mla feedlot manual

The South-East AsianFeedlot Manual

SOUTH-EAST ASIAN FEEDLOT

Australia’s livestock export trade to South-East Asia emerged in the 1980s as an industryof enormous magnitude. The trade quicklydeveloped into a large, professional businessoffering significant benefits to bothAustralia and each importing country.

Importers and exporters quickly developedstrategic alliances all the while sharpeningtheir business and livestock skills. Cattle producers in northern Australian welcomed

the new market opportunities by supplying large volumes of feeder cattleinto neighbouring South-East Asia.

Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia andBrunei have clearly been Australia’s most

significant markets for feeder cattle.Critically important to the development of this trade has been the feedlot sector in South-East Asia.

In most instances, the ability to feedAustralian cattle with a high quality and relatively low cost feed ration is the single most important factor that allows this trade to operate profitably.

Achieving weight gain efficiencies for allcattle on feed soon emerged as both a

INDONESIA

MALAYSIA

passion and a necessity for importers of Australian cattle.

The South-East Asian Feedlot Manual is a summary of numerous industry-fundedresearch studies covering the key components

of a feedlot operation. The manual is a valuable resource for all feedlotters while atthe same time presenting key points in astraightforward and user-friendly format.

The members of Australia’s meat and livestock industry organisations, Meat &Livestock Australia and Livecorp, commendthis manual to those companies feedingAustralian cattle in South-East Asia.

MANUAL

BRUNEI

PHILIPPINES

Feedlot Design

Profitability

Staff

Transport

Cattle

Health

Manure

Feed

Water

Quality Assurance

Published by Meat & Livestock Australia on behalf of the Live Export program, an initiative of Meat & Livestock Australiaand LiveCorp

ABN 39 081 678 364April 2006ISBN 1 74036 898 3© Meat & Livestock Australia

Reproduction in whole or part of this publication is prohibited without prior permission consent and acknowledgement of Meat & Livestock Australia

Disclaimer: Care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information contained in thispublication. However MLA and LiveCorp cannot accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the information or opinions contained in the publication. Youshould make your own enquiries before making decisions concerning your interests.

The South-East AsianFeedlot Manual

DESIGN

FEEDLOT DESIGN

What: The design of a feedlot must be compatible with the

conditions of that country.

Why: Cattle need to be housed with health and productivity in

mind.

How: 1. Know the environmental considerations for Asia.

2. Understand the two basic types of feedlot design for

Asia.

3. Ensure knowledge of considerations for:

Yards

Land

Buildings

Handling & Processing

Water

Power

Telecommunication

This is a broad overview of how Asian feedlots can meetthese requirements while factoring in localconsiderations. Information regarding the detaileddesigns of pens, troughs and yards can be found inother reference publications.

Environmental Considerations for Asia

The special environmental and social conditions thatapply in Asia are:

Tropical conditions with constant heatand humidity

Heavy monsoonal rains

Supply of relatively cheap labour

Cheap local materials

Expensive land and high population densities

No formal rules covering feedlot design and positioning.

The environmental conditions have led to most feedlotsin Asia having concrete floors and fully or partiallycovered roofs. This practice has evolved because of thehigh rainfall and the need to reduce the space neededper head.

In Australia, for example, the space requirements forfeedlots are set by local legislation and are normally aminimum of 9 square metres per head and range up to20 square metres per head. In Asia, feedlots oftenprovide only 3 square metres per animal. This is possibleto achieve with a concrete floor and frequent cleaning.

Experience has also shown that there is no affect on thefeet of animals and that the density does not necessarilylead to increased problems that cannot be managed.Problems do arise however if a strict regimen of pencleaning is not adhered to.

Design of Feedlots in Asia

While the design of each feedlot in Asia is unique, thereare two basic types that have evolved.

These are:

Intensive

In the tropics, the majority of feedlots are constructedon the basis of full or substantial roofing of the cattlepens, concrete floors and a stocking density of one

The Key Requirements for feedlot designare the same whether you are in Australia,the USA or Asia. The feedlot must befunctional, environmentally sustainable,animal friendly and safe.

Chapter Summary:

Environmental considerations for Asia

Feedlot designs in Asia

Design requirements for workingyards, buildings and cattle handlingand processing area

Considerations for water, power,and telecommunications

feeder (300 to 450kg) to 3-4m. Feed troughs run eitherside of the shelter or either side of a centre laneway.Gate systems are provided for the movement of cattleto and from the handling yards. Water troughs areplaced in fence panels to provide access for cattle inpens either side of the fence.

Depending on the circumstances, cleaning is carried outevery two days by mechanical means and the use ofdrive through pens. In some cases, cleaning is done byhand on a daily basis. Bedding is used to reduce thefrequency of cleaning in some systems. Types of beddinginclude sawdust, wood shavings, rice hulls or straw.

These products allow pen cleaning to be undertaken onten to fourteen day rotations and avoid theenvironmental issues of disposing of very fluid material,which is often discharged into watersheds.

Unless floors are well designed with anti slipgrooving, animals may fall over when moved causingstress and bruising.

Semi Intensive

An alternative is to use adequate roofing to cover feedtroughs and the laneway only, with the balance of thepens uncovered. Concrete flooring consists only of anapron of about two metres bordering the feed andwater troughs. This system can only operate if thedensity of cattle in the pens is reduced to 12 squaremetres per animal. Waste is pushed up in a pile duringthe wet season and removed during the dry season andused as organic fertilizer. Pens are adequate in size toallow manoeuvring of equipment in the pens. The siteshould have a natural slope of no more than 3% awayfrom the feed troughs. The desired situation is along aridge with the laneway on the top and pens either sidewith a gentle slope to the backs of the pens. An earthdrain along the bottom of the pens, allowing a bufferzone between the pens and the drain, can beconstructed to channel water and waste into a collectionpond. This would only operate at times of high intensityrainfall. Water from the pond could be pumped off forwatering forage or to evaporate naturally. From time totime the collected waste sediment would be removedduring the dry season and spread as fertilizer.

The materials used in the construction range from steelto bamboo.

Working Yards

These yards require a loading ramp, adequate racelength with sliding gates, a crush and separate weighingscale. There will be a need for drafting capacity in theyard either via the race or specially designed pen (orboth). A hospital shelter with several pens, water andfeed troughs should be attached to the handling yards.

Design of the handling yards and feedlot pens must keep inmind animal welfare, safety and ease of handling.

Requirements for cattle handling andprocessing area.

The basic requirements of the receiving and handlingyard are:

Race of about 20m length with maximum 650mminternal measurement.

Race to be fully covered, have non slip concrete floorand apron each side with at least four fully coveredsliding gates designed to be operated from the near(left) side of the animal.

Separate crush and weighing scales are preferred butmay be a combined unit.

Capacity Density Pen Space Roads/Buildings Total m2 Hectares

1,000 head high 4m2/head 10m2/head 14,000 1.4



1,000 head low 4m2/head 10m2/head 22,000 2.2



Estimated Land requirements

Water

The water supply must be available in adequatequantities at all times ( wet or dry season ) and be ofsuitable quality.

Ground Water

Ground water is usually acceptable for stock, and thedry season supply must be tested. It is recommendedthat samples be laboratory tested before any firmdecision is made to proceed.

The head of the race to have drafting gates both sidesand a sliding gate leading straight up to the loadingramp.

The loading ramp to have a single animal section forloading and a truck width section for unloading.

All gate hinges should allow for opening either waywith a greater than 90 degree swing.

There should be a forcing pen and four other holdingpens, including a three-way draft from the race. Thepens may require gravel or concrete to avoid boggingif the soil type is not suitable.

No sharp objects or materials should be used in theyard construction with rounded type materialspreferred.

A water trough servicing two pens is required,together with a tap near the race.

Trucks used for road transport should have suitableanti-slip provision on the floor and a simple butsuitable and strong gate system at the rear of thebody/crate. It is recommended that easily fitted,reusable techniques be used for this purpose.

Race and cattle crush for stress free handling and induction of cattle

Heavy duty Australian cattle crush

River Water

If the available supply is adequate, it is vital to checkupstream to assess the degree of pollution fromcommunities dependant on this source. Run-off fromrice areas can have unacceptably high levels ofherbicides, insecticides or fertilisers.

Dams

Dams are an option where there is:

a suitable site, taking into consideration holdingcapacity, soil type, spillway design and base rockstrata.

adequate catchment area, using rainfall patterns andpeak flow data to design suitable spillways.

community development below the wall to determinedangers if the dam should breach at any time.

availability of suitable skills and equipment toconstruct the dam wall and spillway.

Power

If there is no power supply from the local utilities, it willbe necessary to install a generator. Feedlots with2500/3000 head capacity using power to operate smallhammermills and vertical mixers need approximately120kva, with a second smaller unit which runs at nightwhen light only is required. It is suggested that this

should be considered. If diesel power is used only in thefeed preparation process, then a smaller main unit willbe adequate.

Telecommunications

ISD telephones and fax are vital considerations forefficient business operations. Similarly, mobile phonecoverage and internet access have become increasinglyimportant. UHF radio can be used very effectively on siteand locally, but adequate external telecommunicationaccess is vital.

Buildings

The feedlot will require a staff/administration building(see also Staff section).

A suitable feed storage shed is required to hold anestimated 70% of the daily intake for up to 14 daysreserve. If the daily dry matter intake is calculated at2.6% of body weight, the calculation for tonnage would be:

350kglw @ 2.6% @ 70% @ 14 days = 90kg(multiplied by the feedlot capacity)

In designing the feed shed, consideration should begiven to the working height and room needed formachinery operation, materials required to withstandconstant machinery operation in the bunkers etc.(see also Feed section.)

Drainage

Control of runoff is an important consideration in the designof any new feedlot. This is particularly so in the tropicswhere rainfall volume and intensity can be extreme. Runoffis an issue because it can affect animal welfare (bogging,waterlogging, disease); it can affect the environment(contamination of water sources, odour); it can affectmanagement (road bogging) and it can affect neighbours.

The feedlot will need to be constructed on a pad with aslope sufficient to allow for drainage of waste water andeffluent from the pens. The waste will need to becontained to ensure the external environment is notcontaminated. Actual slope will be determined bylocation and feedlot design (eg partial or full cover ofpens, rainfall etc.) and professional advice specific to thesite should be sought prior to construction.

Similarly, consideration will need to be given to thecollection and treatment of manure from the pens.Issues such as collection technique (mechanical vsmanual), treatment and use of manure will all needcareful planning as they may seriously affectmanagement and profitability of the feedlot. It is vitallyimportant that effluent can be controlled through anefficient drainage system and/or regular pen cleaning.(see also Manure Section)

A well designed facility will result in a quieter, moreproductive cattle

Capacity Kg/hd/30 Feed Feed/Work ratio m3 Shed day volume

1,000 head 90 90 (90m3) Feed 1 x Work 5m3 450m3

or about 12m x 10m x 4m = 480m3

3,000 head 90 270 (270m3) Feed 1 x Work 4m3 1,080m3

or about 12m x 15m x 4m = 864m3

5,000 head 90 450 (450m3) Feed 1 x Work 3m3 1,850m3

or about 12m x 23m x 4m = 1,800m3

Table for estimating required feed shed storage space

Yard Design Tips

For sophisticated feed yard processing yardsdesigns there are a number of web sites offeringexcellent information.

The work of Dr. Temple Grandin (below) is regardedas the industry standard. Visit: www.grandin.com

These sites will also provide information aboutsite layout, preparation and animal handlingtechniques.

Importantly, the work of Dr. Grandin focuses onensuring the welfare of the animal is maintainedwith the bonus of greatly improved movement ofanimals through the feed yard and slaughtercomplexes. It also promotes a greater understandingof the animal by handling staff - an importantconsideration where staff at a new feedlot may havehad only limited experience with animal handling.

There is also useful information available fromvarious Australian state department’s of Agriculture.

HIGH EFFICIENCY 180 DEGREE ROUND CROWD PEN Cattle think they are going back to where they came from

Handling cattle in the yard

(see also Cattle section)

Cattle should move easily through the yards and enterthe single file race without hesitating. If cattle baulk andrefuse to move at a particular point in the system it isimportant to observe them carefully to find out why theyare baulking. Small distractions that go unnoticed byhandlers can make cattle baulk.

For example, the performance of the best systems canbe ruined by a small piece of chain hanging in the singlefile race. Calm cattle may stop and refuse to move on.

Below is a list of some of the things that may makecattle baulk and impede movement through a yard:

entrance to the single file race is too dark

blinding light in the animal's face such as facingdirectly into the sun

seeing people or dogs ahead

shiny reflections off metal

water puddles which reflect light

changes in floor type or fence construction

shadows

hat or coat on a fence

piece of plastic or paper cup on the floor

air hissing

high pitched noise from a motor

drain grating on the floor

chain or rope hanging in the race

changes of colour in the facility

clanging and banging metal

one-way anti back up gates

CURVEDCHUTE / RACE

CRUSH / SQUEEZE

BASIC CATTLE RANCH LAYOUTTemple Grandin

16' (5m)

12' (3.5m)12' (3.5m)

12' (3.5m)

12' (3.5m)

14'(4.1m)

14'(4.1m)

14'(4.1m)

25'(7.6m)

HANDLERWALKWAY

ROUNDFORCING PEN

FORCINGGATE

MANGATE

LOADINGRAMP

BASIC CATTLE RANCH LAYOUTTemple Grandin

PROFITABILITY

FEEDLOT PROFITABILITY

What: A feedlot is a complex business. There are many

contributors to financial success.

Why: Need to be aware of all profit centres and confirm project

viability before commencement.

How: 1. Complete a feedlot feasibility asessment.

2. Understand the the factors which affect feedlot

profitability and how they interact.

3. Understand the major loss factors of running a feedlot

in Asia.

Feedlot Feasibility Assessment

The feedlot industry in most countries has evolved fromthe need to provide a consistent product to a demandingmarket. It must be efficient in its operations to beprofitable due to the relatively high input costs of feedand labour.

The two key questions to be asked before starting afeedlot venture are:

1: Is it feasible?2: Will it be profitable?

Risk Analysis

Before deciding to enter a feedlot venture, a full studyof resources and risks need to be carried out.

To date, the feedlot industries of Indonesia and thePhilippines have developed without significant controls.However, long term operators in these countries need toaddress environmental issues in existing feedlots andnew ventures.

As South East Asian economies develop, the demand forbeef will rise. But those entering this industry need to beaware of the impediments that may cut the feedlotindustry's share of this rising market.

These are:

Frozen beef in the fresh market.

The availability of frozen beef in the fresh market willlimit the potential of this market by putting strongdownward pressure on price as well as replacingsignificant volume. In the supermarkets, the availabilityof frozen produce allows the supermarket to provide aproduct at approximately the same retail price as thefresh market and maintain increased profit margins.While the supply of frozen boxed beef to the freshmarket is illegal in Indonesia for example, the practicewill continue because of the profit margins involved,however, a balance will be required to maintain growthin the feedlot industry.

Limited capacity to process increased supply

Processing capacity can be a limiting factor to supply forthe fresh market. This must be considered by anoperating feedlot in its marketing plan.

Limits in commodity supply

Commodity availability is a significant risk area. In thePhilippines, the pressure on commodity availability haslead to increased prices and reduction of feedlotprofitability. In Indonesia, shortages of commodities areless likely. For example, production of cassava is seventimes the production of the Philippines and the growthof Indonesian palm oil and coconut productionindustries also ensures a large supply of by productsuitable for cattle feed. However, regardless of location,commodity supply will always be an important, if notprimary consideration in determining feedlot profitability.

A FEEDLOT BUSINESS is a complex one withmany contributors to its financial success.

Any operator wishing to enter the businessmust understand all aspects of the industryin order to establish business plans andoperational plans.

This chapter looks at:

How to assess the feasibility of a feedlot

Operating constraints for a feedlot in Asia

Factors affecting feedlot profitability

Opportunities for custom feeding arrangements

The major loss factors for feedlots in Asia

Operating Constraints

Each feedlot needs to be aware of its individual, localoperating constraints. For example, there may begovernment policies such as permit systems contollingthe feedlot industry. It is important to determine whatpolicies apply to feedlots in individual countries.

Cattle performance is vital to the success of theoperation and is governed by cattle type and quality aswell as feedlot management technology. By using highlyskilled feedlot management staff, feedlot managementwill ensure performance is maximized.

The following is a list of considerations to rememberwhen assessing your operating constraints:

Technical Feasibility

Is the feedlot capable of operating successfully on itsown? Are all project inputs secured and outputsdelivered without relying on social programs or politicalinfluence? Is there enough staff with the technicalknowledge and experience to do the best job?

Operational Size

The optimum size of a feedlot is determined bycapitalisation and overhead costs as well as the amountof stock that can be turned over per annum. Smallerfeedlots tend to have lower rates of return due to highercosts per head. They also have a tendency to beopportunity based and move in and out of the industryas profit margins allow.

Financial Feasibility

Does your project deliver a financial return that meetsthe owner's objectives? The rate of return must includerisk factors since the business investment has potentiallosses (for example death of stock), that are not normal.

Business Relationships

There should be compatibility of operational stylesbetween the people involved in the business, as well asbetween those people in the industry with whom thebusiness will deal. Many may be tempted to go intocattle feedlots without having a sound base to carry outthe trading aspects of the business.

Government Policy

It should be determined that if there is a change inGovernment and its policies, the project will still beviable. If local political representatives change, will thatchange adversely and affect the project and place itsviability at risk?

Reliability of Local Fodder Producers

The degree of reliance on local farmers to commit tofodder production without failure is vital. The degree towhich the project can afford to rely on local farmers alsomust be assessed. Alternative avenues for fodderprocurement are needed in the event of cropfailure/shortfall.

Livestock and Crop Diseases

The capacity of management and of the Department ofAgriculture to contain outbreaks of disease in bothplants and livestock must be assured. Supplies of waterand feed quality and quantity will need to be secured.The variables of climate, including cyclones, floods,droughts could prove to be unmanageable in reachingproduction objectives.

Local Community Involvement

The objections or support of local communities could becrucial. These objectors or supporters could include localbusiness competition, politicians or people in thecommunity. Often there will be significant benefitsderived from the project that will flow to the localcommunity and in employment and businessopportunities.

STAFF

What: All feedlots require dedicated professional staff.

Why: Without professional staff you have little chance

of running an efficient feedlot.

How: 1. Know the positions and job descriptions.

2. Understand the requirements for your

feedlot.

3. Understand how to create a safe working

environment.

4. Understand the training needs of your staff.

Staffing Positions for a Feedlot

The number of staff required will depend upon the sizeof your feedlot. Smaller feedlots will operate with one ortwo staff doing the majority of tasks from feeding andchecking cattle to marketing and buying cattle.Meanwhile a fully operational 5000 head feedlotrepresents a considerable investment and will requiresignificant staffing and management systems.

For a large operation, the following staff positions willbe necessary:

General Manager

Many large operations employ expatriate managers toensure there are sufficient experienced managementskills available. This person will have previous feedlotexperience, preferably tropical cattle experience, and anability to work with Asian people.

Responsibilities will include:

Management and feedlot construction

Planning and coordinating feedlot operations andsupervision of key staff areas including feedlotsupervisor, forage production, accounts and marketing

Implementing approved annual operations income andexpenditure budget and achieving pre-determinedtargets for profit and production.

Recruitment and training of key staff

Feedlot Supervisor

This person should have previous experience in the localfeedlot industry and will be directly responsible to theGeneral Manager.

The duties will encompass all day to day physicalactivities associated with the cattle fattening operationthrough to the turn off to market. The appointee wouldlive on site or nearby.

Forage Production Supervisor

This person should have a background in ruminantnutrition, in smallholder rural extension services, and betechnically qualified in the production of corn and otherforages and legumes.

