ISBN 978-3-527-34294-5

www.wiley-vch.de

Hussain

•Mishra

(Eds.)

1

Nanotechnology

inEnvironm

ental Science

An overview of the current state of nanotechnology-based devices with applications in environmental science, focusing on nanomaterials and polymer nanocomposites.

This is the first ever handbook that covers almost all aspects of applications of nanotechnology in environmental sciences discipline.The handbook pays special attention to those nanotechnology-based approaches that promise easier, faster and cheaper processes in environmental monitoring and remediation. Furthermore, it presents up-to-date information on the economics, toxicity and regulations related to nanotechnology in detail. The book closes with a look at the role of nanotechnology for a green and sustainable future.

With its coverage of existing and soon-to-be-realized devices this is an indispen-sable reference for both academic and corporate R&D.

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, PhD is an Adjunct Professor, Academic Advisor and Lab Director in the Department of Chemistry & Environ-mental Science at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New Jersey, USA. His research is focused on the applications of Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials in Environment, Analytical Chemistry and Industry. Dr. Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals as well as a prolific author and editor of several scientific monographs and handbooks in his research areas.

Ajay Kumar Mishra (MSc, MPhil, PhD, FRSC) is Professor at the Nano-technology and Water Sustainability Research Unit at the College of Science, Engineering & Technology at the University of South Africa. He also holds an adjunct professorship at Jiangsu University, China. His research interests include the synthesis of multifunctional nano-materials, including polymers, carbon nanomaterials, composite materials and waste water research. Prof. Mishra has authored and edited numerous peer reviewed scientific international journal articles and books in this subject area.

Volume 1 of 2

Edited by Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain and Ajay Kumar Mishra

Nanotechnology in Environmental Science

Nanotechnology in EnvironmentalScience

Nanotechnology in EnvironmentalScience

Edited by Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain and Ajay Kumar Mishra

Editors

Prof. Chaudhery Mustansar HussainNJITDept. of Chemistry & EnvironmentalScienceNewark07102 New JerseyUnited States

Prof. Ajay Kumar MishraUniversity of JohannesburgDept. of Chemical TechnologyDoornfontein Campus2028 JohannesburgSouth Africa

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v

Contents

Preface xxi

Volume 1

Part One Introduction: Change in Perspective due toNanotechnology for Environmental Techniques andDevices 1

1 Nanomaterials for Environmental Science:A Recent and Future Perspective 3Sukanchan Palit and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain

1.1 Introduction 31.2 The Aim and Objective of the Study 31.2.1 The Need, the Rationale, and the Scope of the Study 41.3 Scientific Vision and Cognizance in the Field of Nanotechnology 41.4 Frontiers of Nanotechnology and the Vision for the Future 51.5 The Vision and Advancements in the Field of Nanotechnology 51.6 Recent Scientific Endeavor in the Field of Nanoscience and

Nanotechnology 61.7 The Status of Environment Today 71.8 Environmental Sustainability: Its Vision for the Future 81.9 Technological Vision and Scientific Objective in the Field of

Application of Nanomaterials 81.10 Recent Scientific Research Pursuit in the Field of Nanomaterials

and Its Applications 81.11 The Avenues Ahead in the Field of Nanotechnology

Applications 101.12 Scientific Cognizance and Scientific Sagacity of Environmental

Engineering 111.13 Nontraditional Environmental Engineering Techniques 111.13.1 Scientific Doctrine of Advanced Oxidation Processes 111.14 Future Trends and Scientific Doctrine of Novel Separation

Processes 13

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1.15 Recent Scientific Research Pursuits in Membrane Science 131.16 Future Trends in Research and Development in

Nanomaterials 151.17 Future Flow of Scientific Thoughts and the Scientific

Progress 151.18 Conclusions 16

References 16

2 Atomic-scale Study of Fullerene Molecules on SemiconductorSurfaces 19R.Z. Bakhtizin and A.I. Oreshkin

2.1 Introduction 192.2 STM Study of C60 Adsorption on Solid Surface 202.3 C60F18 on Si(111) 202.4 C60F18 on Si(100)-2× 1 282.5 C60F36 on Si(111)-7× 7 312.6 Conclusions 35

References 35

3 Recent Advances in Nanostructured Catalysts forVehicle Exhaust Gas Treatment 39Gennady Gerasimov and Michael Pogosbekian

3.1 Introduction 393.2 Diesel Oxidation Catalyst 403.3 Diesel Particulate Filter 423.4 Three-way Catalysts 483.5 Selective Catalytic Reduction 533.6 Lean NOx Traps 573.7 Conclusions 62

References 63

4 Analytical Applications of Nanoscale Materials for WaterTreatment: A Review 71Suvardhan Kanchi, Myalowenkosi I. Sabela, and Krishna Bisetty

4.1 Introduction 714.2 Significance of Nanotechnology for Wastewater Purification 724.3 Classification of Nanoadsorbents 744.3.1 Carbon Nanoadsorbents 744.3.2 Metal Nanoadsorbent 754.3.2.1 TiO2NPs 754.3.2.2 CeO2NPs 764.3.2.3 ZnONPs 774.3.2.4 Al2O3NPs 794.3.3 Metallic NPs 794.3.4 Magnetic NPs 794.3.5 Mixed Oxide NPs 814.3.6 Polymer Nanoadsorbents 82

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4.3.7 Nanofibers 834.3.8 Nanoclays 844.4 Analytical Applications 854.4.1 Nanomaterials for Inorganic Compound Analysis 854.4.1.1 Carbon Nanotubes for Inorganic Molecule Analysis 904.4.1.2 Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes for Inorganic Molecule

Analysis 904.4.1.2.1 Spectroscopic Applications of MWCNTs for Inorganic

Molecule Analysis Coupled with SPE Methodology 904.4.1.2.2 Electrochemical Applications of MWCNTs for Inorganic

Molecule Analysis 914.4.1.2.3 Electrochemical Applications of SWCNTs for Inorganic

