"Minorities in Europe”Session 5:

Minority and Regional Languages in Europe.

Language Minorities in Old and New Europe

Denis GruberFaculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State UniversityDAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

Everyday

• concept "Everyday life" refers to routine experiences of the “daily rhythm”

• everyday life is marked by recurring patterns of family life, working life, leisure activities, consumption behaviour, cultural orientations, etc.

• Alfred Schütz (1932) can be seen as the founder of the everyday research tries to explain the understanding of interaction by the comparison with

everyday social-worldly situation elements• later Harold Garfinkel (1967) asks how individuals act in sociological

structures of the everyday world and what can be marked as everyday knowledge

• Erving Goffman (1956, 1967) has decisively influenced analyses about interaction rituals, behaviour patterns, role differentiations and personal self-representation ("impression management“)

research of „Lebensführung“

• (a) Marx’ differentiation of „work and reproduction“• (b) Durkheim’s differentiation theory • (c) Simmel’s cultural criticism about the individual• (d) lifestyle research (focuses on the functions of

distinctions and the stylisation of life)• (e) Sociology of leisure (leisure society) and • (f) connection between system and “Lebenswelt”

(Habermas)

Different approaches of the everyday

• „Lifestyle Research“• „Everyday Life“• „survival strategies“• „livelihood strategies“• „household strategies“

Problems of the concept of „Everyday Lebensführung“

• essential disadvantages of the concept arise due to its strong focus on single subjects

• Though „everyday lifestyle“ becomes as a socially anchored problem, understood, however, only as an individual project (cf. Jürgens 2001:37)

• Demszky von der Hagen (2005) criticises the strict orientation towards Max Weber’s types of “Lebensführung”: traditional, strategic and situative

• Lindblom (1975) and Gold (1978) refer to the fact that “Lebensführung” is not always rational but a "muddling through" ("Durchwursteln")

actors depend on muddling in certain situations to form their life muddling means a deliberate, but not necessarily logical thinking the core of muddling lies in the fact that there is not a clear and

comprehensive strategy of the everyday life it can be compared with a day-for-day “Lebensführung”

What do we need for „Lebensführung“ research?

- concept of "restricted", i.e. contextual rationality of actors (Simon 1998)- complexity of the everyday life requires to find decisions which due to time

restrictions, lack of human, social, economic capital, etc. are not always planned, determined and (sub)optimal

- time duration and rationality: long-term planning (investment in flat, house; life insurances, education of children), short or medium-time planning nt role)

- restricted rationality can be influenced by emotions (feelings, love, happiness, death, illness) social problems

- importance of non-rational components for “Lebensführung” (Long 1993)- importance of the social status of individuals or groups- including households as research units (but: Who belongs to the household?)- focussing on survival strategies, livelihoods, Bourdieu’s capital sorts and mix

„Risk Society“• Ulrich Beck (1986) has formulated in “risk society” a paradigm of new

circumstances• recognizes the following trends within the risk society: people can not

more be sure about a relatively high material living standard• people increasingly depend on themselves and their individual job market

chances including all risks, chances and contradictions

• Anthony Giddens (1991) refers to the forms of social life and social organizations

• life forms resulted by the modern age have torn away the traditional types of the social order and securities

(1) separation of space and time(2) outdbedding of the social systems(3) reflexive transformation of social relations while constantly new

knowledge is influencing human action

Concept of Everyday Life

• Following Voß (1995) the main focuses of the concept can be summarized as follows:

- „Everyday lifestyle“ refers to the connection of all activities of people in different spheres of life (family, leisure time, working life, education etc.)

- important for everyday life research is the everyday “Connex” between these activities

- system of „everyday lifestyle“ refers to an active construction of the affected persons

- everyday lifestyle belongs only partly to individuals- everyday life has its “own logic” which fulfills important

functions for the lifestyle of individuals and is a mediator between individuals and society

concept of „Everyday Lebensführung”

• elaborated as a special field of investigation at the University of Munich by Bolte, Kudera and Voß

• a narrow approach to Max Weber's concept of “Lebensführung”• but Lebensführung does not only follows one specific logic (capitalistic

economy), but also means that individuals practice an own complementary logic which is in line with the social-structural logic

• “Lebensführung” is understood as a balance by contradictory demands and claims which fulfils important functions for the individual, for the society and, finally, for the mediation between both spheres (cf. Voß 1995:37)

• “Lebensführung” means a "bridge function" between individual and society; it becomes the individual and societal ordinal factor which encloses the creation (order) of the everyday life (Bolte 2000:27)

Transformation of „Everyday life“ in post-socialism

• society participants must adapt to new demands and have to rationalize their lifestyle

• strategies are smashed by the resort on available resources like family, friends, other social networks and part-time jobs to protect own survival

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Gronow, Jukka (2001): Caviar with Champagne: Common Luxury and the Ideals of the Good Life in Stalin's Russia (Leisure, Consumption and Culture), Berg Publications

• Fitzpatrick, Sheila (1999): Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s, Oxford: Oxford University Press

• Cidylo, Lori (2001): All the Clean Ones Are Married: And Other Everyday Calamities in Moscow, Academy Chicago Pub Ltd: )

• Lynne Attwood : Gender and Housing in Soviet Russia: Private Life in a Public Space (Gender in History), Manchester University Press (2010)

• Clarke, Simon: New Forms of Employment and Household Survival Strategies in Russia, Centre for Comparative Labour Studies University of Warwick (1999)

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Baschmakoff, Natalia: Texts and Communities: Soviet and Post-soviet Life in Discourse and Practice von von Kikimora Publications (2007)

• Surviving Post-Communism: Young People in the Former Soviet Union (Studies of Communism in Transition) von S. C. Clark, C. Fagan, J. Tholen, und A. Adibekian von Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd (2000)

• Alapuro, Risto / Liikanen, Ilkka / Lonkila, Markku (2002): Beyond Post-Soviet Transition. Micro Perspoective on Challenge and Survival in Russia and Estonia, Saarijärvi: Gummerus, S. 11-20

