module 06. materials and hardware

7/24/2019 MODULE 06. MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

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OCV 77 NC]E@LVZ F3KLMUAE 7

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NLI]EI]^

3 JI]VLMUN]JLI ......................................................................................... 3-36 TVLTEV]JE^ LG KE]CA^ ........................................................................ 6-3

6.3 FVJ]]AEIE^^ .......................................................................................... 6-3

6.6 NLIMUN]JWJ]Z ........................................................................................ 6-3

6.> MUN]JAJ]Z ................................................................................................ 6-3

6.= EAC^]JNJ]Z .............................................................................................. 6-3

6.5 HCVMIE^^ ............................................................................................... 6-3

6.7 KCAAECFJAJ]Z.......................................................................................... 6-3

6.0 TAC^]JNJ]Z .............................................................................................. 6-36.8 ]EICNJ]Z ................................................................................................. 6-3

6.: ]LU@HIE^^ ............................................................................................ 6-6

6.34 ^]VEI@]H ............................................................................................... 6-66.34.3 ]eisjae ^trei`th ........................................................................... 6-66.34.6 Zjeam ^trei`th .............................................................................. 6-66.34.> ^hecr ^trei`th ............................................................................. 6-66.34.= Fecrji` ^trei`th .......................................................................... 6-6

> ]E^]JI@ LG KC]EVJCA^ ......................................................................... >-3

>.3 ]EI^JAE ]E^]JI@ ................................................................................... >-3>.3.3 ]eisjae ^trei`th ........................................................................... >-3

>.6 ALCM/EX]EI^JLI MJC@VCK^ ............................................................... >-=>.6.3 Muntjajty ........................................................................................ >-0>.6.6 Trllg ^tress ................................................................................. >-0

>.> ^]JGGIE^^ ............................................................................................... >-:

>.= ]EI^JAE ]E^]JI@ LG TAC^]JN^ ........................................................... >-:

>.5 NLKTVE^^JLI ]E^] ............................................................................ >-34

>.7 HCVMIE^^ ]E^]JI@ ............................................................................ >-34>.7.3 Frjieaa ]est ................................................................................. >-34>.7.6 Wjnbers ]est ............................................................................... >-33>.7.> Vlnbweaa ]est ............................................................................. >-33

>.7.= Hcrmiess ]estji` li Cjrnrcgt ...................................................... >-36>.0 JKTCN] ]E^]JI@ ................................................................................... >-3>

>.8 L]HEV GLVK^ LG KC]EVJCA ]E^]JI@ ............................................. >-3=>.8.3 Nreep ......................................................................................... >-3=>.8.6 Nreep ji Ketcas .......................................................................... >-3=>.8.> Eggent lg ^tress cim ]ekpercture li Nreep ............................... >-35>.8.= ]he Eggent lg @rcji ^jze li Nreep .............................................. >-37>.8.5 Nreep ji Tacstjns ........................................................................ >-37>.8.7 Gctjùe ....................................................................................... >-37>.8.0 Gctjùe ]estji` .......................................................................... >-30

>.: ^-I NUVWE^ .......................................................................................... >-38

>.34 NCUÊ^ LG GC]J@UE GCJAUVE ............................................................ >-64>.33 WJFVC]JLI ............................................................................................. >-64


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>.36 GC]J@UE KE]CAAUV@Z ........................................................................ >-63

>.3> GC]J@UE TVLKL]EV^ ......................................................................... >-66>.3>.3 Mesjì........................................................................................ >-66>.3>.6 Kciugcnture ............................................................................... >-6>>.3>.> Eivjrlikeit ............................................................................... >-6>

>.3= GC]J@UE TVEWEI]EV^ ........................................................................ >-6>>.3=.3 Nlam Expcisjli (Frlcnhji`) ....................................................... >-6=

>.35 ML'^ CIM MLI]'^TVEWEI]JI@ GC]J@UE GCJAUVE^ .................... >-65

>.37 ^]VUN]UVCA HECA]H KLIJ]LVJI@ (^HK) ....................................... >-65>.37.3 Gctjùe Keters ........................................................................... >-65>.37.6 ^trcji @cuès ............................................................................ >-65>.37.> Gctjùe Guses ............................................................................ >-65

>.37.= Jiteaajèit bjis Mevealpkeit .................................................... >-65= CJVNVCG] KC]EVJCA^ - GEVVLU^ ........................................................ =-3

=.3 JVLI ......................................................................................................... =-3=.3.3 Ncst Jrli ...................................................................................... =-3=.3.6 Ilmuacr Ncst Jrli ......................................................................... =-3

=.6 ^]EEA ....................................................................................................... =-3=.6.3 Nacssjgjnctjli lg ^teeas ................................................................. =-6=.6.6 Ketcaaur`jnca trunture lg ^teea..................................................... =->=.6.> ^trunture cim Trlpertjes alw-Nllaem teeas ............................ =->=.6.= Eggents lg Nllaji` Vctes li ^teeas ............................................... =-=

=.> HEC]-]VEC]KEI] LG NCVFLI ]EEA^ .............................................. =-=

=.>.3 Csslnjctem Trlfaeks - Hcrmeiji` Trlness .................................. =-5=.>.6 ]ekperji` .................................................................................... =-7=.>.> Ciiecaji` ..................................................................................... =-7=.>.= Ilrkcajsji` .................................................................................. =-7

=.= ÛVGCNE HCVMEIJI@ LG ^]EEA^ ....................................................... =-0=.=.3 Ncrfurjsji ................................................................................... =-0=.=.6 Ijtrjmji` ........................................................................................ =-8=.=.> Gacke/Jimuntjli Hcrmeiji` .......................................................... =-8=.=.= Lther ûrgcne Hcrmeiji` ]enhijques .......................................... =-8

=.5 CAALZJI@ EAEKEI]^ JI ^]EEA ............................................................ =-:

=.7 NCVFLI ................................................................................................... =-:

=.7.3 Alw-Ncrfli teea ........................................................................ =-:=.7.6 Kemjuk-Ncrfli teea .................................................................. =-:=.7.> Hj`h-Ncrfli teea........................................................................ =-:

=.0 ÛATHUV ................................................................................................. =-:

=.8 ^JAJNLI .................................................................................................... =-:

=.: THL^THLVU^ ....................................................................................... =-34

=.34 IJNBEA ................................................................................................... =-34=.34.3 Ijnbea Caalys............................................................................... =-34

=.33 NHVLKJUK (NHVLKE) ......................................................................... =-33=.33.3 Ijnbea-Nhrlke teea cim jts Caalys ............................................ =-33

=.36 NLFCA] .................................................................................................. =-33=.3> WCICMJUK .............................................................................................. =-36


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=.3= KCI@CIEÊ .......................................................................................... =-36

=.35 KLAZFMEIUK ....................................................................................... =-36=.37 NHVLKE CIM KLAZFMEIUK .............................................................. =-36

=.30 ]UI@^]EI ............................................................................................. =-3>

=.38 KCVC@JI@ ]EEA^............................................................................... =-3>

5 CJVNVCG] KC]EVJCA^ - ILI-GEVVLU^ ............................................... 5-3

5.3 TUVE KE]CA^ ......................................................................................... 5-35.3.3 Ture Caukjijuk ............................................................................ 5-35.3.6 Ture Nlpper................................................................................. 5-65.3.> Ture Kcìesjuk .......................................................................... 5-65.3.= Ture ]jtcijuk ............................................................................... 5-6

5.6 CAUKJIJUK CAALZ^ ................................................................................ 5->5.> JMEI]JGJNC]JLI LG EAEKEI]^ JI CAUKJIJUK CAALZ^ .................... 5->

5.= NACM KC]EVJCA^ .................................................................................... 5-5

5.5 HEC]-]VEC]KEI] LG CAUKJIJUK CAALZ^ ......................................... 5-55.5.3 ^lautjli ]rectkeit ....................................................................... 5-75.5.6 Cè-Hcrmeiji` ............................................................................. 5-05.5.> Ciiecaji` ..................................................................................... 5-05.5.= Trenjpjtctjli ]rectkeit ................................................................ 5-8

5.7 JMEI]JGJNC]JLI LG HEC]-]VEC]EM CAUKJIJUK CAALZ^ ................. 5-:

5.0 KCVBJI@ LG CAUKJIJUK CAALZ ^HEE]^ .......................................... 5-34

5.8 NC^] CAUKJIJUK CAALZ^ ................................................................... 5-33

5.: KC@IE^JUK CAALZ^ ............................................................................ 5-33

5.34 NLTTEV CAALZ^ ................................................................................... 5-36

5.33 ]J]CIJUK CAALZ^ ................................................................................. 5-3>

5.36 PLVBJI@ PJ]H ]J]CIJUK CIM ]J]CIJUK CAALZ^ ........................... 5-3>5.36.3 Mrjaaji` ]jtcijuk ......................................................................... 5-3=

7 KE]HLM^ UÊM JI ^HCTJI@ KE]CA^ .................................................. 7-3

7.3 NC^]JI@................................................................................................... 7-37.3.3 ^cim-Ncstji` ............................................................................... 7-37.3.6 Cmvcitcès/Mjscmvcitcès lg ^cim-Ncstji` ............................... 7->7.3.> ]ypjnca Ncstji` Megents................................................................ 7->

7.3.= ^heaa-Kluamji` ............................................................................. 7->7.3.5 Neitrjgu`ca-Ncstji` ...................................................................... 7->7.3.7 Mje-Ncstji` .................................................................................. 7-=7.3.0 Jivestkeit-Ncstji` (Alst Pcx) .................................................... 7-=

7.6 GLV@JI@ .................................................................................................. 7-57.6.3 Mrlp-^tckpji` ............................................................................. 7-77.6.6 Hlt-Tressji` ................................................................................ 7-77.6.> Upsettji` ...................................................................................... 7-7

7.> VLAAJI@ ................................................................................................... 7-0

7.= MVCPJI@ ................................................................................................. 7-0

7.5 MEET MVCPJI@/TVE^^JI@ ................................................................... 7-0

7.7 TVE^^JI@ ................................................................................................ 7-0

7.0 ^]VE]NH-GLVKJI@ ................................................................................ 7-0


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7.8 VUFFEV-TCM GLVKJI@ ......................................................................... 7-0

7.: EX]VUMJI@ ............................................................................................. 7-87.:.3 Jkpcnt-Extrusjli .......................................................................... 7-8

7.34 ^JI]EVJI@ ............................................................................................... 7-8

7.33 ^TJIIJI@ ................................................................................................. 7-:

7.36 NHEKJNCA KJAAJI@ ................................................................................. 7-:

7.3> EAEN]VL-NHEKJNCA KCNHJIJI@ ......................................................... 7-:

7.3= EAEN]VL-MJ^NHCV@E KCNHJIJI@ E.M.K.......................................... 7-34

7.35 NLIWEI]JLICA KCNHJIJI@ ............................................................... 7-33

7.37 ÛTEVTAC^]JN GLVKJI@ .................................................................... 7-36

0 CJVNVCG] KC]EVJCA^ - NLKTL^J]E CIM ILI-KE]CAAJN ................ 0-3

0.3 TAC^]JN^ ................................................................................................. 0-30.3.3 ]herklpacstjn Kcterjcas ............................................................... 0-60.3.6 ]herklsettji` Kcterjcas ............................................................... 0->0.3.> Vesjis .......................................................................................... 0-=0.3.= Eacstlkers ................................................................................... 0-7

0.6 TVJKCVZ CMWCI]C@E^ LG TAC^]JN^ ................................................. 0-0

0.> TVJKCVZ MJ^CMWCI]C@E^ LG TAC^]JN^ ........................................... 0-0

0.= TAC^]JN KCIUGCN]UVJI@ TVLNE^Ê^ ............................................. 0-8

0.5 NLKTL^J]E KC]EVJCA^ ........................................................................ 0-:0.5.3 @acss Gjfre Vejiglrnem Tacstjn (@GVT) ........................................ 0-:

0.5.6 Ncrfli Gjfre Vejiglrnem Tacstjn (NGVT) .................................... 0-340.5.> Crckjm Gjfre Vejiglrnem Tacstjn (CGVT) .................................... 0-330.5.= @eierca Jiglrkctjli ................................................................... 0-330.5.5 Ackjictem, cimwjnh cim Klilajthjn ^truntures ........................ 0-36

0.7 ILI-KE]CAAJN NLKTLIEI]^ ............................................................ 0-3>0.7.3 êcas .......................................................................................... 0-3>

8 ME]EN]JI@ MEGEN]^ JI NLKTL^J]E KC]EVJCA^.............................. 8-3

8.3 NCUÊ^ LG MCKC@E .............................................................................. 8-3

8.6 ]ZTE^ LG MCKC@E................................................................................. 8-3

8.> JI^TEN]JLI KE]HLM^ .......................................................................... 8->8.>.3 Wjsuca Jispentjli .......................................................................... 8->

8.>.6 Vji` lr Ternussjli ]est ............................................................... 8->8.>.> Uatrcslijn Jispentjli .................................................................... 8->8.>.= Vcmjl`rcphy................................................................................. 8->

8.= C^Ê^^KEI] LG MCKC@E .................................................................... 8-=

: FC^JN NLKTL^J]E VETCJV^ .................................................................. :-3

:.3 VETCJV LG C ^JKTAE NLKTL^J]E TCIEA ........................................... :-6

:.6 VETCJV LG C ^CIMPJNH TCIEA ........................................................... :->

:.> @AC^^ GJFVE VEJIGLVNEM NLKTL^J]E VETCJV^ ............................ :-5

:.= ]ZTE^ LG @AC^^ VEJIGLVNEKEI] .................................................... :-5:.=.3 Uij-Mjrentjlica Nalth .................................................................... :-5:.=.6 Fj-mjrentjlica Nalth ....................................................................... :-7:.=.> Nhlppem trcim Kct .................................................................... :-7:.=.= Vesji............................................................................................ :-7


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:.5 TL] AJGE................................................................................................... :-0

:.7 NUVJI@ .................................................................................................... :-0:.0 @EA NLC] ................................................................................................ :-8

:.8 ^]LVC@E LG @GVT KC]EVJCA^ ........................................................... :-8:.8.3 ^tlrji` Vesji ............................................................................... :-8:.8.6 ^tlrji` Hcrmeier .......................................................................... :-8:.8.> ^tlrji` Gcfrjns ............................................................................. :-8

:.: TVETCVC]JLI GLV VETCJV .................................................................. :-::.:.3 ûrgcne Trepcrctjli ................................................................... :-33

:.34 ]ENHIJSUE^ LG ACKJIC]JI@ @AC^^ GJFVE ..................................... :-33

:.33 TVE-PE]]JI@ @AC^^ GJFVE ............................................................... :-36

34 CMHE^JWE^ CIM ÊCACI]^ ................................................................. 34-334.3 ]HE KENHCIJN^ LG FLIMJI@ ............................................................ 34-3

34.3.3 ^tresses li c Flimem Oljit ....................................................... 34-334.3.6 Cmvcitcès lg Cmhesjves ........................................................... 34->34.3.> Mjscmvcitcès lg Cmhesjves ...................................................... 34->34.3.= ^trei`th lg Cmhesjves ................................................................ 34-=

34.6 @VLUT^ CIM GLVK^ LG CMHE^JWE^ ................................................ 34-=34.6.3 Gaexjfae Cmhesjves ..................................................................... 34-=34.6.6 ^trunturca Cmhesjves .................................................................. 34-=34.6.> Cmhesjve Glrks ......................................................................... 34-=

34.> CMHE^JWE^ JI UÊ ............................................................................... 34-5

34.>.3 ûrgcne Trepcrctjli ................................................................... 34-534.>.6 Gjica Cssekfay ........................................................................... 34-534.>.> ]ypjnca (Cffrevjctem) Trlness.................................................... 34-7

34.= ÊCAJI@ NLKTLUIM^ ......................................................................... 34-734.=.3 Lie-Tcrt êcacits...................................................................... 34-034.=.6 ]wl-Tcrt êcacits...................................................................... 34-034.=.> êcacit Nurji` ........................................................................... 34-0

33 NLVVL^JLI ............................................................................................ 33-3

33.3 NHEKJNCA (LXJMC]JLI) NLVVL^JLI ................................................. 33-333.3.3 Eggent lg Lxjme ]hjnbiess........................................................... 33-633.3.6 Eggent lg ]ekpercture ................................................................ 33->33.3.> Eggent lg Caalyji` ........................................................................ 33-=

33.6 EAEN]VLNHEKJNCA (@CAWCIJN) NLVVL^JLI.................................. 33-533.6.3 ]he @cavcijn Neaa ....................................................................... 33-533.6.6 Gcntlrs Cggentji` the Vcte lg Nlrrlsjli ji c @cavcijn Neaa. ........ 33-7

33.> ]ZTE^ LG NLVVL^JLI ........................................................................ 33-833.>.3 ûrgcne Nlrrlsjli ...................................................................... 33-833.>.6 Mjssjkjacr Ketca Nlrrlsjli ......................................................... 33-833.>.> Jiter`rciuacr Nlrrlsjli .............................................................. 33-:33.>.= Exglajctjli Nlrrlsjli .................................................................33-3433.>.5 ^tress Nlrrlsjli .......................................................................33-3433.>.7 Grettji` Nlrrlsjli .....................................................................33-3333.>.0 Nrevjne Nlrrlsjli .....................................................................33-33

33.>.8 Gjajglrk Nlrrlsjli ......................................................................33-3333.>.: Tjttji` Nlrrlsjli .......................................................................33-36


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33.>.34 Nlrrlsjli Gctjùe......................................................................33-3>

33.>.33 Kjnrlfjlal`jnca Nlitckjictjli...................................................33-3>33.>.36 Hymrlèi Ekfrjttaekeit lg teeas .............................................33-3>

33.= GCN]LV^ CGGEN]JI@ NLVVL^JLI ...................................................33-3=33.=.3 Najkctjn .....................................................................................33-3=33.=.6 ^jze cim ]ype lg Ketca .............................................................33-3=33.=.> Nlrrlsjve Cèits.......................................................................33-3=

33.5 NLKKLI KE]CA^ CIM NLVVL^JLI TVLMUN]^ ............................33-3533.5.3 Jrli cim ^teea ............................................................................33-3533.5.6 Caukjijuk Caalys .......................................................................33-3533.5.> Kcìesjuk Caalys .....................................................................33-3733.5.= ]jtcijuk ....................................................................................33-37

33.5.5 Nlpper Caalys ............................................................................33-3733.5.7 Ncmkjuk cim _jin ....................................................................33-3733.5.0 Ijnbea cim Nhrlkjuk ................................................................33-30

33.7 NLVVL^JLI VEKLWCA .......................................................................33-3033.7.3 Naeciji` cim Tcjit Veklvca. ....................................................33-3033.7.6 Nlrrlsjli lg Gerrlus Ketcas ......................................................33-3833.7.> Hj`h-^tressem teea Nlkplieits .............................................33-3833.7.= Caukjijuk cim Caukjijuk Caalys ..............................................33-3833.7.5 Canacm ........................................................................................33-3:33.7.7 Kcìesjuk Caalys .....................................................................33-3:33.7.0 Cnjm ^pjaacè .............................................................................33-6433.7.8 Cabcaj ^pjaacè ............................................................................33-64

33.7.: Kernury ^pjaacè .......................................................................33-6333.0 TEVKCIEI] CI]J-NLVVL^JLI ]VEC]KEI]^ ................................33-66

33.0.3 Eaentrl-Tactji` ...........................................................................33-6633.0.6 ^prcyem Ketca Nlctji`s ............................................................33-6633.0.> Nacmmji` ....................................................................................33-6633.0.= ûrgcne Nliversjli Nlctji`s ....................................................33-6>

33.8 ALNC]JLI^ LG NLVVL^JLI JI CJVNVCG] .......................................33-6>33.8.3 Exhcust Crecs ...........................................................................33-6>33.8.6 Ei`jie Jitcbes cim Nllaji` Cjr Weits .......................................33-6>33.8.> Acimji` @ecr ............................................................................33-6=33.8.= Fjaè cim Pcter Eitrcpkeit Crecs ...........................................33-6=

33.8.5 Venesses ji Gacps cim Hjiès ..................................................33-6=33.8.7 Kcìesjuk Caaly ^bjis .............................................................33-6=33.8.0 Caukjijuk Caaly ^bjis ...............................................................33-6=33.8.8 ^plt-Peamem bjis cim ^cimwjnh Nlistruntjlis ......................33-6533.8.: Eaentrjnca Equjpkeit .................................................................33-6533.8.34 Kjsneaacielus Jteks ..................................................................33-65

36 CJVNVCG] GC^]EIEV^ .......................................................................... 36-3

36.3 ]EKTLVCVZ OLJI]^ ............................................................................ 36-3

36.6 TEVKCIEI] OLJI]^ ............................................................................. 36-3

36.> GAEXJFAE OLJI]^ .................................................................................. 36-3

36.= ^NVEP ]HVECM^ ................................................................................. 36-6

36.=.3 ]he Jinajiem Tacie cim the Heajx ................................................ 36-636.5 ^NVEP ]HVECM ]EVKJILAL@Z ......................................................... 36-=


