Perfonalflaveryispeculiarto voluptuousnationsluxuryrequiringtheferviceof flavesin thehoufe.ButHelotifmjoins,in thefameperfon,theflaveryeftablithedbyvoluptuousnations,andthat of themoltfimple.

CHAP. X.

Regulationsneceffaryin Refpe_toSlavery.BUT, ofwhatfoeverkindtheflaverybe, thecivil

lawsflaouldendeavour,ontheonehand,to abolilhtheabufesofit, and,ontheother,to guardagainftitsdangers.

+ DemoribusGermanorurn.Tacitus,Demorib.German.fays_thematteris notto bed_ingu]/hedfrom

tla©aavejbyan)'delicacyofliving,CHAP.

3:m THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVoCHAP. XI..dbufesofSlavery.

IN Mahometanfcatesll,not only the life andgoodsof femaleflares,*butalfowhatiscalledtheirvirtueorhonour,areattheirmaRer'sdifpofal.Oneof the misfortunesof tholecountriesis, thatthegreaterpartofthenationarebornonlyto befubfer-vientto thepleafuresof the other. Thisfervitudeisalleviatedonlybythelazinefsin whichfuchflavesfpendtheirdays; whichisanadditionaldifadvantageto theRate.

It is this indolencewhichrendersthe§ eaRernferagliosfo delightfulto thofeveryperfonswhomtheyweremadeto confine.People,whodreadno-thingbutlabour,mayimaginethemfelveshappyintholeplacesof indolenceandcare. Butthislhewshowcontrarytheyareto theveryintentof the in-Ritutionofflavery.

ReafonrequiresthatthemaRer'spowerlhouldnotextendtowhatdoesnotappertaintohisfervice: fla-veryfaouldbe calculatedfor utilityand not forpleafure.The lawsof chat_ityarifefrom tholeofnature,andought,in allnations,to berefpe&ed.

If a law,whichprefervesthe charity of flaves,begoodintholeRateswhereanarbitrarypowerbearsdownall beforeit, howmuchmorewillit be foiamonarchies,andhowmuchmoreRillinrepublics?

ThelawoftheLombards¶ hasaregulationWhichoughtto be adoptedbyall governments." If a" maRerdebauchhisflare'swife,the flareandhis" wifethallbereRoredto theirfreedom."An ad-

II SirJohnChardin'sTravelsto Perfia.§ SirJohnChardin,vol,z. in hi_d_fcriptionofthemarketof Izsgour.q_Lib.,. ti_.3z. §. 5"

mlrable

CsAP.Iz. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 32x

mirable_expedient,which,without feverity,laysapowerfulreftraintontheincontinenceof mafters!

The Romansfeemto haveerred on this head.Theyallowedan unlimited /'copeto the mailer'sluffs, and, in romemeafure,deniedtheirflarestheprivilegeof marrying. It is trt_e,theywerethe low-eft part of thenation; yet therefhouldhavebeenromecaretakenof theirmorals; efpecially,as, inprohibitingtheir marriage,theycorruptedthemo-ralsof thecitizens.

C H A P. XII.

DangerfromtheMultitudeofSlaves.

THE multitudeof flaveshasdifferenteffe&sindifferentgovernments.It isnogrievanceinadefpo-tic ftate,wherethepoliticalfervitudeof the wholebody takesawaythe fenfeof civilflavery. Thole,whoarecalledfreemen,in reality,arelittlemorefothantheywhodo not comewithinthat clafs; and,as the latter, inqualityof eunuchs,freedmen,orflares,havegenerallythe managementof all affairs,the conditionof a freemanandthatof a flareareve-rynearlyallied. This makesit, therefore,almoftamatter of indifference,whether,in fuchftates,theflaresbefewor numerous.

But, in moderategovernments,it is a pointof thehigheftimportancethat there lhouldnotbe a greatnumberof flares. The politicallibertyof tholettatesaddsto the valueofcivilliberty; and he,whoisde-privedof thelatter, isalfobereftof theformer. Hefeesthe happinefsof a focietyof whichhe is not fomuchas a member; he feesthe fecurityof others,fencedbylaws,himfelfwithoutany prote&ion; heperceivesthathis mafterhasa foulcapableof enlar-ging itfelf,whilehisownlaboursundera continual

VoL.I. Y depreffion.

32z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. B_o_XV.depreffion.Nothingmore afllmilatesa mantoabeaftthan livingamongfreemen,himfelfa flav¢.Suchpeopleastherearenaturalenemiesofthefoci-ety_ andtheirnumbertourbedangerous.

It isnot,therefore,to bewonde �•�]�at,that mo-derategovernmentshavebeenfofrequendydifturhedby the revoltsof flaves_ and thatthisfof_ldomhappensin * delphicRams.

C H A P. XlII.

OfarmedSlaves.THE dangerof armingflaresisnotfogreatin

monarchiesas in republics.In theformer,awar-like peopleanda bodyof nobilityare a fufficientcheckuponthefearmedflaves_where/as,thepacificmembersof a republicwouldhavea hardtalktOquella let of men, who,havingoffenfiveweaponsintheirhands,wouldfindthemfelvesamatchforthecitizens.

TheGoths,whoconqueredSpain,fpreadthem-felvesoverthecountry,andfoonbecameveryweak.Theymadethreeimportantregulations: theyabo-lifhedanancientcunomwhichprohibitedintermar-riageswiththe"[-Romans; theyenactedthatallthefreedmen2_,belongingto thefifcus,lhouldferveinwar,underpenaltyofbeingreducedtoflavery; andtheyordainedthateachGothfhouldarm,andbringintothefield,thetenthpart IIof hisflares. Thiswas but a fmallproportion:betides,thefeflares,thuscarriedtothefield,didnotformafeparatebo-

xTherevoltofthe M_melucswasa differentcarei thiswasa bodyof the

mihtiawheufi2rped_hcempire.1- L_woftheVlfigotbs_lib.3. tit. _. §. I.

-Ibid.lib.5"tit. x7. _. zo. IIIbid.lib.9' tit. 2. §.9'dy;

Os_._. THE SPIRI_ 09 LA_. J_3

dy; they¢mteit_th__tm_,saridmighf1_ laidto¢ontin_inthefamily.

CHAP. XW.

_hefameSublet?continued.WHEt#a wholenationis of a.mart_ia_teti_ei.,,

thePavesinatm_ateIefstobefeared.Bya1_ oftheAllemands,a fla_,e,,whohafteOdi'_

mitreda t.lande'fiinetheft§.,wasliablet_rthefat_6pt_niflame_asafreemaninthelikecare; bin, if he_a_foondgtliltyofanopenrot_bery_,he_asonry-boundto teftorethething_fotaken'.Amongt_heAttetrrands,.courageand i_repidityextentaate_tI_guiltofana&ion. TheyemployedtbCtrflares_intheirwars. IV_0__epublicsh_vebeerratrentiv_todispirittheirfiaqea: buttheAlleman'd_,telyitagoctthem/elves,an6 beinghi'ways:armed, Werefo'fatfromfearingtheicS,that _heyWerera_herfora_g,.mentingtheh'cou,age; theywerethe inftr_amentseitherof theirde2redati_n_oroftheirglory.

CHAP. XV'.

_Precautionstobeufedin moderateGovernments.LENITY andhumanetreatmentmayweventt_e

dangersto be apprehendedfromthe multitudeoftta_'esin a moderategovernment.Mengrowretort,,¢iledto everything,a.t_deventofervitude,if noeaggravatedby the _everi_yof the mafter. The_¢het_aristreatedtheirflares,withgreatlenity; and,'thisfecuredthatftatefromthecommotionsrailedbgtheflaresamongtheauffereLacedaemonians.

§ LawoPtheAllemands,c'._. _. _i.IlIkaWoftli¢cAllt_anffb _.5' " _tt *irtuttrfff_

"Ya It

324. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVo

ItdocsnotappearthattheprimitivcRomansmetwithanytroublcfromtheirflares.Thofccivilbroils,whichhavebccncomparedtothePunicwars,wcrctheconfcqucnccofthcirhavingdivcRcdthcm-fclvcsofallhumanitytowardstheirflares.*A frugalandlaboriouspcoplcgcncrallytreattheir

flavesmorekindlythanthofcwhoarcabovelabour.ThcprimitiveRomansufcdtolive,work,andcar,.withtheirflares;infhort,theybehavedtowardsthemwithjulliccandhumanity.Thegreaterpu-nifhmentthcymadcthem/uffcrwastomakezhcmpalsbcforctheirneighbourswithaforkcdpicccofwoodontheirbacks.Thcirmannerswerefu_cicnttofccurcthefidelityoftheirflares_fothatthct'ewasnoncccfl_tyforlaws.But,whentheRomansaggrandizedthcmfclvcs,

,_henthcirflareswcrcnolongerthccompanionsoftheirlabour,buttheinftrumcntsoftheirluxuryandpride,astheythenwantcdmorals,theyhadneedoflaws.Itwascvcnncccffaryforthcfclawstobcofthemof'ctcrriblckind,inordertoefiablifhthefafcty6ftholecruelroarerswholivcdwiththcirflaresasinthemidRofcncmics.Theymadeth'cSyl]anianfcnatus-confultum,and

otherlaws-_,whichdecreed,that,whena maRerwasmurdered,allthcflaresunderthefameroof,orinanyplacefonearthehoufcastobcwithinthehearingofa man'svoice,fhould,withoutdiRinc-tion,bccondemnedtodic.Thofc,who,inthiscare,fhcltereda flavc,inordcrtofavchim,wcrcpunifhcdasmurderers_ he,whomhisroarerIIor-

* Sicily,laysFlorus,fufferedmorein the fcrvilethaninthePunic war.Lib.3- "-

5- Seethewholetitleofthefinat,conf.SylLinIT.

WhenAntonycommandedElostokillhim_ it wasthefameascommaod-inghimto killhimfelfi becauf%ifhehadobeyed_he'wouldhavebeenpuni'/h-cdasthemurdererofla;sroarer.

: dcrcd

CHAP.] 5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3z5dered to kill him, and whoobeyed, was reputedguilty_ evenhe, whodid nothinderhimfromkill-ing himfelf,wasliableto bepunifhed§. Ifa mafterwasmurderedonajourney,theyput todeath_ tholewho werewithhim and tholewho fled. All thefelawstookplaceevenagainffperfons_hofeinnocencewasproved; the intentof themwas to infpiretheirflares with a prodigiousrefpe&for their marten-.They werenotdependenton the civilgovernment,but on a fault or imperfe&ionof the civilgovern-ment. They werenot derivedfrom the equityofCivillaws, fincetheywerecontraryto theprincipleof tholelaws. They wereproperlyfoundedon theprinciplesof war, withthis difference,that the ene-mieswerein the bofomof the ftate. The Syllanian]_natus-confukumwasderivedfromthe law of na-tions, whichrequiresthata fociety,howeverimper-fe6t, fhouldbe preferred.

It isa misfortunein governmentwhenthe magif-tratesthus findthemfelvesundera neceffityof ma-king cruel laws. Becaufetheyhaverenderedobe-diencedifficult,theyareobligedto increafethe pe-naltyof difobedience,or to fufpe&the flare'sfide-lity. A prudentlegiflatorforefeestheill confequen-cosofrenderingthe legiflatureterrible. The flaresahaongfcthe Romanscouldhave no confidenceinthelaws_and therefbrethe lawscouldhavenoneinihein,

§ Leg t. §. :_z.W. defenat,ca_fult.Syl/an.I_ Leg. x, §. 3z, ft. ivid.

Y 3 CHAP.

_ Tt_I__PIgIT OF hAWS. _oo_t,

C H A P. XVI.

RegulationsbetweenMailersandSlaves.

THE magiftrareoughtto takecarethattheflarehashisfoodandraiment_ andthis ihouldberegu-latedbylaw.

Thelawsoughtto providethat earebetakenofthemin ficknefsandoldage. Claudius_ decreed,thatth.eflares,who,inficknefs,hadbeenabandon-edbytheirmailers,fl_ould,in caretheyrecovered,beemancipated.Thislawinfuredtheirliberty;butthouldnottherehavebeenfomecare_lfotakentoprefervctheirlives._

Whenthe lawpermittedamailerto takeawaythelifeof hisfla_%hewasinveiledwith a powerwhichheoughtta exereifeasjudge, andnot asmailer; it wasneceffary,therefore,that the ]lawflmuldordainthofeformalities,whichremovethefufpicionofana&ofviolence.

Whenfathers,atRome,werenolongerpermit-ted to put theirchildrento deatl_themagiferatesordainedthe-}-punilhmentwhicht_hefatherwouldhaveinfli&ed..Alikecut,ore,betweenthe mailerandhisflares,wouldbehighlyreafonable,in acoun-trywheremailershavethepoweroflifeanddeath.

The lawofMofeswasextremelyfevere. " tf a" manilruckhisfervantfo thathediedunderhis" hand,hewastobepuniIhed; but, ifhefurvi_ved" a dayortwo,nopunifhmentenfued,I_ca_l'ehe" washismoney:_."Strange,thata civilinilitu-tionlhouldthusrelaxthelawof nature.

_ Xi_. inCl_&'o.Se_la_v3, inthe¢ode&#atridl_tef_e_ bytheemperorAlfxander,Lev.c,xxi. v,zo.

By

C_ar.17. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3z7Bya lawof the Greeks[I,a flare,toofeverely

treatedbyhismafter,mightinfiffuponbeingfoldtoanother. In lattertimes,therewasa lawofthefamenature§ at Rome. A maffer,difpleafedwith hisflare,anda flarewithhismaffersot_ghttobefepa-rated.

Whenacitizenufe_theflaveof anotherill, thelatteroughttohavethelibertyofcomplainingbeforethejudge. "Ihelaws_"ofPlato,and of mof'cna-tions,tookawayfromflavestherightofnaturalde-fence: it Wasrreceffarythenthat theylhouldgivethemacivildefence.

At Sparta,flavescouldhaveno jufficeagainl'ceitherinfuksor injuries.Soe_celtivewastheirmi-fery,thattht_ywerenotonlytheflavesof a citizensbutalfoof thepublic; theybelongedto allaswellasroone. At Rome,whentheyconfideredthein-jurydonetoaflare,theybadregardonlyto thein-tereff* ofthemaffer.InthebreachoftheAquilianlaw,theyconfoundeda woundgivento a heartandthatgivento aflare; theyregardedonlythedimi-nutionoftheirvalue. AtAthens'j-,hewhoabufedtheflareofanotherwaspunifhedfeverely,androme-timesevenwithdeath. ThelawofAthenswasveryreafonabl_inno_addingthelofsof fecurityto thatofliberty.

C H A P. XVH,OfInfeanchi.fe_zen_s.

IT is eafyto perceive,thatmanyflares,ina re-publicangove_'nmeahCreatea neceff_tyof making

_ P,lutarehonfuperflltion.Seethe¢eM_itution6fAhtbnln_Pius_l_flitui.I?tJ,I. t_. ?,_LIb."/'his_/*sfr_quent|_'thefpii'it6f thela_Csoft_orer_itloh_whocam_6ut0F

German),,asmaybefeenby theircod_s.DemoflbenaOrat.contralffidiam_p.61o. Editi'_aofFraakforhtnI_v¢.

Y 4- many

3z8 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _oo_XV.

manyfree. The evil is, if theyhavetoo great anumberof flares, they cannotkeep them in duebounds; if they have too manyfreed-men,theycannotlive, andmul_becomea burthento the re-public: betides,it maybe asmuchindanger fromthe multitudeof freed-menas from that offlares.It is neceffarythereforethat the law lhouldhaveaneye to the-retwoinconveniences.

The feverallawsanddecreesof the fenate,madeat Romeboth for andagainftflares,fometimestolimit, and at other timesto facilitate;theirinfran-chifement,plainlythewthe embarraffmentinwhichtheyfoundthemtelvesin this refpe&. Therewereeven times in which they.durt_ not make laws.When, underNero,, theydemandedof the fenateapermiflionfor thematt:ersto reduceagainto flaverythe ungratefulfreed-men,theemperordeclared,thatit wastheirduty todecidethe affairs.of individuals,andto makenogeneraldecree.

Muchlefs can I determinewhatought to be theregulationsof agoodrepublicin fuchanaffair; thisdependsontoomanycircumitances. Let us how-evermakeromeretie&ions.

A confiderablenumberof freed-menoughtnotfuddenlyto.be madebya generallaw,_ We know,that, among the Volfinienfesll,the freed.men,be-comingmaitersof the fuffrages,ena_edan abomi-nablelaw, which gave themthe rightof lying thefirf_night with the young womenmarriedto thefree-born.

There arefeveralwaysof infenfiblyintroducingnewcitizensinto a republic. The lawsmayfavourthe acquiringa peculium,and put flaresintoa con-ditionof buyingtheirliberty: theymayprefcribea

ff Annal*of Tzcites,Ilk.T3.Frcin/hemius'sfupplcment_zddecad,lib.5. term

CHap.l7. °THESPIRIT OF LAWS. 3_9termoffervitude,liketholeofMoires,whichlimited•hatofthe §Hebrewflavestofixyears. It iseafyto enfranchitb,everyyear,acertainnumberoftholeflares,who,bytheirage,health,or induftry,arecapableofgettinga fubfil_ence.The evil maybeevencuredinitsroot. Asa greatnumberofflavesareconne&edwiththefeveralemploymentswhicharegiventhem,to divideamongftthefreebornapartofthereemployments,forexample,commerceornavi-gation,isdiminilhingthenumberofflaves.

Whenthereare manyfreed-men,it isnecefl'ai_rthatthecivillawsIhoulddeterminewhattheyowetotheirpatron,orthattheredutiesfhouldbe fixedbythecontra&ofinfranchifement.

It iscertain,thattheirconditionthouldbemorefavouredinthecivilthaninthepoliticalftate; be-caufe,evenin a populargovernment,thepoweroughtnotto fallintothehandsofthevulgar.

At Rome,wheretheyhad fo manyfreed-men,the politicallaws,withregardto them,wereadmi-rable. Theygavethemverylittle, andexcludedthemalmoPcfromnothing: theyhadevenathareinthelegiflature; buttherefolutionstheywerecapableof takingwerealmofl:of noweight. Theymightbeara part in the publicoffices,andevenin thedignityof thepriefthood_[; but thisprivilegewasin romefort renderedufelefs,by the difadvantagestheyhadtoencounterin theele&ions.Theyhadarighttoenterintothearmy; but theywereto beregifteredinacertainclafsof thecenfusbeforetheycould be foldiers.Nothinghinderedthe * freed-menfrombeingunitedbymarriagewiththefamiliesOfthe free-born; buttheywerenotpermittedto

Exodusxxi.AnnalsofTaeltus,lib.3"

" Au_uitus'sfpeech,inDlo,1.56.mix

33o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooxXVI.

mixwiththofeofthefenators.In /hort.theirchil,.drenwerefree-born,thoughtheywerenotfothem-£elves.

C H A P. XVIII.OfFreed,menandEunuchs.

THUS, in a republicangovernment,it is fre-quentlyofadvantage,thatthefituationofthefreed-menbebutlittlebelowthatofthefree-born,andthatthelawsbecalculatedto removea diflikeof theircondition. But, in a defpoticgovernment,ehereluxuryandarbitrarypowerprevail,theyhavenothingto doin thisrefpee_; thefreed-mengenerallyfindthemfelvesabovethe free-born:theyrulein thecourtof the prince,andinthepalacesofthegreat;and, astheyffudythe foibles,andnotthevirtues,oftheirmailer,theyleadhimintirelybytheformer,notbythelatter. SuchwerethefreedmenofRomein thetimesof theemperors,

Whenthe principalflaresareeunuchs,let neverfomanyprivilegesbegrantedthem,theycanhard-ly !_ regardedasfreed-men: for,astheyareinca-pahleof havinga f_milyoft,heh-own,theyarena-turallyattachedto thatof another; anditisonlybya kindoffi&ionthatthey_e confideredascitizens.

Andyettherearecountrieswherethe magiilracyis intiretyin theirhands. " In_"Tonquin,lays." Dumpier_, all themandarins,civilandmilitaryi•" areeunuchs."Theyhavenofamilies,and,thoughtheyarenaturallyavaricioussthemailerortheprincebene_s,intheend,bythisverypuff,on.

Dumpiertellsus,too, that,ia thiscountry,theeunuchscannotlive withoutwomen,and therefore

t It wasformerlythefameinChina. The twoMahometanArabs,whotra.vel)edthitherintheninthcentury)ufethewordeunuchwhen_crtheyfpeakofthegr,ve*norofa city.

Vol.3'marry.

Cax_.l. THE SPZRIT OF LA'gr8. 33!

marry.Thelawwhichpermitstheirmarriagemaybefoundedpartlyontheirrefpe&for thefeeunuchs,_d partlyontheircontemptofthefair-fex.

ThustheyaretruRedwiththemagiftracybecaufetheyhavenofamily,andpermittedtomarryhecaufe_heyare_magiffrates.

Thenit isthatthefenfewhichremainswouldfainf_pplythatwhichtheyhaveloft:; andtheenterpri.-fesofdel}airbecomea kindof efij0yment.So, iaMilton,that fpirit,whohasnothingleftbutdefires,enragedathisdegradation,wouldmakeufe of hisimpotencyitfell.

VV'efee,in thehifl:oryof China,a greatnumberoflawsto depriveeunuchsof all civilandmilitaryem.pbyments; but theyalwaysreturned'to them,again, tt feemsasif theeunuchsof theEarl:wereaneceffaryevil.

BOOK XV.I.

_0_W_THELAVESOFDOMESTICSLA¥,ER_H_t'_ ,_ R_,__

C HAP: LOfdom_i_Servi_.d_

SLAVESareeftabfithed"_I: the_mil_y,htrtthey-nota-parrofi_ ThusI:diflfirrgui_their£erTi-

t_d_fr.omthatwlriehthe.women,in.romeco,antriesit_ff_,a_ which-1_flaa_properly"calldOmeffic"fcr-vitude.

CI_A_P.

33z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXVI.

C H A P. II "_'hat,in theCountriesof the South,thereisanatural

InequalitybetweenthetwoSexes."WOMEN,in hotclimates,are* marriageableat

eight,nine,orten, yearsof age: thus, in tholecountries,infancyandmarriagegenerallygo toge-ther. Theyareoldattwenty: theirreafon,there-/'ore,neveraccompaniestheirbeauty.Whenbeautydemandstheempire,thewan:of reafonforbidstheclaim; Whenreafonisobtained,beautyis nomore.Therewomenought,then,to be inaRateofdepen-dence; for reafoncannotprocure,in oldage, thatempirewhichevenyouthandbeautycouldnotgive._is thereforeextremelynatural,that,in thereplaces,a man,whenno lawoppofesit, thouldleaveonewifeto takeanother,andthatpolygamylhouldbemtro_uced.