• Burawoy, Michael / Verdery, Katherine (1999): Introduction, in: Burawoy, Michael / Verdery, Katherine (Hrsg.): Uncertain Transition: Ethnographies of Change in Postsocialist World, Berkeley: University Press, S. 1-18

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Clarke, Simon (2002): Making Ends Meet in Contemporary Russia. Secondary Employment, Subsidiary Agriculture and Social Networks, Celtenham / Northampton: Edward Elgar

• Crowley, David / Reid, Susan: Socialist spaces: sites of everyday life in the Eastern Bloc, in: Crowley, David / Reid, Susan (Hrsg.): Socialist spaces, Oxford: Berg, S.1-22

• Davidova, Nadia / Tikhunova, Nataliya (2004): Gender, Poverty and Social Exclusion in Contemporary Russia, Manning, Nick / Tikhonova, Nataliya (Hrsg.): Poverty and Social Exclusion in the New Russia, Aldershot: Ashgate, S. 174-196

• Dutkina, Galina / Fitzpatrick, Catherine (1996): Moscow Days: Life and Hard Times in the New Russia, New York: Kodansha

• Sahadeo, Jeff / Zanca, Russell (2007): Everyday Life in Central Asia. Past and Present, Blomington / Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, S. 37-44

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Drakulić, Slavenka: How we survived communism and even laughed, New York: Harper Perennial,

• 1993 (Hardcover: 1992)• Dzięgiel, Leszek: Paradise in a Concrete Cage. Daily Life in Communist Poland and

Ethnologist's• View, Cracow: Arcana, 1998• Fisher-Ruge, Lois (1993): Survival in Russia: Chaos and Hope in Everyday Life, New

York: Westview Press• Hobson, Charlotte (2000): Black Earth City: When Russia Ran Wild (and So Did

We), New York: Metropolitan Books• Holdswort, Nick (1999): Moscow, the Beautiful and the Damned: Life in Russia in

Transition, New York: Deutsch• Hudgins, Sharon (2003):

The Other Side of Russia: A Slice of Life in Siberia and the Russian Far East (Eastern European Studies, Texas: A&M University Press

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Humphrey, Caroline (2002): The Unmaking of Soviet Life: Everyday Economies After Socialism (Culture and Society After Socialism), Cornell: University Press

• Hutchings, Stephen (1997): Russian Modernism: The Transfiguration of the Everyday, Cambridge: University Press

• Kiblitskaya, Marina (2000): Once we were Kings: Male Experiences of Loss of Status at Work in Post-Communist Russia, in: Ashwin, Sarah (Hrsg.): Gender, State and Society in Soviet and Post-Soviet Russia, London (u.a.): Routledge, S. 90-104

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Lovell, Stephen (2002): Soviet exurbia: dachas in postwar Russia, in: Crowley, David / Reid, Susan (Hrsg.): Socialist spaces, Oxford: Berg, S.105-122

• Lovell, Stephen (2003): Summerfolk. A History of Dacha, 1710-2000, Ithaca / London: Cornell University Press

• Millar, James R. (1987): Politics, Work, and Daily Life in the USSR: A Survey of Former Soviet Citizens, Cambridge: University Press

• Puuronen, Vesa / Sinisalo, Pentti / Miljukova, Irina / Shvets, Larissa (Hrsg.): A Comparative Study of Everyday Life, Future Orientations and Political Culture of Youth in North-West Russia and Eastern Finland, Aldershot u.a.: Ashgate, S.177-198

• Patico, Jennifer (2008): Consumption and Social Change in a Post-Soviet Middle Class, Stanford: University Press

• Pesmen, Dale (2000): Russia and soul : an exploration, Ithaca [u.a.]: Cornell University Press

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Raleigh, Donald (2006): Russia’s Sputnik Generation. Soviet Baby Boomers Talk about Their Life, Blomington: University Press

• Randolph, Eleanor (1996): Waking the Tempests: Ordinary Life in the New Russia, New York: Simon&Schuster

• Richards, Susan (1992): Epics of Everyday Life: Encounters in a Changing Russia, London: Penguin

• Ritter, Martina (2008): Alltag im Umbruch. Zur Dynamik von Öffentlichkeit und Privatheit im neuen Russland, Hamburg: Krämer.

• Shevchenko, Olga (2009): Crisis and the everyday in postsocialist Moscow, Bloomington [u.a.]: Indiana University Press

• Puuronen, Vesa / Sinisalo, Pentti / Miljukova, Irina / Shvets, Larissa (Hrsg.): A Comparative Study of Everyday Life, Future Orientations and Political Culture of Youth in North-West Russia and Eastern Finland, Aldershot u.a.: Ashgate, S. 74 - 91

Studies about the everyday in socialism and post-socialism

• Shevchenko, Olga (2009): Crisis and the Everyday in Postsocialist Moscow, Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis

• Shlapentokh, Vladimir (1989): Public and Private Life of the Soviet People: Changing Values in Post-Stalin Russia, Oxford: University Press

• Telbaum, Sol (2007): Family Matters and More: Stories of My Life in Soviet Russia, New York: Publishamerica

• Tikhunova, Nataliya (2004a): Social Exclusion in Russia, Manning, Nick / Tikhonova, Nataliya (Hrsg.): Poverty and Social Exclusion in the New Russia, Aldershot: Ashgate, S. 109-148

• The Storks' Nest: Life and Love in the Russian Countryside, London: Fulcrum • Winchell, Margaret (1998):

Armed With Patience: Daily Life in Post-Soviet Russia, Tenafly, N.J.: Hermitage Publishers

20

MINORITY POPULATIONS IN EU

• 13 million resident emigrants and ethnic minority populations

• 50 million people who belong to some 150 minority groups in the EU, out of a total population of 450 million people

Language diversityin multicultural Europe

• As a consequence of socio-economically or politically determined processes of migration and minorization, the traditional patterns of language variation across Europe have changed considerably over the past several decades (cf. Verhoeven 1998, Gorter 2001)

• first pattern of migration started in the sixties and early seventies, was mainly economically motivated

• in the case of Mediterranean groups, migration initially involved contract workers who expected ! and were expected ! to stay for a limited period of time

• as the period of their stay gradually became longer, this pattern of economic migration was followed by

• a second pattern of social migration as their families joined them (bringing families together)

• in result, a second generation was born in the immigrant countries, while their parents often remained uncertain or ambivalent about whether to stay or to return to the country of origin.