Molecule Analysis 934.4.1.3 Application of NPs for Inorganic Molecule Analysis 934.4.1.4 Applications of Magnetite NPs (Fe3O4) for Analysis

of Inorganic Molecules 944.4.1.5 Application of Maghemite NPs (Fe2O3) for Analysis of

Inorganic Molecules 954.4.1.6 Applications of Metal Oxides for Analysis of Inorganic

Molecules 964.4.1.7 Applications of Magnetic NPs for Analysis of Inorganic

Molecules 974.4.1.8 Application of Nanofibers for Analysis of Inorganic

Molecules 974.4.2 Application of Nanomaterials for Analysis of Organic

Compounds in Wastewaters 984.4.2.1 MWCNTs Coupled to SPE for Organic Molecule Analysis

by Liquid Chromatography 984.4.2.1.1 MWCNTs Coupled to SPE for Organic Molecule Analysis

by Gas Chromatography 1004.4.2.2 MWCNT-modified Electrodes for Electrochemical Analysis of

Organic Molecules 1014.4.2.2.1 Graphene Nanocomposite-based Electrochemical Analysis of

Organic Compounds 1044.4.2.2.2 Carbon Nanofragment-based Electrochemical Analysis of Organic

Molecules 1044.4.2.3 Spectroscopic Applications of SWCNTs for Analysis of Organic

Molecules 1044.4.2.4 Metal-based Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Analysis of

Organic Molecules 1054.4.2.5 Metal-based Nanoparticles for Spectroscopy Analysis of Organic

Molecules 1084.5 Concluding Remarks and Prospects 109

Abbreviations 110Acknowledgment 112References 113

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Part Two Carbon Nanomaterials for Environmental Devices andTechniques 125

5 Carbon Nanomaterials-based Nanocomposite as EmergingField for Pollution Control 127Sapna and Dinesh Kumar

5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Carbon Nanotubes 1285.3 CNT Sensors 1295.4 Graphene 1305.4.1 Applications 1355.4.2 Air Pollution 1385.5 Fullerene 140

Acknowledgment 141References 141

6 Nanocarbons in Agricultural Plants: Can be a PotentialNanofertilizer? 153Anupriya Singh, Anshu Bhati, Gunture, Kumud Malika Tripathi,and Sumit Kumar Sonkar

6.1 Introduction 1536.2 Organic Carbon-based Fertilizer as “Biochar” 1556.2.1 Effects of Biochar on Soil Fertility 1556.2.2 Effects of Biochar on Plant Growth 1666.3 Nanocarbons in Plant Growth 1696.3.1 Positive Impacts of Nanocarbons on Plant Growth 1696.3.1.1 Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes 1696.3.1.2 Single-walled Carbon Nanotubes 1746.3.1.3 Water-soluble Carbon Nanotubes 1766.3.1.4 Cup-stacked Carbon Nanotubes 1786.3.1.5 Fullerenes 1786.3.1.6 Water-soluble Carbon Nanoonions and Carbon Dots 1786.3.2 Negative Effects of Nanocarbons on Plant Growth 1796.4 Conclusions 180

Acknowledgments 181References 181

Adsorptive Removal of Antibiotics onto Graphene–Soy ProteinAerogel Composites from Aqeous Solution 191Fei Yu, Yong Li, and Jie Ma

7.1 Introduction 1917.2 Experiment 1927.2.1 Materials 1927.2.2 Preparation of Graphene–Soy Protein Aerogels 1927.2.3 Characterization 1927.2.4 Batch Sorption Experiments 1937.3 Results and Discussion 194

7

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7.3.1 Adsorption Isotherm 2007.3.2 Adsorption Kinetics of Tetracycline 2027.3.3 Influence of pH on Tetracycline Adsorption 2047.3.4 FTIR Analysis of Aerogel Before and After

Adsorption 2047.4 Conclusions 205

References 205

Part Three Functionalized Nanomaterial for EnvironmentalTechniques 209

8 Photocatalysis: Activity of Nanomaterials 211Tetiana Tatarchuk, Amalthi Peter, Basma Al-Najar, Judith Vijaya,and Mohamed Bououdina

8.1 Nanomaterials for Photocatalysis 2118.2 Mechanism of Photocatalysis 2128.2.1 Enhancement of Irradiation Absorption 2168.2.2 Factors Affecting Photocatalytic Procedure 2198.3 Synthesis of Photocatalytic Materials 2208.3.1 Hydrothermal Method 2218.3.1.1 Titanium-based Photocatalyst 2218.3.1.2 Silver-based Photocatalysts 2228.3.1.3 ZnO-based Photocatalyst 2248.3.2 Sol–Gel Processing 2258.3.2.1 Titanium-based Materials 2258.3.2.2 Aluminum-based Materials 2278.3.2.3 Synthesis of Ferrite 2288.3.3 Microwave Method 2298.3.3.1 Graphene-based Materials 2298.3.3.2 Zinc-based Materials 2318.3.3.3 Titanium-based Materials 2318.3.4 Coprecipitation Method of Synthesis 2328.3.4.1 Silver-based Catalyst 2338.3.4.2 Zinc-based Catalyst 2338.3.4.3 Ferrite Catalysts 2348.3.4.4 Titanium-based Catalysts 2348.3.5 Solvothermal Synthesis of Photocatalytic Materials 2358.3.5.1 Copper-based Materials 2368.3.5.2 Titania-based Catalyst 2378.4 Phase Transition and Microstructure of Photocatalytic

Materials 2378.4.1 Formation and Analysis of Titania Phases 2388.4.2 Anatase to Rutile Transformation 2398.4.3 Morphological Effects 2398.4.4 Phase Transition Studies of Orthorhombic Bi5O7I Spherical

Microstructures 240

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8.4.5 Phase Transition Studies of Bicrystalline Cr-TiO2