In temperateclimates,wherethe charmsof wo-menarebeRpreferred,wheretheyarrivelateratmaturity,andhavechildrenat a moreadvancedfea-fon:oflife,theold ageof theirhu/bandsin romedc_reefollowstheirs;and,astheyhavemorerea-fonandknowledgeatthetimeof marriage,if it beonlyon account'oftheirhavingcontinuedlongerinlife, it muRnaturallyintroducea kind of equalitybetweenthetwo_exes,and, in confequenceof this,thetawofhavingonlyonewife.

In coldcountries,the almof'cneceffarycufiomokdrinking_rong"liquors eRabliflaesintemperance__a_ongftmen. Women,who,in thisrefpe&,have?

Mahometmarr]_Cadhlsjaat fiveo andtookhertohisbedatelghtjyearaold. Irathe hotcountrie*of .ArabiaandtheIndies,girlsaremarriageablea¢eightycaroof age,andarebroughttobedtheyearafter. Prideaux_Life oflPIa-bare,to_Wefeewomen,in thekingdomof Algiers_pregnantat nine,ten,andeJevcn_year8of age. Hift.oftheKingdom_f_lglers_b_LogilrsdeTaffis_p.6 i.

a

_A_._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 333

a naturalre_rainr,becaufetheyare alwayson thedefenrive,have thereforethe advantageof reafonoverthem.

Nature,whichhasdiftinguifhedmenby theirrea-fonandbodily_rength,haslet noother boundstotheirpowerthanthole of this f'crengthand reafon,It has given charmsto women,and0rdainedthattheirafcendantovermanfhallendwiththefecharms:but, in hot countries, there arefoundonlyat thebeginning,andneverin theprogrefs,of life.

Thus the law, whichpermitsonly onewife, isphyricatlyconformabletotheclimateofEurope,andnotto that of Aria. This is the reafonwhyMaho-metanifmwasfo earilyeftablilhedinAria, and withfuch difficultyext_endedin Europe; why Chrif-tianityis maintainedinEuropeandhasbeendeftroy-ed:inAria; and,in fine,whytheMahometanshavemadefuchprogrefsin Chinaand the Chril_iansfolittle. Humanreafons,however,arefubordinatetothat fupremeCaufewhodoes whateverhe pleafes,andrenderseverythingfubfervienttohis will.

SomeparticularreafonsinducedValentiniant topermitpolygamyinthe empire. That law, fo im-properfor our climates,was abrogated_ by Th¢o-dofius,Arcadius, andHonorius.

C H A P. III.

_ThataPluralityofWivesgreatlydependsontheMeansof fupportingthem.

• THOUGH, incountrieswherepolygamyis onceeftablifhed,the numberof wivesis principallyde-terminedby the opulenceof the hul_oand,yet itcannotbe laidthat opulenceeftabliihedpolygamyin

SeeJornandesderegnoet tempor.fuc¢_andtheecclefiaf_ichifto_ia.s._ See|aw_.ofthc¢odcde_.d.eis_Cmlicolib andNov.i8. c°5.

thole

_. THE SPIRIT O'F LAWS. BoexX_rL

thole_aces,rincepovertymayproducethefameef-fe_, as I lhallprovewhenI cometo fpeakoftt_ravages.

Polygamy,in powerfulnations,iskfsa_u_uryin itfelfthantheoccaiionofgreatluxury, Inhot|climatestheyhavefew wants,andit coilsl/tttemmaintaina wifeandchildren; theymay,therefore_haveagreatnumberofwives.

C H A P. IV._battheLawofPolygamyisa_Affairthatdepetwtson

Calculation.ACCORDINGtothecalcuhtionsmadeinfeverai

partsofEurope,therearehere_rn moreboysthangirls§; on the contrary,bytheaecour,ts welmveof Aria,therearetherebornmote_"girlsthanboys.The law,which_inEurope,allowsontyone wifejandthat,inAria,whkhpertainm_y, have,there-fore,a certainrehtioato thed/m_te.

In thecoldclimatesofAria,thereaceborn,asiaEurope,mo_emalesthanfemales_ andfromhence,faythe*Lamas/isderivedthereafonof Ehat:taw_vd_h, amon_ them,permksa womanto havemanyhuibands.

But it is difficultformeto believethattherearemanycountrieswherethedifproportioncanbegreatenoughfor anyexigencytojuffifythe introducing

[[ InCeylon,a manmayliveont_ loisamonth._thcyeatnothingtherebutriceandfi/h. Colleftionof_yagesTnadetoefl_li{hanlrMiaCompa_.,

§ Dr.A,rhuthnwcfind*_that,inElglane,thenumberofhag_e_e_e_s_at ofgirls: butpeoplehavebeento blamatoconcludethatthecareisthefameia allclimates.

_'.SeeKempf_r,whorelays,that, uponnumberingthe peopleof Mea¢o_therewerefoundzSZOTZmale.%andzz3573females.

DuHatde'sHill ofChina,vol.iv."l"Albuzeir-el-haffen_oneoftheMahometanArabs,who, inthenintheerie

tory, wentinto/_diaandChina,thought-thiscuf_vma pro_ltutiun.Aad_in-deedjnothingco_t_lbemorecontraryto theid=asofa Mahometan,

either

: CaAF°5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _

eitherthelawinfavoqrof manywives,orthatofmanyhufba_nds.Thiswouldonlyimply,thatama-jorityofwomen,orevena majorityofmen,ismoreconform;_bl¢to naturein certaincountriesthaninothers.

! confers,that,if whathiftorytellsusbetrue,that,atBantamS,thereareteawamerttoonerra_,this muff;be a carepartku}arl2'favQu_ahietopo..lygamy.

In all thisI a lygivetheirrea_ns,butdonotju_fytheircultoms.

CHAP. V._'he_eafonofa LawofMnlalmr.

IN thetribeo4theNairesU,onthecoal[of"Ma-labar,themencanhaveonlyonewife,whileawo-man,onthe contrary,may'havemanyhuihands.Theoriginofr.h_scu_omisnor,I hetieve,di_utttodifco,_er.TheNa_esarethe_rib¢ofm_Mes,whowhoarethefoldiersof all tholenations.InEurope,foldiersa_¢£x_rbidtomarry; inMalabar,wheretheclimaterequiresgrea_ i_dulgence,theyarc fatif-fledw_hrendering:ma_,iageaslittleb_thenfometothemaspoltibte:theygiveonewifeamongf_ma.aymen; whichcoaf_a_cnt[ydimini/h_theattachmenttoa_mLlyandt.h¢c_esof houfe-keeping,andlea._est_m iOthef_¢¢lao_n ofa militaryfpirit.

Colle_i_ Q£Voltagea.farthe.E_Mali{hmsatof anIndia.Compaa_byakt,_eeFrancisPirard,c. _-7.EdifyingLetters_3dandxothcollec'_ion_tmthe

Malltami,.o_ the¢oattofMalaha_ Thisi*caMid_edasan-_uf_of themili-taryl_rofcfljCn,a_it woma/l__tl _k_d_._f.th¢ttik o£th_Br_mins,.newerwoalarr_rr_manyhulb_ds.

CHAP.

$36 THE SPIRI_TOF LAWS. Boo_XVL

CHAP. VI.

Of Polygamyconfideredinilfe:.f._WITH regardto polygamyin general,inde-

pendentlyofthecircumf_anceswhichmayrenderitzolerable,it isnot of the leaf[ferviceto mankind,Jnorto eitherof the twofexes,whetherit bethatwhichabufes,orthat;whichisabufed.Neitherisitoffervieetothechildren; foroneof itsgreateftin-conveniencesis, thatthe fatherandmothercannothavethefameaffe&ionfortheiroffspring_ afathercannotlovetwentychildrenwiththefametendernefsasamothe'rcanlovetwb. It ismuchworfewhenawifehasmanyhulbands_forthenpaternalloveisonlyheldbythisopinion,thata fathermaybelieve,ifhe will,or thatothersmaybelieve,that certainchildrenbelongto him. • "

They.fay,thattheemperorof Moroccohaswo-menofallcolours,white,black,andtawny,in hisferaglio.Butthewretchhasfcarcelyneedofa fi_glecolour.

B_fides,thepoffdtionof manywivesdoesnotal-wayspreventtheirentertainingdefires§forthofeofothers: it iswithluRaswithavarice,whofethirRincreafesbytheacquifitionoftreafure.

In thereignofJuftinian,manyphilofophers,dif-pleafedwith the conftraintof ChriRianity,r_tiredintoPerfia.Whatttruckthemthemoil:,laysAga-thias4,was,thatpolygamywaspermittedamongftmenwhodidnotevenabftainfromadultery: __

MayI notfay,thatapluralityof wivesleadstothatpaffionwhichnaturedifallows? foronedepra-vationalwaysdrawsonanother. I remember,that,intherevolutionwhichhappenedat Conftantinople,

§ Thisisthereafonwhywomen,intheEa_,arefocarefullyconcealed._ Lifeanda&ionsofJutHnian)p.403.

whcti

CaAP.8. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 337

whenfultanAchmetwasdepofed,hittorylays,that,thepeoplehavingplunderedthekiaya'shoufe,theyfoundnot a tinglewoman: theytellus, that,atAlgiers*,in thegreateftpartof theirferagtios,theyhavenoneatall.

C H A P. VII.

OfanEqualityofff'reatmentin Careof manyWives.FROMthelawwhichpermitteda pluralityof

wivesfollowedthat of anequalbehaviourto each.Mahomet,whoallowedof four,wouldhaveeverything,asprovifions,drefs,andconjugalduty,equal-ly dividedbetweenthem. Thislawisalfoin forcein theMaldivianifles-]-_wheretheyareat libertytomarrythreewives.

Thelawof Moles_ evendeclares,that,if anyonehasmarriedhisfontoaflare,andthisfonthouldafterwardsefpoufea freewoman,herfood,herrai-ment,andherdutyof marriage,fhallhe notdimi-nith. Theymightgivemoretothe newwife,butthefirftwasnottohavelefsthanlhehadbefore.

CH A P. VIII.OftheSeparationof WomenfromMen.

THE prodigiousnumberof wives,poffeffedbythofewholivein richandvoluptuouscountries,is aconfequenceofthelawof polygamy: theirrepara-tionfrom.menandtheirclofeconfinementnaturallyfollowfromthegreatnefsofthisnumber. Domefticorderrendersthisneceffary: thusaninfolventdebtorleeksto concealhimfelffromthepurfuitofhiscre-

HIPt.of Algiers,byLogierdeTaflis.J"SeePirard_c. az. _ Exod.xx].Io, II,

Vor.,I. Z ditors.¢¢-

_38 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXVI,ditors. There areclimateswhere the imputfesofnaturehavefuchforcethatmoralityhasalmoftnone.If a manbe left witha,woman,the temptationandthefall willbethe t_mething; the attack certain,the refii_ancenone. In therecountries,infteadofprecepts, theyhaverecour/eto boltsandbars.

One of the Chinefeclafficauthorsconfidersthemanasa prodigyof virtue,who, findinga womanaione, in a diftant apartment,can forbearmakingufeof force.I1

CHAP. IX.

Of theConnexionbetweendomeflicandpoliticalGovern-1none.

tr

iN a republic,theconditionof citizensis mode-rate,equal,mild,and agreeable; every thing par-takesof the benefitof public liberty. An empireover thewomencannot, amongftthem, befo weltexerted; and, wheretheclimatedemandsthis em-pire_it is moltagreeableto a monarchicalgovern-ment. This is one of the reafonswhyit haseverbeendifficultto effablilha popular governmentintheEaft.

On thecontrary,theflaveryOf womenis_erfe&lyconformableto thegeniusof a defl_0ticgovernment,_vhich'delightsin treatingallwithfeverity. Tims,at all'times,hastewe feen,in Aria,d0mefficflaveryand defpoticgbvernmentwalkhandinhand with'ani:qua]pace.

In a governmentwhichrequires,aboveall things,that a particularregardbepaid to itstranquility,and

[]'q_It is an admirabletouch.ffone,to findbyone'sfelfatreafure,andtoct knowtherightowner_ orto fie a beautifulwomanqna lonelyapartmenti*_or*ohearthecriesofan enemy,whomuff p'erifh,withoutouraftiflsrlce.'"Tranflationof a Chinefepieceof morality,whith maybe feenin DuH/tide,vol.iii. p. _Sx.

Wliere

_CHAP.IO. .THE SPIRIT DF LAWS. 339where_hee_remefubordinationcalls_orpeace,itis abfolutelyneceffaryto lhut up the women;fortheir intrigueswould,prove.fatalto.theirhutbands,Agovernment,whichhasnottimetoexamineintothecoriduc"tofitsfubje&s,viewsthemwitha fufpiciouseye,onlybecatflbtheyappear,andfufferthemfelves,tobeknown.

Let us,onlyfuppofethatthe levityofmind,theindifcretions,.thetares,andcaprices,ofourwomen,attendedby theirpaltionsof a higher.anda lowerkind, withall.theiractivefire,andin thatfifllliber-ty with,w.hich.theyappearamongftus, werecon-veyedinto_ eaftemgovernment,wherewouldbethefather,ofa ,familywhocouldenjoya"moment'srepofe? the menwouldhe everywherefufpe&ed,every.where.enemies; theffatewouldbeoverturned,and ,the:kingdomoverflomedwithriversof blood.

_" CHAP. X.

_ke t_rincit_anwhichthe Moral_of the .Earlare. . founded.

IN thecareof a multiplicityofwives,themoreafamilyceafesto beunited,themoreoughtthe lawsto re-uniteits detachedpartsina commoncenter_,and,thi_greaterthe diverfityof interefts,themoreneceffaryitisfor thelawsto bringthembacktoacommonintereft.

This is moreparticularlydoneby confinement.Thesvomenflaouldnotonlybefeparatedfromthemen-by-thewallsof thehoufe,buttheyoughtalfotobe feparated,inthefameinclofure,infucha man-ner, thateachmayhavea di(_in&houfeholdin thefaa_efamily. Fromhenceeachderivesall that re=latesto theprac"ticeof morality,modefty,chaftity,re/erve,filerice,peace,dependence,refpe&,andlove_,

Z 2 and)

34o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_(XVI.and,inihort,a generaldire&ionofherthoughtstothatwhich,initsownnature,isathingofthegreat-et_importance,atingleandentireattachmenttoherfamily.

Womenhavenaturallyfo manydutiestofuitil_dutieswhicharepeculiarlytheirs,thattheycannotbe fufficientlyexcludedfromeverythingcapableOfinfpi:ingotherideas,fromeverythingthatgoesbythenameofamufements,andfromeverythingwhichwecallbufinefs.

We findthe mannersmorepure,inthefeveralpartsof theE-aft,inproportionastheconfinementof womenismoreRri&lyobferved.Ingreatking-doms,thereareneceffarilygreatlords: thegreatertheirwealth,themoreenlargedis theirabilityofkeepingtheirwivesinanexa&confinement,andof

reventingthemfromenteringagainintofociety.tomhenceit proceeds,that,in theempiresof

Turkey,Perfia,oftheMogul,China,and Japan,themannersoftheirwivesareadmirable.

BUtthecareisnotthefameinIndia,Whereamul-titudeofiflandsandthefituationof the landhavedividedthecountryintoaninfinitenumberofpettyRates,which,fromcaufesthat wehavenothereroomtomention,arerendereddefpotlc.

Therearenonetherebutwretches,romepillagingandotherspillaged.Theirgrandeeshaveverymo-deratefortunes; andtholewhomtheycallrichhaveonlya barefubfiftence.Theconfinementof theirwomencannotthereforebeveryftric"t; norcantheymakeufeof anygreatprecautionsto keepthemwithinduebounds: fromhenceitproceedsthatthecorruptionof theirmannersis fcarcelyto be con-ceived.

We maytherefee to whatanextremethevicesof aclimate,indulgedinthefullliberty,willcarry

licentioufnets.

CHAP.11.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 34tlicentioufnefs.It is therethatnaturehasaforce,andmodefl'yaweaknefs,whichexceedsall compre-henfion.At Patan%thewantondefires* of thewomenarefooutrageous,thatthemenareobligedto makeufeofa certainapparelto fheherthemfromtheirdefignL Accordingto Mr.Smith_,thingsare notbettercondu&edinthepettykingdomsofGuinea. In therecountries,thetwofexesloreeventholelawswhichproperlybelongtoeach.

CHAP. XI.OfdomeflicSlaveryindependentlyofPolygamy.

IT is notonlya pluralityofwiveswhich,incer-tainplacesoftheEarl:,requirestheirconfinement,butalfotheclimateitfelf. Thofe,whoconfiderthehorriblecrimes,thetreachery,thedarkvillanies,thepoifonings,the affaflinations,whichthelibertyofwomenhasoccafionedatGoa,andin thePortuguefefettlementsin theIndies,wherereligionpermitsOn-ly onewife,andwhocomparethemwiththeinno-cenceandpurityof mannersofthewomenof Tur-i_ey,Perfia,lndoftan,China,andJapan,willclearlyfeethatit isfrequentlyasneceffarytofeparatethemfromthemenwhentheyhavebutone,aswhelatheyhavemany.• "_Colle_-ionofVoyagesfortheiEftabli/hmentofanIndiaCompany,vol_i|.

pagez.IntheMaldlvlanifles,the fathersmarrytheirdaughtersat tenandeleven

yearsofage,t/ecaufeit isa greatfin,faythey,to fufferthemto endurethe wantofahu/hand. .SeePirard,c. zz. At Bantam,as loonas a girlis twelveorthirteenyearsold, /hemuffbemarried,if they wouldnot havehe_lead a de-I_uch_dhl'e."ColleEtionof'Foyage,fir tbe_Eflablifhmentof an IndiaCompany,P. 348.

VoyagetoGuinea,partfecond." Whenthewomenhappento_eetwitha•*man, theylayholdofhimj and threatentomakea complainttotheirbur-n bandsjif heflighl;theiraddreffes.Theyftealintoa man;sbedaratwakehim,"_and, if he refufctocomplywiththeirdefires,racythreatentofufferthem-,rfelve8tObecaughtin_ageanti."°

Z 3 There

$_z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_X'VI_

Thefearethingswhichoughtto15edecidedbytheclimate. Whatpurpofewouldit anfwerto lhutupwomeninournortherncountries,wheretheir man-nersare naturallygoo.d,whereall theirpaffionsarecalm,andwhereloveruleso,_ertheheartwithfore-gularandgentlean empire,thattheleaftdegreeofprudenceis fufficienttoconduc_tit? '_

It isahappinefstOlivein thofeclimateswfiichpermitfuchafreedomof converfe; wherethat rexwhichhasmoltcharmsfeemsto embellilhfocie_y,andwherewives,referringthemfetvesforthepl_ea-luresofone,contributeto theamufementofall.

C H A P. XII.OfnaturalModefly.

ALLnationsareequallyagreedinfixfng¢ontei-nptand ignominyontheincontinenceof women.Na-turehasdi&ztedthistoall : fhehaseftabtiflaedtheattack,andl'hehasefiablilhedtoo the refifta_nce;and,havingimplanteddefiresinboth,firehasgivento the one_boldnefs,andto theotherftaarfie,TOindividoalsfhehasgranteda longfucceffionof yearstoattendto theirwefervation;but, 4ocontinue_et'/Seeies,fhehasgrantedonlya moment.

It is,then,farfrombeingtrue, thatto"bei_C6i_d2nentisto followthelawsof nature: o_athecontra-_ry,it isa violation0ftherelaws,whichCanbe0b-fervedonlybybehaving_,ithmodeffyar/ddifcretion.

Betides,it isnaturalforintelligentbeingst0fee!theirimperfec"tions: naturehastherefo i�b�r�thamein ourminds,a flaameofourimperfe&i0ns. •

When,therefore,thephyfical.poWerof:certalncli-matesviolatesthenaturallawof thetwofexes,and

• , . . % • , _ * ,

that of mtelhgentbeings,it belongs_tothele_ffla-tureto makecivillaws,witha v_ewof oppofin_thenature

Csa_.z4.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. $4Jnatureoftheclimateandre-effabtifl_ingtheprimitivelaws.

C H A P. XIiI.Offfealouj_.

WITH refpe&to nations,weoughttodifl:inguifhbetweenthepaffion0fjealoufy,andajealoufyarifingfromcuffoms,manners,andlaws. Theoneisahotragingfever; theother,cold,but fometimesterri-ble,:maybejoinedwithindifferenceandcontempt.

Theone,anabufeoflove,derivesitsfourc,efromlovekfelf: theotherdependsonlyonmanners,oathecuffomsofanation,onthe lawsof thecountry,,andfometimesevenonreligion.*o¢

It zsgenerallytheeffe&of thephyficalpowerofthe climate,and,at the fametime,the remedyofthisphyficalpower.

" CHA P. XIV._Of,theEaflernMannerofdomeflicGovernment.

:3_rIVESarechangedfooften, in the Eaft,thattheycannothavethepowerofdomefficgovernment.T[iis:careis,therefore,committedto the eunuchs_Whomtheyintruffwiththeirkeysandthe manage-mentoftheirfamilies." In Perfia,laysfir John" Chardin, marriedwomenarefuro.ifhedwithclothes"its theywantthem,afterthemannerof children2_Thus,that.care,whichteemsfowellto becomethem,thatcare,which,everywhereelfe,isthefirffof theirconcern,doesnotat allregardthem.

• 7.

# Mahomeddefiredhis followersto qcatehtheirwives_ acert_;n'iman:,whtna.h_,_ alri_g_ l_idthef,*m¢thingi andCoafac,uzl_reachgdthefamedo,_rt_e.

,._':,- Z 4 CHAP.