The duties will involve the establishment of plasmafarmer groups for the production of forages for the

A PROFITABLE FEEDLOT cannot functionwithout staff that are experienced andknow their role in the feedlot.

Chapter Summary:

The key positions required for a feedlot

Training requirement for feedlot staff

Accommodation requirements for staff

feedlot and will provide all inputs to the establishedgroups, including technology, training, demonstration,distribution of seed and fertilizer. In addition, they willinclude coordination of the harvesting and preservationof forages and timely delivery to the feedlot, ensuringadequate supplies of raw materials for concentrateproduction to meet the needs of the feedlot at all times.

This person will report directly to the General Manager.This is a pivotal position in terms of the economicsuccess of the feedlot company and will require adedicated and capable person. The appointee will liaise with all other staff members and will live on site or nearby.

Accountant and Record Manager

This appointee will have experience in bookkeeping andaccounting and be responsible for the maintenance offull financial and transaction records. The appointee willlive on site or nearby.

Marketing Manager

This appointee will have had experience in the marketingof imported and local cattle and possess a good networkof contacts in the marketing chain. The appointee willreport directly to the General Manager. The appointee

will be familiar with good handling and transportprocedures for cattle and apply these procedures at alltimes when sold cattle are being delivered.

The appointee will liaise with the feedlot manager toobtain a regular inventory of cattle either nearing orready for sale. The appointee will provide constantmarket intelligence to the General Manager and theFeedlot Manager.

Technical Staff

Technical staff should be appointed in each divisionaccording to need. They will receive training from theGeneral Manager and their routine work instructionsfrom their Supervisor/Manager.

Future Training Requirements

All operational aspects of the feedlot business willrequire the provision of training to the responsibleperson(s). It is recommended that the appointees arerecruited early in the establishment stage and that thisdevelopment phase be used as a training vehicle thatwill develop a "sense of belonging" amongst theemployees at the management and labourer levels.

During the establishment phase, training sessionsfocused on all individual aspects of the business shouldbe undertaken.

Once the lotfeeding operation has commenced, trainingcourses on site and at suitable external venues will bearranged. However, it will remain important for allappointees to maintain an active physical role (hands onmanagement) in the day to day activities of theirrespective division.

Administration and Accommodation Requirements

It will be necessary to establish a suitable managementand administration office on site. The office need not belarge but should be air conditioned and allowaccommodation for the General Manager, eachsupervisor and the administration and marketingmanagers. An operations room is desirable which canalso be used as a meal room. A small room is requiredfor the storage and maintenance of all veterinary needsand associated equipment with a facility for cleaningequipment post use.

TRANSPORT

TRANSPORT

What: Transporting cattle from ship to feedlot and feedlot to sale

as efficiently as possible.

Why: Minimise health problems and bruising which affect

profitability.

How: 1. Understand the requirements for road

access/infrastructure/location.

2. Ensure that all staff know how to drive and handle

cattle.

3. Understand preferred cattle truck design and how to

modify existing trucks/transport.

4. Understand why the above are important when moving

to sale.

Transport facilities in Asia are not specifically designedfor cattle and road conditions often make transport slowand difficult. While trucks have to be adapted to cattletransport, it is possible, with proper planning andpreparation to transport cattle reasonably efficiently andwithout stress or damage.

Location and Infrastructure

The port should have the necessary infrastructure tofacilitate the live cattle trade. This includes the PortsAuthority that controls shipping movements, CustomsDepartment, stevedoring, telephone, power, water andbasic loading equipment.

There must be adequate manoeuvering area for emptycattle and freight trucks to be unloaded from the ship.The depth of the port needs to be sufficient to allow thelivestock vessels to dock.

Customs & Quarantine

Animal Quarantine

The Provincial Veterinary Officer normally holds the

responsibilities for livestock quarantine. In addition, that

officer holds responsibilities for all matters relating to

livestock and livestock products.

Conditions of entry for cattle from Australia are covered

by the export certificate requirements issued by the

Australian Quarantine & Inspection Service (AQIS)

veterinarians.

The post discharge quarantine period varies from region

to region and there is a pre discharge inspection of cattle

at the wharf before the stock are released to unload.

Road Access from Port to Feedlot

Road Conditions

Road conditions from the port to the feedlot have an

affect on cattle transport and bruising. The road should

preferably be sealed and able to take the trucks available

for transport. It is vitally important that this issue is given

due consideration when deciding the location of a new

feedlot. The feedlot needs to be located within a

reasonable distance of the unloading port, and the road

needs to be of high quality to ensure that injury during

transport is minimised. These injuries may mean the

difference between a profitable feedlot and a failed

project. Consideration should also be given to the road

building requirements on the actual feedlot site.

Driver Skills and Training

Most drivers are general transport drivers and have hadlittle experience in the transport of cattle. The feedlotmanager will be responsible for monitoring theirperformance and to take action when cattle arrive in abruised or stressed condition during the transport phasefrom port to feedlot.

Driver speeds should be monitored and controlled toensure the cattle travel without being injured or undulystressed. This may require the keeping of driver logrecords, however individual drivers should be closelymonitored by the feedlot manager. Where driver trainingis generally lacking, the feedlot manager should talk tothe transport company about their specific requirements.

Trucks

The trucks commonly used are heavy all-steel, high-decked body trucks, both ten and six wheeled units. Theestimated weight of a ten wheeler is 18 tonnes. Thesetrucks can carry approximately 12 head of feeder steers.Bedding in the form of sugar cane bagasse, rice straw,rice hulls or similar must be provided on the floor of thetruck to prevent slippage and injury to the cattle. Theopen top may need to be covered with a cargo net,

TRANSPORTATION is an importantconsideration for any feedlot. Movingcattle from the shipping yards efficientlyand in the best condition to go on to feedwill enhance a profitable feedlot.

Ensuring the cattle reach their market inthe best possible condition will also affectthe bottom line.

Chapter Summary:

Location and infrastructure

Customs and quarantine

Road access from port to feedlot

Preferred cattle truck design

Discharge and delivery from the vessel

Moving cattle from the feedlot to point of sale

bamboo or timber. Horizontal rails are tied with innertubes or ropes and a temporary rear gate may need tobe fashioned to allow the cattle to be contained whilethe drop gate is closed.

A sufficient number of trucks should be available toensure the smooth unloading of the ship in theminimum of time.

Preferred Cattle Truck Design

A semi trailer towing a single 32 foot deck trailer with aconventional Australian type crate is the preferred designfor efficient movement of cattle.

The crate should be partitioned internally, with gatesinside to restrict cattle movement and have removablegrid flooring. The flooring should be cleated or of arubber non-slip matting to prevent cattle slipping and falling.

At present, few cattle trucks of this type are available inAsia, however some operators are building similar rigs.

The acceptable space allowed in the truck per beast is0.9m2. At that space, a 9.5m by 2.5m deck would carry26 head at 300kg liveweight entry to the feedlot. At anexit weight of 420kg, the trailer could carry 20 head.

Typical small body trucks in Australia used for the

transport of cattle have a number of design featuresthat may be incorporated into trucks used in Asia. Mostbasically, the truck needs to be set up so that cattle havefirm footing and do not slip as the truck moves; itshould have adequate room for each animal and ensurethat animals are held in pen sizes that do not allow alarge group to become compressed into one corner ofthe space, resulting in injuries; and that there issufficient visual blocking to avoid the animals becoming

agitated because of excessive visual stimuli. Otherfeatures of interest are sliding gates that can be quicklyclosed, reducing the likelihood of animals coming backdown the loading race before loading is completed.

The photographs that follow highlight some of thesefeatures. While the actual design can vary significantly, itis important that the set-up meets the criteria (above) toensure the trouble free movement of animals from shipto feedlot and feedlot to market.

Truck Design Features

The truck (above) features an enclosed crate to reducethe visual stimulus as cattle are transported. The truckcrate interior features a sheet of reinforcing meshattached to the bottom of the crate (below) to ensurethat animals do not slip during transport.

This is perhaps the single most important design featureto be considered when transporting cattle. While it canbe achieved in a number of ways, it is vital that animalsare not transported on a bare steel truck floor assignificant injuries will inevitably result.

A pin locked sliding rear gate, (upper right) allows thegate to be closed quickly so cattle cannot reverse quicklyand charge back down the race blocking loading.

Injuries to cattle between the port andfeedlot as a result of poor handling,substandard transport and unsuitableroads are one of the major causes offinancial loss in some feedlots. Injuriessustained in this way take significanttime to heal, if in fact the animal everdoes recover. With suitable preparationand vigilance 90% of these injuries can be avoided, with less stress for the animal and more profit for thefeedlot operator.

Elevated floor stops animals slipping

The interior space of the cattle crate (bottom picture) isdivided into two pens to separate the animals and toavoid too many stock becoming crowded at one end ofthe space resulting in injuries. Note also the smoothsides of the interior space. The cladding is placed insidethe structural arches of the crate to minimise the risk ofbruising. Similarly, there are no protruding sharp objectsthat may injure animals during loading or transport.

All of these features are designed to minimise stress onthe animals, ensuring they arrive at the feedlot orslaughterhouse in the best possible condition.

Discharge & Delivery

From the Vessel

The cattle ships have their own gangways for unloadingcattle onto the wharf. These are slung into position fromthe ships derricks, usually from the top deck. Using theavailable 6 and 10 wheelers there is a one-time totalcapacity to move cattle from the ship to the feedlot as follows:

5 x 10 wheelers@16 head/unit 80hd10 x 6 wheelers@ 12 head/unit 120hd

200hd

This is a one time lift of 200 head using 15 trucks at anaverage of 14 head per truck. At 1.5 hrs round trip theship would be discharged as follows:

1100 head = 79 loads14hd/truck = 15 trucks = 8.6 hours

The design of unloading facilities will also influenceunloading time and it is preferable if more than onetruck can be positioned for unloading at one time.

This example gives an indication of the amount offorethought and preparation required to ensure asmooth unloading.

Demurrage

Demurrage is a common shipping term used to describethe penalties you have to pay for being late and tying upthe ship past the agreed time.

Current charter agreements allow 48 hours unloadingtime, starting from the time the vessel docks and iscleared for customs.

Pin locked sliding rear gate

Cattle crate divided into two pens

There is generally no requirement for a holding facilityat the port. The current livestock charter companiesallow a system of debits and credits of demurrage timeto accrue on an annual basis so that exporters are onlydisadvantaged when unpreventable incidents occur.

Feedlot to Point of Sale

Cattle delivered for slaughter should be in the followingcondition:

fresh

unstressed

unsoiled

with undamaged skin

no evidence of bruising or other factors likely to lower the yield and meat quality post slaughter.

Doing so is critical in establishing a satisfactory tradingrelationship and maintaining a reputation for deliveringcattle whose high quality is assured.

Some growers adopt a policy of holding finished steersin a small feedlot near the market and fattening them.They then move them to the market when they judgethe timing to be best. This timing will vary with numbersof cattle on offer at the time, demand, and tradersoperating in the market.

Electrolytes can be used prior to and during transport tohelp maintain cattle in appropriate condition forslaughter. (see Animal Health section).

CATTLE

CATTLE

What: Need to choose suitable cattle from Australia for the feedlot

and select appropriate animals for slaughter.

Why: A profitable feedlot is one which can find a market for each

animal on feed.

How: 1. Taking the stress out of cattle handling.

2. Ensure you know the current market specifications.

2. Ensure you know how to translate these market specs

into live cattle specs.

3. Know how to select correct cattle for slaughter.

4. Understand meat quality.

Taking the stress out of cattle handling

Well designed yards based on an understanding of cattlebehaviour can reduce stress on both feedlot staff and cattle.

Cattle that become excited and agitated may have levelsof stress hormones in their blood up to three timeshigher than cattle handled gently and quietly.

Cattle that are handled roughly become agitated veryquickly. It may take up to 30 minutes for them to calmdown and for their heart rates to return to normal.Excited and frightened cattle are also more difficult tohandle than quiet cattle.

Cattle behaviour

The most important principles to understand are theanimal's flight zone, it's point of balance, theimportance of handling small groups and training cattlefor handling procedures.

Flight zone stress

The size of the flight zone is the distance an animal willallow an operator to approach before moving away. Theflight zone is the animal's safety zone. Tame cattle have noflight zone and will allow an operator to approach andtouch them. Cattle which are unaccustomed to people willturn and move away when a person enters their flight zone.

Flight zone size is determined by three factors: cattlegenetics, the amount of contact cattle have had withpeople and the quality of that contact.

Genetic factors (temperament) and experience interact incomplex ways to determine an animals flight zone. Forexample, genetically flighty cattle may be tamed bygentle handling so that they have no flight zone. Incontrast, genetically calm cattle raised in rangelandconditions with little or no contact with people mayhave a large flight zone.

The point is that cattle with calm temperaments orflighty temperaments will have smaller flight zones - ifthey are handled gently - than animals that are handledroughly or have little contact with people.

This picture illustrates the flight zone of a large flock ofsheep, herds of cattle behave much the same way.Notice that the sheep are circling around the handlerwhile maintaining a safe distance. Sheep tend to movein the opposite direction of the handler’s movement.Walking in the opposite direction of the direction ofdesired movement can be used to move groups ofanimals. Walking in the opposite direction tends tospeed up movement and walking in the same directiontends to slow down movements. These principles workequally well with cattle.

A PROFITABLE FEEDLOT is one that can fiteach animal on feed into a market


Cattle Handling

Market specifications in Asia

The Importance of fat to the customer

How to select cattle on feed for slaughter

Challenges to the market for Asian feedlots

Sheep flight zone

Research has shown that cattle thatbecome highly agitated duringrestraint in a squeeze crush have lowerweight gains than unstressed animals.Obviously they also have a greatercapacity to injure themselves and staff.

Figure 1 illustrates the general flight zone of an animal.The actual flight zone of an individual animal will varydepending on how “tame” the animal is.

An animal’s flight zone will vary depending on how calmit is. The flight zone gets bigger when an animalbecomes excited. The flight zone is also bigger whenyou approach “head on”. Calm cattle are easier tomove. If cattle become excited, it takes 20-30 minutesfor them to calm back down.

When cattle are suddenly confronted with somethingnew, they become frightened and move away. This iswhy it is so important to accustom cattle gradually topeople. Getting them used to handling will improve theirperformance in the feedlot.

The point of balance is at the animal's shoulder.Cattle will move forward if the handler stands behindthe point of balance. They will back up if the handlerstands in front of the point of balance. Manyhandlers make the mistake of standing in front ofthe point of balance while attempting to make ananimal move forward in a race.

Groups of cattle in a race will often move forwardwithout prodding when the handler walks past the pointof balance in the opposite direction of each animal inthe race. It is not necessary to prod every animal. If theanimals are moving through the race by themselves,leave them alone. Often they can be moved by tappingthe side of the race.

EDGE OFFLIGHT ZONE

BLIND SPOTSHADED GREY

HANDLERSPOSITION TO STOP

MOVEMENT

HANDLERSPOSITION TO START

MOVEMENT

POINT OFBALANCE

90°

45°

Figure 1: The Flight Zone

Handlers who understand the concepts of flight zoneand point of balance will be able to move animals moreeasily. The flight zone is the animal's personal space andthe size of the flight zone is determined by the wildnessor tameness of the animal. Completely tame animalshave no flight zone and people can touch them. Ananimal will begin to move away when the handlerpenetrates the edge of the flight zone. If all the animalsare facing the handler, the handler is outside the flight zone.

When the handler is outside the flight zone theanimals will turn and face the handler and maintain asafe distance.

When the handler enters the flight zone the animalswill turn away.

Cattle and other ruminants have a tendency to move inthe opposite direction when a handler walks deep intheir flight zone. The principle of the two followingdiagrams (Figure 2&3) is that the handler walks insidethe flight zone in the opposite direction of desiredmovement. When the handler returns, he or she walksoutside the flight zone in the same direction.

When an animal is being held in the squeeze chute thehandler should stand outside the flight zone. To move

the next animal into the squeeze chute, the handlerenters the flight zone and the animal will move forwardafter the handler crosses the point of balance at the shoulder.

To move only one animal, the handler should stopwalking when the point of balance of the animal is crossed.

To keep animals calm and move them easily, the handlershould work on the edge of the flight zone. Hepenetrates the flight zone to make the animals moveand he backs up if he wants them to stop moving. Thehandler should avoid the blind spot behind the animal'srear. Deep penetration of the flight zone should beavoided. Animals become upset when a person is insidetheir personal space and they are unable to move away.If cattle turn back and run past the handler while theyare being driven down a drive alley in the stockyard,overly deep penetration of the flight zone is a likelycause. The animals turn back in an attempt to get away

l

Figure 2: Handler movement pattern to keep cattlemoving into a chute.

Figure 3: Handler movement pattern to keep cattlemoving in a curved race system.

from the handler. If the animals start to turn back, thehandler should back up and increase the distancebetween himself and the animals.

Backing up must be done at the first indication ofa turn back. If a group of animals balk at a smellor a shadow up ahead, be patient and wait for theleader to cross the shadow. The rest of the animalswill follow. If cattle rear up in the single file chute, back away from them. Do not touch themor hit them. They are rearing in an attempt toincrease the distance between themselves and thehandler. They will usually settle down if you leavethem alone.

When moving livestock from a large open area,understanding flight zone behavior and utilizing a fewbasic principles, moving animals in a calm and orderlyfashion becomes very easy. To keep the animals movingin an orderly manner the handler alternates betweenpenetrating the collective flight zone and withdrawingfrom the collective flight zone. Alternating pressure onthe flight zone is more effective than continuouspressure. When the handler moves in the zig zag patternhe/she penetrates the flight zone when walking in theopposite direction of desired movement and retreatsfrom the flight zone when walking in the same directionof desired movement.

Using the principles of flight zone behaviour, a handler isable to move cattle into a pen in a calm and orderly way.Using the positions shown on this diagram will enablethe handler to control the flow of cattle through thegate. Cattle movement can be slowed or speeded up bymoving forward or backward.

Meeting the market in Asia

The market in Asia has developed rapidly and thisprovides many challenges for lot feeders.

The aim for a feedlot is to provide an animal at the endof the feeding period that is wanted by the customer.

This can only be achieved by:

Knowing the customers requirements or specifications.

Being able to assess a live animal to see if it fits intothe customers requirements

Following the cattle through the process to see howthey are received

Acting on the feedback obtained to ensure morecattle meet the customer's requirements

Knowing your customers requirements

Meat is made up of muscle and fat and consequently, amarket's requirements are usually expressed in relationto the proportions of muscle and fat in the meatrequired. These requirements are termed"specifications".

The key markets in Asia are the wet markets andsupermarkets.

Wet markets

Most wet markets in Asia require meat that containsvery little fat. Carcasses with more than 3-4mm of fat atthe P8 site will show a reduction of meat yieldequivalent to 1% of carcass weight per millimetre of

Figure 4: Moving stock from a large pen

Figure 5: Moving cattle into a pen

excess fat. Even with trimming this meat has an elevatedfat content.

Supermarkets

Most supermarkets in Asia sell meat with a higher fatcontent. They require meat with 15-25% from thesubcutaneous and intramuscular deposit. Carcasses witha P8 measurement of 6-12 mm provide the maximumpercentage of such meat when boned out.

In these latter carcasses, the subcutaneous fat protectsthe surface muscle from drying out and discolouring inthe chiller. Fat from both sites provide important flavoursand aromas during cooking, and a medium whichprevents the meat drying out when it is roasted orgrilled. This fat also provides the sensation of juicinesswhen the cooked meat is eaten.

Fat depth will have the greatest influence oncarcase yield

Fat is the most important meat specification in Asianmarkets.