Nanoparticles 2418.4.6 Phase Transition Studies of N, S, and C Co-Doped TiO2

Nanomaterials 2438.5 Optical and Magnetic Properties 2448.5.1 MeNPs–Semiconductor Hybrid Heterostructures 2458.5.1.1 Au–ZnO Hybrid Photocatalysts 2458.5.1.2 Ag–ZnO Hybrid Photocatalysts 2468.5.1.3 Pt–ZnO Hybrid Photocatalysts 2478.5.1.4 Me–TiO2 Hybrid Photocatalysts 2498.5.2 Magnetic Hybrid Photocatalysts 2508.5.2.1 Binary Heterostructures 2508.5.2.2 Ternary Heterostructures 2528.5.2.2.1 Fe3O4-based Photocatalysts 2528.5.2.2.2 Ag3PO4-based Photocatalysts 2548.5.2.2.3 g-C3N4-based Photocatalysts 2558.5.2.2.4 BiOX-based Photocatalysts 2568.6 Photocatalytic Activity 2578.6.1 Photocatalyst for Water Decomposition 2578.6.2 Photocatalyst for Dye Degradation 2598.6.2.1 Methylene Blue 2598.6.2.2 Methyl Orange 2628.6.2.3 Rhodamine B 2628.6.3 Photocatalyst for Pharmaceutical Drugs Degradation 2638.6.4 Photocatalyst for Reduction of Heavy Metal Ions 2678.6.5 Photocatalysts for CO2 Reduction 267

References 269

9 Functionally Active Nanomaterials for EnvironmentalRemediation 293Sangeeta Adhikari, N. Krishna Rao Eswar, Ajay Kumar Mishra,Debasish Sarkar, and Giridhar Madras

9.1 Introduction 2939.2 Concept of Integral Environmental Pollutants 2949.3 Purpose of Functionally Active Nanomaterials 2949.4 Functionally Active Nanomaterials 2959.5 Potential Methods for Environmental Remediation 2959.5.1 Adsorption and Membrane Separation 2969.5.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes 2969.5.3 Disinfection Using Nanomaterials 2979.5.4 Sensing and Monitoring Methods 2989.6 Functionally Active Nanomaterials for Remediation of

Environmental Pollutants 2989.6.1 Carbon Nanomaterials and Its Composite 2989.6.2 Metal Nanoparticles 3019.6.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 3039.6.4 Nanocomposites and Other Nanomaterials 306

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9.7 Conclusions and Future Directions 308References 308

10 Functionalized Nanomaterial for Environmental Techniques 315Maher Darwish and Ali Mohammadi

10.1 Introduction 31510.2 Nanomaterial-based Environmental Techniques 31610.2.1 Nanoadsorption 31610.2.2 Membranes and Membrane Processes 31610.2.3 Nanophotocatalysis 31610.2.4 Nanosensing 31710.3 Limitations of Nanomaterials Used for Environmental

Techniques 31710.4 Methods of Nanomaterials’ Functionalization 31710.4.1 Direct Functionalization (Cocondensation and In Situ) 31810.4.2 Postsynthetic Functionalization (Grafting) 31810.4.3 Polymers in Functionalization 31910.4.3.1 Grafting To 31910.4.3.2 Grafting From 31910.4.3.3 Grafting Through 31910.5 Nanomaterial–Functional Groups Bonding Types 31910.5.1 Functionalization by a Noncovalent Bond (Physisorption

Process) 31910.5.2 Functionalization by a Covalent Bond (Chemisorption Process) 32010.6 Functionalization and Applications of Silica-based

Nanomaterials 32010.6.1 Functionalization Methods 32110.6.2 Applications of Functionalized Silica-based Nanomaterial 32210.6.2.1 Adsorption of Transition and Heavy Metal Ions 32210.6.2.2 Adsorption of Organic Compounds 32310.6.2.3 CO2 Capturing 32310.6.2.4 Catalysis 32310.7 Functionalization and Applications of Carbonaceous

Nanomaterials 32410.7.1 CNM’s Functionalization Methods 32410.7.1.1 Covalent Functionalization 32410.7.1.1.1 Surface Oxidation 32410.7.1.1.2 Doping Heteroatoms 32510.7.1.1.3 Alkali Activation 32510.7.1.1.4 Sulfonation 32510.7.1.1.5 Grafting 32510.7.1.2 Noncovalent Functionalization of CNTs 32610.7.1.3 Polymer Coating 32610.7.1.4 Inorganic Functionalization 32710.7.2 Applications of Functionalized CNMs 32710.7.2.1 Removal of Metal Ions and Organic Contaminants 32710.7.2.2 Sensing and Monitoring 328

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10.7.2.3 Catalysts Support 32810.7.2.4 Membrane-based Separation 33110.8 Functionalization and Applications of Metal and Metal

Compound Nanomaterials 33210.8.1 Functionalization of the Nanoparticles 33210.8.2 Applications of Functionalized Metals and Metal Compounds 33410.8.2.1 Adsorption 33410.8.2.2 Photocatalysis 33510.8.2.3 Sensing and Monitoring 33510.9 Conclusions 336

References 336

Part Four Nanoseparation Devices for Environment 351

11 Comprehensive Treatment of Industrial Wastewater withMembrane Separation Technology: From HybridProcess to Novel Devices 353Xiaobin Jiang, Gaohong He, Jianchao Cai, Wu Xiao, Xiangcun Li,Xuemei Wu, and Xuehua Ruan

11.1 Introduction 35311.2 Membrane and Membrane Process for Industrial Wastewater

Treatment 35411.2.1 Principle of Membrane 35411.2.1.1 Membrane Material 35511.2.1.2 Membrane Characteristic 35511.2.1.3 Membrane Module 35611.2.2 Membrane Process 35611.2.2.1 Pressure-driven Membrane Processes 35811.2.2.2 Other Membrane Processes 36011.3 Applications of Membrane Process for Wastewater Treatment

and Comprehensive Recovery 36611.3.1 Inorganic Industrial Wastewater 36711.3.2 Organic Wastewater 36911.3.2.1 Textile Wastewater 36911.3.2.2 Oily Wastewater 37111.3.2.3 Coking Wastewater 37211.3.3 Radioactive Wastewater 37311.4 Novel Devices for Process Intensification and Fouling Control 37411.4.1 Novel Devices for Wastewater Treatment 37411.4.2 Membrane Fouling and Control 37511.4.2.1 Membrane Fouling 37511.4.2.2 Membrane Fouling Control 37711.4.2.3 Membrane Cleaning 37811.5 Conclusions and Perspective 380