34_ THE SPIRIT OF LAW;S. BoozXVL

OfDivorce_andRepudiation. _THEREisthisdifferencebetweena divorce!and

a relSiadiation; thit theformer_ismadeby mutual'confent,afifingfroma mutualantipathy,-whilethe]atter]sformedbythewill,and"fdrtheadvantage,ofoneof the twoparties,independentlyof the:willandadvantageofthe0ther. •

Theneceftitythereisfometimesforwomentore-pu'diate,andthedifficultytherealwaysisindoingit,renderthatlawverytyrannicalWhichgivesthisrightto menwithoutgrantingitto women.A huPoand_isthe markerof"thehoufe;hehas/tthoufandwaysofconfininghiswifetoherduty,orofbringingherbackto it; fothat,in hishands,it feemsasifrepudiatibncouldbe onlya freflaabufe_of p,_wer.But ai,_/ifewhorepudiatesonlymakesufeofa dreadfulkindofremedy. It is alwaysagreatmisfortunefor hertogoin'fearchof afecondhu/band:whenfhehaslof_them0ftpartof herattractionswithanother.Oneoftheadvantages,attendingthecharmsof youthinthe femalerex, is, that,in an advancedage,thehuPoandisledto complacencyand lovebythere-membranceofparrpleafures.

It is thenageneralrule,that,inallcountrieswherethe lawshavegiventomenthepowerofrepudiating,_ey_oughtalfo,ograntit towomen.Nay, incli-mateswherewomenlivein domeRicflavery,onewouldthinkthatthelaw oughtto favourwomenwiththeright 0f repudiation,and hufoandsonlywiththat6f divorce.

oWhen wivesare confinedina t'eraglio,the huf-bandoughtnotto repudiateonaccountofanoppo-fitionofmanners_ it is thehuPoand'sfaultif theirmannersareincompatible.

Repudiation,

ChaP.16. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. "345Repudiation,onaccountof thebarrennefsofthe

woman,oughtneverto takeplacebutwherethereis onlyonewife*;whenthereare many,this is ofnoimportancetothehufband.

A lawof the Maldivians-l"permittedthem totakeagaina wifewhomtheyhadrepudiated.AlawofMexico_forbadtheirbeingre:unitedunder.p_ainof death. Thelawof MexicowasmorerationalthanthatoftheMaldivians: at thetimeevenofthediffglution,itattendedto theperpetuityofmarriage_int_eadofthis, the lawof the Maldiviansfeemedequallytofportwithmarriagea0.drepudiation._The lawof Mexicoadmittedonlyof divorce.

This wasaparticularreafonfor theirnotpermittingthole, whowereyoluntarilyfeparated,to be everre-united. Repudiationfeems Chieflyto proceed£romahaftinefsoftemperandfromthe di&atesofpaltion,whiledivorceappearsto beanaffairof deli-beiation.: Divorcesare frequentlyof greatpoliticalufe;but, asto thecivilutility,theyareeltabliflaedonlyfor the advantageof thehufbandandwife,andaren0talwaysfavourabletotheirchildren.

CHAP, XVI.Of_RepudiationandDivorceamongfltheRomans.ROMULUSpermittedahufoandtorepudiatehis

wife,if filehadcommittedadultery,preparedpoi-fon,or procuredfa!fekeys. He did notgrantto womenthe rightof repudiatingtheirhufbands.Plutarch11callsthis,a lawextremelytevere.

It doesnotfollow,fromhence,thatrepudiation,on accountof _cril|ty,¢houldbepermittedamongl_Chriltians.

"I"Theytookthemagainpreferablytoanyother,becaufe,inthis cat'ejtherewaslef_expence.Pirard'#_ra'oels,

Hill of theCoaquefl:of Mexico,bySolis,p.499.1]Lifeof Romulus.

_46" THE SPIRIT OF LAW'$. BooxXVl.Asthe Athenianlawgave§ the powerofrepudi-

ation to the ,v_feaswellasto thehutband,,andasthisrightwasobtair.edbythe womenamongEtheprimitiveRomans,noewithffandingthelawof Ro-mu_s, it is evidentthat thisinttitutionwasoneofthofew_ichthe deputiesof RomebroughtfromAd_er_s,andwhichwereinferredineotl_elawsofthetwe;_,etables.

Cicero_ f_y._.thatthe_'eafonsofrepudiationfprungfromthelawof,be twelvetables. We cannotthend_abtbutthatthislawincreafedthe_numberofthereafonsforre.pudiationeEabli/hedby,Romulus.

T_hepowerof divorcewasalfoanappointment,_r_t leafl:aconfequence,ofthelawofthetwelve-ta-hies. For, from_hemomentthat the ,wife,orthehuPoandhad £epara_elythe rightof repudi_Iion,therewasa muchfirongerreafonfortheirhaving:thepowerof quittingeach.otherbymutualconfenw..

Thelawdidnotrequirethatthey/houldlayopenthe*cau/_sof divorce, tn thenatureof thething,the.reafons.for.repudiationfhouldbegiven,whilethofe.for_adivorceare unnec_ffary; becaufe,what,.evercaufesthelawmayadmitasfufficientto breakamarriage,a mutualantipathymuEbe_rongerthanthemall.

Thefollowingfa&,mentionedbyDionyfius_/_a-licarnaffenfisJ_,ValeriusMaximusll_and.&ulusGel-lius§_,doesnotappeartometohavetheleaftdegreeof probability.Thoughtheyhad, at Rome,faythey,thepowerof repudiatinga,gcife,yettheyhadfomuchrefpe&fortheaufpicesthatnobody,forthe

§ Thiswasa lawofSolon,Mimamres funsfibihaberejust, ex:daod#elmeabuligcau/hmaddid|t,

PI_ilip.:,JuflinianattcreA_nls,Nov.**7.c. _o.

:ILib.z. 11Lib.z.c.4. §§I._,.4.e.3.S.

fptiee6ffi_el_i_di;edandtwenWye/trs,evermltde-l-tl_ Of t_i4'fighr,tilt CarviliusRuga repudiatedhis

i _rauf6 Ofher fferility. Weneedonlybefenfibleofthe natureof thehumanmind_toperceiqe.howvery'_:_rra_ordin_yit i,nuffbef0¢a tawro grantfuchrightt_ awhole bafiofiaridyetfor nobodytomakeufeofit. C_iolanus, letting out on his exile, advifedhis._"wifeto/harry amanmorehappythanhiml_lf.W_ ha_,_juft 156imfeeingthatthe lawof the twelicetablesa_..dthi6mannersof the Romansgreatlyex-

i tend_cl"the I/_W'ofRomulus. But tOwhatpurpofeweret,hefe_tentions, if they t_evefmade ufe ofapowerto repi_diate? Betides, if the citizens hadfincha;refit& for rbeaufvicesthattheywou:ldneverrep_Jdiate,howcahavthel%dflat0rsof Rom_to'have/efs thanthey? arid_W came_hetaws Mceffanrly't_ corrupttheirmanrrers? -•

-Allthat_is_rl:/fizing'.,in _e fact in queffion,w'il,1f_n x]ifappear;'onl_bycomparingtwopa_agesinP-t_?eh. The regal law_pemrirted a hu/ba_ .tofepediate]nthe _l_reecafes:dreadymentioned, and" -_,t'_hjoined,iays Ptuta'rch:§,that he, Whorepu_."cdh_d inairy'e/thercare,'fhoutdbeobligedt0-gtve" thehalfof'hisfubfl:anceto_s Wife,and-th_atthe" otherhalfflaouldbeconfecratedtoCeres." Theymightthen repudiatein :_/11i:_fes,if theywerebutwillingto fubmitto thepenalty. NobodyhaddonethisbeforeCarviliusRuga_, who, as Plutarchfays.in anotherplaceIh " put awayhis wifefor her fferi-

_" ,Ace_rBingtoDionyf.Halle.and_ralerln_Maxlmu_:andfivehundredandtwenty_threeaccordingto AutasGellius. Neitherdidtheyagreein plaein_thaunderthefameconfuls.

I_ SeethefpeeehofVeturia,inDi_nyf,Halle.lib,g._'Plutarch'slifeofRomulus. § Ibid.

Indeed,fferilityisnota eaufementionedbythe lawofRomnlutt buts toallappearanc%hewasnotfubje&toa eoufifcatioaofhise_i:_*_hate he fol-lowedtheordersoftheeenfors.

JJt_ hiscomparisonbetweenThereatandRomulus," lity

3¢g THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooEXVII.

"' litytwohundredandthirtyyearsafterRomulus."Thatis, fhewasrepudiatedfeventyoneyearsbeforethe lawof the twelvetables,whichextendedboththepowerandcaufesofrepudiation.

TheauthorsI havecitedfay,thatCarviliusRugalovedhiswife; butthatthecenforsmadehimtakeanoathto put heraway,becaufeof herbarrennefs,to theendthathe mightgivechildrento therepub-lic; andthatthisrenderedhimodiousto thepeople.Wemuff knowthegeniusandtemperof theRo-mansbeforewecandifcoverthetruecaufeoftheha-tredtheyhadconceivedagainRCarvilius.He didnotfallintodifgracewiththepeoplefor_epudiatinghiswife; thiswasanaffairthatdidnotatallconcernthem. ButCarviliushadtakenanoathto the cen-fors, that, byreafonof the fferilityof hiswife,hewouldrepudiateherto givechildrento therepubhc.This wasa yokewhichthepeoplelaw the cenf0rsweregoingto putuponthem. I ihall difcovcr,intheprofecutionofthiswork§, therepugnancewhichtheyalwaysfelttoregulationsofthelikekind. Butwhencecanfuchacontradi&ionbetwixttholeauthorsafire? It isbecaufePlutarchexaminedintoa fac_,andtheothershaverecountedaprodigy.

§ Bookz_.e.3.

.BOOK

Cs^e._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 34_'

_. B 0 0 K XVIi. ,.....HOW THE LAWS OF POLITICAL SERVITUDE HAVE "_

RELATION TO THE NATURE OF THE CLIMATE. •

CHAP. I.

OfpoliticalServitude.POLITICALfervitudedoesnot lefsdependOn

the natureof theclimatethanonthatwhichiscivilanddomeRic; andthiswe/hallnowdemonf_rate.:

CHAP. IL_heDifferencebe:weenNationsin 2_i,t of Courag_,•WE havealreadyobferved,thatgreatheatener-

vatesthei_rengthandcourageofmen;andthat,incoldielimates,theyhaveacertainvigourof bodyandmindwhichrendersthempatientandintrepid,andqualifiesthemfor arduousenterprizes.Th!sremarkholdsgoodnotonlybetweendifferentnations)buteveninthedifferentpartsof thefamecountry.IntheNorth(_fChina_ peoplearemorecourageousthantholein theSouth; andtholein theSouthofCorea*haveleftbraverythantholeintheNorth.

We ought not, then,to be altoni/hed,thattheeffeminacyof thepeopleinhotclimateshasalmoltalwaysrenderedthemflares,andthatthebraveryoftho£eincoldclimateshasenabledthemtomaintaintheirliberties.Thisisaneffc&whichfpringsfroma naturalcaufe.

This hasalfobeenfoundtrue in America; thedefpoticempiresof MexicoandPeruwcrcnearthe

DuHalde_vol.i. p.xlz,w TficChiacfebooksmakcmmt|onofthis. lbido

line;

line; andalmofl_allthelittlefreenationswere,andflillare,near.thepoles.

C H A P. Iff. • '_

.... Of theClimateof_qa.THE relationsof travellers+ informus, " that

" thevailcontirt_nt9f._heNorthQfAria,whichex-" tenas£ro_mfortydegrees,or thereab0uts,tothe'*p01e,andfromthefrontiersof Mufcovyevento" theeatternocean,.isinanextremelycoldclimate;•' _hatthis immenfetrae2of landis dividedabva" chainof mountiainswhichrunsfromWefttoEaf't," leavingSiberiaon theNorthandGreat-Tartary'-_on:theSouth,:t_at_theclimateof Siberi_is :t9" cold,that,exceptingafewplaces,it isunfufcep.•' tibteof cultivation; andthat,-thoughthe,Ruf-" fianshavefettlemen_sall alongtheIrtis,,_hey•, cultiv.atenothing; that this countryprod,aces" onlyromelittlefirsandfl_rubs;that thenatives" of the country are dividedinto wretched" 'hords,ortribes,like tholeof Canada; that the•' reafonofthiscold;proceeds,ontheone.hand,_from" theheightof'the'land,and,ontheother,fromche" mountains,which,inproportionastheyrunfrom" Southto North,arelevelledin fuchamanner'that" th,eNorthwinde'¢erywhereblowswithoutoppo-•' fition;thatthiswind,whichrendersNovaZemb!a•, uninhabitable,blowinginSiberia,makesit abar-" tenwaPce:that,_in'Europe,ont:hecontrary,the" mountainsof NorwayandLaplandareadmi-•' rablebulwarks,whichcoverthe _northernc-oun-•" triesfromthewind;fo thatatStockholm,which" is about fifty-nine-degreeshtitude, -the,e_rth

gee Travelsto the North_vo|viii. the Hi_.of the Tartars: _nd.DaHa_et,vol.Iv.

" produces

CHA.P, J. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 33!

6, producesplants, fruits,andcorn; andthatabout"' Abo, whichis fixty-onedegrees, and even to*' fixty-threeand fix.ty-four,there areminesof fig" vet, and thelandisfruitfulenough."

Wefeea]fo,in thererelations," thatGreat-Tar-_' tary, fituatedto the Southof Siberia,is alfoex-"' ceedingcold; that the countrywillnot admkof

i ' "' cultivation; thatn'othingcan be foundbut pal-,, " turagefor theirflocksandherds.; that treeswilt

" notgrowthere, but_rnlybrambles,asin keland_o " that thereare,nearChinaandlndia_fomecountries: " wheretheregrowsa kindof milleh but that nei-: '_ thercornnorricewillripen; .thatthere is fcarcely

" a placeinChinefeTartary,at forty-three,forty-_' four_and forty,five, degrees,where it doesnot" freezefevenor.eightmonthsin the year, fothat', it is as coldas Iceland, though it mightbe ima-', gined,fromitsfituation,to beashotas the Sou¢h', of France: that therearenocities,exceptfouror*,five towardsthe eaffernocean, and romewhich', the Chinefe,for politicalreafons,havebuiltnear*, China; that, in the reftof Great-Tartary,there" areonly a few, fituatedin Buchar,Turqueftan," andCathay; that thereafonof this extremecolfl" :proceedsfromthe natureof thenitrousearth,'full" of faltpetreandland, and moreparticularlyfrom"' the heightof the land. -FatherVerbieftfound," thata certainphce, eightyteaffuesNorth.of the"'.great wall, towardsthefource of Kavamhuran,"' "exceededthe height of the fennearPekinthree'* thoufandgeometricalpaces; that this height* is," the caufethat, thoughalmoffallthegreatriversof*' Aria have their fourcein this country, thereis," however,fogreata wantof water, that it canbe*' inhabitedontyneartheriversandlakes." '

Tartar,/is_then_a kind of a flatmountain.Thefe

$5z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVJL

Thefefa&sbeinglaiddown,I reafonthus. Ariahasproperlynotemperatezone; astheplacesfitu-atedin a verycoldclimateimmediatelytouchuponthofewhichareexceedinghot; thatis,Turkey,Per-fia, India,China,Corea,andJapan.

InEurope,onthecontrary,thetemperatezone{sveryextenfive,thoughfituatedin climateswidelydifferentfromeachother; therebeingnoaffinitybe-,weentheclimatesof Spainand ItalyandtholeofNorwayandSweden.Butastheclimategrowsin-fenfiblycold,uponour advancingfromSouthtoNorth,nearlyinproportionto thelatitudeof eachcountry,it thencefollows,that eachrefemblesthecountryjoiningto it, thatthereisnoveryextraordi-narydifferencebetweenthem,andthat,asI havejufl:laid,the temperatezoneisveryextenfive.

Fromhenceit comes,that,in Aria,the_rongna-tionsareoppofedto the weak; thewarlike,brave,anda&ive,peopletouchimmediatelyontholewhoareindolent,effeminate,andtimorous; theonemuPc,therefore,conquer,andtheotherbeconquered.InEurope,onthecontrary,ttrongnationsareoppofedto thefcrong,andtholewhojointo eachotherhavenearlythefamecourage. Thisis thegrandreafonof theweaknefsof Ariaandof theffrengthofEu-rope; ofthelibertyofEuropeandoftheflaveryofAria: acaufethatIdonotrecolle&everto havefeenremarked.Fromhenceit proceedsthat liberty,inAria,neverincreafes; whilff,in Europe,it isenlar-gedor diminilhedaccordingto particularcircum-Rances.

TheRuffiannobilityhaveindeedbeenreducedtoflaverybytheambitionofoneof theirprinces; buttheyhavealwaysdifcoveredtholemarksof impa-tienc_anddifcontentwhichareneverto be feenmthe fouthernclimates. Havetheynotbeenable,for

Ca._P.4. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 353

fora fhorttime,to eftablifhanafit_ocraticalgovern-ment? Anotherofthenorthernkingdomshasloft:its laws;but_e maytru_ to the_:limatethattheyarenoEloftinfuchamannerasnevertoberecovered.

CHAP. IV.

g'heConfe_uencesrefultingfromthis.WHATwehavenowlaidispeffe&lyconform,.

ableto hiflory. Ariahas beenfubduedthirteentimes; elevenbythenorthernnations,andtwicebytholeof the South. In theearlyages,it wascon-queredthreetimesbytheScythians;afterwardsitwasfubduedoncebythe Medesandonceby thePerfians; againbytheGreeks,theArabs,theMo-guls,theTurks,theTartars,thePcrfians,andtheAfghans.I mentiononlytheUpper-Alia,andfaynothingoftheinvafionsmadeinthere_oftheSouthofthatpartoftheworld,whichhasmoltfrequentlyfufferedprodigiousrevolutions.

In Europe,on the contrary,fincetheet_ablifh-mentof theGreekandPh_niciancolonies,weknowbut of fourgreatchanges: thefirftcaufedbytheconqueftoftheRomans; thefecondbytheinunda-tionofbarbarians,whodettroyedthofeveryRomans;thethirdbythe viCtoriesof Charlemagne; andthelaftbytheinvafionsoftheNormans. And, if thisbe rightlyexamined,we fhallfind, evenin thefechanges,ageneralftrengthdiffutedthroughallthepartsofEurope. WeknowthedifficultywhichtheRomansmet with in conqueringEurope,andtheeafeandfacilitywithwhichtheyinvadedAria. Wearefenfibleofthedifficultiesthenorthernnations,hadto encounterinoverturningthe Romanempire; ofthewarsandlaboursofCharlemagne; andof the

VOL.I. Aa feveral

354 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVII.

feveralenterprizesoftheNormans.Thed_ftroyerswereinceffantlydeRroyed.

CHAP. V.

_ehat,whenthePeopleintheNorthofAJiaandtholeofthe Northof EuropemadeConquefls,theEffe_lsoftheConqueflwerenotthefame.THE nationsintheNorthof Europeconquered

as freemen; thepeoplein theNorthof Ariacon-queredasflares,andfubduedothersonlyto gratifytheambitionofa mafter.

The reafonis, thatthe peopleofTartary,thena-tural conquerorsof Aria, are themfflvesenflaved.Theyareinceffantlymakingc0nqueftsin the SouthofAria,wheretheyformempires; butthatpartofthenationwhichcontinuesin thecountryfindthattheyarefubje&toagreatmailer,who,beingdefpo-tic in the South,willlikewifebefo in the North,and,exercifinganarbitrarypoweroverthevanquilh-ed fubje&s,pretendsto thefameovertheconque-rors. Thisisat prefentmoltconfpicuousin thatvaftcountrycalledChinefeTartary,whichisgo-vernedbytheemperorwithapoweralmoftasdefpo-ticas that of Chinaitfelf,andwhichheeverydayextendsbyhisconquefts.

Wemaylikewifefee,in thehiftoryofChina,thattheemperors* ffntChinefecoloniesinto Tartary.Theti:ChinefearebecomeTartars,andthemortalenemiesof China; but thisdoesnotpreventtheircarryingiritoTartarythe fpiritof theChinefego-vernment.

A partoftheTartars,whowereconquerors,havevery often beenthemfclvesexpelled,whentheyhavecarriedintotheirdefartsthatfervilefpiritwhich

AsVoutyV.emperorofthefifthdynafly.they

" C.Av._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3_fi;

they hadacquiredin the climate of flavery. Thei hiRoryof China furnifhcsus withltrongproofsof! thisaffertion,as doesaltoourancientj- hiRory.

From henceit proceedsthat the geniusof theGeticor Tartariannationhasalwaysrefembledthatof the empiresof Aria. The people in thefe aregovernedby thecudgel; the inhabitantsof Tartary"by whips. The fpiritof Europehas everbeencon-trary to theremanners; and, in all ages, whatthepeopleof Ariahavecalledpunifhmenr,thofeof Eu-ropehavedeemedthe mo_outrageousabufe.

The Tartars, whodeft:toyedtheGrecianempire,eftabliPnedin the conqueredcountriesflaveryanddefpoticpower; the Goths, afterfubduingthe Ro-manempire,foundedmonarchyandliberty.

I donotknowwhetherthefamousRudbeck,who,inhis Atlantica, has beRowedfuchpraifeson Scan-dinavia,hasmadementionof thatgreatprerogativewhichoughtto let thispeople aboveall the nationsuponearth; namely,thiscountry'shavingbeenthefourceof thelibertiesof Europe, that is, of almofl:all the freedomwhichatprefentfubfiftsamongman-kind.

JornadeztheGothcalledtheNorthof EuropetheforgeIIof the humanrace. I flaouldrathercallitthe forgewhere thole weaponswereframedwhichbrokethe chainsof fouthernnations. In the Northwereformedtholevaliantpeople who rallied forthand defertedtheir countriesto deftroytyrants andflares, andto teach men, that, naturehavingmade

TheScythhnsthriceconquereaAft%annthriceweredrivenfromthence.Jn._ia,1.z.

Thisisno waycontrarytowhatI /hall fa"6 inthe zgth book,chap._o.concerningthe manner of thlnkin¢ amongthe Germannations in refpe&to thecudgeli let the inflrument be what it will_ the poweror action of heatingwasalwaysconfiaere_bythemasanaffront.

A a z them

_56 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXVILthemequal,reafoncouldnotrenderthemdependent,exceptwhereit wasneceffarytotheirhappinefs.

CHAP. VI.

,4 newpkyflcalCaufeoftheSlaveryofAriaandof theLibertyofEurope.

IN Ariatheyhavealwayshadgreatempires; inEuropetherecouldneverfubfifLAriahaslargerptams;it iscut outintomuchmoreextenfivedivi-fionsbymountainsandleas; and,asit liesmoretotheSouth,itsfpringsaremoreeafilydriedup; themountainsare lefs coveredwith t'now; andtherivers,beingnot§ folarge,form morecontra6tedbarriers.

