Module 11

Types of Memory

INTRODUCTION

• Definitions

– Memory• ability to retain information over time through three

processes: encoding, storing, and retrieving• not copies but representations of the world that

vary in accuracy and are subject to error and bias

– Encoding• refers to making mental representations of

information so that it can be placed into memory

INTRODUCTION (CONT’D)

• Definitions

– Storing• process of placing encoded information into

relatively permanent mental storage for later recall

– Retrieving• process of getting or recalling information that has

been placed into short- or long-term storage

THREE TYPES OF MEMORY

• Sensory memory– Initial process that receives and holds environmental

information in its raw form for a brief period of time, from an instant to several seconds

• Short-term memory– Also called working memory; refers to another

process that can hold only a limited amount of information an average of seven items, from 2 to 30 seconds

• Long-term memory– Process of storing almost unlimited amounts of

information over long periods of time

THREE TYPES OF MEMORY (CONT’D)

• Memory processes– Sensory memory

• don’t pay attention, information is forgotten• pay attention, information is automatically

transferred into short-term memory– Short-term memory

• don’t pay attention, information isn’t encoded and is forgotten

– Long-term memory• encoded information will remain on a relatively

permanent basis

THREE TYPES OF MEMORY (CONT’D)

SENSORY MEMORY: RECORDING

• Iconic memory– Form of sensory memory that automatically holds

visual information for about a quarter of a second or more; as soon as you shift your attention, the information disappears

– Icon means image• Echoic memory

– Form of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1 to 2 seconds

– Holds speech sounds long enough to know that sequences of certain sounds form words

SENSORY MEMORY: RECORDING (CONT’D)

• Functions of sensory memory

– Prevents being overwhelmed

– Gives decision time

– Provides stability, playback, and recognition

SHORT-TERM MEMORY: WORKING

• Short-term, or working, memory– Process of holding a limited amount of information (an

average of seven items) for a limited period of time (2 to 30 seconds)

– Short duration can be lengthened by repeating or rehearsing the information

• Two features– Limited duration– Maintenance rehearsal

• practice of intentionally repeating information so that it remains in short-term memory longer

SHORT-TERM MEMORY: WORKING (CONT’D)

• Interference– Results when new information enters short-term

memory and overwrites or pushes out information that’s already there

• Chunking– Combining separate items of information into a larger

unit, or chunk, and then remembering these chunks rather than individual items

SHORT-TERM MEMORY: WORKING (CONT’D)

• Functions of short-tem memory– Attending

• selectively attend to relevant information and disregard everything else

– Rehearsing• allows you to hold information for a short period of

time until you decide what to do with it– Storing

• helps store or encode information in long-term memory

THREE TYPES OF MEMORY (CONT’D)

LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING

• Putting information into long-term memory– Encoding

• transferring information from short- to long-term memory by paying attention to it, repeating it, or forming new associations

– Long-term memory• process of storing almost unlimited amounts of

information over long periods of time– Retrieving

• process of selecting information from long-term memory and transferring it to short-term memory

LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)

• Separate memory systems• Primacy versus recency

– Primacy effect• better recall or retention of information presented

at the beginning of a task– Recency effect

• better recall or retention of information presented at the end of a task

– Primary-recency effect• better recall of information presented at the

beginning and end of a task

LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)

• Declarative versus procedural or nondeclarative– Declarative memory

• involves memories for facts or events, such as scenes, stories, words, conversations, faces, or daily events

• aware of and can recall or retrieve these kinds of memories

– Semantic memory• type of declarative memory that involves

knowledge of facts, concepts, words, definitions, and language rules

LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)

• Declarative versus procedural or nondeclarative

– Episodic memory• type of declarative memory that involves

knowledge of specific events, personal experiences (episodes), or activities, such as naming or describing favorite restaurants, movies, songs, habits, or hobbies

LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)

• Declarative versus procedural or nondeclarative

– Procedural or nondeclarative memory• involves memories for motor skills (playing tennis),

some cognitive skills (learning to read), and emotional behaviors learned through classical conditioning

• can’t recall or retrieve procedural memories

ENCODING: TRANSFERING

• Encoding– Acquiring information or storing it in memory by

changing it into neural or memory codes– Two kinds of encoding

• Automatic encoding– transfer of information from short- to long-term

memory without effort or awareness (personal events, interesting facts, skills/habits)

• Effortful encoding– transfer of information from short- to long-term

memory by working hard to rehearse the information or by making associations

ENCODING: TRANSFERING (CONT’D)

• Rehearsing and encoding– Maintenance rehearsal

• simply repeating or rehearsing information rather than forming any new associations

• works better for short-term memory– Elaborative rehearsal

• using effort to actively make meaningful associations between new information that you wish to remember and old or familiar information already stored in long-term memory

ENCODING: TRANSFERING (CONT’D)

• Levels of processing

– Theory says that remembering depends on how information is encoded

– Information encoded at a shallow level results in poor recall

– Deeper and deepest processing: encode by making new association

REPRESSED MEMORIES

• Definition of repressed memory– Process by which the mind pushes a memory of some

threatening or traumatic event deep into the unconscious mind

• Implanting false memories– Studies show that a false suggestion can grow into a

vivid, detailed, and believable personal memory

UNUSUAL MEMORIES

• Photographic memory– Occurs in adults; ability to form sharp, detailed visual

images after examining a picture or page for a short period of time and to recall the entire image at a later date

• Eidetic imagery– Form of photographic memory that occurs in children;

the ability to examine a picture or page for 10 to 30 seconds and then for several minutes hold in one’s mind a detailed visual image of the material

UNUSUAL MEMORIES (CONT’D)

• Flashbulb memories– Vivid recollections, usually in great detail, of dramatic

or emotionally charged incidents that are of interest to the person

– Encoded effortlessly and may last for long periods of time

UNUSUAL MEMORIES (CONT’D)