Acknowledgments 381References 381

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12 A Review on the Advancements of Nanomembranes forWater Treatment 391Lavanya Madhura and Shalini Singh

12.1 Introduction 39112.1.1 History of Membrane Filtration 39212.1.2 Fundamentals of Membrane Process 39512.2 Separation Mechanisms in Nanofiltration 39512.2.1 Characterization of Nanofiltration Membranes 39612.3 Fabrication and Modification of Nanofiltration Membrane 39612.3.1 Interfacial Polymerization 39712.3.2 Incorporation of Nanomaterials 39812.4 Application to Water Treatment 40012.4.1 Ground/Surface/Wastewaters for Organic and Inorganic Pollutants 40012.5 Fouling 40412.5.1 Mechanism of Fouling 40412.5.2 Types of Membrane Fouling 40512.5.2.1 Inorganic Fouling 40512.5.2.2 Particulate Fouling 40512.5.2.3 Microbial Fouling 40512.5.2.4 Organic Fouling 40512.5.2.5 Prevention of Fouling 40612.6 Conclusions 406

Acknowledgment 407References 407

13 Manipulating Grouping Dynamics of Nanoscale BoronParticles as Basis for Environmentally FriendlierCombustion and Efficient Filtration 413David Katoshevski and Levan Chkhartishvili

13.1 Boron Particles and Powders: A Review 41313.1.1 Introduction 41313.1.2 Boron Powders 41513.1.3 Combustion Mechanisms 41813.1.4 Combustion Models 42113.2 Clustering of Particles in Oscillating Flow: From the Nanometric to

the Hundred-micrometer Size Range 42213.2.1 Introduction 42213.2.2 Mathematical Model 42413.2.3 Results 42613.2.3.1 Grouping of Nanoparticles 42713.2.3.2 Brownian and Drag-induced Particle Velocities 42713.2.3.3 Time for Attachment 42913.2.3.3.1 Attachment Tendency of 0.005–1 μm Size-range

(St= 6 � 10�7�3 � 10�3) 43013.2.3.3.2 Attachment Tendency of 1–30 μm Size-range

(St= 3 � 10�3–2.6) 43113.2.3.3.3 Attachment Tendency of Particles of Above 30 μm (St> 2.6) 433

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13.2.3.4 Time for Attachment with Particles of Different Sizes 43313.2.4 Summary of Results 43313.2.5 Conclusions 434

Acknowledgments 435References 435

Volume 2

Part Five Nano-Lab on Chip for Environment 443

14 Nanosensor in Gas Monitoring: A Review 445Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli and Samira Bagheri

14.1 Introduction 44514.2 Sensing Technologies in Petroleum Industries 44614.3 Nanosensor Technology 44714.3.1 Nanomaterials 44814.3.1.1 Metal Oxide 44814.3.1.1.1 ln2O3 45014.3.1.1.2 TiO2 45014.3.1.1.3 ZnO 45214.3.1.1.4 SnO2 45214.3.1.1.5 Fe3O4 45414.3.1.1.6 CdO 45414.3.1.1.7 WO3 45414.3.1.1.8 Co3O4 45414.3.1.2 Glassy Carbon Electrode 45514.3.1.2.1 CNT Electrode 45614.3.1.2.2 Graphene/graphene Oxide Electrode 45614.3.2 Properties of Nanosensor Technology 46114.4 Conclusions 461

Acknowledgment 461References 462

15 Plasmonic Nanomaterials for SERS Detection of EnvironmentalPollutants 473Mengke Su and Honglin Liu

15.1 Introduction 47315.2 About SERS 47515.2.1 Electromagnetic Enhancement 47615.2.2 Chemical Enhancement 47615.3 Environmental Pollution and SERS Detection 47815.4 Plasmonic Materials for Raman Enhancement 48115.4.1 SERS Hot Spot 48215.4.2 Development Trend of SERS Hot Spot Structures 48315.4.2.1 Zero-dimensional Structure 485

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15.4.2.2 One-dimensional Structure 48615.4.2.3 Two-dimensional Structure 48815.4.2.4 Three-dimensional Structure 48915.4.2.4.1 Array Structure 49115.4.2.4.2 Aggregate Structure 49515.5 Future Perspective 499

References 501

Part Six Bionanomaterial-based Devices for Environment 515

16 Bionanomaterials as Emerging Sensors in EnvironmentalManagement 517Deepali Sharma, Suvardhan Kanchi, and Myalowenkosi Sabela

16.1 Introduction 51716.1.1 Bionanomaterials 51916.1.1.1 Metal Bionanomaterials 52016.1.1.2 Metal Oxide Bionanomaterials 52216.2 Electrochemical Sensors 52316.2.1 Colorimetric Sensor for Metal Detection 52316.3 Applications 52416.3.1 Sensors for Heavy Metals 52516.3.2 Sensors for Pesticides 53016.3.3 Sensors for Gases 53216.4 Conclusions 535

References 536

17 Role of Bionanomaterial-based Devices in Water Detoxification 543Priyanka Joshi and Dinesh Kumar

17.1 Introduction 54317.2 Classical Approaches of Metals 54417.3 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles 54517.3.1 Synthesis by Plants 54617.3.2 Synthesis by Microorganisms 54617.3.3 Synthesis by Biomolecules 54817.4 Characterization Techniques 55017.5 Wastewater Remediation 55017.5.1 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions 55017.5.2 Detection of Aromatic Compounds 55517.5.3 Detection of Inorganic Pollutants 55617.5.4 Detection of Organophosphates 55717.5.5 Detection of Toxins 55817.5.6 Detection of Dyes 55817.6 Future Perspectives of Green Synthesized Nanoparticles 55917.7 Conclusions 560