Language diversityin multicultural Europe

• demographic shifts over time have also been accompanied by shifts of designation for the groups under consideration in terms of ‘migrant workers’, ‘immigrant families’, and ‘ethnic minorities’

• many European countries have a growing number of IM populations which differ widely, both from a cultural and from a linguistic point of view, from the mainstream indigenous population

four major IM groups can be distinguished• from Mediterranean EU countries• from Mediterranean non-EU countries• from former colonial countries• political refugees (cf. Extra & Verhoeven 1993a, 1993b)

MANY LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN EUROPEState Languages• Languages having an official status throughout a country. State languages are always official

languages

Official Languages• Languages used for legal and public administration purposes within a specified area of a country or

reaching over the whole state, such as Catalan in Spain

Regional/Minority Languages• Languages traditionally used by part of the population of a state that are not dialects, artificially

created or migrant languages, such as• Languages that are specific to a region like Breton in France• Languages that are spoken by a minority in a state but are official languages in other, usually bordering,

country such as Hungarian in Slovakia• Non-territorial languages such as Yiddish and the language of Romani people

Non-indigenous languages• Languages from other parts of the world spoken by immigrant communities in the EU such as Turkish

in Germany or Indian languages in the United Kingdom

Official EU languages

• The number of member states exceeds the number of official languages, as several national languages are shared by two or more countries

• Dutch is official in the Netherlands and Belgium• French in France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Italian province of Aosta

Valley• German in Germany, Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Italian

province of Bolzano-Bozen• Greek in Greece, Cyprus and the Italian provinces of Apulia and Reggio

Calabria• English and Swedish are also shared, the former by the United Kingdom,

Ireland and Malta and the latter by Sweden and Finland• also Slovene is official in the easternmost part of the Italian region of Friuli

Venezia Giulia

Official EU languages• not all national languages have been accorded the status of official EU

languages, e.g. Luxembourgish, an official language of Luxembourg since 1984, and Turkish, as an official language of Cyprus

• All languages of the EU are also working languages• Documents which a Member State or a person subject to the jurisdiction of

a Member State sends to institutions of the Community may be drafted in any one of the official languages and…

• …also the reply shall be drafted in the same language• European Commission, for example, conducts its internal business in three

languages, English, French and German• European Parliament, on the other hand, has Members who need working

documents in their own languages, so its document flow is fully multilingual from the outset

• According to the EU's English language website, the cost of maintaining the institutions' policy of multilingualism (i.e. the cost of translation and interpretation) was €1123 million in 2005, which is 1% of the annual general budget of the EU, or €2.28 per person per year

Migrant languages

• Turkish is spoken as a first language by an estimated 2% of the population in Belgium and Germany and by 1% in The Netherlands

• other widely-used migrant languages include Maghreb Arabic (and others) (mainly in France, Belgium, The Netherlands, United Kingdom, Spain and Cyprus)

• Hindi, Bengali spoken by immigrants in the UUK• Balkan languages are spoken in many parts of the EU• large Chinese communities in France, UK, Spain, Italy and

other countries (Chinatowns)

Language skills of citizens

• "Special Eurobarometer 243" of the European Commission with the title "Europeans and their Languages“ (2006)

• 28,694 citizens (not immigrants, were asked) with a minimum age of 15 were asked in the 25 member-states as well as in the future member-states (Bulgaria, Romania) and the candidate countries (Croatia, Turkey)

• 56% of citizens in the EU Member States are able to hold a conversation in one language apart from their mother tongue (+ 9 % to 2001)

• 28% of the respondents state that they speak two foreign languages well enough to have a conversation

• 44% of respondents admit not knowing any other language than their mother tongue

Languages of the European Union

Language Countries* As mother tongue (percentage of EU population)

As language other than mother tongue (percentage of EU population)

Percentage of EU population speaking language

English United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta 13% 38% 51%

German

Germany, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, Italy, Germany, France, Denmark, Poland, Czech Republic, Romania and Hungary

18% 14% 32%

French France, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy 12% 14% 26%

Italian Italy, Slovenia and Malta 13% 3% 16%Spanish Spain 9% 6% 15%

Polish Poland, Germany, Slovakia, Lithuania and Latvia 9% 1% 10%

Russian Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Greece 1% 6% 7%

Dutch Netherlands, Belgium and France 5% 1% 6%

Swedish Sweden and Finland 2% 1% 3%Greek Greece, Cyprus and Italy 3% 0% 3%

Czech Czech Republic, Austria and Slovakia 2% 1% 3%

Hungarian Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Austria 2% 0% 2%

Portuguese Portugal 2% 0% 2%

Slovak Slovakia, Czech Republic and Hungary 1% 1% 2%

Catalan Spain, France and Italy 1% 1% 2%

•Countries where the language is spoken as mother tongue, including historical minorities, •excluding communities of recent migration. Source: Data for EU25, published before 2007 EU enlargement.