Powerin Ariaought,then,tobealwaysdefpotic:for, iftheirflaverywerenotrevere,theywoulclloonmakeadivifioninconfif[entwiththenatureot thecountry.

InEurope,the naturaldivifionformsmanyna-tionsof a moderateextent,in whichthe rulingbylawsisnotincompatiblewiththemaintenanceoftheflate: onthecontrary,it is fofavourableto it, that,withoutthis,theftatewouldfallintodecay,andbe-comeapreytoitsneighbours.

It is thiswhichhasformeda geniusfor liberty,thatrenderseverypartextremelydifficultto befub-ducd,andfubje&edto a foreignpower,otherwifethanbythelawsandtheadvantageofcommerce.

Onthecontrary,therereignsillAriaa fervilefpl-rit, whichtheyhaveneverbeenableto fhakeoff;andit isimpoffibleto find,inallthehift:oriesoftharcountry,a tinglepaffagewhichdifcoversa freedom

The waters lore thernfelve_s ore_porate _efore orafter their ftreamsareU_ltgd,

of

CsAp.8. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 357

of fpirit: wefhallneverfeeanythingtherebutthe_ excefsofflavery_

CHAP. VII.

:_ OfelfricaandAmerica.THIS iswhatI hadto fayof AriaandEurope.

;_ AfricaisinaclimatelikethatoftheSouthof Aria,andisinthefamefervitude.America¶,beinglately

i det_royed,andre-peopledby thenationsofEuropeandAfrica,cannowtcarcelydifplayitsgenuinefpi-tit; butwhatweknowof its ancienthiftoryis verycor_formableto ourprinciples.

! C H A P. VIII.Of theCapitalof theEmpire.

ONEofthe confequencesof whatwehavebeenmentioningis, thatit isoftheutmoftimportancetoagreatprinceto makea properchoiceofthefeatofhisempire. Hewhoplacesit to thefouthwardwill

i beindangeroflofingtheNorth; buthe whofixes; it ontheNorthmayeafilyprefervethe South. !

donotfpeakof particularcafes.Inmechanics,therearefri&ionsbywhichtheeffe&softhetheoryarefre.quentlychangedor retarded; andpolicyhath alfoitsfri&ions.

The pettybarbarousnationsof America arecalledby the Spaniards lndiosallra_cs,and are muchllaox¢_l.ftlcultto fubdu¢than the greatempires of NIcxicqandPeru,

Aa 3 BOOK

358 THE SP_IRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVIIL

B 0 0 K XVIII.OF LAWSIN THE RELATIONTHEYBEARTO THE

NATUREOFTHE SOIL.

CHAP. I.HowtheNatureof theSoilhasanInfluenceontheLaws.

THE goodnefsof theland,in anycountry,ha-turallyeftablifhesfubje&ionanddependence.Thehufbandmen,whocompofetheprincipalpartofthepeople,arenot veryjealousof theirliberty;theyaretooburyandtoointentontheirownprivateat-fairs. A countrywhichoverflowswithwealthisafraidofpillage,afraidofanarmy. " Whoisthere" that forms this goodlyparty? laid Ciceroto•' Atticus_;aretheythemenofcommerceandhuf-" bandry? Letusnotimaginethatthereareaverfe" to monarchy,there,to whomallgovernmentsare" equal,asfoonasthey,beftowtranquility."

Thusmonarchyismorefrequentlyfoundin fruit-fulcountries,anda republicangovernmentin tholewhicharenotfo; andthis is fometimesa fufficientcompenfationfor theinconveniencestheyfufferbythe fterilityoftheland.

ThebarrennefsoftheAtticfoileRablifhedthereademocracy;andthefertilityofthatofLaceda:moniaan ariRocraticalconfiitution.For, in thofetimes,Greecewasaverfetothegovernmentofa tingleper-fort;andariftocracyhadthe neareftrefemblancetothatgovernment.

Plutarchfays-l, that,theCilonianfeditionhavingbeenappealedatAthens,thecityfellintoitsancientdiffenfions,andwasdividedintoasmanypartiesas

• Lib.17. "t"LifeofSolon.there

CHAF.Z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 359'" therewere kindsof landinAttica. The men who

i inhabitedthe eminenceswould,byallmeans,haveapopulargovernment; tholeof theflatopencountry

: demandeda governmentcompofedofthechiefs;andthey who were near the feadefireda mixtureofboth.

CHAP. II.Thefame&,.bjealcontinued.

THESE fertile provincesare alwaysof a levelfurface,wheretheinhabitantsare unableto difputeagaintt:a Rrongerpower: theyarethen obligedtofubmit; and, whentheyhave oncefubmitted,thefpiritof libertyCannotreturn; the wealth of the

; countryis a pledgeof theirfidelity. But, in moun-tainousdiftri&s,as they have but little, theymaypref.ervewhat theyhave. The liberty they enjoy,or, in otherwords,the governmenttheyareunder,is the only bleffingworthy of their defence. Itreigns,therefore,more, in mountainousandrugged3

i countries,thanin tholewhichnaturefeemsto havemot_favoured.

The mountaineersprefervea moremoderatego.! vernment, becaufetheyarenot fo liableto be con-

quered. They defend themfelveseafily, and areattackedwithdifficulty.;ammunitionandprovifionsare colle&edandcarriedagainftthemwithgreat ex-pence,for thecountryfurnifhesnone. It is,then,a morearduotis,a moredangerous,enterprize,tomakewaragainftthem; andall thelawsthatcan beena&edfor the fafetyof thepeopleare thereof leaftufe.

A a 4 CHAP.

_6o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXVIII.

C H A P. III.

batCountriesareheftcultivated.

COUNTRIESare notcultivatedinproportiontotheirfertility,but to theirliberty; and, if wemakean imaginarydivifionof the earth, we thallbeafto-nifhedto fee, inmoltages, defartsin the mofffruit-ful parts, and great nationsin thofe wherenaturefoetusto refufceverything.

It is naturalfor_peopleto leavea bad foilto feeka better; and not to leavea goodfoil to go infearchof a worfe. Molt invafionshave,therefore,beenmadeincountrieswhichnaturefeemstohaveformedfor happinet's; and, as nothingis morenearlyalliedthan defolationand invafion,the beltprovincesaremoil:fre.quently depopulated; while the frightfulcountriesof the North continuealwaysinhabited,from theirbeingalmoffuninhabitable.

We find, by whathiftorianstell usof thepaffageof the peopleof Scandinaviaalongthe banksof theDanube, that this wasnot a conqueff, but onlyamigrationintodefartcountries.

Thefe happy climatesmuff, therefore,havebeendepopulatedbyothermigrations,though weknownot thetragicalfcenesthathappened.

" It appears,by manymonumentsof antiquity," lays AriffotleS, that the Sardinianswerea Gre-c, ciancolony. They wereformerlyveryrich; ande, Arifteus,fofamedfor hisloveof agriculture,was" theirlaw-giver. But they are fince/allento de-" cay; for the Carthaginians,becomingtheirmar-" ters, deffroyedevery thing properfor the nou-_ rilhmentof man, and forbade the cultivationof

Orhe whowrotethebookDt mira_illbus." the

,

C_P, 5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 36x

++ " thelandsonpainofdeath." Sardiniawasnotre-coveredin thetimeofArif_otle,norisittothisday.Themo_temperatepartsofPerfia,Turkey,Muf-

and Poland,havenot beenableto recovercow,perfe,RlyfromthedevaftationsoftheTartars.

CHAP. IV'.

NewE.fe_softhe_arrennefsandFertilityofCountries.THE barrennefsof theearthrendersmeninduf-

i_ trious,fober,inuredto hardlhip,courageous,andfit forwar: theyare obligedto procurebylabourwhattheearthrefufesto befiowfpontaneoufly.Thefertilityof a countrygiveseafe,effeminacy,anda

_- certainfondnefsfor theprefervationof life. It hasbeenremarked,thatthe Germantroops,raifedin

i tholeplaceswherethepeafantsarerich, as, forin-france,in Saxony,are not fo goodas theothers.

+ Militarylawsmayprovideagainftthisinconveniencebya morereveredifcipline.

CHAP. V.

!+ OftheInhabitantsof :/lands.THE inhabitantsof iflandshavea higherrelilh

forlibertythantholeof thecontinent. Iflandsarecommonlyofafma]lIIextent;onepar_ofthepeoplecannotbefoeafilyemployedto opprefsthe other;thelea£eparatesthemfromgreatempires; tyrannyi:annotfowellfupportitfelfwithina fmallcompafsconquerorsareftoppedbythelea_ andtheiflanders,beingwithouttilereachof theirarms,moreeafilyprefervetheirownlaws.

]]Japanisan¢xceptiontothls_byitsgreatextentaswellasbyitsflaver,/.

CHAP.

362 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:XVIII.

CHAP. VI.

Of CountriesrailedbythelnduflryofMan.THOSE countrieswhichthe induflryof manhas

renderedhabitable,andwhichflandin need of thefameinduftrytoprovidefor theirfubfiftence,requirea mildandmoderategovernment. There areprin-cipallythreeof thisfpecies; the two fineprovincesof Kiang-nanand Tcekiangin China,Egypt, andHolland.

The ancientemperorsof Chinawerenot conque-rors. The firft thing theydid toaggrandizethem-felveswaswhatgave the higher proofof their wif-dora. They raifedfrom beneaththe waterstwoofthe finer provincesof the empire; thefe owe theirexiftencetOthelabourof man: andit is the inex-preffiblefertilityof theretwoprovinceswhich hasgivenEuropefuchideasof the felicityof that vail:country. But a continual and neceffarycare, toprefervefromdeftru&ionfoconfiderablea partof theempire,demandedrather themannersof a wife,thanof a voluptuous,nation; ratherthe lawfulauthorityof a monarch,than the tyrannicfwayof a defpoticprince. Powerwas,therefore,neceffarilymoderatedin thatcountry, asit wasformerlyin Egypt, andasit is nowin Holland, whichnaturehas madeto at-tend to herfelf,and not to be abandoned¢o negli-genceorcaprice.

Thus, in fpiteof theclimateof China,wheretheyare naturallyled to a fervileobedience,in fpite oftheapprehenfionswhichfollowtoo greatan extentof empire,the firf_legiflatorsof thiscountrywereobligedtomakeexcellentlaws,andthegovernmentwasfrequentlyobligedtofollowthem.

CHAP.

CsAP._. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 363

C H A P. VII.

Ofbumanlnduflry.MANKIND,bytheirinduttry,andbytheinflu-

enceof goodlaws,haverenderedthe earthmore! properFortheirabode. Wefeeriversflowwhere

therehavebeenlakesandmarthes: thisisa benefiti whichnaturehasnotbettowed; butit is a benefit

maintainedandfuppiiedbynature. WhenthePer-fians§weremattersof Aria,theypermittedthole,whoconveyedafpringto anyplacewhichhadnorBeenwateredbefore,to enjoythe benefitforfivegenerations; and,as a numberof rivuletsflowedfrommountTaurus,theyfparednoexpencein di-re&ingthe courfeof their ttreams. Atthisday,withoutknowinghowtheycamethither,theyarefoundinthefieldsandgardens.

Thus,as deftruc2ivenationsproduceevilsmoredurablethanthemfelves,the a&ionsof an induf-triouspeopleare thefourceof bleffingswhichlaftwhentheyarenomore.

C H A P. VIII.

if'begeneralRelationofLaws.THE lawshaveaverygreatrelationto the man-

nerinwhichthefeveralnationsprocuretheirfubfif-tence. Therethouldbe acodeoflawsof a muchlargerextentfora nationattachedto tradeandna-vigationthanforpeoplewhoarecontentwithculti-vatingtheearth. Therefhouldbe a muchgreaterforthelatterthanfortholewhofubfiftbytheirflocksandherds. Theremuttbe afrillgreaterfor therethanforthchaslivebyhunting.

§ Porybiu_l.to.CHAP.

364THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVIII.

CHAP. IX.

Of the SoiZof America.

THE caufeof therebeingfuchanumberofravagenationsin Americais, the fertilityof the earth,whichfpontaneouflyproducesmanyfruitscapableofaffordingthemnourifhment.If thewomencul-tivatea fpotof landroundtheircottages,the maizgrowsupprefently; andhuntingandfifhingputthemenin a ftateof completeabundance.Betides,blackcattle,as cows,buffaloes,&c. thrivethere 'betterthancarnivorousbears. Thelatterhaveal-waysreignedinAfrica.

We/houldnot, I believe,haveall thereadvan-tagesin Europe,if the landwerelef_uncultivated;itwouldfcarcelyproduceanythingbetidesforeftsofoaksandotherbarrentrees;

CHAP. X.

OfPopulation,intheRelationitbearstotheMannerofprocuringSubjiflence.

LET usfeeinwhatproportioncountriesarepeo-pledwheretheinhabitantsdonotcultivatetheearth.Astheproduceof uncultivatedlandistothatoflandimprovedbyculture,fo thenumberof £avagesinonecountryis to that of hutbandmenin another:and,whenthepeoplewhocultivatethe landculti-vatealfothearts,thisisalfoin fuchproportionsaswouldrequireaminutedetail.

Theycanfcarcelyforma zreatnation. If theyareherdfmenandlhepherds,theyhaveneedof anextenfivecountryto furni[hlubtiftencefora fmallnumber;iftheylivebyhunting,theirnumbermuffbe

CH^_.lz.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 355be Rillleft,and, in orderto findthemeansoflife,

i theymuffconftituteaveryfmallnation.Theircountrycommonlyaboundswithforefts;

i which,as theinhabitantshavenottheart of drain-ingoffthewaters,are filledwithbogs; hereeachtroopcantonthemfelves,andforma pettynation.

CHAP. XI.OffavageandbarbarousNations.

THERE is this differencebetweenravageandbarbarousnations_ theformeraredifperfedinclans,which,forfomeparticularreafon,cannotbejoinedin a body; andthelatter are commonlyfmallna-tions,capableof beingunited. The favagesaregenerallyhunters; thebarbariansareherdfmenandthepherds.

This appearsplainin theNorthofAria. ThepeopleofSiberiacannotlivein bodies,becaufetheyareunableto findfubfiftence; theTartarsmayliveinbodiesforrometime,becaufetheirherdsandflocksmay,foratime,be re-affembled.All theclansmaythenbere-united; and this is effec2edwhenonechiefhas fubduedmanyothers; afterwhichtheymaydotwothings,eitherfeparate,orletoutwithadefig.nto makeagreatconqueftin romefouthernempire.

C H A P. XII.

OftheLaw ofNationsamon_Peoplewhodonotcul_i-ratetheEarth.

ASthefepeopledonotlivein circumfcribedter-ritories,manycaufesof ftrifearifebetweenthem;theyquarrelaboutwarelandasweaboutinheritan-ces. Thustheyfindfrequentoccafionsfor war,indifputesrelativeeitherto theirhunti,_g,theirfifla-

ir2g,

366 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXVIIL

ing,the pafturefortheircattle,or the violentfei,.zingof theirflares; and,astheyare notpoffeffedoflandedproperty,theyhavemanythingsto regu,-latebythelawofnations,andbutfewto decidebythecivillaw.

C H A P. XIII.

OfthecivilLawof tholeNationswhodonotcultivatetheEarth.

THE divifionof landsiswhatprincipallyincrea-festhecivilcode. Amongftnationswheretheyhavenotmadethisdivifionthereareveryfewciviltaws.

Theinftitutionsofthefepeoplemaybecalledman-nersratherthanlaws.

Amongftfuchnationsasthere,theoldmen,whorememberthingspaft,havegreatauthority: theycannottherebediftinguilhedbywealth,but bywif-domandvalour.

Therepeoplewanderanddifperfethemfelvesinpafturegroundsor inforefts.Marriagecannottherehavethefecuritywhichit hasamongftus, whereitis fixedbythehabitation,andwherethe wifecon-tinuesinonehoufe: theymay,then,moreeafilychangetheir wives,p_ffefsmany,andfometimesmixindifferent!y,likebrutes.

Nationsof herdfmenand thepherdscannotleavetheircattle,whicharetheirfubfittence; neithercantheyfeparatethemfelvesfromtheirwives,wholookafterthem. All thisought,then, to go togetherefpecially,as,livinggenerallyina flatopencountry,wheretherearefewplacesof confiderableftrength,theirwives,theirchildren,theirflocks,maybecomethepreyoftheirenemies.

Theirlawsregulatethedivifionof plunder,and,have,likeourSaliquelaws,aparticularattentiontotheft.

CHAP.

CnAF.!5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 367

C H A P. X[V.

OfthepoliticalStateofthePeoplewhodonotcultivatethe Land.

THESEpeopleenjoygreatliberty. For,astheydonot cultivatetheearth,theyarenotfixed,theyarewanderersandvagabonds; and,if achieffhoulddeprivethemoftheirliberty,theywouldimmediate-ly goandleekit underanother,or retireintothewoods,andtherelivewiththeirfamilies.Thelibertyof themanis fo great,amongtherepeople,thatitneceffarilydrawsafteritthatot thecitizen.

CHAP. XV.

OfPeoplewhoknowthebTeofMoney.ARISTIPPUS,beingcaf_away,fwamand got

faretothenext/bore; where,beholdinggeometri-calfigurestracedin the land,hewasfeizedwithatranfportof joy, judgingthat he wasamongfl:Greeks,andnotin a nationof barbarians.

Shouldyoueverhappento becart,by romead-venture,amongfl:unknownpeople,uponfeeingapieceofmoney,youmaybeaffuredthat youarear-rivedinacivilizedcountry.

Thecultureof landsrequiresthe ufeof money.Thisculturefuppofesmanyinventionsandmanyde-greesof knowledge;andwealwaysfeeingenuity,thearts, andafenl_of want,makingtheirprogrefswithanequalpace. All thisconducesto the e_a-blifhmentofa fignofvalue.

Torrentsanderuptions¶ havemadethedifcoverythatmetalsarecontainedin thebowelsoftheearth.

_f It is thus that Diodorus tells us the flaephczds found gol_l in the Pyrenean_otlntains,

When

368 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVIII.V/henoncetheyhavebeenfeparated,theyhaveearl-ly beenappliedtotheirproperufe.

C H A P. XVI.

Of civilLawsamongpeoplewhoknownottheUfeofMoney.

WHENapeoplehavenottheufeofmoney,theyarefeldomacquaintedwithanyotherinjufticethanthat whicharifesfromviolence; andtheweak,byuniting,defendthemfelvesfromits effe&s.TheyhavenothingtherebutpoliticalregulationS.But,wheremoneyiseRabtithed,theyarefubje&to thatinjufticewhichproceedsfromcraft; aninjufticethatmaybeexercifedathoufandways. Hencetheyareforcedto havegoodcivillaws,whichfpringupwiththenewpracticesofiniqtiity. "

Incountrieswheretheyhavenofpecietherobbertakesonlybaremoveables,whichhaveno mut'ualrefemblance.Bur,wheretheymakeufeof money,therobbertakesthefigns,andtherealwaysrefembleeachother. In the former,nothingcanbeconceal-ed, becaufethe robbertakes alongwith himtheproofsof his convi&ion_but, in the latter,]!_isquitethecontrary.

C H A P. XVI!.OfpotizicalLawsamongstNationswhohavenottheUfi

of Money.THE greate_fecurityof thelibertiesofapeople,

whodonotcultivatetheearth,is,theirnotknowingtheufeofmoney. Whatisgainedbyhunting,fifh-ing, orkeepingherdsofcattle,cannotbeaffemb.ledinfuchgreatquantity,nor be fufficientlypreferved,fvronemantofindhimfclfin aconditionto eorrup_

many

"CHute'.f8.THE SPIRIT OF IJAWS. 359manyothers: butwhen,infteadofthis,a manhasafignof riches,he mayobtaina largequantityofthefefigns,anddiftributethemashepleafes.

Thepeoplewhohaveno moneyhavebut fewwants; andtherearefuppliedwitheafe,and inanequalmanner.Equalityisthenunavoidable; andfromhenceit proceedsthattheirchiefsare not def_potic,

C H A P. XVIIt.Of the Powerof Superflilion.

IF whattravellerstellusbetrue, theconftirtltionofa nationof Louifiana,calledthe Notches,isane_ceptiontothis,Their*chiefdifpofesofthegoodsofallhisfubjec"ts,andobligesthemtoworkandtoilaccordingto hispleafure.He hasa powerlikethatoftheGrandSignior,and theycannotevenrefufehimtheirheads. Whentheprefumptiveheirentergintotheworld,theydevoteall the ICuckingchildrento hisferviceduringlife. Onewouldimaginethatthisisthe rentSefoftrisHe istreatedin his cot-• gtagewithasmuchceremonyasanemperorofJapanorChina.

The prejudicesof fuperftitionarefuperiorto allothers,andhave the ftrongeftinfluenceOnthehu-manmind. Thus, thoughtheravagenationshavenaturallyno knowledgeof defpotictyranny,l_il!theyfeeltheweightof it. Theyadorethefung and,if theirchiefhadnotimaginedthathewasthe bro;ther of thisgloriousluminary;they wouldhavethoughthima wretchlikethemfelves.

l_difylngLetters__,othcclleCadon.

¥oI;.I. Bh CHAP;

,_7o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, Boo_XVHP

C H A P. XIX.

OftheLibertyofthe Arabsandthe Servitudeof the..... _artars.•_THEArabsandTartarsarenationsofherdfmen,.andthepherds.TheArabsfindthemfelvesinthatfituationof whichwehavebeenfpeaking,andarethereforefree; whitfftheTartars(themufffingula#peopleonearth)areinvolvedina-]"politicalflavery.Ihavealreadygivenreafons_ forthis, andfhallnowaffignfumeothers.

They haveno towns_no forelts,and but few" marfhes;theirriversaregenerallyfrozen,andthey

dwellina levelcountryofanimmenfeextent.TheyhavepaRurefortheirherdsand flocks,andconfe-quendyproperty; buttheyhavenokindof.re_ator placeoffafety. A khanis nofoonerovercomethan theycut offhis1}head; hischildrenaretreaterinthe famemanner,andall his:fubje&sbelo.ngtotheconqueror.Therearenotcondemnedto aCivilflavery; for, in thatcafe,theywouldbe_ burthento a fimplepeople,whohave no landstoCultivateandnoneedof anydomefticfervice.They there-foreaddto the bulkofthenation; but, infteadofcivilfcrvitude,apoliticaltlaverymuffnaturally"beintroducedamongftthem.