Excess fat:

Reduces the amount or percentage of muscle in thecarcase that is available for sale. Approx 5mm fatresults in at least 10kg less meat for sale from a 200kgcarcase.

Is very expensive to produce. More than seven timesas much feed is required to produce a kilo of fat tissuerelative to a kilo of muscle

Is expensive and difficult to remove, particularly ingrilling and roasting cuts for the supermarket.

Aside from fat, the carcase is made up of the followingcomponents:

beef cuts

beef trim

waste fat

bone

‘Ready reckoner’ (courtesy Peter Ridley)

The fat depth of a carcase will also influence the levelsof these four components.

The ready reckoner (above) illustrates the relationship ofthese other components to fat. The carcases used to

DorselTurberosity

Sawn Chine

Crest 3rdSacral Vertebra

P8 SITE

obtain this data were boned out to provide meat withminimum fat, similar to many wet markets in South East Asia.

The ready reckoner can be used to estimate boningroom yields for such a market by drawing a vertical linefrom the P8 measurement. When the drawn line cutsone of the four graph lines, the percentage of therelevant component is shown in value along the vertical axis.

For example: a carcass with P8 = 5mm containsapproximately:

5.1% waste fat

11.5% beef trim

22.9% bone

60.5% 90%VL (VL = meat with 90% visual lean)

Test this yourself: Put in your own values for meat (90%VL) beef trim, bone and waste fat for a carcass where P8 = 5 mm and another where P8 = 15 mm. See whatexcess P8 fat does to your returns.

How to select cattle for slaughter

Be aware of your market specifications

The first step when selecting a feedlot animal forslaughter is to be aware what the consumers are buyingin the market place.

A visit to the market place will provide you with anumber of characteristics or specifications that you cantranslate to the live animal.

This principle applies whether you are in:

The Hero supermarket at Sanayan Plaza or the Senen(Pasar Besar) wet market in Jakarta.

The meat department at Yohan's Johor Bahrusupermarket or the farmers’ wet market in Seremban,Negari Sembilan West Malaysia.

The Monterey beef display cabinet in Mega Mall or inthe farmers’ wet market at Cubao in Manila.

Once you have observed the primals or sliced itemsoffered for sale in the market place or the displaycabinets, you can begin to visualize the live animal at theabattoir yard or feedlot pen.

Carcass weight - liveweight

Observe the cross sectional area of muscle groups,including the sliced portions of the ribeye, striploin andthe weight of the primals.

Sex

There are no visual clues to indicate if the meat ondisplay comes from a steer or heifer carcass of the samefatness and age. The exception is bull beef which ispreferred by some markets because of its leanness. Bullmuscle may also appear to be slightly darker thanmuscle from steers of the same age.

Fat thickness

There are some markets that do not require fat cover.Estimate or measure the external fat depth of sliced beefin the meat display and take note of the fat content ofground beef.

The average fat depth over the striploin primals andslices will be a useful guide to the P8 measurement ofcarcasses that will meet the butcher's requirements.

Meat Colour

Bright red colour in meat in the display cabinet indicatesthat it came from young cattle that were not stressedimmediately prior to slaughter. Older cattlecharacteristically provide darker coloured meat due tothe natural increase in muscle myoglobin with age. Verydark muscle usually indicates pre-slaughter stress,resulting in tougher meat and meat that will not last aswell in the chiller.

Fat Colour

There are different market preferences for fat colour.Aus-Meat (Australia's meat industry standardorganization) has a 1 - 10 colour card system where 1 =white and 10 = very yellow. These cards can be used todescribe the acceptable fat colour range for any market.Experience suggests that for each 30 day period in thefeedlot without access to green plant material, fat colour will change towards the white end of the rangeby one card.

Live Assessment

Many times the cattle that you may feel are your bestfeeder cattle actually turn out to be your worst cattle.An illustration of this is the effect that aggressive eatersmay have on your eventual meat product. A regularoccurrence in Asian feedlots is an "overfat" carcass.This can be a result of roughage and concentratecomponents of a ration not being mixed adequately orthe feedlot ration used is not suitable for your market orcattle. For example, as cattle reach maturity, they have alesser requirement for protein for maximum productionefficiency than younger cattle.

Visual Assessment

Prior to assessment, visualize the image of a carcass forthe market that you are selecting.

Select cattle in a pen, preferably at feeding time. Asthey are standing at the feedbunk, observe their backline for fat depth and muscle inflation. You may have to enter the pen to select on butt shape orhindquarter shape.

Once you have selected the animals, record ear tagnumbers if available or use a spray can or paint toidentify the individual animals for staff to use over thefollowing week.

Hands on assessment

Hand-on assessment is used to identify fat depth. It canbe performed in a cattle shute or crush and is combinedwith visual assessment.

Fat is soft and spongy to the touch. Muscle feels firmer than fat and returns to its original shape quicklyafter you release the pressure of your fingers from thelive animal.

Ultrasound

The use of an ultrasound fat depth recorder removes theguess work from live assessment. The latest technicaldevelopment is Video Imaging. This technique allowsthe operator to identify a clear image of bone, muscleand fat thickness in the live animal.

The aggressive eaters, which are potentially your mostprofitable cattle, develop fat rapidly both subcutaneouslyand intramuscularly to the detriment of meat or muscle growth.

This is only a problem where these animals are not beingselected correctly for slaughter. It is important tounderstand correct selection criteria and actions forcattle at the end of the feeding period.

Selecting Cattle for Slaughter

It is critical that the cattle selected for slaughter arecattle ready for the market and that meet a specification.

"It’s just like picking a ripe mango". Imagine you havebeen asked to pick some ripe mangoes from a tree. Overthe years, you have learnt by touch and sight what arethe characteristics of a ripe mango. You can use thevisual assessments of skin colour and the inflated size ofthe individual fruit with rounded shape. You can alsouse an objective assessment by picking a small numberof fruit to check the mature colour of the flesh against acolour card. Next week, when you return to pick yourmangoes again you will find that there are again anumber of mangoes ready for picking. They will havegained considerable weight from last week and willmeet the market specification.

The same is true for feedlot cattle. Once they are ripe,they are ready for picking. In subsequent selections youwill find individual animals that have grown to meet thespecifications.

But first, you must know how to assess the feel andsight of "ripe" cattle.

Selection Techniques

There are a number of techniques that can assist you inthe selection of animals for slaughter.

It is important to look at all assessedanimals after their hide is removed tocheck the accuracy of assessments.

Item Carcass Live Cattle

Sex Steer/Heifer Steer/Heifer

Dentition 0-2 0-2 (up to 18 months)

HSCW 180 - 240 kg 320 - 430 kg (Live)

P8 7 - 12 CS + 3

Bruising Nil Not readily detected

Meat Colour Bright red Well rested cattle

Marbling Nil CS + 3

pH Less than 5.8 Well rested before slaughter

The most important thing to remember with liveassessment is that practice makes perfect.

The Truth About Fasting

The fasting and curfew arrangements appropriate forliveweight selling or immediately prior to slaughter innon-tropical countries can cause serious problems ifapplied to cattle in tropical climates. Depriving cattle offeed or water in the tropics is always risky and the risk ismuch higher in feedlot cattle. Cattle on curfews in thetropics can have irreversible pathology such as elevatedmuscle pH (dark cutting meat).

Problems that can occur include:

Lost muscle weight.

Deteriorating animal behaviour.

Severe disruption to rumen microbial populations forsome time after initial deprivation.

If this stress occurs just before slaughter, a significantand unfavourable change in the eating characteristicsof the beef can occur.

Quality

Quality is meeting the clients’ requirements andexpectations. Consistency of product in terms of size,meat colour, fat colour and tenderness is foremost inyour customers’ minds.

Quality and consistency start in the feedlot and becomea major issue in:

Live cattle assessment and selection.

The transport of cattle to slaughter.

Pre slaughter management at the abbatoir.

Despite having all of these things correct, it needs to be stressed that the animal’s disposition at slaughter will have the most direct influence on the consistency of the product.

Factors that affect meat colour and eating quality arefright, stress and deprivation of feed and water. One ofthe latest discoveries in meat science is that all of yourgood work can be undone in the race leading up to therestraining box. An animal standing alone in a race foreven a few minutes can become stressed enough toadversely affect meat colour.

Handy hint: An effective way to checkyour "live" assessment is to assesscattle in the abbatoir yard prior to therestraining box, or even in the bleedingarea on the slaughter floor. Then checkyour assessments against the actual P8measurements at the weighing scale.

The livestock handling information in thischapter illustrates recognised principlesdeveloped by Dr. Temple Grandin, widelyrecognised as wold leader in animalbehaviour.

Credit – Cattle handling techniques

HEALTH

ANIMAL HEALTH

What: An efficient and profitable animal health program focusing

on prevention.

Why: Sick animals do not perform well in a feedlot. Equally,

animal welfare demands consideration.

How: 1. Know components of a good preventative health

program.

2. Understand symptoms and treatments of key cattle

diseases.

Mortality levels for Australian cattle imported into Asianfeedlots are extremely low (less than 0.1%). Whiledeaths in the feedlot are low, there are sporadic cases of deaths related to the transport environment or soonafter arrival. While deaths are the ultimate measure of production loss, it is important to recognize thatconditions that lead to poor health also erodeproductivity.

A good feedlot health program begins before thefeedlot.

The health of live cattle exported from Australia is animportant factor in the determination of the overallprofitability of the operation and is also important foranimal welfare. Cattle bred in Australia are free frommajor diseases. Australian health protocols ensure thatthese cattle are also free from common parasites andthat they have been vaccinated against the majorpreventable diseases.

On Property

Only healthy animals that are well grown and properlyhandled should be sourced for the feedlot. Studies haveshown that animals that have been trained to drink attroughs and have been given prepared feeds performbetter under feedlot conditions. The preparation ofanimals for transport to the feedlot yards is also of vitalimportance as it is the start of the journey to the feedlotand will set the scene for a reduction in stress.

Pre Export Assemby Yards

The purpose of this facility is to prepare the cattle forshipping and to carry out the various health andtreatment protocols required. This process will requirecattle to be handled intensively and will cause a degreeof stress.

Top Tips for feedlot health management:

Ensure cattle are healthy and stress free uponarrival at the feedlot.

Early detection and treatment of sick cattle ismost important in getting complete recovery.

Proper handling of drugs and carefuladministration is a key to successful healthmanagement.

Health Program at the Feedlot

Cattle intake at the feedlot.

When the cattle arrive at the feedlot, it is important thefollowing points are observed.

Avoid mixing a pen.

Don't put incoming and sick cattle in the same pen.

Minimise use of sick pens. If cattle must behospitalized, keep them separate by class and days onfeed. (for example; try not to keep cattle that arrived90 days ago and new arrivals in the same pen).

You can upset performance as well as trigger serioushealth problems by adding individuals to a pen afterthey've started on feed. Feed intake variesconsiderably while the cattle take time to work out anew pecking order. Strangely, its not the newcomerswho suffer the most serious setbacks, but the originalcattle in the group.

Early diagnosis and treatment will pay dividends.

The recognition of sick cattle is more a matter ofknowing what constitutes "health" rather than beingable to see "sickness". It is health that will determinethe success of your operation. The signs of health arevisible through observation and it is important that allfeedlot staff are trained to take responsibility for

AN EFFICIENT ANIMAL HEALTH PROGRAMthat focuses on prevention will paydividends for any feedlot.

To design feedlot practices that willpromote health requires a knowledge ofthose conditions that erode health,productivity and profits.


Components of a preventative healthprogram for a feedlot

The main diseases encountered infeedlots in Asia

How to diagnose, treat and prevent thosediseases

A profitable feedlot will incorporatepreventative health measures as well as treatment.

recognising health and that they can act if they see asituation that is not healthy.

Careful observation means having the skills andtaking the time to observe the animals and theirenvironment. The manager should develop a routineof observing the animals three to four times per dayand should be using his senses of sight, smell andhearing to recognize the signs of health and sickness.This means taking the time to carry out thisobservation, recording anything unusual and actingquickly to correct any problems. Pen checking shouldstart early and continue through the day.

How to recognize sick animals.

In addition to coming to the bunk more slowly, sickcattle will be depressed and will hold their heads lowerthan normal. Their attitude will be distant and they willbe less responsive to external stimuli and not as curious.Often these cattle will try to hide behind other cattle orin the corner next to the end of the bunk. They will haveless intestinal fill than other cattle. They may appear slabsided, and their abdomen will shake slightly when theywalk and may make a sloshing sound.

Reading Manure - is it pure science?

The signs available from manure tell us a lot aboutfeedlot health and performance. Evaluating manurevisually is not a science, yet nutritionists keep a close eyeon it. The appearance of fresh manure can be anindication of disease or nutrient imbalance and changesin the manure reflect digestive upsets and disease.Faecal consistency can be affected by moisture level,type of feed, rate of passage and rumen fermentation.

The manure pat should be well formed, green togolden colour and not have an offensive smell.

Manure that is dry, in balls or mounded and has a high

fibre content generally indicates a low protein or energydiet and reflects poor growth rates. Manure that issloppy brown or black with an offensive smell may meanacidosis or intestinal upsets and also mean poor feedlotperformance.

Testing the manure sample:

Examining faecal samples for forage and grain particlesis another form of manure evaluation.

One approach is to place a cup of manure on a piece ofscreen and wash it with a hose. Remove manureparticles until the manure runs clear.

Look for the following evidence:

Whole seed passage: Appearance of whole corn orgrain indicates the seed has passed throughundigested, probably due to a hard or intact seedcoat. Corn silage that is chopped too dry, long ormature results in whole corn seed passage. One solution to whole seed passage is to process thefeed source more aggressively.

If grain particles from processed grain remain, squeezethem with your fingers to see if any starch or hullremains. If hulls remain, you are not losing too muchfeed value. If starch remains, some feed value is notcaptured in the rumen or lower intestine. Additionalfeed processing can help, but guard against acidosis.

Whole cottonseed: whole cottonseed appears in themanure. If the cottonseed was fuzzy, the forage matin the rumen may not be forming, allowing the wholefuzzy seed to pass and not be ruminated andremasticated. If the cottonseed was delinted, somewhole seed passage is normal (about 5-15% of seed fed).

Forage particles: forage particles more than about 1mm long indicate that cellulose-digesting bacteria arenot breaking the fibre due to poor rumination (shortfibre particle size), low rumen pH (acidosis), and/or

Use the sense:

Smell the feedlot for signs of poordigestion, acidosis.

Listen to the cattle for coughs, splutters,teeth grinding

Look at feed intake, feeding aggression,manure, agitation, restlessness andobserve sick animals.

high rates of forage passage. Solutions include addingsome hay or longer green chop, avoiding excess starchintake or adding a buffer.

Faecal pH: measuring faecal pH is easy, but ofmarginal value. No relationship between faecal pHand rumen pH exists. If starch is not fermented in therumen or enzymatically digested in the small intestine,the large intestine will ferment the starch leading to afaecal pH below 6.

To measure faecal pH, take half a cup of fresh manureand mix it with water to make a slurry. Insert a pHmeter probe and measure.

Filter paper or sticks do not work well – the manurestains the paper making it difficult to read. Faecal pHis normally between 6.5 and 6.8. If pH is below 6,calculate starch levels, evaluate rumen conditions andmake appropriate changes to the diet.

Processing sick cattle

The following are action steps to take should certainconditions arise:

Antibiotics

When taking the temperature of cattle, on arrival orwhen they are sick, use 105 degrees fahrenheit (rectal)to define "sick".

Treat initial suspect animals with antibiotics (engermycin)and return to the normal pen. Treat relapses withTrivetrin for 3 days and return to pen.

If the rectal temperature is less than 104 degreesFahrenheit, do not treat with antibiotics. Somejudgement is required as some cattle will have normal orbelow normal temperatures and can still be sick.

Bovine Respiratory Disease, Pneumonia or Shipping Fever

Rectal temperature equal to or greater than 105degrees Fahrenheit, give Engermycin and return to pen.

Cattle pulled by pen checking.

“Depression, off feed”, temperature greater than orequal to 104F give Engermycin and return to pen.

Relapse pulled by pen checking

Give Trivetrin for 3 days before returning to pen.

Preventative medicine

Heat stress, mud and rain can create major performanceand health problems and affect future weight gain.

The key is to manage your pen conditions sufficientlyyear round.

What you should do:

Keep pens and bedding dry by using appropriatestocking rates, pen cleaning and run-off and manuremanagement.

Keeping cattle clean can put dollars in your pocket byimproving their sale appearance.

Provide shelter from wind with a natural cover of highporosity fencing. Wind, cold and wet conditionsgreatly increase energy requirements, feed intake andfeeding costs.

Odour control is important in feedlot operation. It willalso minimize stakeholder problems.

Keep manure dry through proper stocking rates, gooddrainage, maintained watering facilities and keepingmanure solids out of manure retention ponds.In warm weather, scrape and collect manure every twoto three days. If there are earth floor pens, do notdisturb the manure soil interface that seals the surfacefrom water percolation. The manure pack providessolid footing for cattle and speeds surface drying.

Bruising — a costly mistake!

Bruising is an impact injury that can occur at any stage of the transport chain and may be due to poordesign of handling facilities, ignorant or abusivestockmanship, or poor road driving duringtransportation. Contrary to popular belief, livestock can be bruised moments before slaughter and stunned cattle can be bruised right up until they are bled.

Preventing injuries and bruises

Flooring

Non slip flooring is essential to prevent falls andcrippling injuries. Humane, efficient handling isimpossible on slick floors. All areas where livestock walkshould have a non-slip surface.

Existing floors can be roughened with a jack hammer orgrooving machine. On scales, crowded pens and otherhigh traffic areas, a grid of one inch steel bars willprovide secure footing. Construct a 30cm by 30cm gridand weld each intersection. Use heavy rods to preventthe grid from bending.

New concrete floors for cattle should have a 200mmdiamond or square pattern with 3.5mm by 3.5mm ‘V’grooves. It is also essential to use the right concrete mixfor maximum resistance to wear.

Gates, fences and races

Gates, fences and races should have smooth surfaces toprevent bruises. Sharp edges with a small diameter suchas angle irons, exposed pipe ends and channels willcause bruises. Round pipe posts with a diameter largerthan 75mm are less likely to bruise. Livestock are easilybruised if they become caught between the end of thegate and the fence. This is a common cause of bruises inthe valuable loin area.

Horns on cattle

Surveys show that groups of horned cattle will havetwice as many bruises as polled cattle. A few hornedanimals can do a lot of damage and tipping horns doesnot reduce bruising.

The Principles of Low Stress Restraint

(see also Feedlot Design section.)

Feedlot facilities should be designed to limit bruisinglosses. Stress should be minimized and restrainingsystems should be designed to minimize bruising.

The key points to consider are:

Solid sides or barriers around the cattle to prevent themfrom seeing people deep inside their flight zones. This isespecially important for wild or excitable cattle.

To prevent lunging at the headgate, the animal's viewof an escape pathway must be blocked until it is fullyrestrained.

Provide non-slip flooring.

Slow steady motion of a restraint device is calming,while sudden jerky motion excites.

Use the concept of optimal pressure. Sufficientpressure must be applied to provide the feeling ofrestraint, but excessive pressure that causes pain ordiscomfort must be avoided.

The entrance of the restraint device must be well lit,however lamps must not glare into the eyes ofapproaching animals. All species must be able to see aplace to go.

Livestock will remain calmer if they see other animalswithin touching distance.

Minimise noise from equipment. High pitched noise ismore disturbing to livestock than a low pitchedrumble.

Restraint devices must be designed to avoiduncomfortable pressure points on the animal's body.

Hints for Animal Health in the Feedlot

Try to avoid hospitilisation.