Country(EU27)

Englishas a languageother thanmother tongue

Germanas a languageother thanmother tongue

Frenchas a languageother thanmother tongue

Spanishas a languageother thanmother tongue

Italianas a languageother thanmother tongue

Russianas a languageother thanmother tongue

Polishas a languageother thanmother tongue

Austria 58% 4% 10% 4% 8% 2% 0% Belgium 59% 27% 48% 6% 3% 0% 0% Bulgaria 23% 12% 9% 2% 1% 35% 0% Cyprus 76% 5% 12% 2% 4% 2% 0%

Czech Republic 24% 28% 2% 0% 1% 20% 3%

Denmark 86% 58% 12% 5% 1% 1% 0% Estonia 46% 22% 1% 0% 0% 66% 0% Finland 63% 18% 3% 2% 1% 2% 0% France 36% 8% 6% 13% 5% 0% 0% Germany 56% 9% 15% 4% 3% 7% 1% Greece 48% 9% 8% 0% 4% 3% 0% Hungary 23% 25% 2% 1% 2% 8% 0% Ireland 5% 7% 20% 4% 1% 1% 0% Italy 29% 5% 14% 4% 1% 0% 0% Latvia 39% 14% 2% 1% 0% 70% 2% Lithuania 32% 19% 1% 0% 0% 80% 15%

Luxembourg 60% 88% 90% 1% 5% 0% 0%

Malta 88% 3% 17% 3% 66% 0% 0%

Netherlands 87% 70% 29% 5% 1% 0% 0%

Poland 29% 20% 3% 1% 1% 26% 0% Portugal 32% 3% 24% 9% 1% 0% 0% Romania 29% 6% 24% 3% 4% 0% 0% Slovakia 32% 32% 2% 1% 1% 29% 4% Slovenia 57% 50% 4% 2% 15% 2% 0% Spain 27% 2% 12% 10% 2% 1% 0% Sweden 89% 30% 11% 6% 2% 1% 1%

United Kingdom 7% 9% 23% 8% 2% 1% 0%

Croatia* 49% 34% 4% 2% 14% 4% 0% Turkey* 17% 4% 1% 0% 0% 1% 0%

Language skills of citizens

• English remains the most widely spoken foreign language throughout Europe (38% of EU citizens have sufficient skills in English to have a conversation, excluding the citizens of the United Kingdom and Ireland)

• 14% of Europeans indicate that they know either French or German along with their mother tongue

• In 19 out of 29 countries polled, English is the most widely known language apart from the mother tongue (special: Sweden (89%), Malta (88%), the Netherlands (87%), Denmark (86%)

Language skills of citizens

• 77% of EU citizens believe that children should learn English and that it's considered the number one language to learn

• English either as a mother tongue or as a second/foreign language is spoken by 51% of EU citizens, followed by German with 32% and French with 28% of those asked

• with the enlargement of the European Union, the balance between French and German is slowly changing

• clearly more citizens in the new Member States master German (23% compared with 12% in the EU15) while their skills in French and Spanish are scarce (3% and 1% respectively compared with 16% and 7% among the EU15 group)

• only 5% of Turkish, 13% of Irish, 16% of Italians, 17% of Spanish and 18% from the UK speak at least two languages apart from their mother tongue

Knowledge English EU map.png

Knowledge German EU map.png

Knowledge French EU map.png

Knowledge Spanish EU map.png

Knowledge of Russian EU map.svg

"Minorities in Europe”Session 6:

Eastward Enlargement and

National Minorities

Denis GruberFaculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State UniversityDAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

Previous enlargements1951 ECSC:France,Italy, Germany, Belgium,The Netherlands, Luxembourg

1973:Denmark, Ireland, and UK

1981: Greece

1986:Spain and Portugal

1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden

2004:Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia.

2007 Romania and Bulgaria

The European Union on the mapNew Member States (2007)Bulgaria, Romania

Candidate CountriesCroatia; FYROM (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) - Negotiations not yet started; Turkey

Potential Candidate CountriesAlbania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia (including Kosovo under UNSCR 1244)

42

Migration

• According to Friedman (2004:66), migration cannot be separated from the political debates concerning integration, multiculturalism, and the future of democratic institutions

• Migration is not simply a demographic phenomenon• it is a socially constituted process in which cultural

identity, economic, and political strategies play a definitive role

43

Migration(Castles, 2000:269): three basic migration facts which can be

observed worldwide and seem to be important:

• a) Most people never cross national borders to live or to work in another country:

• b) at least half of all migrant workers move from one developing country to another; and most of those who cross borders do not enter industrial democracies (in Western sense); and

• c) Many states have successfully made the transition from exporting to importing labor, and the migration transition process seems to be speeding up.

44

Historical Flows of Migration

• Migrations of peoples in the pre-history• migration movements in the Middle Ages• Muslim conquests• East Colonization (Christianization of the

Slavs)• Crusades (Moving-conquest in Islamic regions

and ‘Missionisation’ of Muslims between the 11th and the 13th century)

• Norman migration movements

Historical Flows of Migration

• New World and colonies• Slave deportation• Inner-European Job / Work – Migration • 'Zionism'• forced migration in 'Stalinism'• Racism and 'Lebensraum'-ideologies of the German

National Socialists• Migration of the Sacrifices of the Second World War• Migration and decolonisation

46

Differences between Earlier Periods of Migration and Contemporary Migration

The contemporary migration in comparison to earlier periods of migration has other issues:

• The number of cultures that are involved in international migration

• The resulting intensity and density of international linkages

• Travel opportunities

47

Different Theories of Migration

• A) neo-classical theory• B) dependency theory• C) dual labor market theory• D) World System theory • E) theory of the new economy of professional

migration• F) the migration network theory

50

types and practices of migration • Forced migration• Family members• Return migration• Contract migration• Business migrants• Irregular migration• Refugees• Asylum seekers• Total migration• Displaced persons

51

Interests of the Receiving Country

• Meeting manpower requirements • Cutting the cost of labor • Flexible adjustment to prevailing labor market needs • Equal access to employing migrant workers • Reducing illegal migration • Avoiding consequential follow-up cost of

immigration • Supporting the restructuring process in the reform

countries in Central and Eastern Europe

52

Interests of the Country of Origin

• Alleviating a tight labor market situation • Acquisition of vocational skills and know-how • Remittances: Foreign exchange is necessary for the

purchase of goods to develop industrialization • Support for the restructuring and development

processes in the countries of origin • Control of the outflows

53

54

Seasonal workers from Eastern Europe in Germany (1991-2000)

55

Migration, wage differences and Eastern enlargement

• Eastern enlargement of the European Union will create substantial pressures for migration, as wage differences are still immense

• In 2003, the average labour cost per hour in the accession countries was only 14% or one seventh of the west German labour cost per hour

Migration, wage differences and Eastern enlargement

Migration, wage differences and Eastern enlargement

• In 2010 there will still be great wage differences despite a certain convergence• at a maximum convergence rate of 2% p.a., wages of the accession countries

will still amount to only 25% of west German wages in 2010 and 38% in 2020, but…. explaining reality !!! (5-Euro-Jobs, part-time, short-time, etc.)