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36.5.3 ^nrew ]hrecm Glrks .................................................................. 36-7

36.5.6 Lther ]hrecm Glrks ................................................................... 36-836.5.> Nacsses lg Gjt ............................................................................. 36-836.5.= Kecsurji` nrew ]hrecms ......................................................... 36-:

36.7 FLA]^ ....................................................................................................36-3436.7.3 Frjtjsh Flats ...............................................................................36-3436.7.6 Jmeitjgjnctjli lg F^ Uijgjem Flats ...............................................36-3436.7.> Ckerjnci Flats ..........................................................................36-3>36.7.= Jmeitjgjnctjli lg CI ^tcimcrm Flats ............................................36-3=36.7.5 ^penjca-tl-]ype Flats ................................................................36-3736.7.7 Ketrjn Flats ...............................................................................36-30

36.0 IU]^ ......................................................................................................36-38

36.0.3 ^tjggiuts cim Cinhlr Iuts..........................................................36-3:36.8 ^NVEP^ ................................................................................................36-66

36.8.3 Kcnhjie ^nrews ........................................................................36-6636.8.6 ^trunturca ^nrews ......................................................................36-6=36.8.> êag-]cppji` nrews .................................................................36-6=

36.: ^]UM^ ...................................................................................................36-6536.:.3 ^tcimcrm ^tums .........................................................................36-67Pcjstem ^tums.........................................................................................36-6736.:.> ^teppem ^tums ..........................................................................36-6036.:.= ^hluamerem tums......................................................................36-60

36.34 ]HVECM JIÊV]^ ................................................................................36-60

36.34.3 Pjre ]hrecm Jiserts ...................................................................36-6036.34.6 ]hji Pcaa Jiserts .......................................................................36-68

36.33 MLPEA^ CIM TJI^ ..............................................................................36-6:36.33.3 Mlweas ......................................................................................36-6:36.33.6 Vlaa Tjis ....................................................................................36-6:36.33.> Naevjs Tjis ................................................................................36->436.33.= ]cper Tjis ................................................................................36->4

36.36 ALNBJI@ MEWJNE^ ...............................................................................36->336.36.3 ^prji` Pcshers ........................................................................36->336.36.6 ^hcbe-Trllg Pcshers ...............................................................36->636.36.> ]cf Pcshers .............................................................................36->>36.36.= Alnb Tactes ...............................................................................36->=

36.36.5 ^pajt (Nltter) Tjis ......................................................................36->=

36.3> ALNBJI@ PJVE .....................................................................................36->536.3>.3 Use lg Alnbji` Pjre wjth ]urifunbaes.......................................36->036.3>.6 Use lg Alnbji` Pjre wjth Alnbji` ]cfs. ....................................36->036.3>.> ]hji Nlpper Pjre ......................................................................36->8

36.3= SUJNB-VEAECÊ GC^]EIEV^ ............................................................36->836.3=.3 Mzus Gcsteiers .........................................................................36->836.3=.6 Lmmje Gcsteiers .......................................................................36->:36.3=.> Nckaln Gcsteiers .....................................................................36-=436.3=.= Cjraln Gcsteiers ........................................................................36-=336.3=.5 Tjp-Tjis ....................................................................................36-=3

36.3=.7 Njrnajps cim Alnbji` Vji`s ........................................................36-=636.3=.0 Beys cim Beywcys ....................................................................36-=>


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36.3=.8 Teeiji` .....................................................................................36-==

36.35 @AUE/CMHE^JWE FLIMEM OLJI]^ .....................................................36-=536.35.3 Alnbji` fy Cmhesjves ...............................................................36-=536.35.6 Alntjte .......................................................................................36-=736.35.> ^yithetjn Vesji Cmhesjves ........................................................36-=736.35.= ]estji` lg Cmhesjve Oljiji` ]enhijques ...................................36-=7

36.37 KE]CA-]L-KE]CA FLIMEM OLJI]^ ...................................................36-=736.37.3 Peamji` .....................................................................................36-=736.37.6 ^lgt ^lamerji` ...........................................................................36-=036.37.> Hcrm ^lamerji` ..........................................................................36-=0

3> CJVNVCG] VJWE]^ .................................................................................. 3>-3

3>.3 ^LAJM VJWE]^ ........................................................................................ 3>-3

3>.6 VJWE] JMEI]JGJNC]JLI ......................................................................... 3>-63>.6.3 ^lajm Vjvets (Frjtjsh) ................................................................... 3>-63>.6.6 Vjvet Jmeitjgjnctjli (Frjtjsh) ......................................................... 3>->3>.6.> Vjvet Kcterjca Jmeitjgjnctjli (Frjtjsh) ........................................... 3>->3>.6.= ^lajm Vjvets (Ckerjnci) .............................................................. 3>-53>.6.5 Vjvet Jmeitjgjnctjli (Ckerjnci).................................................... 3>-73>.6.7 Vjvet Kcterjca Jmeitjgjnctjli (Ckerjnci) ...................................... 3>-7

3>.> HEC]-]VEC]KEI]/VEGVJ@EVC]JLI LG ^LAJM VJWE]^ ................... 3>-03>.>.3 Hect-]rectkeit. ......................................................................... 3>-83>.>.6 Vegrjèrctjli. ............................................................................. 3>-83>.>.> Use lg Mjggereit ]ypes lg Vjvet Hecm ......................................... 3>-8

3>.= FAJIM CIM HLAALP VJWE]^ ............................................................... 3>-:3>.=.3 Grjntjli Alnb Vjvets ...................................................................3>-343>.=.6 Kenhcijnca Alnb Vjvets.............................................................3>-333>.=.> Hlaalw/Tuaa-]hrlu`h Vjvets .......................................................3>-363>.=.= @rjp Vciè................................................................................3>-363>.=.5 ]unber Tlp Vjvets ...................................................................3>-3>3>.=.7 Cvmea Vjvets ..............................................................................3>-3=3>.=.0 Nhlfert Vjvets ..........................................................................3>-353>.=.8 Nherry Vjvets ............................................................................3>-37

3>.5 KJ^NEAACIELU^ GC^]EIEV^ ...........................................................3>-373>.5.3 Hj-Alb Gcsteiers .......................................................................3>-373>.5.6 Hj-]jùe Gcsteiers....................................................................3>-303>.5.> Hj-^hecr Gcsteiers ...................................................................3>-38

3>.7 ^TENJCA TUVTLÊ GC^]EIEV^ ........................................................3>-3:3>.7.3 Ol-Flats .....................................................................................3>-3:3>.7.6 ]ufuacr Vjvets. ..........................................................................3>-643>.7.> Vjviuts ......................................................................................3>-63

3= ^TVJI@^ .................................................................................................. 3=-3

3=.3 GLVNE^ EXEV]EM LI, CIM CTTAJEM FZ, ^TVJI@^ ......................... 3=-3

3=.6 ]ZTE^ LG ^TVJI@^ .............................................................................. 3=-33=.6.3 Gact ^prji`s ................................................................................ 3=-33=.6.6 Aecg ^prji`s ............................................................................... 3=-63=.6.> ^pjrca ^prji`s ............................................................................. 3=-63=.6.= Heajnca Nlkpressjli cim ]eisjli prji`s ................................. 3=-63=.6.5 Heajnca ]lrsjli prji`s .............................................................. 3=-6


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KC]EVJCA^ CIM

HCVMPCVE

ei`jieerjiùb

3=.6.7 Feaaevjaae (Nliem Mjsn) prji`s .................................................. 3=-6

3=.6.0 ]lrsjli-Fcr ^prji`s ................................................................... 3=-63=.> KC]EVJCA^ GVLK PHJNH ^TVJI@^ CVE KCIUGCN]UVEM ............ 3=-6

3=.>.3 ^teeas usem glr Nlam-Pluim prji`s.......................................... 3=-63=.>.6 ^teeas usem glr Hlt-Pluim prji`s ........................................... 3=->3=.>.> ^teeas usem glr Nlam-Vlaaem, Gact ^prji`s ................................... 3=->3=.>.= Ili-Gerrlus Ketcas usem glr ^prji`s ......................................... 3=->3=.>.5 Nlkplsjte Kcterjcas usem glr ^prji`s ........................................ 3=-=

3=.= NHCVCN]EVJ ]JN^ LG ]ZTJNCA CEVL^TCNE TVJI@^ .................. 3=-5

3=.5 CTTAJNC]JLI^ LG ^TVJI@^ JI CJVNVCG] EI@JIEEVJI@ ............... 3=-7

35 TJTE^ CIM UIJLI^ ................................................................................ 35-3

35.3 VJ@JM TJTE^ ........................................................................................... 35-3

35.6 ÊKJ-VJ@JM GAUJM AJIE^ (]UFE^) ....................................................... 35-635.6.3 Gacrem Eim-Gjttji`s ..................................................................... 35-635.6.6 Gacre-Aess Nlupaji`s ................................................................. 35->

35.> GAEXJFAE TJTE^ (HLÊ^) ..................................................................... 35-=35.>.3 Alw-Tressure Hlses .................................................................. 35-535.>.6 Kemjuk-Tressure Hlses ............................................................ 35-535.>.> Hj`h-Tressure Hlses ................................................................. 35-7

35.= UIJLI^ CIM NLIIEN]LV^ ................................................................ 35-035.=.3 Cjrnrcgt @eierca tcimcrms (C@^) .............................................. 35-835.=.6 Cjr Glrne cim Icvy (CI) ............................................................ 35-835.=.> Kjajtcry ^tcimcrm (K^) ............................................................... 35-8

35.5 SUJNB-VEAECÊ NLUTAJI@^ .............................................................. 35-8

37 FECVJI@^ ................................................................................................ 37-3

37.3 FCAA FECVJI@^ .................................................................................... 37-637.3.3 Vcmjca Fecrji`s .......................................................................... 37-637.3.6 Ciùacr-Nlitcnt Fecrji`s .......................................................... 37-637.3.> ]hrust Fecrji`s .......................................................................... 37-637.3.= Jistrukeit Trenjsjli Fecrji`s.................................................... 37-6

37.6 VLAAEV FECVJI@^ ............................................................................... 37->37.6.3 Nyajimrjnca Vlaaer Fecrji`s ......................................................... 37->37.6.6 ^pherjnca Vlaaer Fecrji`s ........................................................... 37->37.6.> ]cperem Vlaaer Fecrji`s ............................................................ 37->