Use Dexamethazone once or twice only for oedema(tissue swelling) in conditions such as:

Laryngitis

Difficult breathing (lung oedema)

Swollen footrot

Nervous disease (brain oedema)

Use caution with sick cattle where slaughter is anoption.

Slaughter early if you don't think treatment will help.

Ask for diagnostic help.

Assume most fat cattle "downers" are probablyinjuries.

Avoid over-treatment of feedlot cattle.

Treat five days at the most and then have the animalseen by a vet.

Use drugs only at the recommended label dosage.

Always check the label and observe the withholdingperiod.

Remain vigilant about injection sites.

Be careful about over injecting in one site.

Avoid injections into the rump and back legs ifpossible.

feedlot and identifying underlaying health issues. Similarly,individual animal treatment records are needed to ensurethat withholding periods are not breached.

Diseases of Feedlot Cattle in Asia

Stress is a major contributor to disease.

There are a number of disease conditions arising fromthe stress syndrome. Many people group these diseasesunder the word "stress" and while there are manyexpressions of this syndrome, the basic causes arereasonably well understood and preventable.

Causes of the stress syndrome.

The control of stress starts at the property of origin,follows through all phases of transport and includes theinduction period in the feedlot. It must be realized thatcattle taken off feed for periods as little as 12 hoursbegin to change their metabolism and these changes arethe start of syndromes that may eventually lead to deathor at least severe production losses.

Nutrition is one key to preventing stress problems andthe provision of a properly balanced diet during periods

Identify cattle that are a poor recovery risk to theveterinarian.

Downers

Severe dyspnoea (laboured breathing)

Debilitating lameness

Overwhelming injury

What should you have in your drug treatment kit?

The feedlot should have on hand a drug treatment kitthat contains all of the drugs necessary to prevent andtreat the common ailments.

Obtain your drug kit from your veterinarian and use itunder their instructions and supervision.

A list of the drugs that will be most useful are:

Vitamin B12 injection

Vitamin ADE injection

Dexamethasone

Aminoplex

Electrolyte

Engermycin antibiotic

Terramycin LA

Terramycin MA antibiotic

Penicillin antibiotic

Penicillin streptomycin antibiotic

Disposable 10ml and 20ml syringes

Disposable needles

Infrastructure Requirements

While it is preferable to avoid hospitalization wherepossible, it is nevertheless necessary to provideappropriate facilities should more substantial treatmentbe unavoidable. Every feedlot should have ahospital/isolation pen incorporated into the feedlotdesign. It should be easily accessed from the main feedpens to minimize stress, but also isolated from the mainyards to avoid pathogen spread, preferably downwind.

Where possible, the administration building should include adedicated veterinary office with a fridge for maintainingtemperature of antibiotics, vaccines etc. This office is usedfor storage of all medicines and records of veterinarytreatments etc. Accurately recording the use of drugs is animportant measure in assessing the overall health of the

In the interests of preventativemedicine it is vitally important that alloperators involved in the feedlotindustry realize the importance ofanimal care during this period.Indifferent attitudes at all levels ofresponsibility, from managers to thestockman, must not not tolerated.

of transport is vital. For example, an energy and proteinimbalance in the diet can cause disease problems and adiet too high in protein and too low in energy can leadto fat mobilization and be related to fatty liver syndromeand ketosis. This can easily occur when there is anenergy deficit and diets provided do not address theneed to balance energy and protein ratios.

Transport Stress

The transport stress complex consists of a number ofrelated syndromes. These syndromes are interactive andgenerally act together.

The major syndromes seen are:

Transit tetany syndrome

Fatty liver syndrome

Ketosis syndrome

Cattle taken off feed, handled and transported anydistance undergo a series of physiological changes thatlead to muscular exhaustion, imbalance in electrolytesand metabolic changes that can take a considerable timeto reverse. This is commonly seen in cattle transportedto saleyards or feedlots where the transport shrink maybe up to 12%.

The time taken to reverse the metabolic changes and forcattle to return to normal growth patterns may be 10days or longer. There is also an adverse effect on theimmunity of the animal with an increased susceptibilityto disease, particularly viral infections. This is apart fromany physical damage to the animal due to poor yarddesign or inadequate trucks.

From an economic standpoint, these factors arevitally important since they can impair meat qualityand increase carcass loss as well as causingproduction losses in cattle introduced to the feedlotin varying condition.

The major conditions that occur during and followinghandling and transport are:

Muscular exhaustion

Metabolic acidosis

Decreased blood glucose

Subclinical ketosis

Dehydration

Tissue catabolism

Ruminal atony

Decreased levels of calcium and magnesium ions

Increased susceptibility to infections due to loss ofimmune competence

These lead to reduced appetite, hyper-excitability, slowrecovery and increased disease susceptibility.

Transit tetany

Transit tetany is often seen in cattle transported longdistances and is caused by a drop in calcium andmagnesium levels in the bloodstream.

Symptoms: Symptoms vary, however, animals are oftenrestless, weak and may have a staggering gait. Theremay be partial paralysis of the hindquarters, musclespasms, excitability and the animal may froth at themouth and lie down. There is paralysis of the rumen andthe animal does not eat. Animals may grind their teethand may show a depraved appetite eating mouthfuls ofdirt or manure.

Treatment: Animals suffering from the symptoms willrespond to treatment with calcium boro-glutonate andmagnesium sulphate.

Prevention: To prevent the condition, use glucose andelectrolytes in the water before transport. Make sureanimals are not transported long distances withoutadequate provision for food and rest. Use glucose andelectrolytes in the water when animals are resting duringtransport. On arrival at destination, have medicatedwater available for the cattle.

Fatty Liver Syndrome and Ketosis

Fatty Liver Syndrome and Ketosis is caused by restrictionof feed, feeding high fibre, low quality roughage, or anyupset of the rumen by feed changes, high excitementstates or toxic products (eg Lupins). After a fast as shortas 12 hours, changes have commenced and the liverstarts to convert fats to glucose in order to fuel theneeds of the body. This starts a complex biochemicalprocess that can easily get out of hand and becomedangerously unbalanced. The build up of the by-products of this metabolism lead to oxidative damage tothe liver cells and the accumulation of fatty by-productsin the liver. The end result is fatty liver syndrome. Thereare two distinct metabolic disorders in which ketosis canoccur. Of primary importance here is thehyperglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic form which generallyoccurs in transport situations. This form of disturbance

has many similarities with the initial stage of non-insulindependant diabetes in humans.

Symptoms: the signs of this problem are not obviousand animals may seem reasonably healthy up to thepoint they start to die. Signs may include slightdepression, loss of appetite, hyper-excitability, ruminalatony, lowered faecal output, hard faeces, teeth grindingand ear drooping. Affected animals can be in eithergood or in poor condition.

Diagnosis: Changes in blood biochemistry also occurand these can be measured to confirm a diagnosis ofthe problem, or to provide useful information if thecondition is suspected in high risk animals. The clinicalpathology tests that are useful are:

Bilirubin

Glucose

Calcium

Magnesium

Serum malondialdehyde

Aspartate aminotransferase

Glutamate dehydrogenase

Alkaline phosphatase

Fatty acids

Treatment: The approach to treatment is to re-establishthe normal patterns of fuel utilization. Suppression ofexcessive ketogenisis is the most important factor here.Ketogenisis can be suppressed by a number oftherapeutic agents that act either by suppressing themobilization of fatty acids, or by inhibiting the transportof fatty acids into the hepatic mitochondria, the site atwhich fatty acids are converted to ketones. Usefultherapies include glucose infusions, glucose precursorsand glucocorticoids.

Prevention of Transport Stress

The transport stress syndrome can be prevented byadherence to simple rules:

1.Animals should always have a source of digestiblefood that is not too high in fibre and has an adequateenergy and protein balance available at all timesduring any holding or drafting operations.

2.All transport legs should be kept as short as possibleand fasting for periods greater than 24 hours shouldbe avoided.

3.The provision of water plus glucose and electrolyteshas been shown to offer a practical means ofalleviating the effects of this dehydration and to helpprevent the degradation of conditions related towelfare encountered in the transportationenvironment.

Diseases seen on arrival

When a new shipment of cattle arrive, they should beplaced in separate pens where they can rest and recoverfrom their recent sea voyage. They should be providedwith plenty of space, soft bedding, shade shelter,unlimited access to clean water and adequate suppliesof attractive feed such as grass and hay. In addition,such an area needs to allow staff to easily inspect thestock and if necessary, to segregate sick, injured orsuspect animals without undue disturbance to thebalance of the newcomers.

Problems most commonly observed are:

Lameness

Treatment: In all but minor cases of lameness, animalsare best removed to the sick pen for further assessment.If the lameness is severe, such as leg fractures, tendonruptures or major wounds or trauma to the limbs thenthe best course of action is immediate slaughter as theseanimals will take a long time to recover and will performpoorly in the feedlot.

For minor lameness showing swellings, small cuts andabrasions, the best treatment will generally be theadministration of anti-inflammatory and antibioticmedicines. External wounds are treated the same butwith external antibacterial and insect repellentcompounds as well. Bedding in the hospital pens shouldbe especially thick and soft to ensure that it iscomfortable for the injured and sick animals to lie downand rest.

Skin wounds

Treatment: Move the animal to the sick pen and treatthe wound as above with antibiotic/antiseptic as well asinsect repellent. In feedlots where screw worm flies arepresent, particular care is required to ensure the woundis not struck, and if it is, speedy treatment is applied.

Fluid swellings about the hip bones

Treatment: More common in females these swellingsare simply bruises (haematomas) and will generallyresolve slowly without further treatment. In most cases,the swelling will be of a jelly like consistency and hence

cannot be drained by lancing. If swelling is still presentat time of slaughter, it will usually only result in only aminor blemish on the carcass.

“Downers”

These are animals which, for a variety of reasons arriveat the feedlot either down on the truck or collapse soonafter arrival. While there are a wide range of reasons forthe animals to be down, the course of action required isgenerally similar.

Treatment: For animals that are unconscious, it isprobably best to proceed with emergency slaughter.For animals that are relatively bright and alert, butsimply too weak to stand, there is a reasonablechance that they may be returned to good health.

You must ensure that there are no major injuries suchas broken limbs that have not been noticed, and arethe cause of the animal being down. In most casesthe cause of this condition will be general weakness.

A combination of anti-inflammatory drugs to reduce thepain, electrolytes to rectify the dehydration and othermetabolic imbalances, and an antibiotic injection toprotect against infection, especially pneumonia, isusually sufficient to allow the animal to regain its feetand proceed to recovery. If after two such treatmentsover an eight hour period the animal is still unable tostand four hours after the last treatment, emergencyslaughter is recommended. Remember the drugs thathave been given to the animal will still be in its tissues

rendering the meat unsuitable for human consumption.However, it will still be suitable for pet food.

Respiratory infection

Runny noses, high temperatures, depression and rapidshallow breathing are likely to indicate that the animalhas been stressed at some stage during the journey,probably associated with higher temperatures.

Treatment: These animals should be taken to the sickpen and treated without delay. Intensive antibiotictherapy and general care are recommended . If theproblem is treated effectively at an early stage, then thechances of survival and a return to normal performancein the feedlot are good.

MANURE

MANURE

What: The major by-product of any feedlot is animal waste

Why: Manure is an environmental hazard and must be used

appropriately - either use it on your farming land or sell it as

organic fertiliser.

How: 1. Understand the value of manure.

2. Ensure that it is removed from the pens correctly.

3. Understand the workings and considerations of

stockpiling.

4. Understand the value of using it on your land.

5. Understand the considerations of selling manure as

organic fertiliser.

Composting manure has become an important part of thefeedlot operation in Asia as it can make a soundcontribution to profits if it is used and marketed properly.

There have been many innovations in the compostingarea; however, the principles remain the same.

Composition and benefits of manure

Manure management systems consist of variouscomponents including manure collection, storage,transport, and land application.

Manure is a dynamic organic material continuallyundergoing biological and chemical changes. Each phaseof management may result in losses and changes to thebeneficial nutrients in the manure. Therefore, the valueof manure as a fertiliser, depends on the quantity andform of nutrients present when it is applied to land.

It is also important to understand each nutrient availablein manure for correct application rates. Over applicationof certain nutrients can be detrimental to the soil andsometimes contaminates water sources.

Value of Nitrogen (N) in manure.

Nitrogen in manure exists in two forms, inorganic andorganic.

Inorganic form

Inorganic nitrogen (ammonia) is the simple, soluble formthat plants can use. It is readily available in the soil. Afterapplication to land, ammonia is converted by soilbacteria to a nitrate (NO3) form. Nitrate can be lost fromthe root zone through leaching or denitrification (loss tothe atmosphere).

Organic form

Manure solids also contain nitrogen in the organic form.Until the organic matter is biologically decomposed inthe soil, the nitrogen remains unavailable for plant use.Nitrogen in the organic form is desirable as it acts as areserve in the soil and is slowly released for plant use.

Stored manure

Solid beef cattle manure loses much of its ammonia tothe atmosphere (volatilization) while in storage. Whenthe material is eventually spread on to land for cropproduction, most of the remaining nitrogen is in theorganic form and not subject to volatilization. Because

of the lack of inorganic forms, the nitrogen compoundsin beef manure must be decomposed by soil microbesbefore they are available to plants. It can be assumedthat as a general rule, 50% of the nitrogen in appliedmanure is available during the next year of production.The rest of the nitrogen becomes available over the nextthree to five years.

Grazing animals deposit manure directly on the land inthe form of urine and faeces. The nitrogen content ofthis manure depends on:

The size of the animal

The nitrogen content of the diet

The consumption of water

The most significant factor governing the nitrogencontent of the manure (especially the amount in theurine) is the crude protein nitrogen content of theforage and other feed sources.

ANIMAL MANURE is a valuable source ofplant nutrients and organic matter.

It contains a vast array of organisms thatadd to the biological activity of soils.However, if not managed with sufficientcare, manure can also be a major cause ofpollution.

Poorly managed manure will contribute tothe contamination of surface and/orgroundwater.


The nutrient value of manure

How to remove manure from pens

How to compost manure safely

Considerations for marketing organic fertilisers

Value of Phosphorous (P) in manure

Most of the phosphorous contained in manure is in theorganic form. Its availability is dependant on the rate atwhich soil organisms break down the organic material(mineralization) and release phosphorous. Up to 50% oftotal applied phosphorous in manure is available to thecrop in the year it is applied.

Value of Potassium (K) in manure

All potassium in manure is available to the current crop.Soil that regularly receives manure is not often lacking inthis nutrient. Grass tetany can be caused by cattle eatinggrass grown on soil with excess potassium.

Trace element value

The major fertiliser elements of manure are consideredto be nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. However,manure also contains the secondary nutrients of sulphur,magnesium and calcium, as well as the micronutrientsiron, manganese, boron, chlorine, zinc, copper andmolybdenum.

The availability of these elements as plant nutrients,varies depending upon the soil type and soil acidity.

Value of manure as a soil conditioner

A benefit of applying manure to soil is the improvementof the soils physical structure. The decomposition ofmanure by bacteria contributes to better aeration, betterpermeability and increased water holding capacity of thesoil. Other soil conditioning benefits include pH bufferingand an improvement to soils with high salt levels.

When using manure as a soil conditioner, applicationrates must not exceed the nutrient requirements of thecrop being grown.

Removing manure from pens

Because of the large number of different designs offeedlots in Asia, there are many different systems of pencleaning. While a variety of methods may be employedin cleaning the pens, the actual importance of manureremoval cannot be overstated.

Manure accumulation can result in disease outbreak,proliferation of flies and biting insects, cause odourproblems and result in the bogging of cattle during wetconditions. All of these impacts have the potential toimpact on feedlot profit.

Larger feedlots use mechanical methods to pick up andremove excess manure. This is generally done on aregular basis, in some cases, every two to three days.

Skid steer loaders, front end loaders and a variety ofblades attached to machines have all been successfullyused to clean pens. The method employed will dependon the machinery available on the feedlot, thestructure/base of the pens and the composting plan inplace.

Smaller feedlots use hand labour and cleaning may bedone on a daily basis. This is often simply the use ofshovel and wheelbarrow cleaning. Simple methods can bejust as effective as mechanical methods of cleaning - theimportant thing is to maintain a pen cleaning programthat results in clean pens for the cattle at all times.

In some feedlots, bedding such as rice straw or bagasseis used and pens are cleaned by hand or machine on atwo-week cycle.

Liquid waste is generally drained into laneways andcollection drains and channelled to settling ponds, or rundirectly onto the pasture or cropping area.

A good drainage system is the first step in maintainingthe manure pad in good condition. A well drained, drypad will ensure cattle remain in healthy, comfortableconditions, reduce insect burdens and reduce the spreadof disease.

The second step of good manure pad management isthe regular cleaning of pens as described above. This isparticularly important in high rainfall areas and wheredrainage is limited.

Allowing the manure pad to degenerate into slop willcost the feedlot money through reduced productionefficiency. Similarly, manure can be a significant incomestream for the feedlot. Its neglect will reduce thefeedlots income producing capacity.

Yards need to be regularly cleaned to ensure animalwelfare and hence production efficiency is maintained.

What is the value of composting?

By composting the manure from the feedlot with otheragricultural wastes, a valuable organic fertiliser can beproduced. Some feedlots are earning up to $20 perhead from the sale of organic fertiliser.

How does composting happen?

Composting is the biological decomposition orbreakdown of organic material by bacteria and otherorganisms. Bacteria are the primary decomposing agentsbut there are many others including fungi,actinomycetes, worms and beetles. These organismsbring about the decomposition by feeding on organicmaterial. The result is compost or humus, a dark nutrientrich soil conditioner.

Any organic material can be added to compost. For ourpurposes organic material is everything available aswaste, especially fruit and vegetable scraps, bagasse,corn cobs, bedding, straw as well as sawdust.

Decomposing organisms are all the micro-organisms andlarger organisms involved in breaking down organicmaterial. Bacteria are the primary decomposing micro-organism. They arrive with the organic material and startthe process by breaking down organic material for theirown food.

Bacteria grow and multiply while conditions are right forthem and die off as they create conditions more suitablefor others. Bacteria, actinomycete and fungi all consumewaste directly and are known as first level decomposers.They are assisted by larger organisms - earthworms,beetles, mites, sowbugs, whiteworms and flies - thatalso consume waste directly.

Bacteria require both nitrogen and carbon that comefrom organic materials. The more variety, the greaterlikelihood they will find a blend of essential nutrients.Bacteria use carbon as a source of energy and, by

oxidizing carbon, generate heat and carbon dioxide(CO2). Nitrogen (N) is their main source of protein,which is needed for body building and populationgrowth.

Aerobic and Anaerobic Composting

There are two types of composting processes: aerobicand anaerobic - and different species of bacteria occur ineach process. Aerobic composting uses oxygen. Rapid,high temperature composting is usually aerobic. This isthe recommended method for most feedlot manurecomposting.

When there is little air and high moisture, anaerobiccomposting is likely to result. Anaerobic means withoutoxygen. In the anaerobic process, fermentation results inthe formation of ammonia-like substances and hydrogensulphide, which smells like rotten eggs. The anaerobicprocess is generally not recommended for feedlotmanure composting.

Temperature is an important variable in composting. Astemperatures rise and fall in the compost, differentbacterial species will become more or less active.Psychrophilic bacteria, mesophylic bacteria andthermophilic bacteria each operate best within specifictemperature ranges.

The bugs that work the composting cycle

Psychrophiles

The psychrophiles are the first to go to work. They canwork in temperatures below 0 degrees, but are mostactive around 13°C. They are a cooler temperatureaerobic bacteria that burn or oxidize carbon andgenerate some heat. Often they generate enough heatto make conditions tolerable for the next group ofbacteria called mesophiles.