• historical: income differences were much smaller in the Southern enlargement average wage income of Spaniards and Portuguese was close to 50% of west German wage income

• ergo: there was never before such large migration flows from the East to the West, but from the South ofcourse In the period from 1960 to 1974/75, until the end of the Franco and Salazar dictatorships, there had already been mass emigration from Spain and Portugal

• difference: Whereas Franco and Salazar had allowed the free movement of people, the Soviet bloc had closed off its territory

• but: before 1961 Germany, Ethnic Germans in Poland, Yugoslavs to Germany

Migration, wage differences and Eastern enlargement

• although migration pressure is large, the EU should not be afraid of migration, if….

• …labour markets are functioning• …demographic problems arise• …economic needs require labourforce • …to pursue free movement of people

but some problems:What immigrants can earn in Western Europe by far exceed emigration, and

what they finally earn in the West, is normally less than their output- Only the last immigrant receives a wage that equals his contribution to

national output

Migration, wage differences and Eastern enlargement

• reduction in wage differences between the country of origin and the country of destination is a necessary regulatory mechanism of the migration process

• wages in general have a signalling and allocation function in a market economy

• shrinking wage differences will slow down the increase in the movement of people

• but: What is the Break Even Point for migration and staying? what are the real costs of migration?

labour market test-Vorrangprüfung (priority test)

• a limited work permit may be given to foreigners only if the situation in the job market admits a position

• work permit is granted if by the employment of the foreign employee no disadvantageous effects on the job market arise and none German employee or an equal applicant from another EU state is available

• Besides, the foreign worker may not work to more unfavorable conditions than Germans (prevention of so-called dumping)

• The individual test tries to determine whether a privileged applicant is available for a certain job

• Germans, citizens of the European Union, foreign employees with working permits, foreigners with unlimited residence permits are privileged

Germany opens his job market for graduates from new EU states

• from the 1st of January, 2009 graduates from EU 8 which have joined in 2004 the EU can work in Germany - and this equally with the citizens from the so-called "old" EU countries – EU-15

• German Federal Government has come to an agreement about it to find new solutions to handle the lack of specialists in certain economic branches

• also for graduates from third countries, states which do not belong to the EU, it should become easier in future to receive access to the German job market

• barrier: lowering of the least income salary from currently 86,000 to 64,000 Euros p.a.

• but: for applicants from third countries the labour market test shall remain restrictive citizens of the European Union are still privileged

THE NEW WAVE OF POLISH MIGRATION AFTER EU ENLARGEMENT

• Following Poland’s accession to the EU there has been a major change in outward migration patterns from Poland

• before Germany was the country were most Poles migrated• since 2004 there is an outflow of workers, especially to Great Britain and Ireland, two

countries that opened up their labour markets

• The UK was one of only 3 EU member states to allow the more or less free movement of workers from EU 8 countries in 2004

Of interest to observe the subsequent flows and labour market outcomes of migrants - especially given the low income levels in the EU 8 and that some were experiencing high levels of unemployment

• This is particularly true for Poland, since it had the third lowest per capita GDP (49% of EU25) and highest unemployment rate (19%) amongst the EU 8 in 2004

Background

• Also been a long history of Polish migration to the UK Large influx during WWII and immediately afterwards Fairly small inflows 1950-1990 Increased flows in the 1990s after the fall of Communism and in the early 2000s because of policy changes (e.g. for the self- employed) and through illegal means Huge influx following EU enlargement in May 2004

• As a result of these factors, WRS figures indicate that 62% of the 427,000 EU 8 workers registering to work in the UK from May 2004 to June 2006 were Poles

Background (continued)

THE NEW WAVE OF POLISH MIGRATION AFTER EU ENLARGEMENT

• in the period May 2004 - March 2007 approximately 394,000 Poles (Home Office, 2007) migrated to Britain and 203,000 to Ireland

• but: figures should be treated with caution because it is unclear how many Poles migrated back to Poland

determinants of the post-enlargement outward migration

• income factor is the most important driver (cf. Blanchflower et al., 2008:4)• according to the Survey of the University of Surrey (2006) among 505 Polish

migrants in Britain 58% of them chose ‘financial/lack of jobs in Poland’ as a reason for migration 41% chose ‘more options/easier to live’, which is also indirectly related to

money-driven motivations only 31% chose ‘personal or professional development’

• according to a survey of 440 Polish migrants in Ireland (Radiukiewicz et al. 2006, p.19)

for 59% ‘financial situation’ as a reason for migration ‘emigration of relatives or friends’ was chosen by 32% of respondents ‘better job offer in Ireland’ by 20% ‘lack of job in Poland’ by only 14% of respondents

determinants of the post-enlargement outward migration

• according to a survey of 4475 Polish employees working in medium-sized and large enterprises in Poland (IIBR 2006)

49% of respondents would be willing to work abroad if offered a job similar to that held in Poland

‘Higher earnings than those in Poland’ was the most often indicated factor (indicated by 99% of those willing to migrate)