37.> FECVJI@ JI]EVICA NAECVCINE ....................................................... 37-=37.>.3 @rlup 6 (Lie Mlt) Fecrji`s..................................................... 37-=37.>.6 Ilrkca @rlup (]wl Mlt) Fecrji`s........................................... 37-=37.>.> @rlup > (]hree Mlt) Fecrji`s.................................................. 37-=37.>.= @rlup = (Glur Mlt) Fecrji`s.................................................... 37-=

37.= FECVJI@ KCJI]EICINE ...................................................................... 37-537.=.3 Aufrjnctjli ................................................................................. 37-537.=.6 Jispentjli .................................................................................. 37-5

30 ]VCI^KJ^^JLI^ .................................................................................... 30-3

30.3 FEA]^ CIM TUAAEZ^ ............................................................................ 30-3

30.6 @ECV^ .................................................................................................... 30->30.6.3 @ecr ]rcjis cim @ecr Vctjls ..................................................... 30->30.6.6 ^pur @ecrs................................................................................. 30-=


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30.6.> Heajnca @ecrs ............................................................................. 30-=

30.6.= Fevea @ecrs ............................................................................... 30-=30.6.5 Plrk cim Pheea @ecrs ............................................................. 30-=30.6.7 Tacietcry (Epjnynajn) Vemuntjli @ecr ]rcji ................................ 30-530.6.0 ^pur cim Tjijli Vemuntjli @ecr ]rcji ....................................... 30-730.6.8 Cnnesslry Uijt Mrjves ................................................................ 30-730.6.: Keshji` Tctteris ....................................................................... 30-0

30.> NHCJI^ CIM ^TVLNBE]^ .................................................................... 30-830.>.3 ]ypjnca Crrcièkeits - Nhcji Cssekfajes ................................. 30-:

30.= KCJI]EICINE JI^TEN]JLI^ .............................................................30-34

38 NLI]VLA NCFAE^ ................................................................................. 38-3

38.3 ]ZTE^ LG NCFAE^ ................................................................................ 38-3

38.6 NCFAE ^Z^]EK NLKTLIEI]^ ........................................................... 38-638.6.3 Eim-Gjttji`s ................................................................................ 38-638.6.6 ]urifunbaes ............................................................................... 38->38.6.> Ncfae ]eisjliji` Mevjnes .......................................................... 38-=38.6.= Ncfae Gcjraecms .......................................................................... 38-538.6.5 Tuaaeys ....................................................................................... 38-7

38.> GAEXJFAE NLI]VLA Z^]EK^ ............................................................ 38-038.>.3 Flwmei Ncfaes .......................................................................... 38-038.>.6 ]eaegaex Nlitrla ysteks ........................................................... 38-:

3: EAEN]VJNCA NCFAE^ & NLIIEN]LV^ ............................................... 3:-3

3:.3 NCFAE ^TENJGJNC]JLI ......................................................................... 3:-3

3:.6 NCFAE JMEI]JGJNC]JLI ........................................................................ 3:-3

3:.> MC]C FU^ NCFAE .................................................................................. 3:-5

3:.= NLIMUN]LV KC]EVJCA & JIÛAC]JLI ............................................. 3:-7

3:.5 PJVE ^J_E .............................................................................................. 3:-0

3:.7 PJVE VE^J^]CINE................................................................................ 3:-8

3:.0 NUVVEI] NCVVZJI@ NCTCFJAJ]Z ...................................................... 3:-8

3:.8 WLA]C@E MVLT ...................................................................................3:-34

3:.: PJVE JMEI]JGJNC]JLI .........................................................................3:-33

3:.34 PJVE JI^]CAAC]JLI CIM VLU]JI@ ..................................................3:-36

3:.33 LTEI PJVJI@ .......................................................................................3:-363:.36 PJVE & NCFAE NACKTJI@ ...................................................................3:-3>

3:.3> NLIMUJ] ...............................................................................................3:-3=

3:.3= NLIIEN]LV^ ......................................................................................3:-37

3:.35 NVJKTJI@ ..............................................................................................3:-3:

3:.37 NVJKTJI@ ]LLA^ .................................................................................3:-64

3:.30 PJVE ^TAJNJI@ .....................................................................................3:-63

3:.38 FEIM VCMJU^ .......................................................................................3:-66


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KC]EVJCA^ CIM

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ei`jieerjiùb

3 JI]VLMUN]JLI

]he vcrjety lg kcterjcas cim hcrmwcre usem ji cjrnrcgt ei`jieerji` js vcst, cimthjs klmuae wjaa liay meca wjth c frlcm `rlup lg kcterjcas, thejr kcjinhcrcnterjstjns, jmeitjgjnctjli cim uses. ]hese kcterjcas nci fe nacssem jitl thethree kcji ncte`lrjes lg Gerrlus Ketcas, Ili-Gerrlus Ketcas cim Ili-Ketcaajnkcterjcas.

Cmmjtjlicaay, nlkfjictjlis (Nlkplsjtes) lg kciy lg these kcterjcas wjaa fe gluim,ji use, ji the cerlspcne jimustry.

]he useguaiess lg ciy kcterjcas kcy fe eihcinem cs c resuat lg the cmmjtjli lglther kcterjcas thct cater the fcsjn nhcrcnterjstjns tl sujt the spenjgjn requjrekeitslg the cjrnrcgt mesjìer.

C ketcas useguaiess js `lveriem prjinjpcaay fy the physjnca prlpertjes jtplssesses. ]hlse prlpertjes mepeim upli the nlkplsjtjli lg the ketca, whjnhnci fe nhcièm nlisjmercfay fy caalyji` jt wjth lther ketcas cim fy hect-trectkeit. ]he strei`th cim hcrmiess lg steea, glr exckpae, nci fe jiteisjgjem fyjinrecsji` jts ncrfli nliteit, cmmji` caalyji` ketcas sunh cs Ijnbea cim]ui`stei, lr fy hectji` the steea uitja rem-hlt cim thei nllaji` jt rcpjmay.

Cpcrt grlk the fcsjn requjrekeit lg klre cim klre strei`th grlk ketcas, lther,aess lfvjlus nhcrcnterjstjns nci casl fe cmmem lr jkprlvem upli, whei sunhgectures cs perkcieit kcìetjsk, nlrrlsjli resjstcine cim hj`h-strei`th whjastlperctji` ct eaevctem tekperctures, cre mesjrem.

Nlkplsjtes kcbe up c acrè pcrt lg the nlistruntjli lg klmeri cjrnrcgt. Ji theecray mcys, nlkplsjtes cim pacstjns were ajkjtem tl ili-strunturca, jitericanlsketjn pcieas, skcaa gcjrji`s cim lther kjilr pcrts. ]lmcy there cre kciyacrè cjrnrcgt, whjnh hcve kcolr strunturca cim alcm-ncrryji` pcrts kciugcnturemgrlk nlkplsjtes. Nlkplsjte kcterjcas, ji cmmjtjli tl kcjitcjiji` lr jinrecsji`

nlkplieit strei`th, nlitrjfute tl the jkplrtcit gcntlr lg wej`ht scvji`. ]here crecasl kciy klmeri aj`ht cjrnrcgt thct cre caklst tltcaay kciugcnturem grlknlkplsjtes cim nlitcji ajttae ketca ct caa.


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ei`jieerji`ub

JI]EI]JLICAAZFACIB


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ei`jieerjiùb

6 TVLTEV]JE^ LG KE]CA^

]he vcrjlus prlpertjes lg ketcas nci fe cssessem, fy cnnurcte acflrctlry testsli sckpae pjenes. ]he terkjilal`y, csslnjctem wjth these prlpertjes, js lutajiemji the glaalwji` pcrc`rcphs.

6.3 FVJ]]AEIE^^

]he teimeiny lg the ketca tl shctter, wjthlut sjìjgjncit meglrkctjli. Jt wjaa shctteruimer c summei, alw stress fut wjaa resjst c salway-cppajem, hj`her alcm.

6.6 NLIMUN]JWJ]Z

]he cfjajty lg c ketca tl nlimunt hect, (therkca nlimuntjvjty) cim eaentrjnjty. ^javercim nlpper cre exneaaeit therkca cim eaentrjnca nlimuntlrs.

6.> MUN]JAJ]Z

]he prlperty lg feji` cfae tl fe perkcieitay exteimem fy c teisjae glrne. Jt jskecsurem murji` c teisjae, lr stretnhji`, test, whei the ckluit lg stretnh(eali`ctjli), glr c `jvei cppajem alcm, prlvjmes ci jimjnctjli lg c ketcas muntjajty.

6.= EAC^]JNJ]Z

]he cfjajty lg c ketca tl returi tl jts lrj`jica shcpe cim sjze cgter the reklvca lg

ciy mjstlrtji` glrne. ]he Eacstjn Ajkjt js the `rectest glrne thct nci fe cppajemwjthlut perkcieit mjstlrtjli.

6.5 HCVMIE^^

]he cfjajty lg c ketca tl resjst wecr cim peietrctjli. Jt js kecsurem fy pressji` chcrmeiem steea fcaa lr mjcklim pljit jitl the ketcas surgcne. ]he mjcketer lrmepth lg the resuatji` jimeitctjli prlvjmes ci jimjnctjli lg the ketcas hcrmiess.

6.7 KCAAECFJAJ]Z

]he ecse wjth whjnh the ketca nci fe glrèm, rlaaem cim extrumem wjthlutgrcnture. ^tresses, jimunem jitl the ketca, fy the glrkji` prlnesses, hcve tl fesufsequeitay reajevem fy hect-trectkeit. Hlt ketca js klre kcaaecfae thci nllaketca.

6.0 TAC^]JNJ]Z

]he cfjajty tl retcji c meglrkctjli cgter the alcm prlmunji` jt hcs feei reklvem.Tacstjnjty js, ji gcnt, the lpplsjte lg eacstjnjty.

6.8 ]EICNJ]Z

]he prlperty lg c ketca tl resjst meglrkctjli whei sufoentem tl c teisjae alcm. Jtjs prlplrtjlica tl the kcxjkuk stress requjrem tl ncuse the ketca tl grcnture.


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6.: ]LU@HIE^^

]he cfjajty lg c ketca tl resjst summeiay cppajem alcms. C ketcas tlu`hiess jstestem fy jkpcnt wjth c swji`ji` peimuauk lg bilwi kcss.