Mesophiles

Mesophilic bacteria do most of the decomposition work.These are mid-range bacteria that operate intemperatures between 15°C and 40°C, but thrive whentemperatures are closest to the 21° to 32° range. Heatgenerated as a byproduct of the mesophiles' work willraise the temperature in the pile even more, creatingconditions suitable for thermophilic composting.

Thermophiles

The thermophiles do the "hot" composting. They startto take over when the temperatures reach 40° to 45°Cand will continue to work in temperatures up to about70° when their numbers start to decline.

Thermophiles work quickly and don't live long - three tofive days at most. Turning the pile will provide oxygen(O2) and allow the thermophilic bacteria to continuetheir activity. As temperatures decline and thermophilesdie off, the compost moves into a more mature stage.

Mesophiles and psychrophiles, which may have beenworking in a reduced capacity around the cooleredges of the decomposing organic material, willbecome more active.

Actinomycetes

Actinomycetes are a higher form of bacteria, similar tofungi, and second in number to bacteria. They don'trespond well to acidic conditions (below pH 5) or highmoisture conditions, but operate best at mediumtemperature areas of the compost.

Actinomycetes take over during the final stages ofdecomposition, often producing antibiotics that inhibitbacterial growth. They are likely to work on toughorganic material and give compost its pleasant earthysmell. They are especially important in the formation ofhumus. They liberate carbon (C), nitrate nitrogen (NO3)and ammonium nitrate (NH4), making nutrients availableto plants.

Fungi

Fungi are smaller in number than bacteria oractinomycetes, but larger in body mass.

Fungi are simple organisms that lack a photosyntheticpigment. The individual cells have a nucleus surroundedby a membrane and they may be linked together in longfilaments.

Fungi live on dead or dying material and obtain energyby breaking down organic material. Like actinomycetes,fungi are present during the early and final stages ofcomposting, when organic material has been changedto a more digestible form.

Of the major microorganisms, fungi function best underacidic conditions.

Macro-Organisms - Physical Decomposers

Macro-organisms are the visible organisms involved intransforming organic material into compost. They aremore active in the later, mature stages of compostingwhen temperatures are dropping but decomposition isnot complete. Micro-organisms decompose chemically,while macro-organisms are higher up in the food chain,and decompose physically - by digging, grinding,chewing, digesting, sucking and churning.

Controlling the Feedlot Manure Compost

The compost process for feedlot manure must becontrolled to produce the best quality fertiliser and toreduce the wastage of nutrients.

The compost process can be hastened if a starter cultureis added to the manure to start the process. This starterculture can be purchased commercially or produced onfarm. It is a vital part of the process of producing a highquality organic fertiliser.

Aeration and temperature control are the two mostimportant aspects of the compost process. Oxygen mustbe supplied if the process is to be completed quickly,and temperatures must be kept below 60°C to allow themicro-organisms to work. These factors can becontrolled by turning the compost or by providing forcedaeration.

The simplest and cheapest method is by placing themanure in long windrows and using a tractor to turn thecompost. Turning is best done when the temperature ofthe compost reaches 50°C. Turning is repeated as thetemperature rises again after the previous turn. Thecomposting process is completed when the temperatureceases to rise.

The system that uses forced aeration will give bettercontrol of the compost process and will generally resultin a compost that retains more nutrients and has ahigher content of humic acid. This will produce apremium organic fertiliser.

After the compost process is complete, it is prepared forsale by screening and grinding. A simple hammermill canbe used for this and the final product bagged for sale.

Factors affecting water contamination frommanure application

There are a number factors to be considered whenapplying decomposed manure to the soil.

Soil Characteristics

The proportions of sand, silt, clay and organic matter ina soil determine the water and nutrient holding capacity.In general soils with high clay and/or organic matterhave a higher capacity to hold water and nutrients in theroot zone. They consequently have less likelihood ofcontaminating ground water than sandy soils whereleaching is more prominent.

Drainage

Poorly drained soils become easily waterlogged resultingin increased surface runoff and greater risk ofcontamination of drainage features and rivers.

Slope

Land with significant slope also has greater potential forrunoff and consequent contamination of drainagefeatures, rivers and groundwater.

Nitrate in the root zone

The nitrate form of nitrogen is of major concern due toits potential to contaminate drinking water. Wherenitrate leaches from soils over sensitive ground waters,or adjacent to surface waters, the nitrate will contributeto water contamination.

Excessive levels of root zone nitrate are found in soilswhere the application rates of manure and fertiliser havebeen high in relation to the ability of the crop to use thenitrogen. Excess levels of root zone nitrate are alsofound in soil where there has been application ofmanure after the crop is harvested.

Storage Considerations

Long term storage by stockpiling manure directly on theground is not recommended where pollution may occur.Stockpiling manure on the ground in areas of highrainfall or a high watertable is likely to pollute.

These stockpiles should be located at least 30 metresaway from any water source or well.

Marketing Organic Fertiliser

A number of feedlots in Indonesia and the Philippineshave developed a successful local market for organicfertiliser from feedlot manure. Indeed, in many cases ithas become a major profit centre for the business. Afeedlot may bag the whole production in 2kg to 20 kgbags and sell it to market gardeners or flower producers.Otherwise, the feedlot may choose to use it onpineapple and corn crops as a bulk application toincrease production and to reduce crop rotation times.

Odour

In many cases, feedlots are located relatively closely toheavily populated areas. The control of waste runoff andodour from the feedlot consequently become importantissues to the surrounding population. The two majorfactors affecting odour at the feedlot are effective andconsistent management of the manure pad as describedabove, and maintaining a balanced ration for the cattlethat reduces the faecal deposition of excess nutrients. Apoorly balanced ration will result in increased odouremissions from the feedlot, as well as costing the feedlotmoney through reduced production efficiencies. (see alsothe feed section for advice on maintaining a balancedration).

FEED

What: Adequate clean, efficient feeding is the key to the whole

feedlot process.

Why: Elements like:� ration formulation� commodities used� quality of commodities� palatability

will all impact on performance.

How: 1. Understand the basic nutritional aspects for

feedlot cattle.

2. Understand the available commodities in Asia.

3. Understand the key elements of ration design.

4. Understand correct feeding practices.

5. Understand production of commodities like silage.

Feeding Management Plan

Feeding practices that are preferred in the USA andAustralia have little or no application in Asia. This is dueto the differences in available commodities, the tropicalclimate and the different market requirements.

The feedlot manager needs to:

Have a thorough knowledge of the needs of his cattle

Be able to react quickly to changes in feed supply

Be able to continually assess the performance of theanimals.

Each feedlot manager must learn how to formulate andadjust the ration to suit the stock and the market beingfed for. As well, while assessing performance managersmust be able to make necessary adjustments to theration.

Pen checking is vital

Pen checking is a vital part of feedlot management.Managers must learn to recognise the signs of healthand disease. They must be able to use sight, smell andhearing to be able to recognise the factors that indicateproblems.

All cattle must be checked at least twice daily and high riskcattle should be checked more frequently. Any sick ordoubtful cattle should be pulled out of the pen and treatedseparately.

The incidence of feed related problems in feedlots vary.However, if the rations are well managed, problems areless likely to occur. The conditions that are commonlyseen in cattle that are starting on feed are non-eaters,bloat, scours and polioencephamalacia.

Affected animals should be recognised early and treated separately.

The feeding regime for cattle comprises starter andfinisher rations.

Starter rations should be palatable and attractive tocattle. Extensive use of green chop, silage and molasseswill assist in minimising digestive upsets and aid instimulating the rumen.

The design of the starter ration is based on whatingredients are available to the feedlot. Theseingredients must have a minimum amount of energy

and protein to meet the requirements for growth.

What are the principles of feedlot cattlenutrition

Cattle are placed in feedlots to conserve energy thatwould normally be used for grazing. This energy isconverted to growth. In Asia, feedlots are importantbecause they provide a productive use for by-productfeedstuffs that might otherwise be wasted.

The key issue in feedlot management is to keep thecost per kilogram of liveweight gain as low aspossible. Because the animal is fed a prepared rationand cannot select the feed of choice, it is importantto understand the function of the rumen and theimpact of different types of feed on rumen functionand metabolism so that the rumen will be balancedand rumen health maintained.

Principles of Ruminant Nutrition

Cattle are ruminants. They have a forestomach (rumen)in which grass and other feedstuffs are broken down(digested) by colonies of microorganisms to provideessential nutrients to the animal.

The forestomach contains billions of bacteria, protozoaand fungi which digest most of the feed into smallerparticles, helped by the grinding action of the back teethwhen the animal is chewing. Ruminant animals chewtheir food twice, once just after eating and then laterwhen lumps of food are regurgitated from theforestomach into the mouth for further chewing.

EFFICIENT FEEDING PRACTICES are vital inensuring success in any feedlot.


The key aspects of a feeding management plan

The principles of feedlot cattle nutritionand digestion

The commodities available in Asia

The process of making and feeding silage

Feed mixing and storage considerations

Ration design and formulation

Feed trough management

The benefits of performance recording

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Carbohydrates are the major component of cattle diets,comprising 70 - 80% of the net energy requirements fora high producing animal.

Carbohydrates are composed of repeating units ofsugars or sugar derivatives and can be fermented inthe rumen to yield volatile fatty acids (VFA's: acetate,propionate and butyrate) and lactic acid. Somecarbohydrates are digested post rumen while otherspass through the animal undigested. Carbohydratesare made up of different fractions and are estimatedby various measures.

Understanding and applying these concepts to practicalration formulation is necessary to optimise productionand rumen health.

The process of digestion in the forestomach is calledfermentation and the nutrients formed by this processare used by the microorganisms for their own growthand biological functions. The digestion process alsoproduces nutrients that are used by the host animal,namely:

energy yielding substances called volatile fatty acids(VFA's)

micobial protein, derived mainly from ammonianitrogen released from the breakdown of feedproteins

The energy yielding fatty acids pass through the rumenwall into the blood system, providing up to 70% of aproductive animal’s requirements for energy. The cells ofthe micro-organisms are continuously propelled from therumen by contractions of the rumen wall, and flow aspart of the digesta into the small intestine. Here thecomponents of the cells, which consist of protein,carbohydrate and fat are digested by gastric juices andthe resulting nutrients (namely amino acids, glucose andlong chain fatty acids) are absorbed across the intestinalwall into the blood and carried to the body tissues.

Some feed may also reach the small intestine withoutbeing completely digested or degraded by the rumenmicro-organisms. This fraction provides the animal withextra nutrients (sometimes known as by-pass or escapenutrients) in a more direct form.

A key to formulating high performance rations withtropical feedstuffs is knowing the extent to whichnutrients are used in the rumen and small intestine. The supply and balance of feed nutrients can then bedirected towards maximizing the growth of the micro-organisms in the rumen as well as providing bypassnutrients to support the animal’s productivity potential.

In practical terms, high performance rations consist of70-95% concentrate feed and the rest is supplied by

forage resources. The level of concentrate offered isdetermined by the quality of the forage available.

The Principles of Feed Digestion

To maximize live weight gains and to ensure profitabilityin feedlot operations, there are a number of elementsthat are important. These are:

Cattle - genetics, age, sex and ability to grow

Feed intake - sufficient intake of a ration balanced forenergy, protein and other nutrients

Commodities used - suitability and control ofvariability

Environmental control - heat, humidity, feedlot design

Prevention of disease

Use of production enhancement tools (HGP's etc)

It is a feature of tropical feedlots in Asia that by-productsform the primary source of feed commodities used.These by-products are highly variable in their nutritionallevels. The value of the available by-products will varywith their protein and carbohydrate content and thetype of proteins and carbohydrates they contain.

An understanding of carbohydrate andprotein metabolism will influence theselection of feed commodities and theblending of ingredients.

Volatile Fatty Acids

Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA's) are produced in largeamounts through ruminal fermentation and are ofparamount importance as they provide greater than70% of the ruminants energy supply. Virtually all theacetic, butyric and propionic acids formed in the rumenare absorbed across the rumen wall and carried via theruminal and portal veins to the liver.

Continuous removal of VFA's from the rumen isimportant not only for distribution, but to preventexcessive and damaging drops in the pH of rumen fluid.

The rumen is lined with stratified squamousepithelium similar to skin, which is generally notnoted for efficient absorption. Nonetheless, thissquamous epithelium has a structure that functionssimilarly to the columnar epithelium in the small gutand performs efficient absorption of VFA’s, as well aslactic acid, electrolytes and water.

The epithelial surface is also greatly expanded by theformation of papillae. It is of considerable practicalimportance that the size and length of rumen papillaerespond to concentrations of VFA’s in the rumen.Animals that have been on a high plane of nutrition,with abundant VFA production, have long, luxuriantpapillae well suited to promote absorption.

In contrast, animals which have been under nutritionalstress have small blunted papillae, and require time on ahigh quality diet to allow for development of theirpapillae and absorptive capacity.

All VFA’s appear to be absorbed by the samemechanism, which is diffusion through theepithelium, down a concentration gradient. As theypass through the epithelium, the different VFA’sundergo different degrees of metabolism. Acetateand propionate pass through the epithelium largelyunchanged, but almost all of the butyric acid ismetabolised in the epithelium to beta-hydroxybutyricacid, a type of ketone body.

The three major VFA’s absorbed from the rumen havesomewhat distinctive metabolic fates:

Acetic Acid is utilized minimally in the liver, and isoxidized throughout most of the body to generate

In simple terms, this means that cattle taketime to adapt to feedlot rations.

ATP. Another important use of acetate is as the majorsource of acetyl Co-enzyme A for synthesis of lipids.

Propionic Acid is almost completely removed fromportal blood by the liver. Within the liver propionateserves as a major substrate for the production ofglucose, which is absolutely critical to the ruminantbecause almost no glucose reaches the small intestinefor absorption.

Butyric Acid, most of which comes out of the rumenas the ketone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, is oxidized inmany tissues for energy production.

Carbohydrate and Protein Synchroni

Rumen micro-organisms require protein andcarbohydrates to synthesize microbial protein andvolatile fatty acids. The goal should be to balancecarbohydrate and protein availability, such that one orthe other is not limiting at any time. For example, if adiet has high levels of soluble protein, adequatequantities of readily fermentable carbohydrates shouldbe included in the diet to prevent ammonia loss.

Energy and protein imbalance cancause disease problems. For example,a diet too high in protein and toolow in energy can lead to fatmobilization and be related to fattyliver syndrome and ketosis.

Protein Metabolism

Protein feeding systems for ruminants must take intoconsideration the following factors:

The provision of nitrogen sources in the rumen (andother nutrients) in amounts sufficient to promoteoptimum fermentation and growth of micro-organisms

The provision of by-pass amino acids in addition tothose provided by the micro-organisms.

Interactions between the availability of amino acids tothe tissues in relation to other nutrients that mayaffect efficiency of utilisation and may affect feed intake.

Protein metabolism and supply needs to be balanced interms of amino acid supply to the animal as well as therelationship between protein utilisation and energylevels. The yield of microbial protein will vary withdifferent commodities.

For example, a diet of silage alone will yield lowquantities of amino acids as the energy availability to the microbes is limiting. If extra energy is added, thenincreases in microbial protein production will occur. This means that from a practical point of view, extraenergy (for example cassava) should be fed whenfeeding silages.

Tropical forages tend to have less non structuralcarbohydrates than temperate species and this needsto be accounted for when designing rations based onNapier grass or similar tropical forages. It should alsobe noted that energy contained in fats and oils (egcopra meal, cottonseed and palm kernal cake) arenot available to the micro-organisms for theproduction of microbial protein.

Therefore, while the analysis of a ration may show sufficient total energy, there may not beenough available to the microbes to function atmaximum levels.

Protein Requirements

The actual protein requirements for feedlot cattle, whenmeasured in terms of Crude Protein (CP), will varyaccording to the types of feed being fed and theprotein/energy ratio of the ration.

For example, a 300kg steer on a ration containing11Mj/kg would need a crude protein ration of10.15% to grow at 1kg per day. The same steer on apredominantly silage ration would needapproximately 11.5%CP to gain the same weight.Similarly, younger cattle have a higher CPrequirement than older cattle. For higherperformances, slightly higher levels of CP will berequired. The level of response to hormone growthpromotants is also linked to protein levels - low

Protein feeding systems that arebased on a simplistic view of crudeprotein do not take into accountthese cardinal elements of proteinnutrition in the ruminant.

protein levels will limit the response.

Feeding Urea

Non protein nitrogen sources such as urea, can only beused to correct a deficiency of ammonia in the rumenfluid. If there is sufficient ammonia produced from otherprotein sources that are degraded in the rumen, thenfeeding of urea is of little value. The amount of ureathat is fed in the ration can be calculated from aknowledge of the amount of rumen degradablenitrogen available from the ration and the amountrequired by the animal.

If there is a deficit of both the amount of un-degradeddietary protein (UDP) and rumen degraded protein (RDP),then the deficit of UDP must be corrected first by givinga choice of protein supplement that contains therequired amount of UDP.

As most rations that are used in Asia have an adequatesupply of protein (for example from copra meal), theneed to feed urea is less. However, where high levels ofsilage and roughages are fed, 10 - 30 grams of urea perhead per day will help provide enough non proteinnitrogen to bridge the gap required.

Because of these differences in requirements, rations areformulated to provide minimum CP levels and there isalso provision made to supply by-pass protein and avariety of protein sources to ensure that amino acidneeds are being met. Ruminants require ten essentialamino acids, which they must gain from the diet or frommicrobial protein.

Energy Requirements

The primary measure of energy in feeds is the amount inmegajoules (Mj) of metabolisable energy per KG of drymatter. A certain minimum amount of energy is requiredfor maintenance and after this requirement has beensatisfied, the balance provided in the ration is availablefor growth.

The factors affecting the amount of energy required formaintenance are:

Bodyweight

Age

Breed

Sex

Pregnancy

Exercise (grazing or feedlot)

Environmental conditions (temperature, wind, rain etc.)

These factors are included in standard equations used tocalculate the theoretical requirements for maintenance. Asimplified version of this calculation for feedlot cattle is:

Mj of energy required for maintenance =450 x weight 0.75 /1000

The energy requirements for gain or production are alsocalculated by taking into consideration the efficiency ofconversion of food energy into body fat and protein and thecalculations used are also influenced by the same factorsthat affect maintenance requirements. Special considerationmust also be given when hormone growth promotants(HGP's) are used, as these will influence the calculations.

Example using this equation

An example of this for brahman cattle under feedlotconditions involves the calculation of the energyavailable for growth (Eg) from the ration being fed.

If the dry matter intake and the energy content of theration is known, then the energy available for growth iscalculated from the available energy (MEg) left aftermaintenance requirements have been met. This iscalculated by the formula:

Eg = MEg x (0.0435 x Mj/kg ration)

The daily weight gain is then calculated from the Eg bythe formula:

ADG = Eg [6.28 + (0.3 x Eg) + (0.0188 x Wt)]

The full equations for making these calculations can befound in text books on ruminant nutrition, however, thesimplest method for most feedlot managers is to use acomputer program designed for this purpose.

Mineral Metabolism

Subclinical mineral deficiencies are particularly difficult torecognise in production feeding systems as they may betransient and there are no visible signs of deficiency,even though they can reduce productivity.

One major problem with mineral nutrition is predictingthe availability of the mineral to the animal andassessing the impact of different ratios of minerals toone another.

The proportion of a mineral that is absorbed can varyaccording to:

the chemical composition of the mineral

the physiological state of the animal

its interaction with other minerals and othercompounds such as proteins.

For example, copper nutrition is affected bymolybdenum, sulphur and iron. Magnesium is influencedby potassium and ruminal ammonia.

The following table lists a guide to dietary mineralrequirements.