‘opportunity to learn a foreign language’ for 96% ‘opportunity to gain professional experience’ (92%) ‘the general situation in Poland’ 78% ‘few attractive job offers in Poland’ 74% ‘better job position abroad’ 74% ‘opportunity to get to know another culture’ 72% ‘change of environment’ 52ergo: discrepancy between the level of earnings in Poland and that in the UK or Ireland

seems to be the primary determinant of migration

source: The new wave of polish migration after EU enlargement - current state,determinants and outlook, Cizkowicz, Piotr, Holda, Marcin and Sowa, Urszula, National Bank of Poland, 2007

source: The new wave of polish migration after EU enlargement - current state,determinants and outlook, Cizkowicz, Piotr, Holda, Marcin and Sowa, Urszula, National Bank of Poland, 2007

ESRC Project Methodology• 50 in-depth interviews with Polish migrants in London • 14 interviews with family and friends of migrants in 5

locations in Poland (urban/rural areas)• 23 F, 27 M• 28% below 25• 58% 25-40• 10% 40 up• 22% high edu, 68% sec’y edu, 10% students• 28% rural, 40% below 50k town, 32% 50k up

Storks• circular migrants who are found mostly in low paid

occupations (catering, construction industry, domestic service)

• include different types of seasonal migrants - farmers commuting to London’s building sites in winter, students working during the summer in the catering industry in London to pay for their tuition fees in Poland

• others working in London but returning to their Polish universities, sometimes twice a month.

• usually stay between 2 and 6 months• mostly arrange employment and accommodation through

their Polish relatives or friends• tend to be clustered in dense Polish social networks which

sometimes encourage suspicion and competition between co-ethnics

Hamsters- treat their move as a one-off act to acquire rnough capital

to invest in Poland- compared with Storks their stays in the UK are longer and

uninterrupted- like Storks, they tend to treat their migration as only a

capital-raising activity- tend to cluster in particular low-earning occupations and

are often embedded in Polish networks- see their migration as a source of social mobility back

home

Searchers- 42% – those who keep their options deliberately open- group consists predominantly of young, individualistic and

ambitious migrants- occupy a range of occupational positions from low-earning

to highly skilled and professional jobs- emphasise the unpredictability of their migratory plans – a

strategy we have termed intentional unpredictability

Stayers• 22% – those who have been in the UK for some time

and intend to remain for good• group also represents respondents with strong social

mobility ambitions• the only group which explicitly stresses the existence

of social class in Britain and its role in determining social mobility

"Minorities in Europe”Session 7:

Ethnic Minorities in

European Cities

Denis GruberFaculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State UniversityDAAD-Lecturer for Sociology

Einbürgerungstest (citizenship test) Germany

• 1st of September 2008: foreigners must pass a citizenship test in Germany

• 33 questions from a catalogue of 310 questions• at least 17 must be answered correctly• multiple Choice test with 4 answer possibilities, only

one is right• "knowledge about the legal system”, “social order”,

“living conditions”• Would you pass the Einbürgerungstest?

- Group (subgroups)

- Caste

- Stand Status

- Class

- Layer

- Milieu

- Lifestyles

Key words for social structure analysis

social life situations

Class Theory: Marx (1818 – 1883)

• social conflict was the core of historical process (cf. Coser 1977:43)• class is a social group which members are characterized by a similar

position in the economic system and a common social position (Klassenlage, class position), common interests and common consciousness (Klassenbewusstsein, class consciousness)

• “...the social relations people enter into by participating in economic life…” create an economic category/social phenomenon known as social class

• Classes were formed to control the means of property• This would in turn result in class conflicts

Social Class: Max Weber (1864 – 1920)

• dimensions of social inequality: class positions are interpreted as market and power positions

• difference between property class and worker class (property as central differentiation marker for chances, e.g. qualification)

Social Layers• an order of social positions and prestige, which is

responsible for the hierarchical occupational structure• social inequality can be measured for individual

distribution of issues (property, knowledge, relations, occupation, etc.)

• a person is able to change ist vertical social mobility, in this sense, a person can change ist belonging to a social layer

• due to the change of social layer‘s belonging also life styles are changing

• indicators: – occupational positions (occupational prestige), – income – education– in families: issues of household‘s planning

upper class

middle class

lower class

uper middle class

centred middle class

lower middle class

Social Layer of a modern „Mittelstandsgesellschaft“ (middle class society) in the second half of the 20. century

Habitus and social class

• For Bourdieu, class position is not based crudely on the possession or non-possession of the means of production as in Marxist materialistic conceptions of class

• Bourdieu uses Weber’s approach that allows him to identify different types of social behaviour of social classes (layers)

• Bourdieu argues that cultural forms (the habitus) are mainly determined by the socio-economic situation, by the distribution of economic and cultural capital

• Bourdieu sees class as determined by largely economic factors, and as a set of practices, dispositions and feelings

The Concept of Habitus

• is the link between the objective and the subjective components of class

• Habitus refers to the everyday, the situations, actions, practices and choices which tend to go with a particular walk of life and an individual’s position in the social world (this includes, e.g. gender and race as well as class)

• Habitus can be seen as including a set of dispositions, tendencies to do some things rather than others and to do them in particular ways rather than in other ways

• Habitus does not determine our practices, but it does make it more likely that we will adopt certain practices rather than others

Social Milieu• introduced in sociology by Émile Durkheim who refers to a social

environment, in which an individual is born-in, grows-up and lives

• Emerged in early ‘80s from ongoing research into lifeworlds (SINUS)

• people who are living under similar conditions and share common values, same opinions, and follow common styles of interaction (cf. Hradil 2006)

• groups that are sharing common interests, similar value identification, common practices of life planning, similar relations to other persons, similar mentalities and political, social, clutural interest

• objective social conditions d influence and limitate the way of thinking and interacting of this group, but they do not coin it, therefore, memebrs of the same occupational group can belong to different social milieus (cf. Hradil 1999)

• 2006)

Towards a theory of Social Milieus: The new cultural sociology in Germany

• main argument: life-styles do not have to spring from the economic situation (Gerhard Schulze, Reinhard Kreckel, Hans-Peter Müller, Stefan Hradil)

• milieus rely on internal communication from which a common life-style emerges (Schulze)

• milieus are not clear-cut social entities, but they overlap and form a plural and interrelated social universe (Rössel)

• Milieus can thus be conceived of as networks with increased internal connectivity• Based on this connectivity, they develop a specific life-style that in turn makes

internal ties more likely than ties to other milieus• Friendships form more easily between people with similar values, or around the foci

of activity (bars, sports clubs etc.) in such life-style milieus• milieu is seen as the social environment of cultural patterns and people around us

– it is not a bounded group.• The bases for such milieus can be manifold by age, gender, level of education,

wealth, common activities, ethnic descent, race, locality, etc.