6.34 ^]VEI@]H

]here cre severca mjggereit kecsurekeits lg the strei`th lg c ketca, cs kcy feseei grlk the glaalwji` suf-pcrc`rcphs

6.34.3 ]EI^JAE ^]VEI@]H

]he cfjajty tl resjst teisjli glrnes cppajem tl the ketca

6.34.6 ZJEAM ^]VEI@]H

]he cfjajty tl resjst meglrkctjli. Cgter the ketca yjeams, jt js scjm tl hcve pcssemjts yjeam pljit.

6.34.> ^HECV ^]VEI@]H

]he cfjajty tl resjst sjme-nuttji` alcms - sunh cs thlse, jkplsem li the shcib lg crjvet, whei the kcterjcas jt js oljiji` cttekpt tl klve cpcrt ji c mjrentjli ilrkcatl the ali`jtumjica cxjs lg the rjvet.

6.34.= FECVJI@ ^]VEI@]H

]he cfjajty lg c ketca tl wjthstcim c nrushji` glrne.


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ei`jieerjiùb

> ]E^]JI@ LG KC]EVJCA^

]he kenhcijnca prlpertjes lg c kcterjca kust fe bilwi feglre thct kcterjca ncife jinlrplrctem jitl ciy mesjì. Kenhcijnca prlperty mctc js nlkpjaem grlkexteisjve kcterjca testji`. Wcrjlus tests cre usem tl meterkjie the cntuca vcaueslg kcterjca prlpertjes uimer mjggereit alcmji` cppajnctjlis cim test nlimjtjlis.

>.3 ]EI^JAE ]E^]JI@

]eisjae testji` js the klst wjmeay-usem kenhcijnca test. Jt jivlaves cppayji` cstecmjay jinrecsji` alcm tl c test spenjkei, ncusji` jt tl stretnh uitja jt eveitucaay

grcntures. Cnnurcte kecsurekeits cre tcbei lg the alcm cim exteisjli, cim theresuats cre usem tl meterkjie the strei`th lg the kcterjca. ]l eisure uijglrkjty lgtest resuats, the test spenjkeis usem kust nliglrk tl stcimcrm mjkeisjlis cimgjijsh cs acjm mlwi fy the cpprlprjcte ^tcimcrms Cuthlrjty (F^J, MJI, J^L etn).

]he nrlss-sentjli lg the spenjkei kcy fe rluim lr rentciùacr, fut thereactjlishjp fetweei the nrlss-sentjlica crec cim c spenjgjem "`cuè aei`th", lgecnh spenjkei, js nlistcit. ]he `cuè aei`th, js thct plrtjli lg the pcrcaaea pcrtlg the spenjkei, whjnh js tl fe usem glr kecsurji` the sufsequeit exteisjlimurji` cim/lr cgter the test.

>.3.3 ]EI^JAE ^]VEI@]H]eisjae strei`th ji c kcterjca js lftcjiem fy kecsurji` the kcxjkuk alcm, whjnhthe test pjene js cfae tl sustcji, cim mjvjmji` thct gjùre fy the lrj`jica nrlss-sentjlica crec (n.s.c.) lg the spenjkei. ]he vcaue merjvem grlk thjs sjkpaencanuactjli js ncaaem ^]VE^^.

Ilte? ]he uijts lg ^tress kcy fe qultem ji the lam Frjtjsh Jkperjca (cimCkerjnci) uijts lg afg/ji6, tlig/ji6 (casl psj cim tsj), lr the Eurlpeci cim ^J uijtssunh cs bI/k6, KI/k6cim bTc lr KTc.

)6(kkn.s.c.Lrj`jica

(I)Alcm^tress


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ei`jieerji`ub

Exckpae 3C steea rlm, wjth c mjcketer lg 5 kk, js alcmem ji teisjli wjth c glrne lg =44 I.Ncanuacte the teisjae stress.

Exernjse 3Ncanuacte the teisjae stress ji c steea rlm, wjth c nrlss-sentjli lg 34 kk x = kk,whei jt js sufoentem tl c alcm lg 344 I.

Exernjse 6Ncanuacte the nrlss-sentjlica crec lg c tje rlm whjnh, whei sufoentem tl c alcm lg6,344I, hcs c stress lg 74 I/kk6.

Ilte? Phei ncanuactji` stress ji acr`e strunturca kekfers, jt kcy fe klrenliveijeit tl kecsure alcm ji Ke`c-Iewtlis (KI, lr I

7) cim the crec ji squcre

ketres (k6). Phei usji` sunh uijts, the iukerjnca vcaue js jmeitjnca tl thct jg thencanuactjli hcm feei kcme usji` Iewtlis cim kk6.

j.e. C ^tress lg 3 I/kk6 ; a KI/k6

Exckpae 6C strunturca kekfer, wjth c nrlss-sentjlica crec lg 45k6, js sufoentem tl c alcmlg 34 KI. Ncanuacte the stress ji the kekfer ji2 (c) KI/k

6cim (f) I/kk

6

(c)

(f)

Crec

Alcm^tress 6

66 />064

56

=44=44kkI

r

Crec

Alcm^tress 6k/KI64

54

34

666 I/kk64^tress^lKI/k3I/kk 3


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KC]EVJCA^ CIM

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ei`jieerjiùb

Cs the alcm ji the teisjae test js jinrecsem grlk zerl tl c kcxjkuk vcaue, thekcterjca exteims ji aei`th. ]he ckluit lg exteisjli, prlmunem fy c `jvei alcm,caalws the ckluit lg jimunem ^]VCJItl fe ncanuactem. ^trcji js ncanuactem fykecsurji` the exteisjli cim mjvjmji` fy the lrj`jica aei`th lg the kcterjca.Ilte?Flth kecsurekeits kust fe ji the scke uijts, thlu`h, sjine ^trcji js c

rctjl lg twl aei`ths, jt hcs il uijts.

Exckpae >Ci caukjijuk test pjene js kcrbem wjth c 64 kk `cuè aei`th. Jt js sufoentem tl

teisjae alcm uitja jts aei`th fenlkes 6335 kk. Ncanuacte the jimunem strcji.

Exernjse >C tje rlm 3.5k ali` uimer c teisjae alcm lg 544 I exteims fy 36 kk. Ncanuactethe strcji.

Aei`thLrj`jica

Exteisjli^trcji

kk35364-3563Exteisjli

uijts)(il4505464

353

Aei`thLrj`jica

Exteisjli^trcji


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ei`jieerji`ub

>.6 ALCM/EX]EI^JLI MJC@VCK^Jg c `rcmucaay jinrecsji` teisjae alcm js cppajem tl c test pjene whjae the alcm cimexteisjli cre nlitjiulusay kecsurem, the resuats nci fe usem tl prlmune cAlcm/Exteisjli mjc`rck lr `rcph (reger tl Gj`. 3). Lfvjlusay c iukfer lg mjggereitglrks lg `rcph kcy fe lftcjiem, mepeimji` li the kcterjca type cim nlimjtjli,fut the exckpae shlws c Alcm/Exteisjli mjc`rck whjnh typjgjes kciy ketcaajnkcterjcas whei stressem ji teisjli.

Alcm/Exteisjli Mjc`rck

Gj` 3

]he `rcph nci fe nlisjmerem cs nlkprjsji` twl kcolr re`jlis. Fetweei pljits 4cim C, the kcterjca js ji the Eacstjn re`jli (lr phcse), j.e. whei the alcm jsreklvem the kcterjca wjaa returi tl jts lrj`jica sjze cim shcpe. Ji thjs re`jli, theexteisjli js mjrentay prlplrtjlica tl the cppajem alcm.

]hjs reactjlishjp js bilwi cs Hllbe's Acw, whjnh stctes?

Pjthji the eacstjn re`jli, eacstjn strcji js mjrentay prlplrtjlica tl the stressncusji` jt.

Tljit C js the Eacstjn Ajkjt. Fetweei thjs pljit cim pljit F, the kcterjca nlitjiuestl exteim uitja the kcxjkuk alcm js recnhem (ct pljit F). Ji thjs re`jli thekcterjca js ji the pacstjn phcse. Phei the alcm js reklvem, the kcterjca mles iltreturi tl jts lrj`jica sjze cim shcpe, fut wjaa retcji slke exteisjli. Cgter pljit F,the nrlss-sentjlica crec remunes cim the kcterjca fe`jis tl ienb. ]he kcterjca

nlitjiues tl exteim uimer remunem alcm uitja jt eveitucaay grcntures ct pljit N.


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Cjrnrcgt strunturca mesjìers jiterest ji kcterjcas mles ilt exteim `rectay feylim

the eacstjn phcse lg kcterjcas. Trlmuntjli ei`jieers, hlwever, cre `rectayjiterestem ji kcterjca prlpertjes feylim thjs phcse, sjine the glrkji` ncpcfjajtjeslg kcterjcas cre mepeimeit li thejr prlpertjes ji the pacstjn phcse.

Ci exckjictjli lg c `rcph, lftcjiem grlk the resuats lg c teisjae test li kjam steea(reger tl Gj`. 6), shlws thct nlisjmercfae pacstjn exteisjli lnnurs wjthlut ciyjinrecse ji alcm shlrtay cgter the eacstjn ajkjt js recnhem. ]he liset lg jinrecsjièxteisjli, wjthlut c nlrresplimji` jinrecse ji alcm, ct pljit dF', js bilwi cs theyjeam pljitcim, jg thjs aevea lg stress js recnhem, the ketca js scjm tl hcve

yjeamem. ]hjs js c nhcrcnterjstjn lg kjam steea cim c gew lther, reactjveay muntjae,kcterjcas.

Alcm/Exteisjli Mjc`rck glr Kjam ^teea

Gj`. 6

Jg, cgter pcssji` the yjeam pljit, the alcm js gurther jinrecsem, jt kcy fe seei thctkjam steea js ncpcfae lg wjthstcimji` thjs jinrecse uitja the Uatjkcte ]eisjae^tress (U]^) js recnhem. êvere ienbji` thei lnnurs cim the kcterjca wjaagrcnture ct c remunem alcm. ]he uiexpentem cfjajty lg kjam steea tl cnnept klrealcm cgter yjeamji` js mue tl strcji-hcrmeiji` lg the kcterjca. Plrb-hcrmeiji` lgkciy kcterjcas js lgtei ncrrjem lut tl jinrecse thejr strei`th.

Tljit F

Zjeam Tljit

U]^


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Cs prevjlusay stctem, vcrjlus glrks lg alcm/exteisjli nurves kcy fe nlistruntem

glr lther kcterjcas (reger tl Gj` >), cim thejr salpes wjaa mepeim li whether thekcterjcas cre frjttae, eacstjn lr pacstjn.