Mineral Dietary Level g/kg DM0

Calcium 1.9 - 4.0

Phosphorous 1.8 - 3.2

Chlorine 2.0

Magnesium 1.9

Potassium 5.0

Sodium 0.8 - 1.2

Sulphur 1.5

Trace Mineral Diet Level mg/kg DM

Cobalt 0.11

Copper 7 - 10

Iodine 0.5

Iron 40

Manganese 15 - 20

Selenium 0.05

Zinc 20 - 30

In practical terms, a balanced mineral supplement orpre-mix is usually included in feedlot diets. This ensuresthat basic mineral nutrition is catered for. However, thismix may need to be adjusted when feeding certainfeeds. For example, extra sodium may be added whenfeeding corn silage or sorghum based feeds.

Feedlot cattle require supplementation with traceelements, such as copper, cobalt and zinc. These arenormally supplied as a pre-mix with in feed growthpromotants. If mixing facilities are such that the mixingof the micro ingredients will be inconsistent and someanimals might receive too high a dose, then these canbe fed through the drinking water.

Feeding through the drinking water ensures each animalreceives the correct dosage.

Excess Minerals

Excess minerals or mineral imbalances can causeproduction problems.

Excess iron concentration in either the feed or water canlead to problems. Although iron is necessary in biologicalsystems, it is a potent oxidising compound that canadversely affect cell function. If an analysis shows thatiron is present in excessive quantities (above 400 ppm),then no more iron should be fed and anti-oxidants mayhave to be added at increased levels. Anti-oxidants usedare Vitamin E, Vitamin A, copper, zinc, selenium,manganese. Iron also interacts with zinc, copper andmanganese in the intestine and this reduces theabsorption of these essential minerals.

To avoid trace mineral deficiencies, increase theconcentrations of specific trace minerals that areaffected by iron, if excess iron concentration is aproblem.

Vitamin Metabolism

The vitamin needs of feedlot cattle will vary from grazinganimals because the feedlot environment and productionrequirements place greater demands on the animalsphysiology. In certain circumstances, for example, in the caseof thiamine, the artificial diets lead to increased demandsthat may not exist in grazing environments.

In general however, ruminants synthesize Vitamin C, K andB in sufficient quantities to meet normal demands whilevitamins A, D and E have to be provided through the diet.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A needs special attention in feedlot rations.

Plants are the natural source of vitamin A activity foranimals. Green and yellow plants contain carotene, apigment that animals convert to vitamin A. The wall ofthe small intestine is the primary site for conversion ofcarotene to vitamin A.

In recent years, there have been increasing incidences ofVitamin A deficiency from diets that previously wouldhave been described as adequate for Vitamin A. Thecause has variously been attributed to:

Greater use of grains with less roughage, loweringcaretone levels of ration.

Loss of carotene through longer storage, heattreatments and processing of feedstuffs.

Feeding younger calves in feedlots that have lowerbody reserves and higher Vitamin A requirements.

Stress of cattle from transport, handling, disease andparasites.

Larger daily weight gains from cattle geneticimprovements. Vit A requirements higher per unit ofliveweight.

Higher concentrations of nitrates in foragesparticularly when grown under stress, with high levelsof Nitrogen fertiliser.

Higher levels of nitrates in drinking water.

Reduced Vitamin E intake because of lower roughageintake, heat treatments etc.

Vitamin A has a primary role in maintaining the skin and lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts in

It is advisable to supply incomingfeeders with 500,000 to 1 million IUof vitamin A. This amount is usuallygiven by intramuscular or rumeninjection, but can also beadministered in-feed. The Vitamin Arequirements of feedlot cattle canbe met by feeding around 6 milligrams of carotene or 5 000 IUof vitamin A for each 100kg of bodyweight, or supplying 3 000 IU ofvitamin A per kg of feed.

healthy condition.

One of the first obvious signs of vitamin A deficiency isnight blindness. An easy way to check for this conditionis to place an obstacle in front of cattle and observewhether they stumble over it at twilight.

Other early signs are loss of appetite, rough hair coat,dull eyes, slowed gains and reduced feed efficiency.Later developments include excessive watering of eyes,staggering gait, lameness or stiffness in knee and hockjoints, and swelling of the legs and brisket.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is formed by the action of sunlight uponcertain sterols in the skin. Animals kept indoors do notform vitamin D.

Vitamin D increases the absorption from the digestivetract and the metabolic use of phospherous and calcium.It helps regulate blood calcium levels and aids in thedevelopment of bones.

Animals with deficient vitamin D display Rickets andhave soft, poorly formed bones. In calves, poorappetite, decreased growth, stiff gait, weakness andlaboured breathing followed by swollen joints, slightarching of the back, bowed legs and bent knees areall signs of deficiency.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E appears to have a primary role as a chemicalanti-oxidant, reducing destruction of other vitamins andessential fatty acids in the digestive tract and after theirabsorption.

High grain rations with limited roughage, especially highmoisture grains, rations low in selenium, high fat levelsin ration, lengthy storage of feeds and high dryingtemperatures of feeds are all thought to be possiblecauses in vitamin E deficiency.

B Group Vitamins

Included in the B vitamin complex are thiamine, biotin,riboflavin, niacin, vit B12 and niacin.

Thiamin deficiancy has been discussed in the AnimalHealth section.

Measuring Moisture Content

Moisture content of feeds is an important factor in thepurchase and formulation of rations. As all commoditiesare purchased "wet", and all rations are formulated ona "dry" basis, the moisture content is vital if the correctlevels of the commodity are to be used.

Moisture levels of commodities may vary betweensources, or between shipments, and rations must beadjusted to take these variations into account.

It is important that feedlot managers can accuratelyassess moisture levels in feedstuffs.

There are two methods commonly used: the manualsqueeze test or the microwave method.The squeeze testrequires taking a handful of the commodity or rationand squeezing into a ball for 30 seconds. Release theball and record the results.

The microwave method entails the following procedure:

Take a 100 to 500 gram sample and weigh on an accurate scale.

Place in the microwave with a 250 ml glass of water.

Microwave on high for three minutes.

Squeeze Test Result Estimated Dry Matter Content

Retains Shape with some free moisture expressed Less than 25%

Retains Shape but no free moisture expressed 25 - 30%

Falls apart slowly 30 - 40%

Falls apart rapidly Above 40%

Weigh the sample if it feels dry or stir the sample and repeat for 1 minute.

Continue until the sample does not lose weight.

Calculate the dry matter using the formula:

Dry Weight / Wet Weight x 100%

By-products

Fibrous by-products are a major feed resource for theAsian feedlot industry. Commonly used by-productswhich supply fibre and energy to the diet are soybeanhulls, corn gluten feed, dried distillers grain, brewersgrain, wheat pollard and wheat bran.

Some of these products, such as dried distillers grain arealso considered excellent sources of crude and bypassprotein as well. Alternative feeds such as wholecottonseed provide fibre, lipid and protein.

When feeding by-products, potential objectives include:increasing growth rates, decreasing feed costs,extending limited supplies of forage, and/or reducing theincidence of ruminal acidosis.

Important considerations when incorporating these by-products into a feeding system include:

economics of using by-products in different feedingsystems.

proper handling and storage facilities.

potential variations in nutrient content.

effectiveness of fibre in finely ground feeds

whether the by-product will replace starch or foragefibre in the ration.

An understanding of both the practical and fundamentalaspects of feeding fibrous by-products is necessary tosuccessfully incorporate them into diets for feedlots.

When replacing forage fibre with significant amounts offibrous by-products, adequate effective fibre in theration must be maintained.

A complete consideration of fibre nutrition for animalsincludes:

ADF = 19 - 21% of dry matter (minimum)

NDF = 26 - 29% of dry matter (minimum)

(ADF - Acid detergent fibre)

(NDF - Neutral detergent fibre)

ADF from course roughage = at least 65% of the NDF fromcourse roughage, and particle size = 1cm length of cut.

Adequate fibre level of the proper particle length assuresnormal chewing activity, saliva production and ruminalfunction. Effective fibre is a measure of the feed's abilityto stimulate chewing and includes fibre content andtexture (particle size). Symptoms of insufficient effectivefibre include:

decreased rumination

decreased salivation

decreased ruminal pH and acetate/propionate ratios

decreased growth rates

intake fluctuations and off-feed problems

laminitis

low body condition score

Commodities available in Asia

The availability of commodities in each district is usuallylimited to that area and the various agricultural activitiesconcentrated in that area. For example; brewers grainand other brewery products are associated with majorbreweries. It is also only economical to transport brewersgrain relatively short distances.

Tapioca or cassava products are normally associated withmills in the local area. Pineapple waste and productssuch as green bananas are sourced from localplantations and canneries. Napier grass or green corn isoften grown by local farmers or on the property. Silageproduction is carried out on the feedlot.

Roughage and Fibrous Energy Needs

These commodities provide energy and maintain rumenmotion.

Forage Maize (Corn)

Harvested at grain dough stage (around 75 days),this forage is very palatable and a good source ofdigestable energy for fast growing cattle, but notsufficiently balanced in protein and energy to supportmaximum growth rates. Forage maize silage can be aless palatable feed and an addition of 0.5-1.0%limestone as a buffer when making silage normallyimproves its quality.

Urea (mixed with molasses) is also commonly used toboost the nitrogen content of the silage (5kg urea/tonnesilage)

Maize (Corn) Stover

This refers to the maize plant after the corn has beenpicked. It is considered a poor quality forage because ofits relatively low protein and energy content anddigestibility (< 50% dry matter). For this reason, its use isrestricted to providing a roughage source for highconcentrate rations by feeding 10-20% of the diet (dryfeed basis), or up to about 50% fresh basis.

Elephant Grass (Napier Grass)

The use of this grass and the hybrid King Grass, as aforage source for cattle is popular throughout SouthEast Asia because of its potentially high yielding sourceof digestible fibre. It is particularly suited for cultivationby smallholder farmers supplying nearby feedlots and itcan also be used for the making of silage.

King Grass requires at least 3 months of growth beforethe first cut. Thereafter it can be cut at intervals of 6-8weeks, and should be replanted after 5-6 years. Toprepare for feeding, fresh grass should be chopped(3-5cm) and mixed into the concentrate feed and fed ata rate of 15-30% of the whole ration (dry fed basis) orabout 55-65% as fed.

Sugarcane Tops

Used extensively as a forage source to maintainsmallholder livestock, the fresh leaves, with a dry matterdigestibility of 60% can be used as a roughage source inhigh performance rations at a rate of up to 25% of thediet (dry matter basis) or about 50% as fed.

Pineapple Pulp

The pulp, consisting of the outer skin and inner core ofthe fruit, is a bulk energy source for cattle, but is limitedby its relatively high fibre content. It is therefore usuallyfed as part of the roughage component of the diet, upto 60% as fed. The fresh material is very wet containingup to 85% water, and may be dried into a bran forconvenience of transport and feeding.

Because of its acidic nature, the pulp should beintroduced gradually to new cattle. The addition of50g/head/day of sodium bicarbonate in the concentratefeed during the introduction period may improve rate ofuptake by new animals.

Rice Straw

While rice straw is among the most abundantfeedstuffs available in Asia, it is also one of thelowest in nutritional value. Protein and energycontent is not sufficient to maintain liveweight ofcattle and intake is limited by its poor digestibility(43% of dry matter) due to a high content of ligninand silica. Whole straw can be treated to increase itsdigestibility by 2-6%.

A common method is to soak or spray batches of strawwith a solution of 4% urea per 100kg of fresh materialbefore stacking and storing under a sealed cover for atleast 21 days. The straw is left uncovered for 24 hoursbefore feeding.

There are very few reports of high growth rates in cattlefed rations containing rice straw. Its use therefore infattening diets should be limited to 5 - 10% of theration as filler or as a temporary roughage source in theevent of no other forage being available.

Rumen Degraded Concentrates

These commodities provide extra nutrients to balancethe requirements of rumen microorganisms.

Corn (Maize)

This cereal grain and its by-products are the mostcommon ingredients found in cattle fattening rations. Itis often the most expensive ration component becauseof its demand for human consumption. The graincontains 70% starch which provides a high valueconcentrated energy sourse, but protein content isrelatively low at 9%.

Yellow maize is rich in the precursor of vitamin A. It cancomprise up to 85% of fattening rations and should behammer milled through screen sizes of 10-19 mm orcracked by a roller, but not finely ground.

Corn (Maize) Bran

This is strictly the outer coating of the grain kernalthat is seperated from the grain and therefore has amuch lower energy value and more fibre. In practice,the bran is usually a mixture of milling by-productsincluding the germ and gluten. The nutritional valueof this product is comparable with maize but with ahigher fibre content.

It is very desirable to have 15-25% of this feed as afermentable energy source in concentrate feedscontaining oil cake and seed by-products.

Wheat Pollard

A by-product of flour mills, the pollard consists of bran(wheat kernal and inseparable flour), germ and feedflour, which together form a palatable energy andprotein source for fattening cattle. It can be fed up to alevel of 45% of high concentrate rations. Wheat pollardis also a good source of phosphorous and vitamin E.

Rice Bran

Rice bran is an excellent source of protein and energy,with relatively high levels of unsaturated oil (approx 15goil/kg dry matter) making the product prone to rancidityduring storage and producing soft subcutaneous fat.The fibre content of rice bran can vary due tocontamination with rice hulls. Good quality bran (<9%crude fibre) may be fed up to 50% of the total ration(dry feed basis), however it is usually restricted to 15-25% to avoid the deposition of soft fat.

Spent Grains (Brewers Grain)

This is a by-product of the brewing industry andconsists mainly of mashed cereal grains. It is arelatively digestible bulk feed containing 15-20%crude fibre and a good energy and protein source forcattle rations. Wet spent grains contain 80% watermaking transport over long distances prohibitivelyexpensive, unless they can be dried to 10% moistureand preserved with 5% salt.

Tapioca Waste (Onggok)

Tapioca or cassava waste is the residue from starchextraction from the tuber. It is an energy feed that isreadily digested in the rumen. Since it contains very littleprotein, it should be fed with urea or a protein source

that is readily degraded in the rumen. When dried it maybe fed as the major energy source in the concentratefeed and can be included at levels up to 50% of theration.

Sago

Sago palms are cut down when starch reserves in thetrunk peak just before flowering when the plant is 10 -15 years old. The trunk is either split and internal tissuesscooped out, or the exterior removed and the internaltissues rasped to produce sawdust.

The sawdust containing starch can be washed andstrained to free the starch, called sago meal, leavingbehind a fibrous refuse which ferments rapidly unlessdried. Dried sago pith/rasps should be limited to 30% inthe concentrate feed as an energy source.

Molasses

This residue from sugar production contains 50%soluble sugars that are readily fermented in the rumen. Italso contains a wide range of minerals, particularlypotassium, but it is low in phosphorous. High levels ofmolasses in the diet inhibit digestion of forages in therumen and therefore its use as a cattle feed is usuallyrestricted to about 10% of the ration as an attractantand carrier for urea, or as a binder for pelleting.

Fattening rations based on ad lib molasses shouldcontain 3% urea to provide a nitrogen source for rumenbacteria, small amounts of roughage (0.5 - 1.0%LW) tostimulate rumen motility and a high protein supplementthat is relatively resistant to rumen degradation.

Green Bananas

Bananas are an excellent source of energy which is inthe form of starch (around 73%). However theprotein content of green bananas is low and tanninbound. As with molasses, feeding high levels ofbananas in the ration (eg 60%) should beaccompanied by a non-protein nitrogen source suchas urea (as 10% urea/molasses if offered free choice).Cattle relish bananas and no processing is required;however, salt should be added.

Urea

Fertiliser grade urea (46% Nitrogen) is a concentratesource of fermentable nitrogen which can be used insmall quantities to supplement basal diets fed toolder cattle. However, urea must be administeredproperly to avoid poisoning of cattle. To raise theprotein eqivalent of a ration by 2% requires 7g

urea/kg dry feed. This is administered by dissolvingurea in molasses solution or micromixing with asuitable dry concentrate feed such as rice branbefore thorough mixing in the ration concentrate.

Concentrate Feed Supplements

These nutrients are resistant to breakdown in the rumenbut provide extra nutrients to the animal.

Copra

Copra is the byproduct of the oil extraction process fromcoconuts, usually by mechanical press. It is relatively highin good quality protein that is resistant to rumendegradation (pelleting further increases resistance). Oilresidues may also be high (2.5-6.5%) depending on theefficiency of processing. Copra oil is uniquely high in thesaturated fatty acid laurate that is beneficial for marblingof meat. Copra readily absorbs molasses making it morepalatable as an animal feed. In the pelleted form, Copracan be fed up to 25% of the diet (dry fed basis).

Palm Kernal Cake

PKC is the solid residue left after the extraction of oilfrom the oil palm kernal. It has been used inMalaysia as the only source of protein and energy oncattle fattening rations. The protein is good qualityand the oil is mostly saturated, but the feed is notvery palatable as the oil content is high (expellerpressed PKC has 6-10% oil content) and needs along adaption period facilitated by adding molasses ifhigh levels are to be fed. It is recommended not tofeed more than 50% of the ration as PKC.

Soybean Meal

This is a high quality concentrate feed and one of thebest plant protein sources with up to 50% protein (drymatter basis). Soybean meal is usually too costly as acattle feed, but if available economically can be used at5-10% of the concentrate feed.

Cotton Seed

The delinted whole seed contains around 20% of oilwhich is 50% unsaturated fat and around 20% goodquality protein for cattle rations. Cottonseed can beincluded in feedlot rations at a rate of 10-15%.

Cocoa Bean Shell

This is ususally a mixture of bean shell and fragments ofbean meal after the beans have been roasted. Thiscombination has a high nutritional value for ruminantsincluding vitamin D, however it also contains a toxicsubstance called theobrine, which limits its use as a feed

to a small amount (<10% in concentrate feed).

Kapok Seed Meal

The seeds are ground to make a high protein mealthat may be included in the concentrate feed at arate of 10%. Higher levels have been fed withoutproblems reported.

Leucaena (Ipil Ipil) Leaf Meal

The leaves and small stems from this shrub legume aresun-dried to produce a good quality protein supplementfor cattle feed. Leucaena leaves contain the toxinmimosine and its derivative dihydroxy piridin. Local cattlein most parts of Asia have the ability to break down thistoxin in the rumen, but not all Australian cattle have thespecific rumen microorganisms necessary and thereforeleucaena should be restricted to about 10% of theration.

Silage

Silage in Asia

The production of silage offers the Asian feedlot industryan effective method of storing large quantities of greenchopped forage that is produced in the wet season foruse all year round. The silage is useful for theformulation of starter rations though cattle may be slowonto silage. Any product can be made into silage,however the main products used in Asia are Napiergrass, corn and some fruit by-products such as pinepplepulp.

The Phases of Silage Production

The two main phases in the ensiling process are theaerobic phase and the anaerobic phase.

Aerobic phase: This occurs in the presence of air andwill vary from a few hours to several days depending onensiling conditions. It is preferable to limit this phase toas short a time as possible to minimise the destruction ofwater soluble and other nutrients.

The heat generated by an extended aerobic phase canraise the temperature of the ensiling forage materialsufficiently to cause heat damage. The secret to goodquality silage is the exclusion of air. This is accomplishedby chopping the silage to a short length, packing itthoroughly and sealing the pit effectively. This can alsobe achieved in bags and where labour is not expensive itis possible to make good quality silage in 30 kg bags,providing bags are airtight film and not woven.

Anaerobic phase: This begins when the available

oxygen is used up through plant respiration and aerobicbacteria cease to function. Anaerobic bacteria begin tomultiply rapidly and the fermentation process begins.Ideally the micro-organisms which grow most rapidly willpredominantly be Lactobacillus species which producelactic acid from the fermented plant material.

The lactic acid which is produced will lower the pH ofthe silage. Fermentation completely ceases after 3-4weeks when the pH becomes so low that all microbialgrowth is inhibited.