Core values of the SINUS milieus

Young/middle aged, independent professions, experimentation and dramatization life strategies, changing/plural values and cultures

Postmodern milieu

Pleasure orientation, living in the here and now, hunger for experience, style protest, MacJob mentality

Hedonistic milieu

Intellectual elite, post material values, self realisation, cultural interests, trend setting

Technocratic-liberal milieu

Modern mainstream, flexibility, high readiness for achievement, career orientation, display of status

Aspirational milieu

Young mainstream, professionalism in job, leisure orientation, realistic hedonism

New workers milieu

Under privileged, compensation for disadvantage, ostentational display of social belonging

Traditionless workers milieu

Simplicity, thrift, contentment, solidarity, conformity, sense of communityTraditional workers milieu

Traditional orientation, security, ready for self denial, duty, conventionalism, harmony

Petty bourgeois milieu

(Neo-)conservative values, the virtues of civic behaviour, sense of elite status

Higher conservative milieu

Social milieus in West Germany according to SINUS 1998

VALUE CHANGEMaterialist basic orientation

‘Have’

Traditional basic orientation

‘Keep’PostmodernismHave, be, enjoy

Post-materialism‘Being’

Hedonism/pleasure

Lower level

Lower middle level

Middle middle level

Upper middle level

Upper level

Social position

Value orientation

Conservative-technocratic10%

Petty bourgeois

8%

Traditional workers 4%

Aspiring

20%

Traditionless workers 11%

Modern bourgeois 9%

Liberal-intellectual 10%

Modern workers 8%

Hedonistic 13%

Postmodern 7%

Social milieus in West Germany according to SINUS 1998

VALUE CHANGEMaterialist basic orientation

‘Have’

Traditional basic orientation

‘Keep’PostmodernismHave, be, enjoy

Post-materialism‘Being’

Hedonism/pleasure

Lower level

Lower middle level

Middle middle level

Upper middle level

Upper level

Social position

Value orientation

Housing in Russia and Soviet Union -The role of „dacha“

The study of housing

• The symbolic meanings of everyday space came into view in Pierre Bourdieu's 1970 work on the housing forms of the Kabyle (Berber) of Algeria

• Traditional Kabyle homes are organized around cultural oppositions of male-female; outside-inside; public-private, feature, and function of the space

• Bourdieu's fieldwork on everyday life among the Kabyle was foundational in his development of a broader theory of practice, which has profoundly influenced social theory to the present

The study of housing

• Examinations of everyday existence share an essential duality of focus

- close attention to the banal features of the world- and people's modes of interaction with themHousing is a key object of investigation in everyday

life studiesFar from just the backdrop of social life, domestic

spaces both reflect and structure core cultural values, political priorities, creative processes, productive capacities, and the organization and style of labor

The System of Objects (French cultural theorist Jean Baudrillard)

• in 1968 he suggested the need for a "sociology of interior design“

• analyzed not only the functional aesthetics of modern dwelling spaces and furnishings

• more crucially is the kind of personhood which develops in interaction with contemporary domestic commodities

Housing, Culture, and Design (E.T. Hall)

• Study of dwelling and cultural space• focuses on functional, ideological, aesthetic and political

issues related to housing• Ensuring socially appropriate forms of privacy and control of

familial dwelling spaces is at the heart of conflict and accommodation everywhere

• Particularly in circumstances of severe social crowding, such as in the communal apartment, how do people create security and comfort?

• What does it mean for apartment dwellers?• What can we say about identity or status?• What can we say about social or functional boundaries?

About the concept of privacy in Russian culture, and

the word "privacy" in Russian. • different cultures construct privacy in different ways• standards of privacy often concern the appearance and

functions of the body, territory, property, thoughts, and emotions that an individual wishes to keep to himself or herself

• among the markers of privacy are fences, walls, screens, windows (with their curtains) and doors (with locks and bolts)

• such barriers prevent other people (especially outsiders) from intruding into space

About the concept of privacy in Russian culture, and the word "privacy" in Russian

• Russian had no single word for privacy• at the present time the word "privatnost'" is used primarily in

legal language, and not in everyday conversation• The adjective "private" could always be translated either as

"chastnyi" (applied most often to business, property, or to an individual operating on his or her own, outside of an organization), or "lichnyi," "personal"

• "Lichnyi" is common in conversational Russian, for example "Stay out of this, it's my personal (lichnyi) business!“

• In the 19th century, the word "privatnyj," was used to contrast with the word "kazennyi" meaning "belonging to the state.

What are the specifics of privacy in a communal apartment?

- how residents understand what is theirs, what is everyone's, and what is nobody's?