Alcm/Exteisjli @rcphs glr Frjttae, Eacstjn cim Tacstjn Kcterjcas

Gj`. >

(c) represeits c frjttae kcterjca (àcss)

(f) represeits c kcterjca wjth slke eacstjnjty cim ajkjtem pacstjnjty (hj`h-ncrfli steea

(n) represeits c kcterjca wjth slke eacstjnjty cim `llm pacstjnjty (e.`. slgtcaukjijuk).

_erl

Eali`ctjli

^kcaaEali`ctjli

AcrèEali`ctjli

Tacstjn Ve`jli

Tljit lg Grcnture

(c) (f) (n)


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>.6.3 MUN]JAJ]ZCgter grcnture lg c spenjkei, glaalwji` teisjae testji`, ci jimjnctjli lg kcterjcamuntjajty js crrjvem ct, fy estcfajshji` the ckluit lg pacstjn meglrkctjli whjnhlnnurrem. ]he twl jimjnctlrs lg muntjajty cre?

Eali`ctjli

Vemuntjli ji crec (ct the ienb)

Eali`ctjli js the klre reajcfae, fencuse jt js ecsjer tl kecsure the exteisjli lgthe `cuè aei`th thci the remuntjli ji crec. ]he stcimcrm kecsure lg muntjajty jstl estcfajsh the perneitcè eali`ctjli cgter grcnture.

Exckpae =Ji c teisjae test, li c spenjkei wjth 354.5 kk `cuè aei`th, the aei`th lver the`cuè kcrbs ct grcnture were 307.3 kk. Phct wcs the perneitcè eali`ctjli.6.6 TVLLG ^]VE^^

Kciy kcterjcas ml ilt exhjfjt c yjeam pljit, sl c sufstjtute vcaue kust feekpalyem. ]he vcaue nhlsei js the Trllg ^tress, whjnh js megjiem cs?

]he teisjae stress, whjnh js oust suggjnjeit tl prlmune c ili-prlplrtjlica eali`ctjli, equca tl c spenjgjem perneitcè lg the lrj`jica`cuè aei`th.

Usucaay c vcaue lg 4.3% lr 4.6% js usem glr Trllg ^tress, cim the Trllg ^tress jsthei regerrem tl cs the 4.3% Trllg ^tress lr the 4.6% Trllg ^tress respentjveay.

]he Trllg ^tress kcy fe cnqujrem grlk the reaevcit Alcm/Exteisjli `rcph (regertl Gj` =) cs glaalws?

Jg the 4.6% Trllg ^tress js requjrem, thei 4.6% lg the `cuè aei`th js kcrbem lithe exteisjli cxjs. C ajie, pcrcaaea tl the strcj`ht-ajie plrtjli lg the `rcph, jsmrcwi uitja jt jitersents the ili-ajiecr plrtjli lg the nurve. ]he nlrresplimjiàlcm js thei recm grlk the `rcph. Trllg ^tress js ncanuactem fy mjvjmji` thjs alcmfy the lrj`jica nrlss-sentjlica crec.

344Aei`th@cuèLrj`jica

ExteisjliGjicaeali`ctjliTerneitcè

30%30.44:%3445354

354.5-307.3344

Aei`th@cuè

ExteisjliGjicaEali`ctjli


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4.3% Trllg ^tress wjaa prlmune perkcieit set equjvcaeit tl lie thluscimth lg

the spenjkei's lrj`jica aei`th.

4.6% Trllg ^tress wjaa prlmune perkcieit set equjvcaeit tl lie gjve huimremth lgthe lrj`jica aei`th.

Cnqujrji` the Trllg ^tress grlk c Alcm/Exteisjli @rcphGj`. =


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>.> ^]JGGIE^^Pjthji the eacstjn rciè lg c kcterjca, jg the ^trcji js nlkpcrem tl the ^tressncusji` thct exteisjli, jt wjaa prlvjme c kecsure lg stjggiess/rj`jmjty lr gaexjfjajty.

]hjs vcaue, whjnh js lg `rect jkplrtcine tl mesjìers, js bilwi cs the Klmuauslg Eacstjnjty, lr Zlui`s Klmuaus, cim js sjìjgjem fy uselg the sykfla E.

]hus E ; ^tress mjvjmem fy ^trcji cim, sjine ^trcji hcs il uijts, the uijt glr dE' jsthe scke cs ^tress. j.e. afg/ji6, tlig/ji6 (casl psj cim tsj), lr the Eurlpeci cim ^Juijts sunh cs bI/k6, KI/k6cim bTc lr KTc.

]he cntuca iukerjnca vcaue js usucaay acrè, cs jt js c kecsure lg the stressrequjrem tl thelretjncaay mlufae the aei`th lg c spenjkei (jg jt mjm ilt frecb gjrst).

C typjnca vcaue lg E glr steea wluam fe >4 x 347psj. lr 634,444 KI/k6

Veactjve stjggiess vcaues glr slke nlkkli kcterjcas (usji` Vuffer cs c mctuk),cre?

Pllm 6444 x

Caukjijuk 34,444 x

^teea >4,444 x

Mjcklim 303,444 x

>.= ]EI^JAE ]E^]JI@ LG TAC^]JN^

]hjs js nlimuntem ji the scke wcy cs glr ketcas, fut the test pjene js usucaay

kcme grlk sheet kcterjca. Cathlu`h the fcsjn alcm/exteisjli nurve glr slkepacstjns js slkewhct sjkjacr tl ketca nurves, nhciès ji test tekpercture lr thercte lg alcmji` nci hcve c kcolr eggent li the cntuca resuats.

Evei thlu`h the kcterjca uimer test kcy fe ji the eacstjn rciè, the spenjkeikcy tcbe slke tjke tl returi tl jts lrj`jica sjze cgter the alcm js reklvem.

stjggieslgkecsurecjs^trcji

^tress.je


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>.5 NLKTVE^^JLI ]E^]Kcnhjies glr nlkpressjli testji` cre lgtei the scke cs thlse usem glr teisjaetestji`, fut the test spenjkei js ji the glrk lg c shlrt nyajimer.

]he Alcm/Megaentjli `rcph ji the eacstjn phcse glr muntjae kcterjcas js sjkjacr tlthct ji the teisjae test. ]he vcaue lg dE' js the scke ji nlkpressjli cs jt js jiteisjli. Nlkpressjli testji` js seamlk usem cs ci cnneptcine test glr ketcaajn lrpacstjn kcterjcas (exnept glr ncst jrli).

Nlkpressjli testji` js `eiercaay restrjntem tl fujamji` kcterjcas cim resecrnhjitl the prlpertjes lg iew kcterjcas.

>.7 HCVMIE^^ ]E^]JI@

]he hcrmiess lg kcterjcas js gluim fy kecsurji` thejr resjstcine tl jimeitctjli.Wcrjlus kethlms cre usem, fut the klst nlkkli cre thlse lg the Frjieaa, Wjnberscim Vlnbweaa Hcrmiess ]ests.

>.7.3 FVJIEAA ]E^]

Ji the Frjieaa Hcrmiess ]est (reger tl Gj`. 5), c hcrmeiem steea fcaa js glrnem jitlthe surgcne lg c prepcrem spenjkei, usji` c ncajfrctem glrne, glr c spenjgjem tjke.]he mjcketer lg the resuatji` jimeitctjli js thei kecsurem cnnurcteay, usji` c

`rcmuctem kjnrlsnlpe cim, thus, the crec lg the jimeitctjli js ncanuactem. ]hehcrmiess iukfer js meterkjiem fy regereine tl c Frjieaa Hcrmiess Iukfer(FHI) nhcrt.

]he Frjieaa Hcrmiess ]estGj`. 5

Mjcketer (Crec)lg resuatji`Jimeitctjli


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>.7.6 WJNBEV^ ]E^]]he Wjnbers Hcrmiess ]est js sjkjacr tl the Frjieaa test fut uses c squcre-fcsemmjcklim pyrckjm jimeiter (reger tl Gj`. 7). ]he mjc`licas, lg the jimeitctjli, crecnnurcteay kecsurem, fy c spenjca kjnrlsnlpe, cim the Hcrmiess Wcaue (HW) jsc`cji meterkjiem fy regereine tl c nhcrt.

]he Wjnbers Hcrmiess ]estGj`. 7

>.7.> VLNBPEAA ]E^]

]he Vlnbweaa Hcrmiess ]est (reger tl Gj`. 0) casl uses jimeitctjli cs jts fcsjs,fut twl types lg jimeiter cre usem. C nlijnca mjcklim jimeiter js ekpalyem glrhcrm kcterjcas cim c steea fcaa js usem glr slgt kcterjcas. ]he hcrmiess iukfer,whei usji` the steea fcaa, js regerrem tl cs Vlnbweaa F (e.`. VF 84) cim themjcklim hcrmiess iukfer js bilwi cs Vlnbweaa N (e.`. VN 75).

Ilte? Pherecs Frjieaa cim Wjnbers hcrmiess vcaues cre fcsem upli the crec lgjimeitctjli, the Vlnbweaa vcaues cre fcsem upli the mepth lg the jimeitctjli.

]he Vlnbweaa Hcrmiess ]estGj`. 0


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Il prenjse reactjlishjp exjsts fetweei the vcrjlus hcrmiess iukfers, fut

cpprlxjkctereactjlishjps hcve feei nlkpjaem. ^lke nlkpcrctjve vcauesfetweei Frjieaa Wjnbers cim Vlnbweaa cre shlwi ji ]cfae 3.

]cfae 3NLKTCVC]JWE HCVMIE^^ WCAUE^

KC]EVJCA FHI HW VLNBPEAA

Caukjijuk caaly 344 344 F 50Kjam steea 3>4 3>4 F 0>

Nuttji` tllas 754 7:0 N 74

Ilte? ]here js c `llm nlrreactjli fetweei hcrmiess cim U.].^. li slkekcterjcas (e.`. steeas)

>.7.= HCVMIE^^ ]E^]JI@ LI CJVNVCG]

Jt js ilt ilrkca tl use Frjieaa, Vlnbweaa lr Wjnbers testji` kethlms li cjrnrcgt jithe hci`cr. ]here cre, hlwever, plrtcfae Hcrmiess ]esters, whjnh kcy fe usemtl test glr kcterjca hcrmiess li jteks sunh cs cjrnrcgt wheeas, cgter ci lver-hectnlimjtjli, fencuse the lver-hect nlimjtjli kcy ncuse the wheea kcterjca tlfenlke slgt lr pcrtjcaay ciiecaem.


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>.0 JKTCN] ]E^]JI@]he jkpcnt test (reger tl Gj`. 8) js mesjìem tl meterkjie the tlu`hiess lg ckcterjca cim the twl klst nlkkliay usem kethlms cre thlse usji` the Nhcrpycim Jzlm jkpcnt-testji` kcnhjies.