/t isapparent,that, in acountryWherethefeve-tMclansmakecontinualwar,andareperpetuallyc9nqueringeachother; in a country,where,bythedeathofthechief,thebodypoliticofthevanquilhedclanisalwaysdeftroyed; thenationin genera!can

af Whena khanisp_oclaimedzall thepeople"ery_Thathisword_all'bea_

_.:BookXVII. c, 5"1]Weoughtnot,therefore,to beafionifhedat Mahomet_thefunof Mirlveis_

who_,ttpontakinglfpahan__utall th_princ_of_h¢bloodtothefword0,

-" enjoy

C_A:P.ao. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, _?g

enjoybut 1,ittlefreedom; forthereisnota tinglepartythatmuftnotgavebeenoftenfubdoed.

Aconqueredpeoplemayprefervefumedegreeofliberty,when,by the Rrengthof theirfituation,the},areina Ratethatwilladmitofcapitulating,_,af- -ter'Ohcirdefeat. Butthe Tartars,alwaysdefence-lefs,beingonceovercome,canneverbe able:toObtain"conditions. ....

I havelaid,in chap.II. thatthe inhabitants_ofcultivatedplainsarefeldomfree. Circumflcanceshaveoccurredto puttheTartars,whodwellin_un-

: cultivatedplains,inthefamefiruatlon.

CHAP. XX.Of the LawofNationsaspratTifedbytbegartars.":THE Tartarsappearto be mildandhumane

_.m0.ngPtthemfelves,andyettheyaremoltcruelcon-oerors:whentheytakecities,theyputtheinha-it_ntsto the i'word,andimagine_that theya&

humanely,if theyonlyfellthepeopleor diftributethemamongfftheir foldiers.Theyhavedeftr0yedAria,fromlndiaevento the Mediterranean; andall,thecountry,whichformstheEaRofPerfia,theyhaverendereda defart.

Thislawofnationsisowing,I think,to thefol-lowingcaufe. Therepeoplehavingno towns,alltheirwarsarecarriedonwitheagernefsandimpetu-.offt_,:theyfightwhenevertheyhopeto conquer_,and,whentheyhavenofuchhope,theyjoin theRrohgerarmy, WithfuchcuRoms,it is cont_/i{-ytothelawofnationsthatacity,incapableof repel,ringtheirattack,thouldRoptheirprogrefs.Theyregardnotcitiesasanaffociationofinhabitants,butasplacesmadetobiddefiancetotheirpower.Theyb¢fiegethemwithoutmilitary&ill,andexpofethem-

Bb 2 felvcs

37z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XVIIIofelvesgreatlyin the attack; andthereforerevengethemfelvesonalltholewhohaveipilttheirblood.

C H A P. XXI. _':, _ThecivilLawoftheTartars. ;,.

FATHER Du Haldelays,that, amongfftheTartars,theyoungeftofthemalesisalwaysthebelt,by reafon,that,as fi)onastheelderbrothersare-ca-pableofleadinga paftorallife,theyleavethehoufe,witha certainnumberofcattlegiventhembytheirfather,andbuilda newhabitation,q helaftofthemales,whocontinuesat homewiththefather,isthenhisnaturalheir.

I haveheardthatalikecuftomwasalfoobfefvedin fornefmalldiftri6tsofEngland: and wefind it_ill in Brittany,in thedutchyof Rohan,whereitobtainswith regardto ignobletenures.This isdoubtlefsa paftorallaw, conveyedthitherby _'6_n_of I_hepeopleofBritain,oreftablilhedbytbmeGer-mannation. ByCmlarandTacitusweareinfoi:t_dthatthelattercultivatedbutlittleland. _:_

• , .- _

C H A P. XXIL _ -Ofa civilLawoftbeGermanNations.

_IflaallhereexplainhowthatparticularpaffageoftheSaliquelaw,whichiscommonlydiftingu!_edbytlieterm,_TibeSalia,ueLaw, relatesto theinf_itutionsofa people-ho do not cultivatetheearth,,or,atleo)fiwhocultivateitbutverylittle. "

TheSalique§lawordains,that, whena manhasleftchildrenbehindhim,themaleslhallfucceedtotheSaliquelandinprejudicetothefemales.

§Tie.c_, " "To

4CnAP. zz. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 375

:To under_andthe natgreof tholeSaliquelands,thereneedsnomorethanto t_archinto theufagesor

Franks, regardto lands, beforecuftoms of the withtheyleft Germany.

Mr.Echardhasveryplainlyprovedthat thewordSalicJsderivedfrom Sala, whichfignifiesa houfe;and, therefore,that theSaliquelandwasthelandbe-longing to the houfe. I fhallproceedfarther, andexamine into the nature of thehoufe,and of thelarldbelongingto thehoufe,amongtheGermans.

:'_Theydwellnot in towns,lays_ Tacitus, nor" can theybearto havetheirhabitationscontiguous" to thole of others; everyoneleavesa fpaceor'_.fmaltpieceof ground abouthis houfe,whichis" inclofed." Tacitus is veryexa&in thisaccountfor_manylawsofthe * barbariancodeshavedifferentdecieesagainfftholewhothrewdownthisinclofure,aswdlas agail_ftfuchas brokeintothehoulb.

We learn, fromTacitusandCmfar,that thelandset_lfivatedby the Germansweregiventhemonlyforthe fpaceof a year; a(terwhichtheyagainbecamepublic. "]-heyhadnootherpatrimonybut theboule,and a pieceof land withinthe -]-inclofurethat fur-roundedit. ]t wasthisparticularpatrimonywhichbelongedto themales. And, indeed,howcoulditbelong,to the daughters? theywereto palsintoan-otherhabitation.

The Satiquelandwas,then, Withinthat inclofurewhichbelongedto a Germanhoufe; thiswastheonly propertythey had. The FranKs,aftertheir

_ullasGermanorurapo_ulisurbesbabitavifatisnotumeflsne pat;quldtraintwfejunHasfede¢; eduntdlfcreti,utnemu,placuit. Vicosla_a_t,nonin noflruramorem¢o_nexiset¢obn_r_ntibutneaiflais; fuam_uifquedornumfpatiocircuandat.DemoxihulGermanorum.

Thelawof theAllemandstc. _o. and thela'_,of the Bayarlans_tit. _o.

}"Thisinclofureiscalled¢ortis2inthecharters.

B b 3 conquers,

37_ THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXVIIL

conquefts,acquirednewpoffeffions,and_continuedto callthemSaliqt_e.lands. :

Whenthe Frankslivedin Germany,their wt_althconfiftedof flares, flocks,horfes,arms,&e. :'£hefiabieationandthefmallportionof landadjoirfingtois were naturallygiven to themalechildrenwhowere to dwell there. But afterwards,when:theFranks had, byconquelL_cquired hrge trac"tsofland, they thoughtit hard that the daug_htersandtheirchildren flloutdbe incapableof enjoying:anypart of them. Hence it wasthat theyinta'oducedacuf_omof permittingthe father to fettlethe eiLate,afterhis death, uponhisdaughterand herchildren.They fi_encedthe law; and st appears that,'the_.fettlementswerefrequent,fince they were_teredin theformularies._ -_

Amongft_befeformulariesI findone11ofa fmgu,Iarnature. A grandfatherordainedby will_hm:_iiagrandchildrenffiould/harehis inheritance_ith hislbnsanddaughters. Wh_t, then,becameof_e,_a,.liquelaw? In thofetimes,either it couldnot tmobferved,or the continualufe of nominating_thedaughtersto an i_heritancehad madethem.confidertheirabilityto fucceedas a careaudmrizeflby.;etff-tom. ", _-

The Saliquelawhad not in viewa preferenceofonerexto theother; muchlefshad ita regardtothe

perpetuity of a family,a name,or the tranfmiffionof,tand: therethingsdid notenter into theheads_fthe Germans; it waspurely an ce.conomical;law,whichgavethehoufe,andthelanddependentthereon,tothemaleswhofhoulddwellin it, and to whomitC0nfequentlywasof mofffervice.

-SeeMarcnlfus,I.z. form.1o.& *_.Append.toMarculf.form.49"andtheancientform,flariesofSir=ordus,formzz.

I1Form.55' in Lindembroek',colleaioa,We

"_ CHAP_2Z.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 37_

_:Weneedhereonlytranfcribethetitleofthe.alia-diallandsof theSaliquelaw,thatfamoustext,ofwhichfo-manyhavetalked,andwhichfofewhaveread.._"*If amandieswithoutiffue,hisfatherormother

fhallfucceedhim. 2. If hehasneitherfathernor'_'mott_er,his brotheror fifterfhallfucceedhim.

_ 3-.If hehasneitherbrothernor rifler,the rifler:_ " of .hismotherlhallfucceedhim. 4. I£histoo.

"ther hasnorifler,thefilterofhisfatherfhallfuc,.i "'"ceedhim. 5. If hisfatherhasnorifler,zhenear,

" eft-relationbythemalefidefhallfucceed.6.Not§'_ anypartof theSaliquelandlhallpal'sto the .re-

;- " males; but it fhallbelongtothemales; thatis,"' _hemalechildrenfhallfucceedtheirfather."

_ [Itis plainthatthe fir£tfivearticlesrelateto,theinh_ritanceofamanwhodieswithoutiffue; andthefi_cthto thefucceffionOfhimwhohaschildren...

W-hena mandieswithoutchildren,the tawor,-_dains.thatneithe.rofthetwofexesl_allhavethepro.ferenceto theother,exceptin certaincafes. In_hexwofirll:de_eesoffiacceflion,theadvantagesof _themales,andfemaleswerethetame; inthethirdarid

-fourth,the femaleshad the preference;and.xl_malesinthefifth.Tackuspointsoutthefourceof thereex_r.avaga,'r-

ees: '," Thefilter's_ children,layshe, are.asdear'_:totheiruncleasto theirownfather. Thereare_' menwlaoregardthis degreeof kindredasmore_' _ftri&,andevenmoreholy. Theypreferit when_' theyteceivehoftages."Fromhence-itpr#t:eeds_hat

• _ Deterr$_er_Salir_inmulieremhulloportiabered_tatisttttnfttj.ledbocmirills_e._asat_uirit_bocefl,fllii lnipfdbereditatefutcednt. T*t.6_..§;6,'

_[ Sororum_liisidemapuda_vuneulurn_luamapudpatternhonor._u_damfane_ttorem.arkTiorem_uehunenexumfangumtsarbttrantur,_?tna_tp*endisobfldlbs ma°gvsex_gunt,tan_uamii (_ aniraumflrmi_a_ffdotaumlai'2attneaut, DemorlbusGermancrum,

: Bb -4- our

376 THE SPIRIT OF L%WS. EooKXYHL

our:earlieRhiftorians_ fpeakin fuchflrongtermsofthelove of the kingscfthe Franksfor their.filtersandtheirriflerschildren. And, indeed,if the chil-drenof the filter_'ere confidered,in herbrother'shcmfe,as his ownchildren,it w_snaturalfor theret_regardtheiraunrastheirmother. •

"/-heriflerof the motherwasprefen'edto thefa-.thc_'s,fiftcr;this is ,explainedbycallertextsof theSatiquelaw. Whena -]-womanbecamea widow,fhefetlunderthe guardianthipof herhufbandYsrela-tions; the tawpreferredto thisguardianfhipthere.,/ations hy ,thefemales before tholeby themales.Indeed,a woman,whoenteredinto a family,;jDin-ing_herfelfwith,tholeof herown_fex,becamemoreunited to her relationsby the_femalethan by-_hemale. Moreover,when _ a man killedaoot.heGand hadnot wherewithaltopaythepecuniarypenal-ty, thelawpermitted him to deliver up his rub.ltance,andhisrelationswereto ft_ppiythedefi¢ier_cy..Afterthefather, mother, and brother,thefiRer_fthemotherwasto pay, as if thistie had fomethipgin,itmoil:tender. Now,the degreeof kindredwhichimpofestheburthensoughtalfotoconferthe ad,van-

The SaIiquelawenjoins,that, afterthefather's,fig.tex,,,thefucc_ffion[houldbe held by the nearefl:re-lationmale;-;but, if this relationwas beyondthefa£_thdegree,:he.lhouldnot inherit. Thus a femaleof_,thcfifthdegreemightinheritto the prejudiceofa,xnat¢ofthe fixth: ,andthismaybeteen inthe[l!]awof theRipur!anEranks,(a faithfulinterpreterof ,he

t See_inGregeryofTeur*jlib.$. c. 18.and20. andlib. 9. c. I6. ant]:to.therage of Gontramat Leovigiid'sill treatmentof Ingundahisnic_e_which_ld_ert herbrothertookuparmstorevenge.

t S_lique|aw,,tit.47. _ lhid. tit. 6t. §. _,Et dd_cep*uf_uead_uintumgenuculum9uiproximusfutrtt it:btrtditatemfuc.

¢dat. 'lit', $6. §; 3" - " ' _ ....

_,-• _: 8a!iqu¢

CaArl=z.THE SPIRIT OF LA_vV_S. $77

Saliquelaw,)underthetitleofaltodiallands,whereit zlofrlyadheresto the Saliquelaw on the tamefubje&. ,,

if:thefatherleftiffue,theSaliquetawwouldhavethedaughtersexcludedfromthe inheritanceofMeSaliqueland,anddeterminedthat,it lhouldbelongtothema!echildren. :

tt wouldbeeafyt'_rmetoprove:thatthe8aliquelawdidnotabfolutelyexcludethe daughters:fromthe,poffeflionof the Saiiqueland,,butonlyin _thecare:._heretheyweredebarredby;theirbrothers.Thisappearsfromthe letter of the Salique,]aw.;which,afterhavinglaidthatthewomenthallpoffefsnoneoftheSalique'tand,but onlythemales,inter-pretsandrettrainsiffelf,byadding," thatis, the",£on.flaallfucceedtothe:inheritanceofthefather;"

re-:Thetext of:the Saliquelawisclearedup bFthe,JawoftheRipurianFranks,whichhasalfoa ti-tle_§onallodiallandsveryconformabletothatofthe,Saliquelaw. .....-:_8,-Thelawsof _hefebarbarousnations,whoallfprung,fromGermany,interpreteach'other, moreparticularly,astheyall havenearlythe fame,fprtir,:TheSaxonIlllawenjoinedthefatherandmothertol_vetheirinheritancetotheirfon,andnotto,theirdaughter; hut, if therewerenonebutdaughters,they,were,tohavethewholeinheritance.,4._Wehavetwoancientformularies* that Rate

thecareinwhich,accordingto theSaliquetaw,thedaughterswereexcludedbythemales; thatis,whentheyttoodincompefitionwiththeirbrother.

§ Tit. S6. ,:I[[ Tit;7. §. *. Pater autmaterdefunEH,flllo.on fi&e loeredit_temrdl.feant;

§. 4. 7u_defunerue,nonfilios,fed fltias, rehfuerit, aden*omnisberedita*p_rtineat.* la Ma,culfus,1,z.- lotto. ,z, an_tin the Appendixto Mareutfos,form.49.

5,Another

_78 THE SI_IRIT OF LAWS. BooxXVHL5- Anotherformulary-i-provesthatthedaughter

_cceedtdto theprejudiceofthegrancffon; ihewasthereforeexcludedonlybythefon.

6. If daughtershaobeengenerallydebarred,by"!he Safiquelaw,fromthe inheritanceof land,it:wouldbeimpnti]bletoexplainthe hiftories,formu-laries,andcharters,whicharecontinuallymention-ingthelandsandpoffcffionsofthefemalesunderthefir_{:race.

People_ havebeenwronginaffertingthattheSa-.liquelands_'erefiefs, z. Thisheadisdifiinguilhedb? thetitleof allodiallands. 2. Fiefsatfiri_were_othereditary. 3- If theSaliquelandshad_beenfiefs,howcouldMarculfustreatthatcuffomas im-Fious_whichexcludedthewomenfrominheriting,whenthe malesthemfelvesdidnotfucceedto fiefs?4- "]hecharterswhichhavebeencited,to provethat.theSaliquelandswerefiefs,onlyfhew-thatthey_,.erefreeholds.5- Fiefswerenotel_ablifhedtillafotertheconqueft,and the Saliquecuffomsexiftedlongbeforethe Franksleft Germany. 6. Itwas_aot_e Saliquelawthatformedtheef_ablifhmentoffiefs, bylettingboundsto thefucceffionoffemales,but it wastheeflablifhmentof fiefsthatprefcribedlimitsto the£ucceffionoffemalesandto theregula-

•:fionsoftheSahquelaw.Afterwh_thasbeenlaid,onewouldnotimagiae

thattheperpetual£ucccffionof malesto thecrownof FrancefhouldhavetakenitsrifefromtheSaliquelaw. And7etthisisapointindubitablycertain.I

_'pioveit fromthefeveralcodesofthebarbarousna-tions.- TheSaliquelaw]]andthelawoftheBurgun-dies _ debarredthe daughtersfrom the rightof

-. :_- Lindembroek'seollePdon,form.5_;. '"_D_cang%Plthou_f_'c.[tTit. 6z. § Tit. I. §. :3"tit. 14.§. I. &tit. 5_. "

fucceeding

_--_'-A_o=_."THE SPIRIT'OF LAWS. , $79

fucccedingtothelandinco_jun&ionwiththeirbro-thers;neitherdid theyfucceedto the crown. Thelawof the _ Vifigoths,onthecontrary*,permittedthedaughtersto inheritthe landwiththeirbrothers;and the womenwere-I"capable of inheritingthecrown. Amongfl:'therepeople, the regulationsofthecivillawhadan effectonthepolitical.

This wasnot the onlycarein whichthepoliticallawoftheFranksgavewaytothecivil.BytheSaliqueIn% all the brothersfucceededeqiaaalyto the land_and thiswas alfo decreedby a lawof theBurgun-dians. Thus, in the kingdom of the Franks, and"in thatof theBurgandians,allthebrothersfucceededtothe crown,if weexcept a fewmurdersand ufur-pations, whichtookplaceamongftthe Burguladians.

-' C H A P. XXIII.

"' :,, :Ofthe regalOrnamentsamongtheFranks.A peoplewhodo notcultivatethe land have,no

ideaofluxury. Wemayfee, inTacitus, theadmi-rahlefimplicityof the Germannations: theyhadnom'_ifmialeleganciesof drefs; theirornamentswered_ed fromnamre_If thefamilyoftheirchiefwastoJh=.dilfing_aifhedby anyfign, it wasnootherthanthat whichnaturebefiowed. The kings of theF_a_ks,-of-_the-Burgundians,and the ¥ifigoths,,woretheir_onghairfor a diadem,

Lib,4_ ribt,, §.3. "Among_theOflrognt]_s,thecrown*_twieedevolvedto thematesbym_na

of females_ the4irfttimeto Athalarieus_throughAmalafaotha,andthe l'eeon_;_to Theorist,throughAmalafreda.Not but that the "femalesof thai:nationmighth_tve,heldthecrm,vnin.theirownrightj for Amalafimthar=igaedafter_thedentilof Athalarieus; nay_evenaftertheele_ionofTheodat,andin con-jan&ionwiththatprince. SeeAmalafnatha'sandTheodat'8tetters_in eaflio.,dorus,lib.xo.

"1"TheGermannations,laysTaeitus_'ha_lcommoneufloms,aswellastholewhichwerepeculiartoeach.

CHAP,

380 THE sPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XV[II.

c HAP. xXIvl• OftheMarriagesoftheKingsoftheFranks.I havealreadymentioned,that,withpeoplewh0

d0_ff_itCultivate!theearth,marri;t'gesare lefs_fi_edtI_an_withothers,andthattheygenerallytake_anywrvcs."' Of_ allthebarbarousn_tionstheGei_mans"iw_reaimofttheonlypeopleWh0 Werefacisfied" mid_onewife,if weexceptl[,faysTacitus,£ome•' p_fons,who,_notfroma diffotutenefsof mafi_-•' nets,butbecaUfeof theirnobility,hadmanyY_

"Thisexplainsthereafonwhythe kingsOfthefi'rfl:r_6i_hadfogreatariumberof wives. Therehaar2tiageswerelefsaproofOfincontinencethana d6nfe-quenceofdign.ky; anditwouldhavewounded_fi:eM"ina tenderpointto havedeprivedthemof fuch:_aprerogative§.This alfoexplainsthereafoawh_theexamplo the kingswasnotfollowedbythefubje6ts."* • C H AP. XXV. _"

.... CFIILDERIe. . '_'_,:

4, THE lawsof matrimony,amongftthe_Ger-"•' roans,laysTacitus,areftri&lyobferved,¶.;¥ice'"'isnottherea£ubje&ofridicule. To corrupt:or" becorruptedis notcatiedfalhion,or the_uftom•* oftheage. Therearefew* examples,inthis_po-•' pulousnation,oftheviolationofconjugalfaith?'.

Thiswasthereafonof theexpulfionofChilderic:he {hockedtheirrigidvirtue_whichconqueftbadnothadumetocorrupt. • -:

t[ !_xc_l_.t:*,agm:d"mpauds, quinonlibidine_fed oknobilitatem,plurlmitn_t_ekb[un_'tur'," _ib'id.- ....... , ._ --

4_Set:Fredeg_rius'schronicleof theyear6,zg. •_ , , :,Severaraatr:monia_ nemo_llicmit_arldets n¢¢¢orrurdpere_ tor,_tmld

j'w¢_lura_u_catur.De_or busGermanourn.• l_,udffmainta*nu,erofagenteadulteria,lbid, CHAP.

CaAv. z6. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 3_

C,HA P. XXVI.

Of the_imewhentbeKingsof theFranksbecameofAge.

BARBARIANS,whodonotcultivatethe rih.ha_e,frri&lj,fpeak]ng,nojurifdi&ion; andare_b.awehavealreadyYerhembered,rathergoverned_6ythe"]awof n£fi_nsthanbycivil]nffitutibns.'Fhe]rare,_therefore,alwaysarmed. Thus Tacitustells.us,, that theGermans_._undertookno affairs." eitherof k pubficor privatenature,unarmed."Theygavetheir-j-votebythefoundoftheirarrest.Asloonastheycouldcarrythem, theywerepre-rentedtOtheaffembiy; theyputajavelinIIintotheirh_nds,andfrom thatmomentthey§ wereout!oftheirminority: theyhadbeena partof thefamily,now_theybecameapart oftherepublic.