Beware of Clostridial-type bacteria

Clostridial type micro-organisms will grow if theensiling procedures are such that lactic acidproducing bacteria aren’t favoured. These organismsuse plant water-soluble carbohydrates, lactic acid andprotein for growth and produce butyric acid.Consequently, the quality of silage is greatly reducedif a clostridial-type of fermentation predominates.This most commonly occurs in low dry matter cropsthat are low in sugars, especially tropical grasses andlegumes.

Literally hundreds of fermentation products are formedin addition to lactic and butyric acids. In addition tolactobacilli and clostridial micro-organisms, silage alsocontains yeasts, moulds, coliforms, bacilli and propionicacid producing bacteria. As well as the use of plantsugars as energy sources, silage micro-organismsdegrade protein to amino acids, amines and ammoniaduring fermentation.

Factors affecting Silage Fermentation

The primary factors affecting the success of silagefermentation are:

Water Soluble Carbohydrates

Micro-organisms use water soluble carbohydrates, orsugars, as the main energy source for growth. The mainsugars present in plants are fructose, glucose andsucrose. There is only limited fermentation of othercarbohydrates in plants such as starch, cellulose andhemicellulose. If starches are present, the addition ofamylase enzymes may help to turn some of thesestarches into readily fermentable sugars and improve theprocess.

Buffering Capacity

Buffering capacity is the degree to which forage materialresists changes in pH. It has an influence on the easewith which forage material can be ensiled. Forages witha high buffering capacity will be highly resistant to a

reduction in pH, which is necessary for goodpreservation. Therefore more acid must be produced toreduce the pH to desired levels.

This is undesirable in silage because more watersoluble carbohydrates (WSC) must be used toproduce the additional acid.

Where the buffering capacity is high, it has beenestimated that twice the amount of WSC is required togive good fermentation, compared with forages with alow buffering capacity.

The organic acids (malic, succinic and glyceric acid) inforages are mainly responsible for buffering capacity. Inthe ensiling process these acids are degraded by bacteriaand are replaced by acids with stronger bufferingproperties. These replacement acids cause the bufferingcapacity of the forage to increase two to fourfold. Plantproteins also increase the buffering capacity of silage.

Legumes are generally well buffered which means thatmore acid is required to cause changes in the pH of thefermenting material. As a general rule about 10-12 percent WSC in legume dry matter will be sufficient forensiling to occur, whereas with grasses a minimum ofonly 6-8 percent is required.

Moisture content

In general, the lower the moisture content in the crop,the higher the pH level at which anaerobic stability isreached. Organic acids are lost in the wilting process andthis reduces the buffering capacity of the plants, whichimproves the ensiling process. This factor is one of thereasons why field wilting is beneficial with crops thathave low WSC contents and high buffering capacities.

As well, lactic acid bacteria are more tolerant to lowermoisture concentrations than are the undesirable clostridialorganisms, making wilting beneficial for ensiling. Very wetforage is therefore undesirable since clostridial growth maynot be inhibited even when the pH drops to 4. Also, withwet forages, the nutritional value and voluntary intakes ofthe silage produced are often low.

Several methods are commonly used to estimatemoisture content of forages prior to ensiling.Commercial moisture meters are available, The hand orsqueeze method of estimating moisture content andmicrowave ovens can all be used to analyse a foragesample for moisture content.

Type of bacteria which predominate

The most desirable fermentation will occur where lacticacid producing bacteria predominate. Although it is

frequently assumed that fresh forage is adequatelysupplied with lactic acid producing bacteria, thenumbers may be low under some circumstances. Manyof the silage inoculants commercially available areformulated to increase the numbers of these bacteria.Some new inoculants based on L. buchnerli can assist tominimise heating at feed-out, especially in maize silages.

Speed of fermentation

The primary aim of storing forage as silage is topreserve the material with a minimum of nutrientloss. Therefore, it is desirable to limit the nutrientconsuming activity of aerobic microorganisms and toinhibit the breakdown of protein by clostridial micro-organisms under anaerobic conditions.

Characteristics of good ensiling procedures

Exclusion of air

It is extremely important that air be excluded to optimisefermentation. There are several reasons for this:

Plant respiration results in the loss of nutrients, whichwould otherwise be available for the anaerobicbacteria to use for lactic acid production.

Temperature of the ensiling forage mass will increasewhen oxygen is present. This is generally undesirablesince high temperature leads to heat damage of thesilage.

Air in the silo delays the breakdown of the plant cellsand release of plant juices. This in turn delays theonset of rapid fermentation since the nutrients in thejuices are not immediately available to the micro-organisms.

Exposure to excessive oxygen during the silo fillingencourages growth of fungi, which cause greaterinstability and susceptibility to aerobic deteriorationwhen silage is being fed.

The actual amount of atmospheric oxygen, which isinitially trapped in the forage, is very small. If sealing isadequate, 99.5% of the oxygen can be used up in 30minutes by respiring plant tissues. This amount ofcombustion causes very little temperature rise (less than30C). However, considerable air can enter the forage ifsilage is not covered with plastic or sealed in some othermanner.

Slow filling of the pit, forage that is not chopped finelyenough, and inadequate packing are other causes ofexcessive air in silage.

Low temperature

When microbial growth occurs in silage, temperaturerises. In general, the greater the rate of growth of micro-organisms, the greater the temperature. Therate of acidification is greater when silage temperatures

are higher, however, at these higher temperatures,conditions are more suitable to undesirable clostridiumand result in lower quality silage.

Temperatures in the 150 to 250C range have been shownto allow growth of the more important lactic acidproducing species of bacteria while inhibiting theundesirable clostridial species.

High temperatures will cause heat damage in silage.Above 400C in the presence of oxygen, a chemicalreaction between plant WSC and protein occurs. Thisreaction produces brown products which give heatdamaged silage its characteristic brown colour withtobacco or caramel odour. The protein bound in this‘browning reaction’ is largely indigestible to the rumenmicroorganisms and to the animal.

Rapid Acidification

Since it is the pH levels of silage that stops fermentation,it is of vital importance in the production of qualitysilage. It is the rate of acidification which is of greatestimportance since rapid acidification reduces the risk ofearly growth of clostridial organisms.

How to control the ensiling process

There are a number of ways the ensiling process can becontrolled. They include:

Moisture content

This is the most important means of controlling theensiling process.

Materials high in moisture like pineapple pulp mayrequire the addition of other, dry ingredients to reducethe overall moisture to 70-75%. If cassava is added, it

will increase the energy level of the silage and starch willnot be broken down as fermentation bacteria are unableto use it. Other products such as rice bran can be usedto absorb some of the excess moisture and lead to abetter silage product.

Mechanical pre-treatment

Chopping, cutting and bruising all increase the potentialfor making good silage. This is due to cell breakage thatfavors bacterial growth and facilitates packing for airexclusion. Anaerobic fermentation can be establishedquickly in cut forage, reducing temperature rise. Morelactic acid is produced and less dry matter is lost. Thereis also an observable increase in silage consumption withshorter chop lengths.

Rapid filling, packing and sealing

The pit should be filled as rapidly as possible to reduceexposure to air. Similarly, packing is important inexcluding air from silage layers in the pit. Silage benefitsfrom being completely sealed to exclude air. The silagemaking process can become anaerobic within 5 hourswhen the pit is sealed immediately after filling, whereasthis can take 90 hours if sealing is delayed for 48 hours.

Use of additives

The type and extent of fermentation which occurs insilage and the aerobic stability of the silage after it isremoved from the pit can be controlled to some extentwith silage additives such as organic acids and/or theirsalts. Silage should be sealed with a plastic sheet everynight after chopping.

WATER

What: Water is the lifeblood of the feedlot and there must be

adequate supplies of fresh, cool and clean water.

Why: Water is vital to maintain rumen function, assist feed intake

and digestion and nutrient absorption.

How: 1. Understand and know your water supply

(Including testing).

2. Ensure that your cattle are getting enough water.

3. Provide fresh clean water ad lib with a trough

management system.

The aim of every feedlot should be to provide a supplyof water that is:

adequate

reliable

clean

cool

fresh

This will promote normal rumen function, high feedintake and digestion, and nutrient absorption. Wateralso maintains blood volume and supplies tissue needs.

The feedlot site will determine the water supply,however it is a vital function of feedlot management tomaintain a healthy supply of water.

Water Requirements for feedlot Cattle

Are your cattle getting enough water?

Cattle drink at least 5% of their bodyweight in waterper day, and even more in a tropical environment. Whenassessing water requirements, you should allow 2 litresof water for each 0.5kg of dry matter intake. That is, 40litres for an animal eating 10kg dry matter per day.Providing insufficient or poor quality water to cattle canlimit growth and cause health problems.

Even a small limitation in water intake will decrease drymatter intake by 1 kg daily, enough to limit peakproduction.

Water meters are available from many water systemequipment dealers. The meters can be used to measurewater flow in lines leading to water troughs.

How to Measure Water Intake

Water should be measured only at the drinking device

itself to accurately determine the water supply availableto the animal.

Factors Affecting Cattle Drinking Behavior

Some of the factors that affect drinking behaviourinclude:

the animals eating patterns and ease of access to thewatering area.

animal dominance

stray voltage ( stray voltage in excess of one half voltcould lead to water consumption problems.)

Animals have peak water intake during the hours whenfeed intake is greatest. When given the opportunity,animals tend to alternately consume feed and drinkwater. Ideally, fresh, clean water should be available tothe animal whenever feed is consumed.

Have you noticed your cattle are drinking less water?

Some possible causes of inadequate water intake are:

Lack of supply to troughs

Corroded valves

Inadequate system pressure

WATER is the lifeblood of any feedlot.

The cattle must have access to adequateamounts and it must be kept fresh, cooland clean.


Water requirements for feedlot cattle

Elements of water trough management

Checking feedlot water quality

HANDY HINT! Remember that daily waterintake comes from drinking water andmoisture consumed in the ration. Forexample, a beast eating an 18kg ration daily,at a 40% moisture content reading would beconsuming 7.2 litres of water per day in feed.

Poor chemical quality

Very acidic or alkaline

Hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg odour)

Metallic taste from iron

High dissolved solids content

Pollution

Coliform bacteria from manure

Algae growth

Chemicals

Stray voltages

Drinking devices

Poor or unstable surfaces that the animal stands on

Poor animal access to troughs

Poor trough placement, slippery muddy surfaces,animal over-crowding

Symptoms of Inadequate or Excessive WaterIntake:

Low water intake results in low urine output andconstipated, firm manure. These symptoms also apply todehydration from disease or fever .

Restricted water intake may promote intestinal disease ifcattle drink from puddles of water containing urine.Note that lack of salt, potassium and crude protein inthe ration may also cause this behaviour.

Excessive water intake leads to excessive urineproduction, abnormally loose manure and a relativelybloated condition. This bloated appearance isespecially noticeable in young calves. Diarrhoeacaused by excessive water intake will still be normalin colour and odour.

Water Trough Management

It is necessary to inspect the water troughs at least everyday. Water troughs will get a build up of feed, manure,algae and moss. It is important to empty them regularlyand thoroughly clean them out.

Water Temperature

A plentiful supply of fresh cool water is important forcattle, as warm water reduces intake and will reduceweight gain and productivity. Water troughs should bepositioned in the shade and the design should be suchthat the water is replenished frequently. Undergroundstorage supply will ensure cool water is available.

Water Supply

It is important to have at least two days supply of wateravailable in case of supply failure problems. It is alsoimportant to ensure that ground water supplies are notcontaminated by feedlot runoff.

Water supply should be monitored on a constant basisand at least twice daily to ensure there are no problems.Water troughs should be cleaned on a regular basis, thefrequency of cleaning will depend on the feedlot designand the number of cattle per trough.

In summary, although we are often most concerned withration protein, energy levels and dry matter intake,providing a clean fresh water supply is among the mostessential practices of a successful feedlot.

What water are you dealing with?

A water analysis is important for two reasons:

1.To analyse for the presence of minerals in the water.

2.To analyse for the presence of bacteria and otherunhealthy aspects in the water.

Animals are particularly sensitive to poor water qualitybecause high producing animals may consume 40-50litres or more of water daily.

Analysis of water is important in determining the intakeof extra calcium, sodium and magnesium salts. In caseswhere these salts are high and high protein diets arebeing fed, it is useful to add 1% ammonium chloride tothe diet to acidify the urine and help prevent thedevelopment of kidney and bladder stones.

Some feedlots will monitor the acidity of the urinethrough the feeding period and if it turns alkaline thenurinary acidifiers are fed.

Sites of potential contamination/pollution in thesystem include: the source (bore, well, spring,dam), pressure tank or reservoir, and the troughitself, most commonly through feed or manure.

Always note where the water you release fromthe trough is going. Be careful not to allow thewater to run into the pen and create problems.

Coliform Bacteria

Water for animal consumption must contain no coliformbacteria for calves and coliform counts should be under10 per 100 millilitres for adult cattle. Bacterial pollutedwater may increase susceptibility or contribute to avariety of calf and animal disease problems.

Drinking troughs should be kept relatively clean. A raisedbase around tanks helps to keep manure contaminationproblems to a minimum. Cleaning tanks and troughs toprevent build up of old feed and other debris isimportant.

Checking Water Quality

The water supply for cattle should be checked annuallyfor coliforms, pH, nitrates and nitrites and total bacteria,particularly if a water quality problem is suspected.

Many commercial laboratories offer water testingservices. Expected levels for common water quality testsare given in the following table.

You cannot expect maximum animal performance unlessthe needs for water quality and intake are fully satisfied.If water quality problems are suspected, yourveterinarian can recommend and interpret any tests thatmay be necessary.

Water problems can occur with wells and springs,especially when associated with poor environmentalmanagement. Often, septic tanks, feedlot waste andindustrial drainage may be involved.

Hard water or antibacterial water treatments usuallyhave no adverse effect on animals. High water levels ofsulphate and magnesium may cause diarrhoea andincrease dietary requirements for selenium, vitamin Eand copper. Water with high iron levels may alsoincrease the need for dietary copper.

Acidic Water

Water with a pH of less than 5.5 ( acidic ) may increaseproblems related to mild acidosis such as:

low daily gains

off-feed problems

more infectious and metabolic disease

increased infertility

increased animal culling

Alkaline Water

Alkaline water (pH greater than 8.5) may result inproblems related to mild alkalosis such as amino acidand B vitamin deficiencies and symptoms similar to mildacidosis. When animals are drinking alkaline water,rations high in alfalfa, buffers and minerals are morelikely to contribute to mild alkalosis.

High Mineral Water

Nitrate (NO3) levels over 100-150 parts per million maycause reproductive problems in adult cattle. Feedlotcattle will experience reduced growth rates. Generally,there is no significant effect of mildly elevated waternitrate levels on growth. Nitrite levels in water which areover 4 ppm may be toxic to cattle. Symptoms includeinfertility, reduced gains, respiratory distress andeventually death.

Other minerals which may cause problems include lead(over 10ppm may be toxic), magnesium (over 125ppm)and sulphate (over 250ppm) may be laxative.

Test Range Problem

pH 6.8-7.5 <5.5,>8.5

Dissolved solids (ppm) 500 or less >3 000

Total Alkalinity (ppm) 0-400 >5 000

Sulfate (ppm) 0-250 >2000

Fluoride )ppm) 0-1.2 >2.4

Calcium (ppm) 0-43 >500

Magnesium (ppm) 0-29 >125

Iron (ppm) 0-0.3 >0.3

Manganese (ppm) 0-0.05 >0.05

Copper (ppm) 0-0.6 0.6-1.0

Arsenic (ppm) 0.05 >0.2

Cadmium (ppm) 0-0.01 >0.05

Mercury (ppm) 0-0.005 >0.01

Lead (ppm) 0-005 >0.10

Nitrate as NO3 (ppm) 0-10 >100

Nitrate as NO2 (ppm) 0-0.1 >4-10.0

Barium (ppm) 0-1 >10

Zinc (ppm) 0-5 >25

Water quality standards table

HANDY HINT! Animals allowed to drink fromsurface water sources such as ponds and creeksare potentially at risk from bacteria and landrunoff containing pesticides. Often it is best tofence off these areas for better animal health.

QUALITY ASSURANCE

QUALITY ASSURANCE

What: Quality Assurance is a worldwide movement to ensure a

level of accountability for all products.

Why: Consumers need assurance that food products they buy are

of the highest possible standard.

How: 1. Understand why QA is necessary and how it can

benefit your feedlot.

2. Understand the process of becoming Quality Assured.

3. Know how to get started in the process.

What is Quality Assurance?

Quality is merely a matter of ensuring that what isexpected is delivered.

It is essential to understand "what is expected” beforeone can “ensure it is delivered".

Generally what is expected is more than most producersrealise. The solution here is to take the time (on an on-going basis) to find out what the customer really thinksand ensure it is understood throughout your operation.

If a product exhibits these characteristics as well asperforming the task for which it was designed to theextent promised, then quality has been supplied.

The second problem, "ensuring it is delivered", is farmore difficult to solve. To ensure that what is expected isdelivered requires that none of the features required arediscarded or altered, even though you may be reliant onother products to uphold standards.

To solve the problem it must be understood why thingsdo not turn out as expected and defects occur. Defectsnormally occur because of human mistakes. Whether it'sa fault of design or tardiness in application, generallysimilar problems have occurred before and areavoidable.

Problems occur because something was not done or wasdone incorrectly. Things are not done because no onehad the responsibility to do it or there was a lack ofknowledge, ability or attitude in those responsible.

Therefore, to ensure that what is expected is deliveredrequires:

All customer requirements to be fully understoodthroughout all processes.

All tasks throughout the process defined andresponsibilities allocated

THE WORLD WIDE move towards qualityassurance is in an effort to assure theconsumer that the product they are buyingis a quality article and to provide a vehiclefor continuous improvement in the feedlot.


What Quality Assurance is

ISO standards

Australian feedlot QA program

Examples of QA procedures for a feedlotQA manual

Disciplines are instituted and enforced throughformal documentation and monitoring.

The methods, standards and procedures of all tasksare formally documented and known

The level of competence is raised and matched tofuture skills required.

From the manager down, an attitude of dedication toquality and not expedience, is made.

Understanding your customers needs is critical to QA

Quality Assurance (QA) can be defined as the assurancethat a producer can give to the customer that theproducts or services being provided, are fit for thepurpose for which they are intended and that thisconformance will occur every time.

One of the principle rules of quality systems is that youmust understand your customer's needs and organizeyour business to satisfy their needs.

A basic QA program involves the documentation of yourexisting procedures for processes and the coordinationand documentation between these processes. Anyexisting, but segregated, quality programs or proceduresneed to be drawn together to provide a fully integratedprogram for the whole company.

This provides evidence of the quality managementsystem and that it is under control. It is not goodenough to say that you have control.

This assurance, or proof that quality exists, has becomethe most important marketing indicator used bypurchasers of goods, or services, throughout the world.

This aspect of feedlot management issometimes absent from Asian feedlotoperations. Its introduction delivers immediateand measurable benefits to the industry andto individual operators.

ISO Standards

So that both the supplier and purchaser of goods orservices have a realistic expectation of what is to besupplied and received, standards have been developedby the International Standards Organisation (ISO). Theyare administered in Australia by Standards Australia.

The common name for these are:

ISO 9001

ISO 9002

ISO 9003

These standards generally apply internationally to allparts of the service and manufacturing industry.

In Australia the National Feedlot Accreditation Schemeand the Cattlecare scheme are the industry related set ofstandards. These have been written in a specificlanguage for the feedlot and grazing industry. Thesestandards follow the same principle and format as theISO standards. The feedlot scheme is administered byAusMeat accredited abattoirs.