Flth tests use iltnhem-fcr test pjenes lg stcimcrm mjkeisjlis, whjnh cre strunbfy c gcst-klvji`, wej`htem peimuauk. ]he eier`y, whjnh js cfslrfem fy the testpjene li jkpcnt, wjaa `jve c kecsure lg tlu`hiess. C frjttae kcterjca wjaa frecbecsjay cim wjaa cfslrf ajttae eier`y, sl the swji` lg the peimuauk (whjnh jsrenlrmem c`cjist c ncajfrctem sncae) wjaa ilt fe remunem sjìjgjncitay. C tlu`hkcterjca wjaa, hlwever, cfslrf nlisjmercfay klre eier`y cim thus `rectay remune

the renlrmem peimuauk swji`.

Klst kcterjcas shlw c mrlp ji tlu`hiess wjth c remuntjli ji tekpercture, thlu`hslke kcterjcas (nertcji steeas ji pcrtjnuacr) shlw c rcpjm mrlp ji tlu`hiess csthe tekpercture js prl`ressjveay remunem. ]hjs tekpercture rciè js ncaaem the]rcisjtjli _lie, cim nlkplieits, whjnh cre mesjìem glr use ct alwtekpercture, shluam fe lperctem cflve the kcterjcas ]rcisjtjli ]ekpercture.

Ijnbea js lie lg the klst eggentjve caalyji` eaekeits glr alwerji` the ]rcisjtjli]ekpercture lg steeas

Jkpcnt ]estGj`. 8

.

]est Tjene


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>.8 L]HEV GLVK^ LG KC]EVJCA ]E^]JI@Cathlu`h slke lg the klre jkplrtcit glrks lg kcterjca testji` hcve carecmy feeimjsnussem, there cre severca lther glrks lg kcterjca testji` tl fe nlisjmerem, iltaecst jkplrtcit lg whjnh cre thlse csslnjctem wjth Nreep cim Gctjùe ]estji`.

>.8.3 NVEET

Nreep nci fe megjiem cs the nlitjiuji` meglrkctjli, wjth the pcsscè lg tjke, lgkcterjcas sufoentem tl prlalièm stress. ]hjs meglrkctjli js pacstjn cim lnnursevei thlu`h the cntji` stress kcy fe weaa fealw the yjeam stress lg the kcterjca.

Ct tekperctures fealw 4.=] (where ] js the keatji` pljit lg the kcterjca ji

Beavji), the nreep rcte js very alw, fut, ct hj`her tekperctures, jt fenlkes klrercpjm. Glr thjs recsli, nreep js nlkkliay re`crmem cs feji` c hj`h-tekpercturepheilkeili, csslnjctem wjth super-hectem steck pacit cim `cs turfjietenhilal`y. Hlwever, slke lg the slgt, alw-keatji` pljit kcterjcas wjaa nreepsjìjgjncitay ct, lr c ajttae cflve, ckfjeit tekperctures cim slke cjrnrcgtkcterjcas kcy nreep whei sufoentem tl lver-hect nlimjtjlis.

>.8.6 NVEET JI KE]CA^

Phei c ketcaajn kcterjca js sujtcfay stressem, jt uimer`les jkkemjcte eacstjnmeglrkctjli. ]hjs js thei glaalwem fy pacstjn strcji, whjnh lnnurs ji three stcès

(reger tl Gj`. :)? Trjkcry Nreep- fe`jis ct c reactjveay rcpjm rcte, fut thei menrecses wjth

tjke cs strcji-hcrmeiji` sets ji.

ênlimcry Nreep- the rcte lg strcji js gcjray uijglrk cim ct jts alwest vcaue.

]ertjcry Nreep- the rcte lg strcji jinrecses rcpjmay, gjicaay aecmji` tlrupture. ]hjs gjica stcè nljinjmes wjth `rlss ienbji` lg the nlkplieit,prjlr tl gcjaure. ]he rcte lg nreep js ct c kcxjkuk ji thjs phcse.


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>.8.> EGGEN] LG ^]VE^^ CIM ]EKTEVC]UVE LI NVEET

Flth stress cim tekpercture hcve ci eggent li nreep. Ct alw tekpercture lr veryalw stress, prjkcry nreep kcy lnnur, fut thjs gcaas tl c ieàj`jfae vcaue ji thesenlimcry stcè, mue tl strcji-hcrmeiji` lg the kcterjca. Ct hj`her stress cim/lrtekpercture, hlwever, the rcte lg senlimcry nreep wjaa jinrecse cim aecm tltertjcry nreep cim jievjtcfae gcjaure.

Jt js naecr, grlk the glre`lji`, thct shlrt-tjke teisjae tests ml ilt `jve reajcfaejiglrkctjli glr the mesjì lg struntures, whjnh kust ncrry stctjn alcms lver ali`perjlms lg tjke, ct eaevctem tekperctures. ^trei`th mctc, meterkjiem grlk ali`-tjke nreep tests (up tl 34,444 hlurs), cre thereglre esseitjca.

Cathlu`h cntuca mesjì mctc cre fcsem li the ali`-tjke tests, shlrt-tjke nreeptests cre slketjkes usem cs cnneptcine tests.

]hree ^tcès lg Nreep

Gj`. :


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>.8.= ]HE EGGEN] LG @VCJI ^J_E LI NVEET^jine the nreep kenhcijsk js pcrtay mue tl kjnrlsnlpjn galw cali` the `rcjifluimcrjes, nreep resjstcine js jkprlvem fy jinrecsem `rcji sjze, mue tl theremunem `rcji fluimcry re`jli per uijt vlauke. Jt js kcjiay glr thjs recsli thctslke klmeri, hj`h-perglrkcine turfjie facmes cre feji` kcme grlk mjrentjlicaayslajmjgjem (cim, caterictjveay, jkprlvem sjiàe-nrystca) ncstji`s.

>.8.5 NVEET JI TAC^]JN^

Tacstjns cre casl cggentem fy nreep cim shlw sjkjacr, thlu`h ilt jmeitjnca,fehcvjlur tl thct mesnrjfem glr ketcas. ^jine klst pacstjns plssess alwer therkcaprlpertjes thci ketcas, the nhljne lg pacstjn glr jkplrtcit cppajnctjlis, pcrtjnuacray

ct eaevctem tekpercture, kust tcbe nreep nlisjmerctjlis jitl cnnluit.

>.8.7 GC]J@UE

Ci ji-mepth survey, ji reneit yecrs, revecaem thct lver 84 perneit lg gcjaures lgei`jieerji` nlkplieits were ncusem fy gctjùe. Nlisequeines lg klmeriei`jieerji` hcve aem tl jinrecses ji lperctji` stresses, tekperctures cimspeems. ]hjs js pcrtjnuacray sl ji cerlspcne cim, ji kciy jistcines, hcs kcmethe gctjùe nhcrcnterjstjns lg kcterjcas klre sjìjgjncit thci thejr lrmjicry, stctjnstrei`th prlpertjes.

Ei`jieers fencke cwcre thct caterictji` stresses, lg qujte skcaa ckpajtume,nluam ncuse gcjaure ji nlkplieits, whjnh were ncpcfae lg scgeay ncrryji` kunh`recter, stecmy alcms. ]hjs pheilkeili lg skcaa, caterictji` alcms ncusji`gcjaure wcs ajbeiem tl c prl`ressjve wecbeiji` lg the kcterjca, lver c perjlm lgtjke cim heine the cttrjfutjli lg the terk gctjùe. Wery gew nlistruntjlicakekfers cre jkkuie grlk jt, cim espenjcaay thlse lperctji` ji c myickjneivjrlikeit.

Experjeine ji the cjrnrcgt jimustry hcs shlwi thct the stress nynaes, tl whjnhcjrnrcgt cre sufoentem, kcy fe very nlkpaex, wjth lnncsjlica hj`h pecbs, mue tlùst alcmji` lg cjrnrcgt wji`s. Glr sctjsgcntlry nlrreactjli wjth ji-servjne

fehcvjlur, guaa-sjze lr acrè-sncae klnb-ups kust fe testem ji nlimjtjlis cs nalsecs plssjfae tl thlse exjstji` ji servjne.


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>.8.0 GC]J@UE ]E^]JI@Ci experjkeit, nlimuntem ji 3873, gluim thct c wrlu`ht jrli `jrmer, whjnh nluamscgeay sustcji c kcss lg 36 tlis, frlbe whei c kcss lg liay > tlis wcs rcjsemcim alwerem li the `jrmer slke >x347tjkes.

Jt wcs casl gluim thct there wcs slke kcss, fealw > tlis, whjnh nluam fe rcjsemcim alwerem li tl the feck, c nlalssca iukfer (jigjijte) lg tjkes, wjthlut ncusji`ciy prlfaek.

^lke yecrs acter, c @erkci ei`jieer (Plhaer), mjm wlrb ji thjs mjrentjli cimeveitucaay mevealpem c usegua gctjùe-testji` kcnhjie whjnh fecrs hjs icke cim

nlitjiues tl fe usem ji jimustry. ]he kcnhjie uses c test pjene, whjnh js rltctemji c nhunb cim c glrne js cppajem ct the gree eim, ct rj`ht ciàes tl the cxjs lgrltctjli (reger tl Gj`. 34). ]he rltctjli thus prlmunes c reversca lg stress glr everyrevlautjli lg the test pjene.

Wcrjlus lther types lg gctjùe testji` cre casl usem e.`. nynajn-tlrsjlica, teisjli-nlkpressjli etn. Exhcustjve gctjùe testji`, wjth vcrjlus kcterjcas, hcs resuatemji c fetter uimerstcimji` lg the gctjùe pheilkeili cim jts jkpajnctjlis grlk ciei`jieerji` vjewpljit.

]est Tjene kcme tl vjfrctelr lsnjaacte c`cjist alcm(^tress Nynaes).

]est Tjene

Alcm

^jkpae Gctjùe ]estji`

Gj` 34


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>.: ^-I NUVWE^Lie lg the klst usegua eim-prlmunts, grlk gctjùe testji`, js ci ^-I nurve, whjnhshlws, `rcphjncaay, the reactjlishjp fetweei the ckluit lg stress (^), cppajem tlc kcterjca, cim the iukfer lg stress nynaes (I), whjnh nci fe tlaerctem feglregcjaure lg the kcterjca.