Acknowledgment 560References 561

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18 Nanocellulose as Promising Material for EnvironmentalApplications 579M. Laura Soriano and Celia Ruiz-Palomero

18.1 Introduction 57918.2 Analytical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 58018.3 Connection of Analytical and Environmental Sciences 58118.4 Nanocellulose 58218.5 Different Formats of Nanocellulose-based Sorptive

Microextraction 58418.5.1 Industrial Effluents and Contaminated Waters 58418.5.2 Direct Air Capture or Gas Permeation 59018.6 Nanocellulose as Sensor of Contaminants 59118.7 Promoting Crystallization in Gel Media 59218.8 Conclusions 592

References 593

19 Functionalized Nanomaterials for Pollution Abatement 599Himani Medhi and Krishna G. Bhattacharyya

19.1 Introduction 59919.2 Preparation of Functionalized Nanomaterials 60219.2.1 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 60219.2.2 Functionalized Graphene and Graphene Oxide 60719.2.3 Functionalized LDHs 60919.3 Application of Functionalized Nanomaterials in Pollution

Abatement 61319.3.1 Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes 61319.3.2 Functionalized Graphene 62119.3.3 Future Outlook for Use of Functionalized Nanomaterials in Pollution

Abatement 62919.4 Conclusions 630

References 631

20 Biopolymers: A Natural Support for Photocatalysts Applied toPollution Remediation 649Diseko Boikanyo, Ajay Kumar Mishra, Shivani B. Mishra,and Sabelo D. Mhlanga

20.1 Introduction 64920.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Methods 64920.1.2 Photocatalysis in Wastewater Treatment 65220.2 Biopolymers: Introduction and Definition of Terms 65420.3 Immobilization of Photocatalysts on Supports 65820.3.1 The Necessity for Immobilization 65820.3.2 Features of an Immobilizing Support 66020.3.3 Approaches Used for Immobilization of the Photocatalyst 66120.4 Survey of Biopolymer-supported Photocatalysts for Pollution

Remediation 66220.4.1 Biopolymers as Immobilization Supports 662

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20.4.2 Removal of Azo Dyes 66320.4.3 Removal of Phenolic Compounds 66920.4.4 Removal of Natural Organic Matter 67420.5 Conclusions 676

Ackowledgments 677References 677

21 Bioinspired Nanocomposites for Adsorptive and Photo-assistedDecontamination of Wastewater 685Akeem Adeyemi Oladipo

21.1 Introduction 68521.2 Composite and Nanocomposite Materials 68721.2.1 Polymer-based Nanocomposites 68821.2.2 Nonpolymer-based Nanocomposites 69121.3 Bioinspired Nanocomposite Materials 69221.3.1 Magnetically Responsive Bioinspired Nanocomposite 69421.3.2 Photosensitive Bioinspired Nanocomposite Materials 69621.4 Environmental Application of Bioinspired Nanocomposites 69721.4.1 Decontamination via Adsorptive Application of Bioinspired

Nanocomposites 69821.4.2 Decontamination via Photocatalytic Application of Bioinspired

Nanocomposites 70221.5 Summary and Prospects 705

Acknowledgment 706References 706

Part Seven Toxicity, Economy, Legalization of Nanotechnology 711

22 Economic Aspects of Functionalized Nanomaterials forEnvironment 713John Judith Vijaya, Thambidurai Adinaveen, and Mohamed Bououdina

22.1 Introduction 71322.2 Carbon Nanomaterials for Environmental Devices and

Techniques 71722.3 Functionalized Nanomaterials for Environmental Techniques 72122.4 Nanoseparation Device for Environment 72322.5 Magnetic Nanomaterials for Environment 72422.6 Bionanomaterial-based Devices for Environment 72622.7 Nano-lab on a Chip for Environment 72722.7.1 Microfluidic pH Analysis 72722.7.2 Seawater Nitrate and Nitrite Analysis 72822.7.3 Detection of Other Chemicals in Seawater 72822.8 Toxicity, Economy, and Legalization of Nanotechnology 72922.9 Nanotechnology: A Green and Sustainable Vision 73022.10 Conclusions 732

References 732

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23 Engineered Nanoparticles’ Toxicity: Environmental Aspects 737Neetu Talreja and Dinesh Kumar

23.1 Introduction 73723.2 Distribution of Nanoparticles Based on Composition 73823.2.1 Metal-based Nanomaterials 73823.2.2 Carbon-based Nanomaterials 73823.2.3 Hybrid Nanomaterials 73923.3 Common Methods of Engineering of Nanoparticles 73923.3.1 Gas Condensation 73923.3.2 Chemical Precipitation 73923.3.3 Sol–Gel Techniques 74023.3.4 Electrodeposition 74023.3.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition 74023.4 Toxicity Based on Physicochemical Properties of NPs 74123.4.1 Size 74123.4.2 Surface Area 74123.4.3 Surface Electrostatic Status 74223.4.4 Morphology 74223.4.5 Agglomeration Status 74223.5 Toxicity of Some Widely Used ENPs to Environmental

Organisms 74223.5.1 Toxicity of Metal Nanoparticles 74323.5.2 Toxicity of Polymeric Nanoparticles 74523.6 Effect of ENP Toxicity on Plants 74523.7 Effect of ENP Toxicity on Humans 74723.8 Metal Toxicity Mechanism 74823.8.1 Microbial Cells 74823.8.2 Other Cells 74923.9 Conclusions and Future Perspective 750