- practices of personal hygiene- the way how intimate life is organized

Knowledge of other people's intimate lives in a communal apartment

• Sexual relations in a communal apartment are to some degree public knowledge

• typical situation in an overcrowded apartment in the early 1980s was described by one informant this way

• "And then she, apparently, had him sewn up, he started putting on weight, stopped drinking, became a total idiot and also married a woman with a huge body. She moved into our apartment. They lived in two tiny rooms with a plywood divider. They looked like two large pigs. To give them some chance to go at it, this poor person, their mother, she'd just go into the kitchen with our M.E., an Azerbaijani, they would just drink vodka from shot glasses, quietly, and she would keep checking the time. These were working people, they went to bed early. So up to about ten o'clock she'd give them a chance to go at it, and then she'd check the time and at around ten thirty she'd go in to sleep."

about formal leadership in a communal apartment

• In line with the officially legislated "Rules for the use of residential premises," most questions of collective existence had to be decided "by agreement among residents.“

• someone had to monitor observance of these rules, and to have authority over how they were interpreted in a given situation

• According to the rules, residents were supposed to elect the leader of their collective in a general meeting

• The person chosen as the so-called "apartment steward" represented the whole apartment in dealings with personnel of the housing administration

• Among this person's duties were insuring the timely payment of all the residents' bills, effectively responding to any disturbance of order, and scheduling and running general meetings

• The apartment steward was actually charged to arbitrate conflict situations

The function of a communal kitchen

The function of a communal kitchen

• The kitchen is the heart of the communal apartment, its central square, the primary public space

• not just a place to prepare food, but a place where the tenants meet

• this is where problems are resolved• space in the kitchen is divided among the

tenants by family

"Normal" relations between co-tenants assumes mutual support

"Normal" relations between co-tenants assumes mutual support

• Mutual support is a natural part of "normal" relations between tenants

• most common form it takes involves looking after children (including feeding them) when the parents are out, and helping sick or disabled people who live alone

• "Normal" relationships permit entry into private space• tenants know about each other's professions and useful

acquaintances (informal assistance of various kinds)• Neighbors share not only daily responsibilities but also leisure• neighbors know about each other encompasses not only daily

routines, but many different aspects of their lives: their professional activities, their habits, family relations, likes and dislikes, and opinions

• Sharing communal spaces inevitably leads to the public display of behaviors and conditions that would in other circumstances be embarrassing

What happens when a resident is on duty for apartment cleaning

What happens when a resident is on duty for apartment cleaning

• The family on duty at any given moment is responsible for the cleanliness of the common spaces

• This would normally mean that the members of that family sweep the hall, the entryway, and the kitchen every day or once every few days

• Until the end of the 1980s, it was the responsibility of those on duty to take the apartment's garbage out to the trash-bin in the courtyard

• The length of time on duty depends on the size of the family• If there are three people living in your room, then you have to be

on duty for three weeks in a row• if you live alone then you’re on duty for one week• Usually the duty roster hangs in the kitchen• In the last few years many residents, especially temporary ones,

prefer to pay one of the other neighbors to cover for them.

Why people stay in communal apartments?

Why people stay in communal apartments? • crucial not to assume a direct association between cash

income and the size and condition of living quarters• there are many reasons why people lived in communal

apartments in the Soviet period and have continued to live in them in the years since the collapse of the Soviet Union

- shortages of housing- "communal lifestyle" was also supposed to accord with

communist ideology- many unmarried, divorced, or widowed women still live

in communal apartments

Why people stay in and tolerate communal apartments?

• Some greatly prefer to live in the center of a city, a factor especially important to St. Petersburg residents

• To meet the best "culture" and most interesting street life happens in the central neighborhoods

• the vast tracts of housing outside of the center can be alienating and depressing

• Single people, and elderly pensioners in particular, may find the conditions in a communal apartment not only acceptable and affordable, but also companionable ("We're Like One Big Family")

Escaping from Appartments –The role of Dacha

Why to go to dacha?

• to spend some time close to nature• To escape from communal appartments• To spend holidays• To meet good friends• To have free-time from husband or wife or children• to grow own fruits and vegetables (second economy)• …..

History of Dacha• The first dachas in Russia began to appear during the reign of

Peter the Great• they were small estates in the country, which were given to

loyal vassals by the Tsar• In archaic Russian, the word dacha means something given• Russian aristocracy used their dachas for social and cultural

gatherings, which were usually accompanied by masquerade balls and fireworks displays

• Industrial Revolution brought about a rapid growth in the urban population, and urban residents increasingly desired to escape the heavily polluted cities, at least temporarily

• dacha became a favorite summer retreat for the upper and middle classes of Russian society

History of Dacha

• After the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, most dachas were nationalized• Some were converted into vacation homes for the working class, while

others, usually of better quality, were distributed among functionaries of the Communist Party and the newly emerged cultural and scientific elite

• The period after World War II saw a moderate growth in dacha development

• squatters began occupying unused plots of land near cities and towns, some building sheds, huts, and more prominent dwellings that served as dachas

• The 1955 legislation introduced a new type of legal entity into the Soviet juridical system, a so-called gardeners' partnership (садоводческое товарищество)

• In 1958, another form of organization was introduced, a cooperative for dacha construction (дачно-строительный кооператив), which recognized the right of an individual to build a small house on the land leased from the government

History of Dacha

• dachas were formed as cooperatives supervised by trade unions and could not be sold

• typical size of land given by the state to a family varied from 4 to 12 "sotok", 6 and 8 being the most common

• now a popular newspaper for dacha owners is titled "6 Sotok“

• One "sotka" = 100 square meters, so typical dacha land area of 6 sotok is equal to 0.16 acres

• Statistic says that now more than 30% of Russian families have dachas

History of Dacha

• collapse of communism saw the return to private land ownership

• Most dachas have since been privatized• Russia is now the nation with the largest number of owners of

second homes• growth of living standards in recent years allowed many

dacha owners to spend their discretionary income on improvements

• Thus, many recently built dachas are fully equipped houses suitable for use as permanent residences

• market-oriented economy transformed the dacha into an asset, which generally reflects the prosperity of its owner

Dacha in Germany • the word "dacha" is well-spread here as well• however, the meaning of the word “datscha”, loaned from the

Russian language, differs a lot from its traditional variant• Dachas in Germany started to appear in the mid 19th century• idea of creating a nature oasis for city residents stroke Daniel

Schreber, the citizen of Leipzig• Schreber was a doctor and an active supporter of healthy living• considered that a people should be able to communicate with the

flora and, if lucky, with fauna• he proposed the city authorities to create original ecological

enclaves with small gardens and lawns• clear definition: a small plot of land with a trailer or a small house• German law clearly regulates the size of a plot of land and

permissible activity on it