Australian Feedlot Quality Assurance

Australian feedlots have a QA system available that

allows them to market Quality Assured product intopremium markets. This program is third party industryaudited however, the development and adoption of theprocedures, based on industry standards, does impartconsiderable benefit to the feedlot operation.

The operational procedures are developed for eachfeedlot and an example of a procedures manual for anAustralian feedlot is given below. These procedures aresimple common sense. However, having such a manualin place and ensuring it is upgraded and adhered to willensure more efficient operation of the feedlot.

The procedures used deliver measurable benefits to thefeedlot operation and are designed to cover all aspectsof the feedlot operation. Even if you do not have aformal QA System, the adoption of these or similarprocedures will bring benefits to your operation.

The QA Procedures Manual

Initially this involves writing and maintaining your QAmanual and eventually gaining accreditation of a QAsystem. The manual written for you here covers all thepoints required by the code of practice and can be usedin running a full QA system.

Your manual will determine the practice you adopt to

Procedure Benefit

Purchase of cattle Buying the right cattle will ultimately determine the success of the operation.

Transport of cattle Caring for cattle in the transport phase avoids health problems later.

Cattle intake procedures Careful intake and inspection procedures improves health and production.

Daily handling and observation Consistent procedures identify and prevent problems.

Selection for sale procedures Careful live assessment of sale cattle will assist the feedlot meet buyerspecifications and increase profits.

Purchase of feed Careful planning of feed purchase specifications leads to better rations andimproved profits.

Storage of feed Proper feed storage procedures prevent spoilage and loss.

Ration preparation Well prepared diets mean maximum weight gains and least cost of gain.

Water supply A plentiful supply of clean water is vital to feedlot profits.

Chemicals Procedures to manage chemicals are vital to prevent residues.

Environment protection The industry must develop procedures to protect the environment to ensure thelong term viability of the industry.

Systems Management Systems management pays dividends by better prediction of quality andrecognition of problems.

ensure compliance with the Code of Practice and willdeliver the benefits of improved managementprocedures. If you find you need to change the manualto suit your working practice, then this can be done.You can also use the type manual as a base to writeyour own manual, change it as much and as often asyou like. You should keep copies of previous versions ofyour manual.

Procedure – Purchase of Cattle

1.Develop a set of buying specifications for each classof cattle required and keep these in a separate record.

2. Issue purchase specifications to purchasing officer.

3.Check all cattle against purchasing specifications oninduction at the feedlot.

4.Record all cattle in the cattle record.

5.Feedback provided on all out of specificationpurchases to buyers or vendors.

6.For cattle fed on behalf of others, apply the sameconditions as above.

Procedure – Transport of Cattle

1.Engage a reliable carrier who conforms to thetransport code of practice.

2.Specify pre-loading conditions in relation to cattlewatering and feeding required.

3.Specify loading density and special pre-loading or on-route checks required.

4.Ensure all documents arrive with the cattle and checkfor injury or illness and isolate affected stock fortreatment.

5.Make a visual inspection of the cattle on arrival.

6.Count the cattle on arrival, agree on the numberswith the transport company representative and signfor receipt of that number.

7.Record details in the cattle record.

Cattle Intake Procedures – Inspection of Cattle

1.Make a visual inspection of the cattle for any injury orillness and isolate affected stock for treatment.

2.Weigh all cattle and check against specifications as perthe market specifications list.


Cattle Intake Procedures – Identification of Cattle

1.Restrain animal.

2.Clean ear of contamination.

3.Attach identification tag in the ear, as required.


Cattle Intake Procedures – Vaccination of Cattle

1.Restrain animal.

2.Ensure all equipment is clean and operational, and aspare set is available.

3.Confirm the product is correct and complies withrequirements in relation to the expiry date.

4.Apply the vaccine according to the manufacturer'sinstructions.


Cattle Intake Procedures – Drenching of Cattle

1.Restrain animal.



4.Apply the drench according to the manufacturer'sinstructions.


Cattle Intake Procedures – HGP Treatment of Cattle

1.Restrain animal.



4.Apply the HGP according to the manufacturer'sinstructions.


Cattle Intake Procedures – Injection of cattle

1.Restrain animal.



4.Apply the injection according to the manufacturer'sinstructions or follow the advice of the vet.


Daily Handling and Observation – Care of Stock and Stock Facilities.

1.Check stock density is within guidelines and adequate to control dust and prevent excess moisture build-up.

2.Ensure shade is provided and that animal welfare inrelation to adequate staffing , health inspections,feeding management and yard management ensurecattle are healthy and contented.

3.Check pen troughs and facilities and repair or rectifyany damage or malfunction and clean water asrequired. Record any major repairs in the facilitymaintenance record.

4. Inspect pens and laneways for excess pollution andclean as necessary.

5.Monitor fly populations and take appropriate action to avoid excessive build up.

6.Monitor climatic extremes and take appropriateaction. Record these events in the environmental datarecord.

Daily Handling of Cattle.

1.Handle cattle quietly and avoid stress as much aspossible.

2.Ensure dogs and whips are not used and staff aretrained in the quiet handling of cattle.

3.Handle cattle during the quietest part of the daywherever possible.

4.Record handling events and movements of cattle inthe cattle record.

Daily Handling and Observation – Daily Observation of cattle.

1.Visually inspect all cattle for signs of injury or illness.

2.Check manure for signs of abnormality and ensure

staff are trained to judge variations in manure in termsof the animal’s well being.

3.Check feed intakes are within normal expectations.

4. Inspect cattle in hospital pens closely and confirmtreatments required.

5.Record any actions taken in the cattle record.

Daily Handling and Observation – Dealing with Sickness

1. Isolate and examine any sick cattle and hold in ahospital pen.

2.Ensure shade water and feed is provided and thatanimal welfare needs in relation to adequatetreatment are met.

3.Call the veterinarian to carry out diagnosis andtreatment when required.

4.Carry out all treatments required in a timely mannerand record in the cattle treatment book.

5.Note withholding periods and record these in thecattle record.

Cattle Assessment and Selection for Market

1.Select cattle to meet contract or market specificationas contained in the market specification list.

2.Ensure any special requirements as regards time onfeed or ration type are met.

3.Check all withholding periods are met and cross checkall tag numbers with the treatment record.


Transport Out - Care of Cattle Prior to Transport

1.Draft and weigh all cattle prior to expected loadingtime.

2.Ensure handling is minimised.

3.Ensure watering and feeding is as required prior totransport. Consider use of electrolytes to alleviatetransport stress.

4.Confirm time of loading and delivery time.

5.Make a visual inspection of the cattle prior todeparture for any injury or illness and isolate affectedstock for treatment.

6.Ensure all documents are accurately completed.

7.Engage a reliable carrier who conforms to thetransport code.

8.Ensure all yards, races and ramps are inspected forprotrusions prior to loading.

9.Specify loading density and special pre-loading or on-route checks required.

10.Count all cattle and agree with the transport company representative and record and sign the cattle delivery book.


12.Note pH of slaughtered cattle and review transport procedures if over 5.6.

Purchase of Feed

1.Check on the availability and basic specifications of allpotential feed ingredients and check these in the feedingredients file.

2.Write the specifications for each of the ingredientsthat will be used and list these in the feed ingredientsfile.

3.Ensure that all ingredients used are free from anycontamination and that all treatments or additions arespecified.

4.Request that all impurities be listed for all sources ofingredients.

5.Use all available methods, including contract forwardpurchase, to ensure that ingredient supplies areguaranteed for the period of feeding.

6.Use the rations file to determine forward requirementsof ingredients for the feedlot and plan the supplyaccordingly.

7.Ensure that ingredient sources are not contaminatedby any vegetable or chemical material that willadversely affect the running of the feedlot.

8.Record all ingredient purchases in the feed purchasesrecord.

Storage of Feed

1.Ensure that feedlot storage is sufficient to cater for thefeed requirements for feedlot operating at capacity.

2.Ensure that all on-farm storage has adequatemoisture, vermin and insect control.

3.Check that all farm storage conforms with QAprocedures for farm storage.

4.Ensure that all weather accessibility is maintained fortrucks delivering to store.

5.Check that all handling equipment has sufficientcapacity and is maintained according to themanufacturers specifications.

6.Prevent mixing of stored ingredients by providingseparate storage areas or sufficient separation that willensure non contamination.

7.Ensure that all equipment and work practices complywith safe working conditions.

Preparation of Rations - Processing at Feedmill

1.Ensure all plant is operational and maintainedaccording to manufacturers specifications.

2.Check that all safety equipment is in place.

3.Monitor the processing to ensure that the requiredproduct is being delivered into the feed mixingprocess.

Preparation of Rations - Feed Rations, Mixing

1.Ensure all ingredients are weighed into the mixeraccording to the ration specification and that thecorrect energy density is obtained.

2.Specify the mixing requirements for the ration in theration specification and ensure that theserequirements are met.

3.Record the amount of the ingredients actually used onthe ration mixing sheet and submit these to thefeedlot office on the feed mix record sheet, forinclusion in the feeding record.

4.Analyse rations as required by the nutritionist andrecord results in the feeding record.

Feeding of Cattle - Feeding at Feedmill and Feed Yards

1.Provide staff with the feed quantity and ration mixrequirements for each pen and ensure that this iscarried out.

2.Ensure the feed out machinery is operational andmaintained according to manufacturers specifications.

3.Confirm the mixing consistency by visual inspection.

4.Manage the feeding system so that fresh feed isavailable to the stock as required. Feed to suitweather conditions and cattle intake patterns.

Do NOT allow stale feed to accumulate. Note themanure and take corrective action as required.

5.Clean troughs as required.

6.Clean up all feed spillage's as required to prevent flyinfestation or odour build up.

7.Record all feed delivered to the cattle in the cattlefeeding record and ensure that cattle are fed for thespecified number of days.

Water Storage

1.Ensure that a secondary storage facility for water isavailable.

2.Calculate the quantity of water required in secondarystorage based on peak demand conditions for aperiod of not less than two days.

Water Supply

1.Ensure an adequate supply of water is available to runthe feedlot under peak demand conditions.

2.Calculate stock water requirements on the modelCode of Practice and adjust to suit local conditions.

3.Test water sources for water quality in relation tosalinity and other mineral content and record in thewater quality file. Use guidelines contained in themodel Code of Practice and adjust to local conditions.

4.Adjust feed rations in relation to salt content if thesalinity of the water requires it.

5.Ensure water sources are accessible to the feedlot.

6.Record analysis results in the water analysis record.

Water Use

1.Check the water troughs at least once daily forquantity and quality.

2.Remove contaminated water immediately and cleanthe troughs.

3.Clean the water troughs regularly as required but notless than every seven days.

4.Ensure cattle are not deprived of water for any lengthof time.

5.Record all interruptions of water supply or largevariations in water quality in the water supply record.

Chemical Purchase

1.Determine the requirements of all veterinary medicinesused in the intake procedure.

2.Determine the requirements of other chemicals used atthe feedlot on a needs basis.

3.Consult with the veterinarian for all prescription drugrequirements.

4.Secure the supplies of the required drugs andchemicals from a reputable distributor and ensure onlyapproved medicines are used.

5.Record all purchases in the chemical purchases record.

Chemical Storage

1.Store all medicines and chemicals correctly, accordingto manufacturers’ recommendations.

2.Make sure all medicines and chemicals are storedsecurely and under lock and key if necessary.

3.Keep out of reach of children, animals and any personnot authorised to handle the chemicals.

4.Pay special attention to those chemicals requiringrefrigeration or protection from light.

Contingency Planning – Failure of Feed Supply or Quality

1.Change to secondary feed storage/supply.

2. Investigate cause of supply interruption and correct.

3.Take samples of feed for quality analysis if indicated.

4.Switch to back-up mill and mixer if required.

5.Record the problems and outcome in the feed supplyrecord.

Contingency Planning – Outbreak of Disease

1. Isolate affected animals.

2.Contact the veterinarian if indicated.

3.Take samples and conduct tests as directed or asrequired so that an early and accurate diagnosis of theproblem is made.

4. Inform the relevant authorities if required.

5. Initiate timely treatment.

6.Record the problem and outcome in the animaltreatment record.

Contingency Planning – Extreme Weather Conditions

1.Appropriate rations to be fed during periods ofextreme heat, cold or pressure disturbance.

2.Move animals to shaded pens if required, or releasefrom the feedlot to safe grazing paddocks.

3.Maintain all weather access to feedlot so as not tohinder cattle movement, feeding or receipt ofcommodities.

4.Record weather extremes and actions in theappropriate feedlot records.

Contingency Planning – Emergency Slaughter of Cattle

1.The emergency slaughter of cattle is undertaken asnecessary.

2.Every effort must be made to ensure that the animaldoes not undergo undue pain or suffering.

3.Euthanasia must be carried out according to themodel Code of Practice.

4.Record all emergency slaughtering in the cattle deathsand disposals record.

Preparation of Chemicals

1.Read the label and ensure compliance andunderstanding, check the expiry dates andcommunicate to other persons involved in theprocedure.

2.Determine the safety requirements of the chemicalsused and ensure compliance.

3.Ensure all equipment associated with the use of thechemicals is in order and all special conditions are met.

Use of Chemicals

1.Recheck the label to ensure compliance andunderstanding, recheck the expiry dates andcommunicate to other persons involved in theprocedure.

2.Administer or apply the medicine or chemicalaccording to the manufacturer’s or veterinarian’sinstructions.

3.Note all withholding periods and record all stocktreatments in the cattle treatment record.

4.Record the use of other chemicals in the chemicals userecord.

Disposal of Chemicals

1.Check the label to ensure compliance andunderstanding of the disposal procedure.

2.Note any local authority regulations regarding disposaland comply.

3.Record all disposals of chemicals in the chemical userecord.

Waste Utilisation – Feed Spillage

1.Ensure all feed spillages are promptly cleaned andrecorded in the feedlot diary.

2.Dispose of waste feed into the compost pile.

Waste utilisation – Manure Management

1.Ensure pens are scraped as required to preventexcessive build-up (keep pack less than 100mm) andkeep cleaning records in the manure record.

2.Ensure the manure pad interface is maintained duringthe scraping operations.

3.Ensure the manure stockpile is maintained to minimiseenvironmental impact.

4.Dispose of manure on croplands with a minimumimpact on the community and incorporate the manureinto the soil as soon as practical.

5.Apply the manure using an accepted method ofapplication.

6.Take soil samples for analysis at least each 3 yearswhen continually spreading manure and record theresults in the soil analysis record.

Waste Utilisation

1.Ensure all ponds are regularly cleaned and have freeaccess for rainfall periods.

2.Dispose of effluent by irrigation or managed floodsystems.

3.Ensure runoff is contained within the property.

4.Ensure all drains are cleaned to carry rainfall flows andthat they do not accumulate water.

5.Record volumes of water disposal and dates in theeffluent disposal record.

Water Utilisation – Rubbish Disposal

1.Ensure all general rubbish is taken to a pit and buried.

2.Note special conditions applying to special categoriesof rubbish and recycle wherever possible.

Environment Protection – Land Protection

1.Ensure adequate land is available to receive solidmanures or cart off site.

2.Ensure soil types are suitable for the receipt of solidand liquid wastes by establishing sustainableagronomic regimes.

3.Monitor and record soil changes by analysis each 3 years.

Environmental Protection – Ground Water

1.The feedlot should not be sited above ground waterrecharge areas or underground water resources, unlessthese resources are protected from contamination.

2.Carry out ground water analysis every 24 months andrecord in the water analysis file.

Environmental Protection – Surface Water

1.Do not locate the feedlot in flood zones and protectthe feedlot from undue flooding.

2.Locate the feedlot so that there is a reasonable bufferbetween it and watercourses.

Environmental Protection – Community Amenity

1.Establish the feedlot in a position to protectcommunities from excessive odours and nuisance inaccordance with local authority requirements andregistration requirements.

2.Comply with registration requirements in relation tostocking densities, feedlot size and any specialrequirements designed to reduce nuisance.

3.Comply with any restrictions on transport routes orroad usage that may be applied.

4.React immediately to any event causing communitynuisance and record all events in the communityamenity record.

Management of the QA System

1.Ensure all documents relating to the QA system areaccessible to all staff and that those staff havingspecific responsibilities have copies of any materialdirectly related to them and the location and issuingof documents is recorded in the documents controlregister.

2.Update and amend QA procedures as appropriate andrecord in the QA manual.

3. Carry out internal audit and review each 4 monthsand record the audit and results in the managementreview file.

4. Training of Staff – Train new Staff and continuallyupdate existing Staff.

5. Ensure all staff are trained in those proceduresrelevant to their duties.

6. Communicate any changes to procedures as theyoccur and record the communication in the staffcorrespondence file.

7. Send staff to appropriate industry functions, havethem visit other feedlots if appropriate and recordattendances in the staff training record.

8. Ensure all staff are specifically trained inOccupational Health and Safety and provide safetymanuals where applicable and record this in the staffcorrespondence file.

9. Deal with any obvious non-conformity immediatelyand record this in the staff records.

10. Review all staff performances on an annual basis andrecord the results of the performance review in thestaff record.

Measure and Record – Calibration of Equipment

1.Ensure all measuring equipment is accurate and that itis maintained according to manufacturers’ instructionsand in good working order.

2.Make calibration checks on weighing equipment atleast monthly and record the results in the equipmentand facilities maintenance record.

Measure and Record – Feedlot Records

The following records will be kept by the feedlot:• Feedlot daily diary.• Cattle purchase specifications, market specifications.• Feed ingredient specifications list.• Rations specifications list.• Cattle transport record.• Cattle purchase report file.• Cattle record.• Feeding record.• Cattle treatment record.• Feed purchases record.• Chemical purchases & disposal record.• Cattle deaths & disposal record.• Water supply record.• Water analysis record.

• Soil analysis record.• Staff record for training and review.• Staff correspondence file.• Environmental data record.• Manure control record.• Effluent disposal record.• Equipment & facilities maintenance record.• Occupational Health & Safety Record.• Quality assurance document control register.• Quality assurance manual.• Management review file.• Manufacturers’ instructions file.• Community amenity record.• Standards & Codes of Practice.

Non-Conformity – Identification and Control

1. Identfy the non-conformity by checking the QArecords against specifications.

2. Isolate the non-conforming product or cattle fromthose that meet the specifications.

3.Assess the extent of the non-conformity and decidehow to correct it.

4.Notify the responsible person or persons of the non-conformity and advise them of the corrective course ofaction.

5.Record the non-conformity in the non-conforming andcorrective action record.

Non-Conformity – Prevention ofNon-Conforming Product

1. Investigate the cause of the non-conformity.

2.Develop new procedures to avoid the same non-conformity from occurring again.

3.Change all copies of the QA manual to include thenew procedures.

4. Inform all staff of the changes to the quality assurancesystem, make sure that they understand and confirmin writing and record in the staff correspondence file.

Contingency Planning – Failure of Water Supply or Quality

1.Change to emergency water storage/supply.

2. Investigate cause of supply interruption and correct.

3.Take samples of water for quality analysis if indicated.

4.Record the problems and outcome in the water supplyrecord.

Meat & Livestock Australia

Location

Level 1, 165 Walker Street,

North Sydney NSW 2060 Australia

Postal

Locked Bag 991,

North Sydney NSW 2059 Australia

Tel: +61 2 9463 9333

Fax: +61 2 9463 9393

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.mla.com.au

LiveCorp

Suite 202, 32 Walker Street

North Sydney NSW 2060

Tel: +61 2 9929 6755

Fax: 61 2 9929 6733

Email: [email protected]

Website: www.livecorp.com.au

The South-East Asian Feedlot Manual

is a Joint Livestock Export program initiative from MLA and LiveCorp

A joint Livestock Export program initiativeA joint Livestock Export program initiative

mla feedlot manual

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