Usji` c typjnca ^-I nurve, glr c steea kcterjca (reger tl Gj`. 33), jt nci fe seeithct, jg the stress js remunem, the steea wjaa eimure c `recter iukfer lg stressnynaes. ]he `rcph casl shlws thct c pljit js eveitucaay recnhem where the nurvefenlkes vjrtucaay hlrjzlitca, thus jimjnctji` thct the kcterjca wjaa eimure cijigjijte iukfer lg nynaes ct c pcrtjnuacr stress aevea.

]hjs ajkjtji` stress js ncaaem the Gctjùe Ajkjt cim, glr steeas, the gctjùe ajkjt jsèiercaay ji the re jli lg =4% tl 74% lg the vcaue lg the stctjn, uatjkcte teisjaestrei`th (U.].^.)

C ^-I Nurve glr c ^teea KcterjcaGj`. 33

Gctjùe Ajkjt

=474 % U]^

Iukfer lg Nynaes(I)

^tress(^)


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Kciy ili-gerrlus ketcas, hlwever, shlw c mjggereit nhcrcnterjstjn grlk steea

(reger tl Gj`. 36). Ji thjs jistcine there js il gctjùe ajkjt cs sunh cim jt nci feseei thct these kcterjcas wjaa gcja jg sufoentem tl ci cpprlprjcte iukfer lg stressreverscas, evei ct very skcaa stresses. Phei kcterjcas hcve il gctjùe ajkjt cieimurcine ajkjt tlèther wjth c nlrresplimji` iukfer lg nynaes js qultemjistecm.

Jt glaalws thct nlkplieits kcme grlk sunh kcterjcas kust fe mesjìem wjth cspenjgjn ajge ji kjim cim reklvem grlk servjne ct the cpprlprjcte tjke. ]heservjne gctjùe ajves lg nlkpaete cjrgrckes lr cjrgrcke kekfers cre typjncaexckpaes lg thjs phjalslphy.

Ili-ketcaajn kcterjcas cre casl ajcfae tl gcjaure fy gctjùe. Cs js the ncse wjthketcas, the iukfer lg stress nynaes, requjrem tl prlmune c gctjùe gcjaure, wjaajinrecse cs the kcxjkuk stress ji the alcmji` nynae menrecses. ]here js,hlwever, èiercaay il gctjùe ajkjt glr these kcterjcas cim slke glrk lgeimurcine ajkjt kust fe cppajem.

]he jkplrtcine lg gctjùe strei`th nci fe jaaustrctem fy the gcnt thct, ji c hj`h-nynae gctjùe klme, c kere 34% jkprlvekeit ji gctjùe strei`th nci resuat ji c344-tjkes ajge jkprlvekeit.

Ci ^-I Nurve glr ci Caukjijuk Caaly

Gj`. 36


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>.34 NCUÊ^ LG GC]J@UE GCJAUVE

Cs the gctjùe nhcrcnterjstjns lg klst kcterjcas cre ilw bilwi (lr nci fecsnertcjiem), jt wluam seek recslicfae tl supplse thct gctjùe gcjaure, mue tlacnb lg sujtcfae caalwcines ji mesjì, shluam ilt lnnur.

Ievertheaess, gctjùe nrcnbji` lnnurs grequeitay, cim evei the klstslphjstjnctem ei`jieerji` prlmunt mles ilt plssess jkkuijty grlk thjs klme lggcjaure. ûnh gcjaures cre lgtei mue tl uiglreseei gcntlrs ji mesjì, eivjrlikeitcalr lperctji` nlimjtjlis, kcterjca, cim kciugcnturji` prlnesses.

]wl esseitjca requjrekeits glr gctjùe mevealpkeit ji c kcterjca cre?

Ci cppajem stress gauntuctjli lg suggjnjeit kcìjtume (wjth lr wjthlut cicppajem stecmy stress).

C suggjnjeit iukfer lg nynaes lg thct gauntuctji` stress.

]he stress gauntuctjlis kcy fe sepcrctem fy nlisjmercfae tjke jitervcas, csexperjeinem ji cjrnrcgt ncfji pressurjsctjli, murji` ecnh tcbe-lgg (e.`. mcjay), lrthey kcy hcve c reactjveay shlrt tjke jitervca, sunh cs einluiterem murji` thecerlmyickjn fuggetji`/vjfrctjli lg c wji` pciea. ]he glrker exckpae wluam fenlisjmerem tl fe alw-nynae gctjùe cim the actter tl fe hj`h-nynae gctjùe.

Ji prcntjne, the aevea lg the gauntuctji` stress, cim the iukfer lg nynaes tl ncusenrcnbji` lg c `jvei kcterjca, cre cggentem fy kciy lther vcrjcfaes, sunh cs stressnlineitrctjli pljits (stress rcjsers), resjmuca jiterica stresses, nlrrlsjli, surgcnegjijsh, kcterjca jkpergentjlis etn.

>.33 WJFVC]JLI

Wjfrctjli hcs carecmy feei qultem cs feji` c ncuse lg hj`h-nynae gctjùe cim,fencuse klst myickjn struntures cre sufoentem tl vjfrctjli, thjs js uimluftemaythe klst nlkkli lrj`ji lg gctjùe. Caa lfoents hcve thejr lwi icturca grequeiny ctwhjnh they wjaa greeay vjfrcte (the reslicit grequeiny). Acrè, hecvy, gaexjfae

nlkplieits vjfrcte ct c alw grequeiny, whjae skcaa, aj`ht, stjgg nlkplieits vjfrctect c hj`h grequeiny.

Veslicit grequeinjes cre uimesjrcfae (cim ji slke ncses nluam fe mjscstrlus),sl jt js jkplrtcit tl eisure thct, lver thejr ilrkca lperctji` rciès, nrjtjncanlkplieits cre ilt vjfrctem ct thejr icturca grequeinjes cim sl cvljm nrectji`reslicine.

]he reslicit grequeiny, lg c nlkplieit, js `lveriem fy jts kcss cim stjggiesscim, li nertcji nrjtjnca pcrts, jt js lgtei ienesscry tl ml guaa-sncae gctjùe tests tlnligjrk cmequcte gctjùe ajge feglre puttji` the prlmunt jitl servjne.


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>.36 GC]J@UE KE]CAAUV@Z

Uimer the cntjli lg gctjùe stresses, kjiute, alnca, pacstjn meglrkctjli li cictlkjn sncae, tcbes pacne cali` sajp pacies wjthji the kcterjca `rcjis. Jg thegctjùe stresses cre nlitjiuem, thei kjnrl nrcnbs cre glrkem wjthji the `rcjis, jithe crec lg the hj`hest alnca stress, (usucaay ct lr iecr the surgcne lg thekcterjca). ]he kjnrl nrcnbs olji tlèther cim prlpc`cte cnrlss the `rcjifluimcrjes fut ilt cali` thek.

C gctjùe grcnture èiercaay mevealps ji three stcès (reger tl Gj`. 3>)?

Iunaectjli

Trlpc`ctjli (nrcnb `rlwth) Uatjkcte (rcpjm) grcnture.

]he resuatcit grcnturem surgcne lgtei hcs c nhcrcnterjstjn cppecrcine lg?

Ci crec, li whjnh c serjes lg nurvem, pcrcaaea, reactjveay skllth rjmès crepreseit cim cre neitrem crluim the stcrtji` pljit lg the nrcnb. ]hese rjmèscre slketjkes ncaaem nlinhljmca ajies lr fecnh kcrbs lr crrest ajies.

C rlu`her, typjncaay nrystcaajie sentjli, whjnh js the gjica rcpjm grcnture wheithe nrlss-sentjli js il alièr ncpcfae lg ncrryji` jts ilrkca, stecmy alcm.

Iunaectjli Trlpc`ctjli (nrcnb `rlwth) Uatjkcte (rcpjm) grcnture

]he ]hree ^tcès lg GrcntureGj`. 3>


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]he crrest ajies cre, ilrkcaay, glrkem whei the alcmji` js nhcièm, lr the

alcmji` js jiterkjtteit. Hlwever, ji cmmjtjli tl these nhcrcnterjstjn cimjiglrkctjve kcrbs, there cre sjkjacr, fut kunh gjier ajies (ncaaem strjctjlis),whjnh ajtercaay shlw the plsjtjli lg the nrcnb grlit cgter ecnh nynae. ]hesestrjctjlis cre lfvjlusay lg `rect jkplrtcine tl ketcaaur`jsts cim gcjaurejivestj`ctlrs whei cttekptji` tl estjkcte the nrcnb jijtjctjli cim/lr prlpc`ctjliajge. ]he strjctjlis cre lgtei sl gjie cim jimjstjint thct eaentrli feck kjnrlsnlpescre requjrem tl nluit thek.

Ji ilrkca njrnukstcines, c `rect meca lg eier`y js requjrem tl dwecbei' thekcterjca suggjnjeitay tl jijtjcte c gctjùe nrcnb, cim jt js ilt surprjsji`, thereglre, tlgjim thct the iunaectjli phcse tcbes c reactjveay ali` tjke.

Hlwever, line the jijtjca nrcnb js glrkem, the extrekeay hj`h stress nlineitrctjli(preseit ct the nrcnb grlit) js suggjnjeit tl ncuse the nrcnb tl prlpc`cte reactjveayqujnbay, cim `cjiji` ji speem cs the nrcnb grlit ilt liay jinrecses ji sjze, futcasl remunes the nlkplieit nrlss-sentjlica crec.

C pljit js eveitucaay recnhem (bilwi cs the 'nrjtjnca nrcnb aei`th') ct whjnh therekcjiji` nrlss-sentjli js suggjnjeitay remunem tl ncuse c `rlss lveralcmji`sjtuctjli, cim c summei grcnture gjicaay lnnurs.

Jt js ilt uiusuca glr the nrcnb jijtjctjli phcse tl tcbe :4% lg the tjke tl gcjaure,wjth the prlpc`ctjli phcse liay tcbji` the rekcjiji` 34%. ]hjs js lie lg thekcolr recslis glr lperctlrs lg equjpkeit feji` reactjveay uisunnessgua jimetentji` gctjùe nrcnbs ji nlkplieits feglre c gcjaure lnnurs.

>.3> GC]J@UE TVLKL]EV^

Cs gctjùe nrcnbs jijtjcte ct alnctjlis lg hj`hest stress cim alwest alnca strei`th,the iunaectjli sjte wjaa fe?

mjntctem acrèay fy èlketry cim the èierca stress mjstrjfutjli

alnctem ct lr iecr the surgcne lr

neitrem li surgcne megents/jkpergentjlis, sunh cs snrctnhes, pjts,jinausjlis, mjsalnctjlis cim the ajbe

>

module 06. materials and hardware

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