Acknowledgment 751References 751

Part Eight Nanotechnology: A Green and Sustainable Vision 759

24 Nanotechnology: Key for Sustainable Future 761Amit Kumar, Susmita Dey Sadhu, and Rajeev Singh

24.1 Introduction 76124.2 History 76224.3 Methods of Preparation 76224.3.1 Physical Routes/Top-down Approaches 76324.3.1.1 Inert Gas Condensation 76324.3.1.2 Arc Discharge 76424.3.1.3 High-energy Ball Milling 76524.3.1.4 Laser Ablation 76624.3.2 Chemical Routes/Bottom-up Approaches 76724.3.2.1 Micelles and Microemulsions 767

xixContents

24.3.2.2 Sol–Gel Synthesis 76824.3.2.2.1 Steps Involved in Sol–Gel 76824.3.2.3 Solvothermal Synthesis 76924.3.2.3.1 Chemical Factors 76924.3.2.3.2 Thermodynamical Factors 77024.3.2.4 Sonochemical Route 77024.4 Application of Nanotechnology for Sustainable Future 77124.4.1 Agriculture 77124.4.1.1 Nanomaterials for Increasing Productivity 77124.4.1.2 Nanomaterials for Plant Growth 77224.4.1.3 Nanomaterials for Improving the Water Holding Capacity

of Soil 77224.4.1.4 Nanomaterials in Pesticides 77324.4.1.5 Nanomaterials as Sensors 77324.4.2 Energy 77424.4.2.1 Solar Economy 77424.4.2.1.1 Solar Energy in Photovoltaic Technology 77424.4.2.1.2 Solar Energy for Hydrogen Production: Artificial

Photosynthesis 77524.4.2.2 Hydrogen Economy 77524.4.2.2.1 Hydrogen Production 77524.4.2.2.2 Hydrogen Storage 77624.4.2.2.3 Hydrogen Conversion 77624.4.2.3 Sustainable Electricity Storage 77624.4.2.3.1 Batteries 77624.4.2.3.2 Supercapacitors 77724.4.3 Water Pollution Treatment 77724.4.3.1 Nanoparticles for Remediation 77824.4.3.2 Nanoparticles for Water Disinfection 77824.4.3.3 Nanoparticles for Water Purification 77924.4.3.4 Nanoparticles as Sensors and Detectors 77924.4.4 Food Packaging 78024.4.4.1 Food Processing 78024.4.4.2 Food Packaging 78124.4.4.3 Barrier Protection 78124.4.4.4 Antimicrobial Packaging 78124.4.4.5 Nanofibres and Nanoclays 78124.4.4.6 Smart Packaging 78124.4.4.7 Nanolaminates 78224.4.5 Drug Delivery 78224.4.5.1 Liposomes 78324.4.5.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles 78424.4.5.3 Nanoparticles Based on Solid Lipids 78424.4.5.4 Carbon Nanomaterials 78524.4.5.5 Magnetic Nanoparticles 78524.4.5.6 Silica Materials 78624.4.5.7 Dendrimer Nanocarrier 787

xx Contents

24.4.6 Paint and Coating 78824.4.7 Cosmetics 790

References 792

25 Nanotechnology: Greener Approach for SustainableEnvironment 805Ambika and Pradeep Pratap Singh

25.1 Introduction 80525.2 Classification of Nanomaterials 80625.2.1 Dendrimers 80625.2.2 Liposomes 80625.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes and Fullerenes 80725.2.4 Quantum Dots 80725.3 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 80725.3.1 Conventional Approach for the Production of Nanoparticles 80725.3.1.1 Top-down (Physical Method) 80825.3.1.2 Bottom-up (Chemical Method) 80825.3.2 Green Approach for the Synthesis of Nanoparticles 80825.3.2.1 Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Bacteria 80825.3.2.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Fungi 80925.3.2.3 Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Plants 81025.4 Applications of Green Nanotechnology 81125.4.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment 81125.4.1.1 Nanofibers 81125.4.1.2 Nanomembranes 81225.4.1.3 Metal Nanoparticles 81225.4.1.4 Nanoclays 81325.4.2 Nanotechnology for Renewable Energy 81325.4.2.1 Dye-sensitized Solar Cells 81325.4.2.2 Quantum Dots in Renewable Energy Sources 81325.4.2.3 Fuel Cell 81425.4.2.4 Hydrogen Gas 81425.4.3 Nanomaterials for Construction Industry 81525.4.4 Other Nanoenhanced Green Applications 81525.5 Prospects 81525.6 Conclusions 816

References 816

Conclusions 825Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain and Ajay Kumar Mishra

Index 829

xxi

Preface

The use of nanotechnology in the environmental science discipline has becomeincreasingly important in addressing vital global needs in the twenty-first centuryfor reliable, sustainable, and efficient access to clean energy, water, and naturalresources. It offers opportunities for the development of new technologies toproduce new products, to substitute existing production equipment, and toreformulate new materials and chemicals with improved performance resultingin less consumption of energy and materials, reduced harm to the environment,and environmental remediation. Nanotechnology presents an opportunity todevelop a new technology, and a new industry in a sustainable way from theoutset. However, taking advantage of this new technology for health, environ­mental, and sustainability benefits, science needs to examine the environmentaland health implications.

Technology at nanoscale has inspired the progress and use of novel and cost-effective techniques for catalytic degradation, adsorptive removal, and detectionof pollutants in environment. Nanomaterials are the new avenues of modernscientific innovation and deep scientific reflection. Nanomaterials are employedin diverse fields such as electronics and photonics, catalysis, information storage,chemical sensing and imaging, drug delivery, and biological labeling. Also, thesenanomaterials have been applied successfully for modern environmental devicesand techniques both at research and industrial scale and show great promisetoward next generation of advanced materials and have received increasingattention among researchers, scientists, and the industry. As a result, environ­mental science arena is invariably in today’s world linked with research anddevelopment initiatives in nanotechnology.

Nanomaterials are nanosized structures and have extraordinary physical andchemical properties, such as the unique optical, electrical, thermal, and adsorp­tion characteristics, due to their ultrasmall size. Large specific surface areas ofnanomaterials can improve the detection sensitivity and miniaturize the devicesin analytical procedures. Also, these nanomaterials of various compositions andmorphologies can provide powerful tools for the environmental devices andtechniques. Therefore, these nanomaterial-based devices and techniques can playvital roles in environmental science and technology. Moreover, freedom tofunctionalize these nanomaterials with various chemical groups can also increasetheir affinity toward target compounds, which is very much desirable for selective

xxii Preface

detection of target analytes in environmental complex matrices. However, tilltoday the advanced comprehensive understanding and real-world applications ofthese nanomaterials in environmental field is still far off. This book summarizesthe recent progresses of environmental techniques and devices using differenttypes of nanomaterials at both experimental and theoretical model scales. Specialattention is paid to those approaches that tend to be green and eco-friendly. In theend, the research trends and future prerspectives are also briefly discussed.