" The eagles,laid¶ thekingoftheO_rogoth:s,":ceafeto feedtheiryoungonesasfoonas thezr" wingsandtalonsareformed; the latterhaveno" needof theiraffiRancewhentheyareablethem-" felvestofeizetheirprey: it wouldbeadifgrace," iftheyoungpeoplein ourarmieswerethought" robeofanageunfitformanagingtheiref_atesor":,regulatingthecondu&of theirlives. It is virtue_"thatconffitutesfullageamongtheGoths."

ChildebertII. was* fifteenyearsoldwhenGon-tram,his uncle,declaredthathe wasof age,laqd

Vi"__ Nlbil,nefuepubliuene_uepri_atterei,.ifia_ati, ag.nt, De.mot._rra..of8i dlf_licuitfententia_Jremituafpernanturi fin ptacuit,fiameal cor¢.:

inipfoeo,cilio_,elp.znaipumali_uiJ,*ael_ater,"vdpropinuusau_J'am',S_O........_.t. . S.., _ ;§ H_ecapudiltostoga,hleIOrlgnusjwventutee]oon_s; antehocdomGs#_tCx_B_li_ur.moxrtipubltcw. -- . .,, ..._"Theodoric,inCafliodhb ! ep 3S ............... _'

• , . * . , .... , " ,_:Hewasfcarc_lyfive_earsold,fay_GregoryofTours,I,.;.c.t.v,.benl-/e_

fueceededtohisfatberjintheyear575. Gontramdechredh,m of ageL_'_h'_'_._'¢ar_8£ih_ w_ thetefm©_at thattime_aomor_thaafifteen. ' ......_ "

capable

38_ TI_IESBIRIT CF _,AW_. Bod_XVII_capableof governingbyhimfd£. Wefi_d,intheRipuarian"laws,xhattheageoffifteer_,theabilityofbeaFmgarms, andmajority,wenttogether.Jt istherelaid,-[-" that, ira Ripuariandiesot iskilled," andleavesa fonbehindhim,thatfoncanneither°'._profecutenorbeprof_utedtillhehascompletelyc,attainedthe age of fifteen; andthen bemay" eitheranfwerforhimfelfor choofea champion."it wasneceffarythathismindflaouldbe fu_ciendyformedto be abletodefendhimfeffincourt,andthathisbodytlaouldh_veall theftreOg_hthat wasproperfor hisdefenceintinglecombat. Amongfl:theBurgundians5, whoallbmadeufeofthiscombatin theirjudiciaryproceedings,theywi:reof ageatfifteen.

AgathiastellsusthatthearmsoftheFrankswere}ight: theymight,therefore,be of age at fifteen.In fucceedingtimes,thearmstheymadeufeof wereheavy,andtheymerealreadygreatlyfoin thetimeofCharlemagne,asappearsbyour capitulariesandromances.TholewhohadI]fiefs,andweretS0nfe-quentlyobligedto domilitaryfervice,werenotthenofagetilltheyweretwenty-oneyearsold.§

CH AP. XXVII.

_befameSubje_lcontinued.WE havefeenthat the Germansdid notappear

intheir affembliesbeforetheywereof age; theywerea p_rtof the,familybutnotof the republic.Thiswasthereafonthat thechildrenof CIodomir,kingofOrleans,andconquerorof Burgundy,were

"[- 'Tit.gx.. _ "l'it.87.]1Therewasnochangeinthetimewithregardtothe commonpeople."

St. l_ewiswasnotof ageull t_en_'-onei thisv,aBalt_d by an _ii_ ofCh_leaV, m theyearit374.

C_'A_.z8.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. $83notproclaimedkings,becaufetheywereof too_ten-tieranageto beprefentat theaffembly.Theywerenotyet kings,buttheyhadarightto the regaldig_,nityasfoonastheywereableto.beararms;and,iathe meantime, Clofildis,theirgrandmother,go-vernedthe ftate.-_ Buttheiruncles,ClotariusandChildebert,affaflinatedthem, and dividedtheirkingdom.Thiswasthecaufethat,inthefollowingages,princesintheirminoritywereproclaimedkingsimmediatelyafterthe deathoftheirfathers. ThusdukeGonclovaldfaredChildebertII.fromthecrtael-ty ofChilperie,andcaufedhim to be proclaimedkingt whenhewasonlyfiveyearsold.

Buteveninthischangetheyfollowedtheori_nalfpiritofthenation; for thepublicactsdidnotpalsin thenameof the youngmonarch..Sothat theFra,nkshadadoubleadminiftration; the onewhichconcernedtheperfonof the infantking, and theotherwhichregardedthe kingdom; aM in thefie£_therewasadifferencebetweenfl_eguardianlhip_a_e civiladminiftration.

CH AP. XXVIILOfAdoptionamongtheGermans.

AS the Germansbecameof agebythe widdi,gofarms,fo ti_ey"wereadoptedby the famefign.ThusGontram,willingtodeclarehisnephew,Chfl-debert,ofage,and to adopthim_brhisfon,madeufeofth_fewords. " I haveput._thisjavelininto" tky handsas a tokenthatI havegiventheeall

*' Itappear._fromGregoryofTours,1,_j.that/hechoretwonativesofBur-gunny,whichhadbeenconqueredby Clodomir_to raife themto the fee_ofTours,whichalfobe!ongedto.Clodomlr.

"_.Gregoryof Tour.%1.5"c, _. /-"7_eluflrocrtatisunojam[rratTo,fui dic_omt_ic__atalisregnareccepit.

5e¢GregoryofToursjbook7_¢,z3"

" mjr

_g4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoO_XVtIL"_mykingdom."Then, turningtowardtheaffem-bly, headded," YoufeethatmyfonChildebertis•' growna man_ obeyhim." Theodoric,kingoftheOftrogoths,intendingto adoptthe kingof theHeruli,wroteto himthus11:" It is a noblecut:-"' tomofoursto beadoptedby arms; formenof" couragealonedefervcto beourchildren.Suchis" theefficacyof thisa&, thatwhoeveris theobje&" ofit hadratherdiethanfubmitto anythingigno-•' minious.Therefore,in compliancewiththena-"' tionalufage,andbecaufeyouarea manof cou-•' rage,weadoptyouforourfonbytherebucklers_•' therefwords,thefehorfes,whichwefendyou as" aprefent."

C H A P. XXIX.Ofthefangu_naryTemperoftheKingsoftheFranks.CLOVISwasnot the only princeamongftthe

Frankswhohad invadedGaul. Manyofhisrela-tionshadpenetratedintothiscountrywithparticulaI'tribes; but,ashehadmetwithmuchgreaterfuc-eels,andcouldgrantconfiderablefettlementstofuchasfollowedhim,theFranksflockedto himfromallparts,fo thattheotherchiefsfoundthemfelvestooweakto refifthim. Heformeda defignofextermi-natinghiswholerace,andhefucceeded§. He fear-ed, laysGregoryofTours_[,lefttheFranksfhouldchoofeanotherchief. His childrenand fuccefforsfollowedthisFra&iceto theutmoftof theirpower.Thusthebrother,theuncle,thenephew,and,whatisfrillworfe,thefather,orthefon,wereperpetuallyconfpiringagainfttheirwholefamily. Thelawcon-tinuallydividedthemonarchy,whilefear_ambitio/bandcruelty,Wantedtore.uniteit.

[_In Cafliod.lib.4' ep.z.§ Gregoryo_'Toursj1,z. I_,lbld. , CHAP_

CHAP.3o. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 329

C H A P.XXX.

Ofthenational_4_emkliesoftheFranks,IT hasbeenremarked,above,that nationswho

donotcultivatethelandenjoygreatliberty.ThiswasthecareoftheGermans.Tacituslays,

thattheygavetheirkings,orchiefs,a verymoderatedegreeof power*_andCa:faradds,farther_,that,m timesofpeace,theyhadnocommonmagiffrates,buttheirprincesadminifteredjufiiceineachvillage.Thus,asGregoryofTours_ fUfficientlyproves,theFranksinGermanyhadnoking.

" Theprinces,laysTacitus[I,deliberateon mat-" tersof nogreatconcern,whileaffairsofimpor-" tancearefubmittedtothewholenation; bur, in" £t_chamanner,tl_atthereveryaffairs,whicharec' u0derthecognizanceof the people_are at the'_°fametimelaidbeforethe princes."Thiscuffomwasobfervedbythemaftertheirconquers,asmaybefeen§ inalltheirrecerds.

Tacitusfays_,thatcapitalcrimesmightbe car-riedbeforetheaffembly.It wasthefameaftertheconquefc,whenthe greatvaffalsweretriedbeforethatbodY.

Netreg;bu,liberaaut ;nfinitapoteflas.C_terumnque anlrna_vertere_regu__inc;re_,e_ue_verberare,_?¢. Demorib.German.

t In paceuMlu*e#commun_magiflratus,fedprincipe*regionumai_uepagqrleminterfuo*ju,dicunt."De helloGaiT."lib.6.

Lib.a.]]_e miuoriku;princiOetconfukant_de,aj_ribu_nmnes; ;tatamenut ca,_uorum

penes_lebemar_itriumeft,apudprincipespertra_entur.Dembrib.Germ.§ Lexco,_fuloopuli_t..... _ t_nj_iiutlonert_.i*CapitulariesofCharlestheBalJ_anno864,art. 6._[ Liter_putl¢oneiliumaceufare&dlfcrlmencapiti*;nt*ndere.Demorlb.Germ.

¥oL.I, Cc CHAP.

$86 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIX.

CHA P. XXXI.

Of the_4utborityof theClergyundertbefirflRace.THE priersof barbarousnationsarecommonly

invertedwithpower,becaufetheyhaveboththatauthoritywhichisdueto themfromtheirreligiouschara&er,andthatinfluencewhich,amongfcfuchapeople,is theoffspringof fuperftition.Thus wefee,inTacitus,thatprierswereheldingrea_vene-rationby theGermans,andthattheyprefided%intheaffembliesof"thepeople. Theyalonewereper-mittedt to chaflife,to bind,to fmite;whichtheydid,notbyorderofthe princeorashisminiRersofjuRice,but as byanirffpirationof thatDeityeverfuppofedtobeprefentwiththolewhomadewar.

Weoughtnot,therefore,to be aftonifhed,when,fromthe verybeginningofthefirf_race,wemeetwithbifhopsthe difpenfersof_ juffice; whenwefeethemappearin the affembliesof the nation;whentheyhavefuchaprodigiousinfluenceon themindsoffovereigns;andwhentheyacquirefol_rgea lhareofproperty.

8il_ntlumperfaterdoter_qulbus& ¢oercendljuseft,imaoeratur.D_mor.Germ;af .lVeclegibu*liberaauti_finitapoteflas. Cceterumnefueanimadvertere,neque

wincire,nefue"verberare,nififacerdot_buseflpetmiflum,nonquaffinpnenam,needu-_*juffu,fed_elutDeoimperante,imernadeffebe!/atoribuscredant.Demorib.Germ.

2_SeetheconffitutionsofClotariu_in the_ear56o_art.6.

BOOK

C_A_.z. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 387

]30 O K XIX.

O_FLAWS_ II_RELATION TO THE PRINCIPLESWHICHFORM THE GENERAL SPIRIT,THE MORALS_ _NDCUSTOMS_ O'FA NATION.

CHAP. I.

OftheSubje_ofthis_oo_.THIS fubjec"tisveryextenfive.In thatcroudof

ideas,whichprefentthemfelvesto mymind,I fhallbe moreattentiveto theorderof thingsthanto thethingsthemii:lves.I thalibe obligedto wandertotherightandto theleft, thatI mayinve_igateanddifcoverthetruth.

CHAP. II.

7"batit isneceffaryPeople'sMindsJhouldbepreparedforthe_ReceptionofthebeflLaws.

NOTHINGcouldappearmoreinfupportabletotkeGermans[Ithanthe tribunalof Varus. ThatwhichJuftinian§ erectedamongfttheLazi,topro-ceedagainftthemi,rderersoftheirking, appearedto themasan affairthemoil:horridandbarbarous.

Mitbrida_es¶,haranguingagainftthe Romans,reproachedthem moreparticularlyfor their*lawproceedings.The Parthianscouldnot bearwithoneof their kings,who,havingbeeneducatedatRome,renderedhimfelfaffablean_l_-e_fyof accelhto all. Libertyitfelfhasappearedifitolerableto

l] Theycutout the to_guc_of theadvocates,andcried,Viper,don'thifs,.Taeitus.

§ Agathias.lib.4" _"Juftin,1.3_.Calumnlaslitiurtt,Ibid.

ofl_romptiaditus,nwoa¢omitas_ig_oteeP_rtbls_irtutes__ova_itla. Tadtus.

Cc_. thof¢

388 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BookXIK.tholenationswhohavenot beenaccuRomedto en-joyit. Thusapureairisfometimesdifagreeabletothchashavelivedinafennycountry.

Balbi,a Venetian,beingat _ Pegu, wasintro-.ducedto the king. Whenthe monarchwasin-formedthattheyhad no kingat Venice,he bur_intofucha fitof laughterthathewasfeizedwithacough,andwithdifficultycouldfpeakto hiscour-tiers. VChatlegiflatorcouldpropofea populargo-vernmenttoapeoplelikethis?

C H A P. III.

Of _yranny.THEREaretwofortsoftyranny; onereal,which

arifesfromoppreflion; theotherisfeatedinopinion,andis fureto befeltwheneverthofewhogoverneftabli/hthings/hockingto theprefentideasof anation.

Diotellsusthat/kugultuswasdefirousof beingcalledRomulus; but, havingbeeninformedthatthepeoplefearedthathewouldcaufehimfelfto becrownedking, he changedhisdefign. The oldRomanswereaverfeto a king becaufetheycouldnotfufferanymanto enjoyfuchpower; thefewouldnot havea king becaufetheycouldnot bearhismanners.For, thoughCa_far,the triumvirs,and_uguftus,werereallyinveRedwithregalpower,theyhadpreferredall the outwardappearanceofequality,whiletheir privateliveswerea kind ofcontrafrto the pompand luxuryof foreign mo-narchs; fothat, whentheRomanswererefolvedtohaveno king, thisonlyfignifiedthat theywould

_:Hehasdpf_r_bedthis ir_terview,whichhappened,inthe Collecqlonof Voy-agesforthel_llaDhlhmentofanIndiaCompany_vol.iii.patti,p.33'

prefervc

C.av.5. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 389prefervetheir cuiloms, and not imitatethofeof the2AfricanandEaffernnations.

?_ Thefamewriterinformsus,that theRomanswereexafperatedagain_Augultusfbr makingcertainlaws

: whichweretoo revere; but, as loonashe had re-calledPylades,the comedian,whomthe jarring ofdifferentfa&ionshaddrivenout of tilecity, the dif-contentceaii:d. A peopleof thisf_amphavea more

{ livelyfenfeof tyrannywhena playerisbani_ed thanwhentheyaredeprivedof theirlaws.

CHAP. IV.

Of thegeneralSpiritofMankind.MANKINDare influencedbyvariouscaufes;by

the climate,bythe religion,by the laws, by themaximsof government,layprecedents,morals,andcuRoms; fromwhenceis formeda generaltpirit ofnations.

In proportionas, ineverycountry, any one ofthefecaulksa&swithmoreforce, the others, in thefamedegree,are weakened.Natureandthe climaterulealmoftaloneoverthe ravages; cuRomsgovernthe Chinefe; the laws tyrannizein Japan_ moralshad formerlyall theirinfluenceat Sparta; maximsof governmentand the ancient fimptickyof man-nersonceprevailedat Rome.

CHAP. V.

how far we_outdbeattentiveleftthegeneralSpiritofa Nationbechanged.

SHOULD therehappento bea countrywholein-habitantswere of a tiocialtemper, open:hearted,chearful,endowedwith tare, anda facilityof com-municatingtheir thoughts; whoweretpr,ghtlyand

C c 3 a_ccaoic

_9o THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIX_

agreeable;fometimesimprudent,often indifcreet;and, betides,hadcourage,generofity,franknef%andacertainnotionof honour_ no oneought to endea-vour to reRraintheir manners by laws, unlefshewouldlay areRraintontheirvirtues. If, ingeneral,the chara&erbegood, the little foiblesthat maybefoundin it areof fmallimportance.

']'hey nfightlay a reftraintupon women,ena&lawstoreformtheirmanners,andto reducetheirlux-ury • but whoknowsbut that, by theremeans,theymight lore that peculiar tare whichwouldbe thefourceof the wealthof the nation, and thatpolite-net_whichwouldrender the countryfrequentedby_rangers?

tt is the bufinet_of the legiflatureto followthefpirit of the nationwhenit is not contraryto theprinciplesofgovernment; for wedo nothingfowellaswhenweaekwithfreedom,andfollowthebentofour naturalgenius.

If an air of pedantrybe given to a nationthat isnaturallygay, the ftatewillgainnoadvantagefromit, eitherathomeorabroad. Leaveit todofrivolousthingsin the moRferiousmanner_and with gaietythe thingsmoftferious.

CHAP. VI.

5Chatevery_TbingoughtnottobecorreEted.

LET thembut leaveus as we are, laida gentle-manof a nation whichhada verygreatrefemblanceto thatwehavebeendefcribing,andnature willre-pair whateveris amifs. She hasgivenus a vivacitycapableof offendingand hurrying us beyondtheboundsof refpec"t: thisfamevivacityis corred'tedbythepolitenefsit procures,infpiringuswitha tare of

the

CaAv.8. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 391theworld,and,aboveall,for the converfationofthefair-fex.

Let themleaveusasweare: our indifcretions,joinedtoourgood-nature,wouldmakethelawswhich/houldcon_rainourfociabilitynot atallproperforUS.

C H A P. VII.

OftheAtheniansandLaced,emonZans.THE Athenians,thisgentlemanadds,wereana-

tionthathadromerelationto ours. Theymingledgaietywithbufinefs; a fcrokeof raillerywasasagreeableinthefenateasinthetheatre. Thisviva-city,whichdifcovereditfelfin theircouncils,wentalon__withtheminthe executionof theirrefolves.Thechara&erifficof theSpartanswasgravity,fe-rioufnefs,feverity,andfitence,ttwouldhavebeenasdifficultto bringoveranAthenianby teazingasit wouldaSpartanbydivertinghim.

C H A P. VIII.Effe_sof a fociableff'emper.

THE more communicativea peopleare, themoreeafilytheychangetheirhabits,becaufeeachis,ina greaterdegree,afpe&acleto theother,andthefingularitiesof individualsarebetterobferved.Theclimate,whichinfluencesonenationtotakea plea-lurein beingcommunicative,makesit alfodelightin change;and that, whichmakesit delightinchange,formsitstaffe.

Thefocietyofthefair-rexfpoilsthe mannersandformsthetaffe; thedefireofgivinggreaterpleafurethanotherseftablilhestheembelli[hmentsof drefs]andthedefireofpleatingothersmorethanourfelvesgivesrifetofathions.Thismodeisa fubje&ofim-

Cc 4 portance

99z THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoozXIX.

portance; bygivinga triflingturnofmind,it con-tinuallyincreafesthebranchesofitscommerce.II

CHAP. IX.OftheVanityand_PrideofNations.

VANITYisasadvantageousto agovernmentasprideisdangerous.To be convincedof this,weneedonlyrepret_nt,on theonehand,the number-lefsbenefitswhichrefultfromvanity,as induftry,thearts,falhions,politenefs,andtafte; ontheother,theinfiniteevilswhichfpringfromtheprideofcer-tainnations,aslazinefs,poverty,a totalneglectofeverything; infine,the deftru&ionofthenationswhichhavehappenedto fallundertheirgovernmentaswellasGftheirown. Lazinefs§ isthe effe&ofpride; labouraconfequenceofvanity: theprideofaSpaniardleadshimtodeclinelabour; thevanityofaFrenchmantoworkbetterthanothers.

Alllazynationsaregrave: for thofewhodonotlabourregard themfelvesasthefovereignsof tholewhodo.

If we fearchamongfl:allnations,wethallfind,what,for themoltpart, gravity,pride, and indo-lence,gohandinhand.

The peopleof Achim_ are proudandlazy;•tholewhohavenoflareshireone,if it be onlyto•carrya quartofricea hundredpaces; theywouldbedithonouredif theycarriedit themfelves.

In manyplaces,peoplelet theirnailsgrow,thatallmayfeetheydonotwork.

t Fableof the Bees.The peoplewho followthe khan of Malacamber,th_feof Carnaczta, and

Coromandel, areproudand indolent; they confume littlet becaufethey are mi-fetably poor; while thefub.je_s of the Mogulandthe peopleof lndot_anemploythemfelvesj and enjoythe conveniencesof life like the Europeans. (2olleEhen_ro.y'ageJfor theEj_abli mentof an IndiaComt_an_• /fh... vol.i. p,54.SeCDa_p,erj*ol.m.

Women_

_HAP,|O.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 393

_'omen, in the Indies_, believe it lhamefulforthemto learntoread: thisis, theyfay, thebufinefsof theirflares, whoringtheirfpirituallongs in thetemplesof their pagods. In onetribethey donotfpin; inanothertheymake nothingbut balkersandmats; theyarenoteventopoundrice; andinothersthey muffnotgo to fetchwater. There rules areeftablifhedbypride; and the fame paffionmakesthemfollowed.There isnoneceffityfor mentioningthat themoralqualities,accordingas theyareblend-ed withothers,are produ&iveof differenteffe&s:thuspride, joinedto a raft ambitionand notionsofgrandeur,producedfucheffe&samongtheRomansasareknowntoall theworld.

CHAP. X.

Of theCharagYerof theSpaniardsandCbinefi.THE chara&ersofthe feveralnationsare formed

of virtues and vices, of good and bad qualities..Fromthe happymixtureof thefegreat advantagesrefu!t, andfrequentlywhereit would be leaf_ex-pe&ed; there are othersfromwhencegreat evils•arife, evilswhichonewouldnot fut]pe&.

The Spaniardshavebeen, in all ages, famousfortheir honefty. Juftin t-mentions their fidelityinkeepingwhateverwasentruftedto theircare; theyhavefrequentlyfuffereddeath ratherthan revealafecret. They have_ll thefamefidelity for whichthey were formerlydiftinguifhed. All the nationswho trade to Cadiztruft theirforunesto the Spa-niards, andhaveneveryet repentedit. Butthis ad-mirablequality,joined to their indolence,t0rmsamixturefromwhencefuch effeCtsrefultas to them

EdifyingLctters_lzth colic&,p,80,L_b.43.

39# THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. B0oKXtX.aremoltpernicious.ThereftoftheEuropeanna-tionscarryon, in theirveryRght,allthecommerceoftheirmonarchy.