This book provides a wide-ranging exploration on the ongoing research anddevelopment events in environmental science by nanotechnology. A collectiveknowledge into viewpoint with traces of reality to envisage new ideas, the book isdivided into several parts. Part One discusses the change in perspective due tonanotechnology for environmental techniques and devices. Part Two comprisessolely of carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) for environmental devices and tech­niques. Part Three is all about recent developments in various functionalizednanomaterials for environmental techniques. Part Four describes new trends likenanoseparation devices for environmental techniques. Moving on with moderntrend the subsequent part elaborates on to a greater extent the nanoscale lab onchip and nano surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for environmentalapplications. Discussions on biobased nanomaterials, another promising direc­tion of nanotechnology in environmental devices, are compiled in the next part.Then, future perspectives of nanotechnology as anticipated for the modernsociety, where toxicity and economy are important aspects for green andsustainable environment, are described. In the end, some concluding observationsabout the whole book are made. The selections of these topics are based on mostrecent research, teaching, and practical experience of editors and the philosophythat environmental techniques and devices are moving toward their futuregeneration. The top class contributors are selected from across the world. Thediversity of authors for each chapter and their disciplinary backgrounds reveal theinterdisciplinary emphasis of this book. Due to multidisciplinary nature of topics,the reader can have entire knowledge in a single book.

We anticipate that this book will make noteworthy appeal to scientists andresearchers working on the issues surrounding real-time applications of nano­technology for environmental sciences. The expected audiences are environ­mentalists, scientists, researchers, consultants, regulators, and engineers.Moreover, advanced undergraduate and graduate students can find this booka source of up-to-date knowledge and guidelines for their studies. Overall, thisbook is planned to be a reference book for researchers and scientists who aresearching for new and advanced materials, techniques, and devices in environ­mental sciences. The editors and contributors are among the world’s high rankedscientists and researchers in academia and industry in their subject areas. Onbehalf of Wiley-VCH, we are very grateful to all contributors for their distinctivehard work in the making of this book. Special thanks to Dr. Martin Preuss,Executive Commissioning Editor, at Wiley-VCH, for support during this project.

Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain and Ajay Kumar Mishra(Editors)

Part One

Introduction: Change in Perspectivedue to Nanotechnologyfor EnvironmentalTechniques and Devices

3

1

Nanomaterials for Environmental Science:A Recent and Future PerspectiveSukanchan Palit1 and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain2

1University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Department of Chemical Engineering,Energy Acres, Post-Office-Bidholi via Premnagar, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India2New Jersey Institute of Technology, Department of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences,University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA

1.1 Introduction

Chemical process engineering, environmental science, and materials science aremoving toward newer challenges. Destruction of environment and loss ofbiodiversity have worried the scientific community to gear their efforts towardfinding innovative technologies. This treatise, with cogent insight, discusseslucidly the application of nanomaterials in environmental protection. The visionand the challenge of human scientific endeavor are wide and versatile. Thesuccess of human civilization today stands amid a deep scientific introspection.Man’s immense prowess, mankind’s scientific rigor, and the civilization’s urge forscientific progress will go a long way in true emancipation of environmentalscience. The immense potential of nanotechnology is elucidated in detail in thiswell-informed treatise. The success, the immense scientific and academic rigor,and the futuristic vision of environmental science are the torchbearers of a newervisionary era of science and engineering. In this treatise, the authors pointedlyfocus on the application of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in environmentalengineering science. Chemical process engineering and materials engineering areconnected like an umbilical cord to environmental engineering and its challenges.The scientific sagacity and deep scientific understanding in the application ofnanomaterials in environmental protection are ushering in a new era. The authorsof this book focus on the application of nanoscience and nanotechnology toenvironmental engineering and pollution abatement.

1.2 The Aim and Objective of the Study

Human civilization today stands at twilight of scientific vision and understanding.The rigors of science and engineering are immense, as mankind is undergoing a

Nanotechnology in Environmental Science, First Edition. Edited by Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain andAjay Kumar Mishra. 2018 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2018 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

4 1 Nanomaterials for Environmental Science: A Recent and Future Perspective

wider realization of the sustainability of environment. The aim and the objectiveof this study is to discuss the greater vision of and challenges in the application ofnanomaterials in environmental protection. The success and potential of environ­mental engineering science are inimitable. Today, environment is under a state ofgreat distress as ecological imbalance and frequent man-made disasters aredestroying the very fabric of our environment. The cause of biodiversity iscrossing scientific frontiers. Civilization stands amid great scientific understand­ing as well as misdemeanor. The challenges of environmental engineering need tobe readdressed in every possible way. Traditional and nontraditional environ­mental engineering techniques are veritable scientific endeavors. This treatiseaims at the nontraditional techniques of environmental engineering and the novelseparation processes of chemical process engineering and targets the immensepotential of these techniques. Environmental sustainability and holistic sustain­able development are the cornerstones of this research endeavor.

1.2.1 The Need, the Rationale, and the Scope of the Study

Science is a colossus with a vast vision of its own. Environmental engineeringconcerns are plaguing the world scientific community. Frequent environmentaldisasters and loss of biodiversity have goaded the scientists and engineers to worktoward newer innovations and challenges. The immediate need and the challengeof science need to be readdressed and reenvisioned as scientific rigor movestoward a newer paradigm. In the crucial juxtaposition of science and technologytoday, environmental engineering science gains new heights. The paradigm ofengineering science is targeted toward the protection of environment. Techno­logical innovations and technological motivations are in a state of distress today asprotection of environment is in a process of immense failure. In such a situation,new vision and innovation are the veritable need of the day. Environmentalscience is in the process of new scientific regeneration. Human civilization is alsoin the process of wide realization of environmental and energy sustainability.

The scope of this well-informed study goes beyond scientific imagination andunderstanding. The challenge of applications of nanotechnology, nontraditionalenvironmental engineering techniques, and novel separation processes needs tobe rebuilt and readdressed as scientific and academic rigor moves toward avisionary scientific avenue. The challenge of this research work is surpassingvisionary frontiers as science and engineering overcomes one hurdle after anotherin chemical process engineering and environmental engineering science.

1.3 Scientific Vision and Cognizancein the Field of Nanotechnology

Scientific vision and cognizance in the field of nanotechnology are groundbreak­ing as science and engineering move from one paradigm to another. Today,nanotechnology is a visionary area of research pursuit. The scientific challenges isimmense in the field of nanotechnology as science and engineering crosses one

51.5 The Vision and Advancements in the Field of Nanotechnology

visionary boundary after another. Nanoscience and nanotechnology today arelinked with the wide area of environmental engineering science. Technologicalvision is the order of the day today. Nanotechnology and groundwater remedia­tion are the areas of science that are being challenged in today’s scientific horizon.Chemical process engineering and materials engineering are witnessing futuristicchallenges. Water shortages and global water crisis are paving the way for a newervision for the future.

1.4 Frontiers of Nanotechnology andthe Vision for the Future

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the visionary and far-reaching areas ofscience and engineering. Today, nanotechnology research has links with chemicalprocess engineering and environmental engineering science. The success ofapplication of nanotechnology to society and mankind goes beyond scientificimagination. Technological advancements today are in a state of immenseshortcomings and unbelievable challenges. In a similar vein, nanotechnologyand nanomaterials are facing immense challenges in their application domain. Ascientist’s defined prowess, science’s immense rigor, and the futuristic vision aretoday leading a long way in true realization of environmental sustainability andsustainable development. Frontiers of nanotechnology are gaining new heightsand revolutionary scientific outcomes. The success of science and engineering ofnanomaterials are immense and unimaginable as human civilization moves fromone chapter to another. Technology and engineering today are the boon to humancivilization and human scientific endeavor. Today, environment stands in themidst of deep distress and wide introspection. The challenge of protectingenvironment needs to be addressed and deeply comprehended with each stepof human life. Nanotechnology vision is the torchbearer of a greater visionarytomorrow in the research pursuit of science and engineering. The vision for thefuture in the vast and versatile domain of nanotechnology is far-reaching andcrossing enigmatic scientific frontiers. This research treatise provides gainfulinsights into the pursuit toward environmental protection, chemical processengineering, and nanotechnology.

1.5 The Vision and Advancementsin the Field of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology in today’s world is moving at a rapid pace toward a newerscientific frontier. The challenge, the vision, and the potential of application ofnanotechnology in environmental protection need to be readdressed as humancivilization moves toward a newer realm. Nanotechnology has a wider vision asscientific vision and deep scientific understanding assumes immense importancein this century. Human scientific vision is powered by a definite scientific grit anddetermination. The true challenge that lies in the field of nanotechnology is itsimmense scientific potential, scientific vision, and deep scientific understanding.

6 1 Nanomaterials for Environmental Science: A Recent and Future Perspective

The success of the domain of nanotechnology has opened up new avenues ofscientific challenges and scientific ingenuity in years to come.

1.6 Recent Scientific Endeavor in the Field ofNanoscience and Nanotechnology

The world of nanotechnology and environmental science are witnessing drasticchanges. In today’s scientific scenario, nanotechnology has an unsevered umbili­cal cord with environmental engineering science. This treatise goes beyond deepscientific imagination. The success and potential of nanotechnology are usheringin a new dawn of scientific endeavor and fortitude. The authors pointedly focus onthe success of application of nanotechnology in environmental protection andenvironmental engineering science as a whole. The challenge and the scientificrigor need to be envisioned as human civilization moves toward a newer visionaryage. This section widely observes the recent scientific research pursuit in the fieldof nanoscience and nanotechnology with special emphasis on the application ofnanotechnology in environmental protection.

National Nanotechnology Initiative Workshop [1] in a well-informed reportdelineates nanomaterials and the environment, instrumentation, metrology, andanalytical methods. Nanotechnology holds immense promise of exciting newsolutions and innovations to critical scientific, industrial, and commercial chal­lenges through the engineering of application-specific nanomaterials. Questionsare raised and technology remains challenged as potential risks and hazards fromnanotechnology are of utmost importance. In order to foster a better scientificunderstanding, National Nanotechnology Initiative, USA, has made environmentalhealth and safety research an essential component and a research imperative.

German Environment Agency Report [2] delved deep into current state ofknowledge in the field of nanomaterials in the environment. The report delineateseffects and behavior of materials in the environment, their release in the environ­ment, and their behavior and persistence in the environment. This report deeplycomprehends the success of application of nanomaterials in environment and thewide vision of the application of nanotechnology. It also throws light on thefurther development of legislation on chemical process safety.

European Commission Report [3] deeply comprehends nanomaterials’ func­tionality. The “Science for Environment Policy” focuses pointedly on the chal­lenges and scientific introspection in application domain of nanomaterials. Someof the wide visionary topics discussed in this treatise are pomegranate-inspiredbattery design, nanoscale manufacturing, low-energy water purification, quantumdot processes, solar cell efficiency, efficiency of photovoltaic cells, application ofgraphenes, 3D printing techniques, and van der Waal’s heterostructures. Thescientific success and the deep scientific introspection are the pallbearers of agreater emancipation of science of nanotechnology in years to come.

Danish Environmental Protection Agency Report [4] defines and delineatesthe environmental fate and behavior of nanomaterials in a well-observed andwell-informed treatise. It deeply comprehends and envisions new knowledge onimportant transformation processes. This report widely observes the application