The chara&eroftheChinefeisformedofanothermixture,dire&lyoppofiteto thatof the Spaniards:the precarioufnefsoftheirfubfiftence_ infpiresthemwithaprodigiousa&ivity,andfuchan exceflivede-fireof gain, thatnotradingnationcan confideintherntl. Thisacknowledgedinfidelityhas fecuredthemthepoffeflionofthetradeto Japan. NoEu-ropeanmerchanthaseverdaredto undertakeit in,heirname,howeafyfoeverit mightbeforthemtodo it fromtheirmaritimeprovincesinthe North.

CHAP. XI.

.d ReflecTion.I havelaidnothingherewithaviewto leffenthat

infinitediftancewhichmuffeverbe betweenvirtueandvice. GodforbidthatI fhouldbeguiltyoffuch_nattempt.I wouldonlymakemyreaderscompre-hend, that all politicalarenot moralvices; andthatallmoralarenotpoliticalvices; andthatthole,whomakelawswhich/hockthe generalfpiritofa_ation,oughtnottobeignorantof this.

C H A P. XII.

OfCufloraandMannersin a defpoticState.IT isacapitalmaxim,thatthe mannersandcur-

tomsof a defpoticempireoughtneverto bechan-ged; fornothingwouldmorefpeedilyproducearevolution.Thereafonis,that,in theftftates,therearenolaws; thatis, nonethatcanbeproperlycall-

_.Bythenatur_ofthe foilandel]mate,

DuH_de_vol.ii, Cd

C_,F.J3, THE SPIRIT OF LAWS, _9_

ed fo; ther_e_.reonlym_nnersand cu_oms; and, ifyouoverturntheft, youoverturnall.

LawsareeRabliflaed,mannersareinfpiredi thefeproceedtroma generalfpirit,thofefroma particularinRitution: no% it is as dangerous,nay,morefo,to fubvertthegeneralfpiritasto changeaparticularinRitution.

There is leftcommunicationin a countrywhereeach, eitheras fuperioror inferior,cxercifes,or isoppreffedby, arbitrarypower,thanthereis in tholewherelibertyreignsinever_Ration. They do nor,therefore,fo oftenchangetheir mannersand beha-viour. Fixed and eRablifhedcuRomshavea nearrefemblanceto laws. Thus it is here neceffarythata princeora legiflatorfhouldlefsoppoftthemannersandcuRomsof the peoplethan in anyothercountryuponearth.

Their womenare commonlyconfined,and haveno influencein fociety. In othercountries,wheretheyhave an intercourfewith men, theirdefireof"pleating,andthedefiremenalfohaveof givingthempleaft:re,produce a continualchangeof cuftoms.The twofexesfpoileachother; they bothloretheirdiRinCtiveandeffentialquality; what was naturallyfixtbecomesquiteunfettled,and their cuftomsandbehaviouraltereveryday.

C H A P. XIII.

Of theBehaviour_f theChinefi,.

BUT Chinais theplacewherethe cuftomsof thecountrycannever be changed. Betides,their wo-menbeingabfolutely£eparatedfrom the men, theircufloms,liketheirmorals,are taught in thefchools.A manof §lettersmaybe knownbyhiseafyaddrefs.

§DuHalde.There

_96 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. ]3OOKXIX.

Therethings,beingoncetaughtbypreceptandin-culcatedby gravedo&ors,becomefixed,liketheprinciplesofmorality,andareneverchanged.

C H A P. XIV.

WhatarethenaturalMeansof changingtheMannersandCuflomsof a Nation.

WE havelaidthatthelawswerethe particularandprecifeinititutionsof alegiflator,and mannersandcu_omstheinftitutionsofa nationin general.From henceit follows,that,whentheremannersandcut,oresareto bechanged,it oughtnotto bedonebylaws; thiswouldhavetoomuchtheairoftyranny: it wouldbe betterto changethembyin-troducingothermannersandothercuff:ores.

Thus,whenaprincewouldmakegreataltera-tionsin hiskingdom,he/houldreformbylawwhatiseftablithedbylaw,andchangebycuRomwhatisfettledbycu_omi forit isverybadpolicyto changebylawwhatoughtto bechangedbycufiom.

ThelawwhichobligedtheMufcovitesto cut off'theirbeardsandto lhortentheircloaths,andtheri-gourwithwhichPeterI. madethemcrop,eventotheirknees,thelongcloaksoftholewhoenteredin-to thecities,werein_ancesof tyranny.Therearemeansthatmaybemadeufeof to preventcrimes;therearepunilhments: thereare tholeforchangingourcuftoms,thereareexamples.

The facilityandeafewithwhichthatnationhasbeenpolifhedplainlylhewthat this princehad aworfeopinionofhispeoplethantheydeferred; antithattheywerenotbrutes,thoughhewaspleafedtocallthemfo. Theviolentmeafureswhichhe em-ployedwereneedlers; hewouldhaveattainedhisejad_swellbymildermethods. He

i CSAF.*¢.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 397He himfelfexperiencedthe facilityof bringing

abouttherealterations.Thewomenwerefhutup,andinromemeafureflares; hecalledthemtocourt;he fentthemfilksandfinefluffs,andmadethemdrefsliketheGermanladies. Thisfeximmediately"relifheda mannerof lifewhichfogreatlyflatteredtheirtafle,theirvanity,andtheirpaflions; and,bytheirmeans,itwasrelifhedbythemen.

Whatrenderedthechangethemoreearlwas,thattheirmanners,at thattime,wereforeignto thecli-mate,and had beenintroducedamongflthembyconqueflandbya mixtureofnations. PeterI. ingivingthe mannersandcuftomsof Europeto artEuropeannation,foundafacilitywhichhedidnothimfelfexpe&. The empireof theclimateis thefirft,the moflpowerful,of all empires.He had,then,nooccafionforlawstochangethemannersandcuflomsofhiscountry; it wouldhavebeenfufficientto haveintroducedothermannersandothercuftoms.

Nationsare,ingeneral,verytenaciousoftheircuf-toms; totakethemawaybyviolenceisto renderthemunhappy: weflaouldnot, therefore,changethem,butengagethe peopleto makethechangethemfelves.

Allpunifhmentwhichisnotderivedfromneceffityistyrannical."lhelawis notamerea&ofpower;thing.sintheirownrmtureindifferentarenotwithinitsprovince.

CHAP.

39_ THE SPIRIT UF LAWS. B66gXiX.

CHAP. XV.

if'beInfluenceef domeflicGovernmentanthepolitical.THiS alterationin the mannersof womenwill

doubttefshavea greatint_t_enceon the governmeritof Mufcovy.Onen'aturallyfollowsth'eother: tiledefpoticpowerof theprinceisconnectedWithrh'efervitudeofwomen; thelibertyofwomen_iththefFiritofmonarchy.

C H A P. XVI.

HowromeLegiflatorshaveconfoundedthePrineip/eswhichgovernMankind.

MANNERSandcuftomsaretholebabifswk?charenoteffablifhedbylegiflaters,eitherbecaxffetheywerenotable,orwerenotwil|ing,toeftab]ifhthem.

Thereisthisdiffererrcebetweenl:awsarrdmanners,thatthelawsaremof_adaptedtoregulatethe_&ionsof thefubject,andmanners'to regulatethe ac2ietrSof theman. Thereis thisdifferencebetcceeriman,fretsarmctrl_oms,thefttheformerprincipallyrela'ceto theinteriorconduct,thelatterto theexterior.

Thefethings_ havebeenfometimesconfounded.Lycurgusmadethefamecodeforthelaws,manners,andcuftoms";andthelegiflatorsofChinahavedonethefame.

Weoughtnot tobe furprizedthatthelegiflatorsof ChinaandSpartalhouldconfoundthelaws,man-ners,andcuftoms:thereafonis, theirmannersre-,prefenttheirlaws,andtheircuffomstheirmanners.

Theprincipalobject,whichthelegiflatorsofChi-nahad in view,was,to maketheirfubje&slivein

_[ Molesmadethefamecodefor la_sand_eFgion.TheoldRomanscon-foundedthe ancientcuftomswiththela_v._.-

peace

CsAP.16. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. _99

peaceand tranquility.They wouldhavepeoplefilledwitha venerationfor oneanother,thateachfhouldbeevery"momentfenfibleof hisdependenceon fociety,andof theobligationsheowedto hisfellow-citizens.Theythereforegaverulesof themoRextenfivecivility.

Thusthe inhabitantsof the*villagesof Chinapra_ifeamongftthemfelvesthe fameceremoniesastholeobfervedbyperfonsof an exaltedRation• averypropermethodofinfpiringmildandgentledif-pofitions,ofmaintainingpeaceandgoodorder,andof baniflaingall theviceswhichfpringfromanaf-perityoftemper. In effe&,wouldnot thefreeingthemfrom the rulesof civilitybeto fearchout amethodfor themtoindulgetheirownhumours?

Civilityis, inthisrefpe&,ofmorevaluethanpo-litenefs.Politenefsflattersthevicesof others,andcivilitypreventsoursfrombeingbroughtto light.Irisa barrierwhichmenhaveplacedwithinthemfelvesto preventthecorruptionofeachother.

Lycurgus,whofeinRitutionswererevere,hadnoregardto civilityin formingtheexternalbehaviour;he hada viewto that warlikefpiritwith whichhe wouldfaininfpirehispeople. A people,whowerein acontinualRateof difciplineand inf_ruc-tion, and whowereenduedwithequalfimplicityandrigour,atonedbytheirvirtuesfortheirwantofcomplaifance.

• SeeDuHalde. r

CHAP,

400 THE SPIRIT OFLAWS. ]3oo_XiXo

C H A P. XVII,

Ofthepeculiar.9_alityof theCbinefeGovernment.THE legiflatorsofChinawentfarther.-t- They

confoundedtogethertheirreligion,laws,manners,andcuftoms; allthereweremorality,all therewerevirtue. The preceptsrelatingto thet_fourpointswerewhattheycalledrites; andit wasin theexacT:obfervanceoftherethattheChinefegovernmenttri-umphed. Theyfpenttheirwholeyouthinlearningthem,theirwholelifein thepro&ice.Theyweretaughtbytheirmenof letters,theywereinculcatedbythemagiftrates; and,astheyincludedalltheor-dinarya6tionsoflife, whentheyfoundthemeansofmakingthemftric'tlyobferved,Chinawaswellgo-verned.

Two thingshavecontributedto the eafewithwhichthereritesareengravedintheheartsandmindsof the Chinefe_ one, the difficultyof writing,which,duringthegreate_partoftheirlives,whollyemploystheirat'tention_, becaufeit is neceffarytopreparethemto readand underffandthebooksinwhichtheyarecomprized; theother,thattheritualprecepts,havingnothingin themthat is fpiritual,but beingmerelyrulesof commonpra&ice,aremoreadaptedtoconvinceandRfikethe mindthanthingsmerelyintelle&ual.

Tholeprinces,who,inf[eadofrulingbythererites,governedbythe forceof punithments,wantedtoaccomplilhthat bypunifhmentswhichit is notintheir powerto produce,that is, to givehabitsofmorality.Bypunilhments,a fubje&is veryjuRly

SeetheclaffichooksfromwhichfatherDu Haldegivesus romeexcellentextra_%

It nsthis whichhasd_ablilhedemulation_whichhasbani_ecllazinefs_and¢ultivatcdaloveofharai_. cut

C_Av. 18. THE 8P.IRIT OF LAWS. 4o!

cutofffromfociety,wl_o,havingIottthepurityof_: hismanners,violatesthelaws: but, ifalltheworld

wereto lofetheirmoralhabits,wouldthefere-efta-blilhthem? Punilhmentsmaybejut_lyinflictedtoputa ftopto manyof theconfequencesofthegene-ralevil, buttheywill not remoyethe evilitfelf.Thus,whentheprinciplesoi_theChinefegovernmentweredifcardedand moralitywasbanifhed,thePcatefellintoanarchy,andrevolutionsfucceeded.

C H A P. XVilI.

_4Confe_uencedrawnfromtheprecedingChapter.FROMhenceit followsthatthelawsof China

arenotdeftroyedbyconqueft.Theircu_oms,man-ners,laws,andreligion,beingthefamething,theycannotchangeall thereatonce; and,asit willhap-penthateithertheconqueroror theconqueredmuff:change,inChinait hasalwaysbeentheconqueror.For,themannersoftheconqueringnationnotbeingtheircuftoms,northeircuftomstheirlaws,northeirlawstheirreligion,it hasbeenmoreeafyforthemtoconform,bydegrees,to thevanquifhedpeople,thanthelattertothem.

ThereRillfollowsfromhencea veryunhappy"confequence,whichis,thatit isalmottimpoffibleforChriftianityIIeverto beef_ablifhedin China. Thevowsof virginity,the affemblingof womeninchurches,theirneceffarycommunicationwith theminiftersofreligion,theirparticipationinthefacra-ments,auricularconfeffion,extremeun&ion,themarriageofonlyonewife,allthereoverturntheman-IIseethereafonsg[renby theCh/nefemagit_crates,intheirdecrees,forpro-

£cribingtheChritlianreligio'n._dif)'ingLetter_,17tb¢ff/eFl.

Vox..I. Dd ners

4oz THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIX.

hersandcut_comsof thecountry,and,withthe fame•blow,ffrikeattheirreligionand laws.

The Chriftianreligion,by the eftablithmentofcharity, by a public worthip,by a participationofthe famefacraments,feemstodemandthat all fhould.be united_ whilethe ritesof Chinafeem to ordairtthatall fhouldbe fepnrazed.

And, as we havefeen that this feparatlon§de-pends, in general,on the fpirit of defpofifm,thiswill lhewus the reafonwhy monarchies,and in-deedallmoderategovernments,aremoreconfiftent_withthe ChriRianreligion.

CHAP. XIX.

HowthisUnionofReligion,Laws, Manners,andCur-toms,amongtheCbinefe,waseffecTed.

THE principalobje&of government,whichtheChinefelegiflatorshad in view,wasthe peace and_tranquilityof the empire: and fubordinationap-pearedto themasthemoltpropermeanstomaintainit. Filledwiththisidea, they believedit theirdutyto infpirea.refpec"tfor parents,andthereforeexertedall theirpowerto effec"tit. They eftablifhedan in.finite number of ritesand ceremoniesto do themhonourwhen living, and aftertheirdeath. I1:wasimpoffiblefor themtopayfuch honoursto deceafed,parents without beingled to reverencethe living_The ceremoniesat the deathof a fatherweremorenearlyrelatedto roligion; tholi:for a livingparenthad a greaterrelationto the laws,manners,andcur-toms: however, therewereonlyparts of the famecode; but thlscodewasveryextcnfive.

§ Seeb_ok4' c. 3"andbook9, c. lz, _- Seebook:t4. c, 3"

A

C_^i,.I9. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 4o3Avenerationfortheirparentswasneceffarilycon-

nee'tedwithafuitablerefpe&forallwhoreprefentedthem,fuchas old men,mafters,magiffrates,andthe fovereign.This refpe&forparentsfuppofedareturnof lovetowardschildren,andconfequentlythefamereturnfromoldmento the young,frommagiPcratesto tholewhowereundertheirjurifdic-tion,andfromthe emperorto hisfubje&s.Thisformedtherites,andthereritesthegeneralfpiritofthenation.

Wethallnowlhewtherelationwhichthings,inappearancethe mo/tindifferent,mayhavetothefundamentalconftitutionofChina. Thisempireisformedon theplanof a governmentof a family.If youdiminilhthe paternalauthority,or evenifyouretrenchtheceremonieswhichexprefsyourref-pe&for it, youweakenthereverencedueto magif-trates,whoareconfideredasfathers; norwouldthemagiffrateshavethefamecareo_thepeople,whomtheyoughtto lookuponastheirchildren; andthattenderrelation,whichfubfiftsbetweenthe princeandhisfubjec'ts,wouldinfenfiblybelolt. Retrenchbutoneoftherehabits,andyouoverturnthe ftate.It is a thing in itfelfvery indifferent,whetherthedaughter-in-lawrileseverymorningto payfuchandfuchdutiestohermother-in-law; but, ifweconfiderthat thereexteriorhabitsinceffantlyreviveanideaneceffaryto be imprintedonallminds,an ideathatformsthe rulingfpiritof theempire,welhallfeethatitisneceffarythatfuchorfuchaparticularactionbeperformed.

Dd z CHAP.

4o4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BooKXIX.

CHAP. XX.

ExplicationofaParadoxrelatingtotheChinefe.IT is veryremarkable,that the Chinefe,whole

livesareguidedbyrites,areneverthelefsthegreater%cheatsuponearth. This appearschieflyin theirtrade,which,in fpiteof its naturaltendency,has

-neverbeenabletomakethemhonefLHewhobuysof themoughttocarrywithhimhisown* weights,everymerchanthavingthreeforts; the oneheavy,for buying; anotherlight,forfelling; andanotherof thetrue t_andard,fortholewhoareupontheirguard. It ispoffible,I believe,toexplainthiscon-tradi&ion.

Thelegiflatorsof Chinahadtwoobje&sin view;theyweredefirousthatthepeoplethouldbefubmif-fiveandpeaceful,andthattheylhouldalfobe labo-riousandinduftrious.Bythenatureof thefoilandclimate,theirfubfiflenceisveryprecarious; norcanit beanyotherwayfecuredthanby induffryandla-bour.

Wheneveryoneobeysandeveryoneisemployedthe_ateisina happyfituation.It is.neceffity,andperhapsthe natureoftheclimate,thathasgiventotheChinefeaninconceivablegreedinefsforgain,andlawshaveneverbeenmadeto ret_rainit. Everythinghasbeenfo,biddenwhenacquiredby a&sofviolence;everythingpermittedwhenobtainedbyartificeorlabour. Let USnot, then,comparethemoralsofChinawiththofeofhurope: Everyone,in China,isobligedto be attentiveto whatwillbeforhisadvantage;ifthecheathasbeenwatchfuloverhisowninterefl:,hewhoisthedupeoughtto beat-eLange'eJournalinz7zlandI7_, inVoyagestotheNorth,vol,8.p.363.

tenti_ze

C_^P. zz. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 4.05

tentiveto his. At Sparta they werepermittedtoIleali inChinatheyaretuffcredtodeceive.

C H A P. XXI.

How theLaws oughttoha-Jea Rdation1o MannersandCuflon,s.

IT is only fingu]arinftitutionswhichthus con-foundlaws, manners,and cuftoms,thingsnaturallydittinc2and feparate: but, thoughtheyare in them-felvesdifferent,thereis neverthelefsa greatrelationbetweenthem.

Solonbeingafkedif the lawshe had givento theAthenianswerethebelt, he repliedo.". I havegiven" themthebelttheywereableto bear." A fineex-preffion,thatoughtto be perfe6tlyunderftoodbyall legiflators! WhendivineWifdom laid to theJews, ,' I have givenyou preceptswhichare n.ot" good," thisfignifiedthactheyha_ 9ntya.relativegoodnefs; whichis the fpongethat wipesloutall the_ifficulticsin thelawof Moles.

CHAP. XXII.

_'befame8ubje_continued."WHENa peoplehavepure andregularmanners,

theirlawsbecomefimpleand natural. Plato "t"laysthatRhadamanthus,whogoverneda nationextreme-ly religious,finifhedevery procefswithextraordi-narydifpatch,adminifferingonlythe oath on eachaccul_tion.But, faysthe famePlato,, whena peo-plearenot religious,weihouldneverhaverecourfetoan oath, excepthe whofwearsis intirelydifinte-refted,as in the careofa judge anda wimefs.

"_Oflaws_lib.lz. _.O/flaws1lib.Iz.

Dd 3 - CH,_.P.

r

4.06 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS° BooKXIX.

C H A P. XXIII.

HowtheLawsarefeundedontheMannersofa People.AT thetimewhenthe mannersof the Romans

werepure, theyhadnoparticularlaw'againtttheembezzlementof the publicmoney. Whenthiscrimebeganto appear,it wasthoughtfo infamous,that, to becondemnedto rettoreUwhattheyhadta-ken,wasconfideredas afufficientdifgrace:for aproofof this,feethefentenceofL. Scipio.§

C H A P. XXIV.7"befame8ubje_lcontinued.

THE laws,whichgavetherightof tutelagetothe mother,weremo_attentiveto theprefervationof theinfant'sperfon; thole,whichgrantedit tothenext heir,weremoftattentivetotheprefervationofthe Rate. Whenthemannersof apeoplearecor-rupted,itis muchbetterto givethe tutelageto themother. AmongRthole,whofelawsconfidein themannersofthefubjec"ts,theguardian[hipisgrantedeitherto thenextheir,or tothemother,androme-timestoboth.

If wereflectontheRomanlaws,we/hallfindthatthefpiritof therewasconformableto whatI haveadvanced.Atthetimewhenthelawsofthetwelvetablesweremade,themannersof the Romansweremo_ admirable.The guardian[hipwasgiventothe nearerrelationofthe infant,froma ¢onfidera-tionthatheoughtto havethetroubleofthetutelagewhomightenjoytheadvantageof poffeffingtlaein-heritance.They did not imaginethe lifeof theheirindanger,though it wasput into a perfon'shandswhowouldreapa benefitbyhisdeath. But,

lnflmplum, § Livy,1.38.when

CHAP.25. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 4o7whenthe mannersof Romewerechanged,her le-

! giflatorsaiteredtheircondu&.If, inthe pupitlarythb_itution,fayCaius_ andJuf'tinian*,the tefta-torisafraidthatthefubffitutewilllayanyfnaresforthe pupil,he mayleavethe vulgar-]-fubftitutionopen,andputthepupillaryintoapartof thete_a-mentwhichcannotbe openedtillaftera certaintime. Theft:fearsandprecautionswereunknowntotheprimitiveRomans.

C H A P. XXV.

_ebefameSubje_continued.THERomanlawgavethelibertyofmakingpre-

rentsbeforemarriage;aftermarriagetheywerenotallowed.Thiswasfoundedonthemannersof theRomans,whowereledto marriageonlybyfrugali-ty,fimpticity,andmodefty,but mightfufferthem-felvesto bereducedbydomefliccares,bycomplacen-cy, andtheconftanttenourofconjugalfelicity.

A lawofthe :_Vifigothsforbadethemangivingmoreto the womanhe wasto marrythanthetenthpart of hisfubftance,andhisgivingheranythingduringthe firftyearof their marriage.Thisalfotookitsrifefromthemannersof thecountry. Thelegiflatorswerewillingto putaRopto thatSpanilhoftentationwhichonlyledthemto difpla),an excel-fiveliberalityina&sofmagnificence.

TheRomans,bytheirlaws,put a flopto romeoftheinconvenienceswhichaforefromthemoftdu-rableempirein theworld,thatofvirtue; the Spa-

4[[Int_itnt.lib.tit. u. 6. §. 2. Ozel'scomp]|emerit_at Leyden_in x658._*Infiitut.I. z. de_upil.Ju_flit.§ 3"of Theformof the vulgar£ubftitut_onranth_ : If fuchanoneisunwilling

totaketheinheritanc%I fubftitute,in his/_ead,_¢, Thepupithiryfubl_itut_on_If fuehanonediesbeforehearrivesat theageofISubertv,1tubl_itttte__¢.

Lib.,_.tit. 5. §. S'

Dd 4 niards,

408 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoolcXIX.

niards,bytheirs,wouldpreventthe bad effe&sofa tyrannythemo_frailandtranfitory,thatofbeauty.

CHAP. XXVI.ThefameSubje_continued.

"l-HElaw11of TheodofiusandValentinialadrearthecaufesofrepudiationfromtheancientmanners§andcuftomsoftheRomans.It placedin thenum-beroftherecaufesthe behaviourofthe hufoand¶whobeathis wifein a mannerthat difgracedthechara&erof a freebornwoman. This caufewasomittedin thefollowinglaws*;for theirmanners,in thisretpec"t,hadundergonea change; theeafterncuttomshavingbanilhedtholeofEurope. Thefirfteunuchof theemprefs,wifetoJuftinianII. threat-enedher, laysthe hifforian,to chaftifeherin thefamemanneras childrenare punifhedat fchool.Nothingbut ettablithedmanners,or thofewhichtheywerereekingto eftablifh,couldraifeevenanideaofthiskind.

Wehavefeenhowthelawsfollowthemannersofa people; let usnowobfervehowthemannersfol-1Qwthelaws.

CHA P. XXVII.HowtheLawscontributetoformtheManners,Cuflomsj

andCbara_er,ofa Nation.THE cuftomsofanenflavedpeoplearea partof

theirfervitude; tholeofa freepeoplearea partoftheirliberty.

I havefpoken,in theeleventhbook%of afreepeople,andhavegiventheprinciplesoftheirconfti-

IIleg.S.cod.derepudiis._jAndthelawoftheIztables.SeeCieero's2dPhilippic._[$i_erberibus,_u¢ingenui:alienafunt,afftienteraproba_erit.* InNov.Iz7. c.14. "tChap.6.

tution:

CsAp._7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 4_tut_on: let us nowfeetheetTe&swhichfollowfromf,hisliberty, the chara&erit is capableof forming,andthecuffomswhichnaturallyrefultfromit.

I do notdenythatthe climatemayhaveproducedgreatpartof thetaws,manners,andcuffoms,of thisnation; but I maintainthat its.mannersandcuffomshavea clofeconne&ionwithits laws.

As thereare, in thisftate,twovifiblepowers,thelegiflativeandexecutive,andaseverycitizenhas awillof hisown,andmayat pleafureafferthis inde-pendence,moltmenhavea greaterfondnefsforoneof therepowersthan for theother, and the multi-tudehavecommonlyneitherequitynorfenfeenoughto fhewan equalaffe&ionto both.

And, as the executivepower,by difpofingof allemployments,may give greathopesand no fears,every man, whoobtainsanyfavourfromit, isreadyto elpoufeitscaufe; whileit is liabletobe attackedby tholewhohavenothingto hopefromit.

All thepaflionsbeingunreftrained,hatred,envy,jealoufy,andanambitiousdefireof richesandho-nours,appearintheirfullextent: wereit otherwife,theRatewouldbe in theconditionof a manweak;enedby ficknefs,whois withoutpaffionsbecaufeheis withoutRrength.

The hatred whicharifesbetweenthe twopartieswillalwaystiabfifr,becaufeit willalwaysbe impotent.

There partiesbeingcompofedof freemen,ifthe_ one becomestoopowerfalfor theother, as a con-

fequenceof liberty, thisother is depreffediwhilethecitizenstaketheweakerfide, with the famerea-dinefsasthehandslendtheiraffiftanceto removetheinfirmitiesanddiforder_of thebody.

Everyindividualis independentland,beingcom-mon.iyledbycapriceandhumour,frequentlychangesparues: he abandonsone, where he left all his

fiiends,

4xo THE _PIRIT "OFLAWS. Boo_KIX.friends,tounitehimfelfto another,in whichhefindsallhisenemies: fothat,in thisnal;ion,itfre-quentlyhappensthatthepeopleforgetthe lawsoffriendfh!paswellasthofeofhatred.

Thefovereignis herein thefameeafewkhapri-vate perfon;and,againf'cthe ordinarymaximsofprudence,is frequentlyobligedto givehis confi-dencetotholewhohavemoffoffendedhim, andtodifgracethe men_whohavebefffervedhim: hedoesthatbyneceltitywhichotherprincesdobychoice.

Asweareafraidofbeingdeprivedof thebteffingwealreadyenjoy,andwhichmaybe difguifedandmifreprefentedtous; and as fearalwaysenlargesobje&s;the peopleareuneafyunderfucha fitua-tion,andbelievethemfelvesin dangerevenin thofemomentswhentheyaremoil:fecure.

Asthofe,who,withthegreateftwarmth,oppofetheexecutivepower,darenotavowthefelf-intereftedmotivesof their oppofition,fomuchthemoredotheyincreafetheterrorsofthepeople,whocanneverbecertainwhethertheyare in dangeror not. Buteventhis contributesto makethemavoidtherealdangersto whichtheymay,intheeud,beexpofed.

Butthelegiflativebody,havingtheconfidenceofthepeople,andbeingmoreenlightenedthanthey,maycalmtheiruneafinefs,andmake themrecoverfromthebadimpreffionstheyhaveentertained.

Thisis.thegreatadvantagewhichthisgovernmenthasovertheancientdemocracies,in whichthepeo-plehadanimmediatepower; for, whentheyweremovedandagitatedby the orators,thefeagitatioi:salwaysproducedtheireffe&.

But,whenanimprefiionof terrorhasnocertainob]e&,itproduces_onlyclamourandabufe: it has,however,thisgoodeffe&,thatit putsall thelpringsof governmentintomotion,andfixestheattentionof

i CHAP.Z7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 4uof everycitizen: but,if it arifesfroma violationof

:_ thefundamentallaws,itisfullen,cruel,andprodu-: cestherr_ofldreadfulcataflrophes.

Soonwefhouldfeeafrightfulcalm,duringwhicheveryonewoulduniteagainflthatpowerwhichhadviolatedthelaws.

If, whentheuneafinefsproceedsfromnocertainobje&,fomeforeignpowerfhouldthreatentheRate,orputitsprofperityoritsgloryindanger,thelittleintereflsofpartywouldthenyieldto themoreRrongandbinding,andtherewouldbeaperle&coalitionin favourof theexecutivepower.

But,if thedifputeswereoccafionedbyaviolationof thefundamentallaws,andaforeignpowerthouldappear,therewouldbearevolutionthatwouldnei-ther alterthe conRitutionnor theformof govern-ment. Forarevolutionformedby libertybecomesaconfirmationofliberty.

A freenationmayhaveadeliverer;a nationen-flayedcanhaveonlyanotheroppreffor.

For, whoeveris able to dethronean abfoluteprince,hasa powerfufficientto becomeabfolutehimfelf.

As theenjoymentofliberty,andevenitsfupportandprefervation,confiRsineveryman'sbeingallow-ed to fpeakhisthoughtsandtolay openhisfenti-ments; a citizen,in thisRate,willfayor writewhateverthelawsdonotexprefslyforbidto befaidorwritten.

A peoplelikethis, beingalwaysinaferment,aremoreeafilycondu&edbytheirpaffionsthanbyrea-fort,whichneverproducesanygreaterie&in themindofman: itis thereforeeafyforthofewhogo-vernto makethemundertakeenterprizescontraryto theirtrueintereft.

This

,_2 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIX.

Thisnationispaffionatelyfondof liberty,,becaufethislibertyis real; and it is poflible/:orit, m itsde-fence, to facrificeits wealth,itseafe,its intereft,andto fupportthe burthenof themoil:heavyta_es,evenfuch,asa defpoticprincedurffnot lay uponhis fub-je&s.

But, asthe peoplehavea certainknowledgeoftheneceflStyoffubmirtingto thotktaxes, theypay themfrom thewell-foundedhopeoftheirdifcontinuance;theirburthensare heavy,but theydo not feeltheirv_eight; while,inother Rates, the uneafinefsis infi-nitelygreaterthantheevil.

This nationmuft,therefore,havea fixedand cer-taincredit, becaufeit borrowsof itfelfand paysit-|_:lf. It is pofliblefor it to undertakethingsaboveits naturalltrength,and employagainft its enemiesimmenferumsof fi&itiousriches,whichthe creditandnatureof the governmentmayrenderreal.

To preferveitsliberty, it borrowsof its fubjec"ts;andthefubje&s,feeingthat its creditwouldbe loftifeverit wereconquered,havea new motivetomakefrefheffortsindefenceofits liberty.

This nation,inhabitingan ifland,is not fond ofconquering,becaufeit wouldbe weakenedby dif-rantconquers; efpeciallyas thefoil of the iflandisgood; for it has thenno needof enrichingitfelfbywar; and, as no citizen is fubje&toanother,eachletsa greatervalueon hisown libertythan on thegloryofoneor anynumberofcitizens.

Mihtarymenarethereregardedas belongingto aprofelfionwhichmaybe ufeful,but isoften danger-ous; andasmenwholeveryfervicesareburthenfometo thenation: civilqualificationsare thereforemoreefteemedthan the military.

This nation,whichlibertyand thelawsrenderea-fy, on beingfreedfromperniciousprejudices,is be-

comc

C_AP.z7. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 413comea tradingpeople; and,asit hasromeoftholeprimitivematerialsoftrade,outof whicharemanu-fa&uredfuchthingsas,fromthearti_'shand,receiveaconfidcrablevalue,it hasmadefcttlementspropertoprocuretheenjoymentofthisgiftofheavenia itsfullef_extent.

Asthisnationisfituatedtowardsthe North,andhasmanyfuperfluouscommodities,it muffwantal-foagreatnumberofmerchandizeswhichitsclimatewillnot produce:it has thereforeenteredintoagreatandneceffaryintercourfewiththefouthernna-tions; and,makingchoiceofthole_ateswhomit is-willingto favourwithanadvantageouscommerce,itentersintofuchtreatieswiththenationit haschofenasarereciprocallyufefultoboth.

InaRate,where,on theonehand,theopulenceis extreme,and,ontheother,thetaxeszreexce/five,theyarehardlyableto liveona fmaUfortunewith-out indufl:ry: many,therefore,undera pretenceoftravellingorof health,retirefromamongPcthem,andgo infearchof plentyevento the countriesofflavery.

A tradingnationhasaprodigiousnumberoflittleparticularintereffs; it may,then,injureor beinju-redaninfinitenumberof ways. Thusit becomesimmoderatelyjealous,andis moreaffii&edattheprofperityofothersthanitrejoicesat itsown.• Anditslaws,'otherwifemildandeafy,maybeforigid,witfirefpe&tothetradeandnavigationcar-riedonwithit, thatit mayfeemto tradeonlywith.enemies.

If thisnationfendscoloniesabroad,it mut_ratherbetoextenditscommercethanitsdominion.

Asmenarefondof introducingintootherplatesWhattheyhaveeffablilhedamongfl:themfelves,theyhavegiventhepeopleofthecoloniestheirownformof

4z4 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. BoozXlX.

of government; and,thisgovernmentcarryingprof-perityalongwithit, theyhaverailedgreatnationsintheforeRstheywerelenttoinhabit.

Havingformerlyfubdueda neighbouringnation,which,by itsfituation,the gooclnefsof its ports,andthe natureof its produ&s,infpiresit withjea-loufy,thoughit hasgiventhisnationits ownlaws,yetit holdsitingreatdependence: thefubje&stherearefree,andtheRateitfelfin flavery.

TheconqueredRatehasanexcellentcivilgovern-ment,but is oppreffedbythe lawofnations:lawsareimpofedbyonecountryontheother,andtherearefuehasrenderits profperityprecarious,andde-pendentonthewillofamaffer.

The rulingnation,inhabitinga largeifland,andbeinginpoffeffionofa greattrade,hath,withextra-ordinaryeafe,grownpowerfulat fea; and,astheprefervationofitslibertiesrequiresthatitlhouldhaveneitherRrongholds,norfortreffes,norlandforces,it hasoccafionfor a formidablenavyto defenditagain_invafions; a navywhichmuRbefuperiortothatofallotherpowers,who,employingtheirtrea-luresin warsat land,,havenotfufficientfortholeatlea.

Theempireoftheleahasalwaysgiventhoti:whohaveenjoyedit anatural'pride_ becaufe,thinkingthemfelvescapableof extendingtheirinfultswhere-evertheypleafe,theyimaginethattheirpowerisasboundlefsastheocean.

Thisnationhasagreatinfluencein the affairsofitsneighbours; for, asitspowerisnotemployedinconquers,itsfriendfhipismorecourted,anditsre-fentmentmoredreaded,thancouldnaturallybeex-pe&edfromthe inconRancyofits governmentanditsdomefticdivifions.

Thus

C_^V.ZT.THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. #I_,Thusit.isthefateoftheexecutivepowertobeal-

moRalwaysdiRurbedathomeandretpe&edabroad.Shouldthisnation,onfomeoccafions,becomethe

centerof the negociationsofEurope,probityandgoodfaithwouldbecarriedto agreaterheightthanin other places_becaufcthe minit_ers,beingfre-quentlyobligedtojul'tify.theircondu&beforea,po-pularcouncil_,theirnegoclationscould,notbe.fecret,andtheywouldbeforced'robe,in thisrefpe&,a lit-fiemorehonefl:,

Betides,astheywould'inromefortbeanfwerablefortheeventswhichan.irregularcondu&mightpro-duce,thefuret_,therarelY,wayforthem'wouldbetaketheRraitefl:path.

If thenobleswereformerlypoffcffed,ofanimmo-deratepower,andthemonarchhadfoundthemeansofabslingthembyrailingthepeople,thepointobextremeti:rvitudemufthavebeenthat.betweenhum-blingthenobilityandthatinwhichthepeoplebeganto,feclr,heirpower.

Thusthisnation,havingbeenformerlyfubje&toan,at.binarypower,onmanyoccafions,preferves.thefdleofit, infucha manner,as to letusfrequently,fee,uponthefoundationofafreegovernment,theformofan,abfolutemonarchy.

W,ithregardto religion,as,inthisRate,everyff_b-je&hasafreewill,andmuffconfequentlybeeithercondu&edby the lightof hisownmindor bythecapriceof fancy, it nece,ffarilyfollows,thateveryonemu_eitherlookuponall religionwithindiffe-rence,bywhichmeanstheyareledto embracetheeftablifhedreligion,ortheymu/tbezealousforre-ligionin general,by.whichmeansthe numberoffe&sis increafed.

It isnotimpoffiblebutthat,in thisnation,theremaybemenof no religion,whowouldnot,howe-

vcr_

4r6 "THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_:XIg.ver, bearto beobligedto changethatwhichtheywouldchoofe,if theycaredto ehoofeany; fortheywouldimmediatelyperceivethattheirlivesandfor-tunesarenotmoreparticular!},theirsthantheirman-ner of thinking,andthat whoeverwoulddeprivethemoftheonemight,evenwithbetteri'eafon,takeawaythe other.

If, among_thedifferentreligions,_ thereis onethathasbeenattemptedto beeftablilhedbymethcgtsOfflay&y,"ittoURthe'rebeodious; becaufe,as._vcjudgeofthingsbytheappi_ndageswejoinwiththem,it couldneverprefentitfelfto themindin conjunc-tionwiththeideaofliberty.

Thelawsagainftthole"whoprofefsthisreligioncouldhOghoweverbe_fthe fanguinarykind; forlibertycanneverinfli&fuchpuniihments: but theymaybeforigorousastodoallthe mil_:hiefthatcanbedonein coldblood.

It ispofliblethatathoufandcircumf'cancesmight.concurtOgi-_etheclergyfolittle,creditthatothercitizensmayhavemore..Therefore,infleadofa re-paration,theLhavechofenrathertofupportthefameburthensasthelaity,andinthis.refpe&tomakeonlyonebodywiththem: but, as theyalwaysrecktoconciliatetherefpe&ofthe people,they.difdnguifhthemfelvesbya moreretiredlife,a condu&morereferred,anda greaterpurityofmanners.

Theclergy,notbeingabletoprotecq:religion,norto beprote&edbyit, onlyfeekto perfuade: theirpens,therefore,furnilhuswith excellentworksinproofof a revelation,andof theprovidenceofthefupremeBeing. :

Yetthe fcateprevents.thefit_ingoftheiraffem-blies,anddoesnotfufferthemio torte&their:ownabutes_ itchoofesthus,thro_ghacapriceofliberty,

rather

CrIAp.27. THE 9PIRIT OF LAWS. 4_7ratherto leavetheirreformationimperfect,thantofuffertheclergyto bethereformers.

Tholedignitieswhichmakea fundamentalpartoftheconftitutionare morefixedthanelfewhere;but, ontheotherhand,the great,in this countryof liberty,areneareruponalevelwiththepeople;their ranksare morefeparated,andtheir perfonsmoreconfounded.

Asthofewhogovernhaveapowerwhich,inromemeafure,hasneedof frelhvigoureveryday,theyhavea greaterregardforfuchasareufefulto themthanfor thofewhoonlycontributeto theiramufe-merit: wefee,therefore,fewercourtiers,flatterers,andparafites; infhort,fewerofall tholewhomaketheirownadvantageofthefollyoftilegreat.

Menarelefsefteemedforfrivoloustalentsandat-tainmentsthanforeffentialqualities;andofthiskindtherearebuttwo,riches,andperfonalmerit.

Theyenjoyafolidluxury,foundednoronthere-finementsofvanity,butonthatofrealwants: they

•atk nothingofnaturebutwhatnaturecanbefiow.Therichenjoya greatfuperfluityof fortune,and

yethavenoretilhforfrivolousamufements: thusma-ny, havingmorewealththan opportunitiesof ex-pence,employkin a fantafticalmanner: inthisna-tion,theyhavemorejudgementthantatte. "

As theyarealwaysemployedabouttheirownin-terefl:,theyhavenotthatpotitenefswhichisfoundedonindolence; andtheyreallyhavenotleifuretoat-tainit.

The taraofRomanpolitenefsisthefameas thatoftheeftablifhmentofarbitrarypower.An abfolutegovernmentproducesindolence,andthisgivesb!rthtopolitenefs.

Themorepeoplethereareinanation,whorequirea eircumfpe&behaviour-andacarenottodifplt_afe,

VOL.I. E e the

4_8 THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. Boo_XIX.themorethereisof politenefs.Butit is ratherthepolitenefsof morals,than that of manners,whichoughtto difiinguilhusfrombarbarousnations.

In acountrywhereeverymanhas,inromefort,a iharein the adminifirationof the government,the womenoughtfcarcelyto live withthe men.Theyarethereforemodefi,thatis,timid; andthistimidityconftitutestheir virtue: whilfl:the men;withouta tafteforgallantry,plungethemfelvesintoa debaucherywhichleavesthemat leifure,and• intheenjoymentoftheirfullliberty.

Theirlawsnotbeingmadeforoneindividualmorethananother,eachconfidershimfelfasa monarch;and,indeed,themenofthisnationareratherconfer.deratesthanfel!ow-fubje&s.

Asthe climatehasgivenmanyperfonsarefl:lefsfpiritandextendedviews,in acountrywherethe_conffitutiongiveseverymana fharein its govern-mentandpoliticalinterefl:s,converfationgenerallyturns uponpolitics: andwefee menfpendtheirlivesinthecalculationofevents,_hichsconfider,ing_thenatureofthingsandthecapricesoffortune,,or,rather,ofmen,canfcarcelybethoughtfubje&to:theerulesofcalculation.

Inafreenation,it isveryoftena matterof indif.-ferencewhetherindividualsreafonwellorill; it-isfufficientthat theydoreafon: fromhence_fpfingsthat libertywhichisa fecurityfromthe effecq.'S-of.therereafonings.

Brat,in a defpoticgovernment,it isequallyper-niciouswhethertheyreafonwellor ill; theirreafon-ingisalonefufi3cientto /hocktheprincipleof thar_government.

Manypeople,whohave no defireof pleating,abandonthemfelvesto theirownparticularhumour;andmo_ of thee whohavewitandingenuity,are_

mgemQus

CsAP.27. THE SPIRIT OF LAWS. 419

i ingeniousintormentingthemfclves: filledwitha: contemptordifguftforallthings,theyareunhappy

amidftall thebleflingsthat canptffliblycontribute! topromotetheirfelicity.

Asnofubje&fearsanother,the wholenationisproud; forthe prideof kingsis foundedonlyontheirindependence.

Freenationsarehaughty; othersmaymorepro-perlybecalledvain.

But, astheremen,whoare naturallyfo proud,livemuchbythemfelves,theyarecommonlybathfulwhentheyappearamongftrangers;andwefrequent-lyfeethembehave,foraconfiderabletime,withanoddmixtureofprideandill-placedflaame.

Thechara&erofthenationismoreparticularlydif-coveredin theirliteraryperformances,in whichwefindthemenofthoughtanddeepmeditation.

Asfocietygivesusafenfeof theridiculesofman-kind,retirementrendersusmorefit to retie&onthefollyofvice. Theirfatiricalwritingsare/harpandrevere;andwefindamongfl:themmanyJuvenalswithoutdifcoveringoneHorace.

In monarchiesextremelyabfolute,hi_oriansbetraythetruth,becaufetheyarenotat libertyto fpeakitinRatesremarkablyfree,theybetraythetruth, be-caufeof theirlibertyitfelf,whichalwaysproducesdivifions,everyonebecomingasgreata flareto theprejudicesofhisfac2ionashecouldbe ina defpoticRate.

Theirpoetshavemorefrequentlyanoriginalrude-nefsofinvention,thanthatparticularkindofdelica-cywhichfpringsfromtafte: wetherefindfomethingwhichapproachesnearerto the boldftrengthof aMichaelAngelothantothefoftergracesofaRaphael.

TgEEND or THrFIRSTVOLUME.