mi'kmaq

Grand Council Flag of the Mi'kmaq Nation.[1]Although the flag is meant to be displayed hanging vertically as

shown here, it is quite commonly flown horizontally, with the starnear the upper hoist.

Total population65,000

Regions with significant populations

Canada (New Brunswick, some people of this tribelive in

Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, PrinceEdward Island, Quebec), United States (Maine)

LanguagesEnglish, Mi'kmaq, French

ReligionChristianity, Mi'kmaq traditionalism and

spirituality, othersRelated ethnic groups

other Algonquian peoples

Mi'kmaq

Mi'kmaqFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Mi'kmaq (also Micmac, L'nu and Mi'kmaw)(English /mkmk/; Mi'kmaq: [mimax]),[2][3][4] are aFirst Nations band, indigenous to Canada's AtlanticProvinces and the Gasp Peninsula of Quebec. Theycall this region Mi'kma'ki. Others today live inNewfoundland and the northeastern region of Maine.The nation has a population of about 40,000 (plusabout 25,000 in the Qalipu First Nation inNewfoundland[5][6]), of whom nearly 11,000 speakMi'kmaq, an Eastern Algonquian language .[7][8]Once written in Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing, it isnow written using most letters of the standard Latinalphabet.

The Grand Council (also known as Sant Mawimi)was the traditional senior level of government for theMi'kmaq people until Canada passed the Indian Act(1876) to require First Nations to establishrepresentative elected governments. Afterimplementation of the Indian Act, the Grand Counciltook on a more spiritual function. The Grand Councilwas made up of representatives from the seven districtcouncils in Mi'kma'ki.

On September 26, 2011 the Government of Canadaannounced the recognition of Canada's newestMi'kmaq First Nations Band, the Qalipu First Nationsin Newfoundland and Labrador. The new band, whichis landless, has accepted 25,000 applications tobecome part of the band.[9] The number ofapplications received by the application deadline onNovember 30, 2012 exceeded 100,000; as of January2013, the majority of those had not yet beenprocessed. The deadline was extended to January 31,2014, and then to February 10, 2014.[10][11] Itsmembers are recognized as Status Indians, joiningother organized Mi'kmaq bands recognized insoutheast Canada.[12][13]

Mi'kmaq - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi'kmaq

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Mi'kma'ki: Divided into seven districts

Contents1 Etymology2 History

2.1 Pre-contact culture2.1.1 Food and hunting2.1.2 Hunting a moose

2.2 First contacts2.2.1 Geography2.2.2 Housing

2.3 17th and 18th centuries2.3.1 Colonial wars2.3.2 Treaties2.3.3 Burials

2.4 19th century2.4.1 Royal Acadian School2.4.2 MicMac MissionarySociety2.4.3 Mic-Mac hockey sticks

2.5 20th and 21st centuries2.5.1 World Wars2.5.2 Treaty Day2.5.3 Tripartite Forum

2.5.3.1 Mikmaq Kinamatnewey

2.5.4 Truth and ReconciliationCommission

3 Celebrations4 Herbalism5 Religion and folklore

5.1 Spiritual sites6 First Nation subdivisions7 Demographics8 Commemorations9 Notable Mi'kmaq

9.1 Academics9.2 Activists9.3 Artists9.4 Athletes9.5 Military9.6 Other

10 Maps11 In popular culture


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12 See also13 Notes14 References

14.1 18th-19th centuries14.2 Documentary film

15 External links

EtymologyThe ethnonym has traditionally been spelled Micmac in English, but the people themselves have useddifferent spellings: Mikmaq (singular Mikmaw) in Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia andNewfoundland, Miigmaq (Miigmao) in New Brunswick, Migmaq by the Listuguj Council in Quebec,and Mgmaq (Mgmaw) in some native literature.[14]

Until the 1980s, "Micmac" remained the most common spelling in English. Although still used, forexample in Ethnologue, this spelling has fallen out of favour in recent years. Most scholarly publicationsnow use the spelling Mi'kmaq, and it has been adopted by media[15] as the spelling Micmac is nowconsidered to be "colonially tainted".[14] The Mi'kmaq prefer to use one of the three current Mi'kmaqorthographies when writing the language.[16]

Lnu (the adjectival and singular noun, previously spelled "L'nu"; the plural is Lnk, Lnuk, Lnug, orLng) is the term the Mi'kmaq use for themselves, their autonym, meaning "human being" or "thepeople".[17]

Various explanations exist for the origin of the term Mi'kmaq. The Mi'kmaw Resource Guide states that"Mi'kmaq" means "the family":

The definite article "the" suggests that "Mi'kmaq" is the undeclined form indicated by theinitial letter "m". When declined in the singular it reduces to the following forms: nikmaq -my family; kikmaq - your family; wikma - his/her family. The variant form Mi'kmaw playstwo grammatical roles: 1) It is the singular of Mi'kmaq and 2) it is an adjective incircumstances where it precedes a noun (e.g. mi'kmaw people, mi'kmaw treaties, mi'kmawperson, etc.)[18]

The Anishinaabe refer to the Mi'kmaq as Miijimaa(g), meaning "The Brother(s)/Ally(ies)", with the useof the nX prefix m-, opposed to the use of n1 prefix n- (i.e. Niijimaa(g), "my brother(s)/comrade(s)") orthe n3 prefix w- (i.e. Wiijimaa(g), "brother(s)/compatriot(s)/comrade(s)").[19]

Other hypotheses include the following:

The name "Micmac" was first recorded in a memoir by de La Chesnaye in 1676. Professor


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Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing, 1866

Ganong in a footnote to the word megamingo (earth), as used by Marc Lescarbot, remarked"that it is altogether probable that in this word lies the origin of the name Micmac." Assuggested in this paper on the customs and beliefs of the Micmacs, it would seem thatmegumaagee the name used by the Micmacs, or the Megumawaach, as they calledthemselves, for their land, is from the words megwaak, "red", and magumegek, "on theearth", or as Rand recorded, "red on the earth," megakumegek, "red ground," "red earth."The Micmacs, then, must have thought of themselves as the Red Earth People, or the Peopleof the Red Earth. Others seeking a meaning for the word Micmac have suggested that it isfrom nigumaach, my brother, my friend, a word that was also used as a term of endearmentby a husband for his wife... Still another explanation for the word Micmac suggested byStansbury Hagar in "Micmac Magic and Medicine" is that the word megumawaach is frommegumoowesoo, the name of the Micmacs' legendary master magicians, from whom theearliest Micmac wizards are said to have received their power.[20]

Members of the Mi'kmaq historically referred to themselves as Lnu, but used the term nkmaq (my kin)as a greeting.[21] The French initially referred to the Mi'kmaq as Souriquois"[22] and later as Gaspesiensor (through English) "Mickmakis". The British originally referred to them as Tarrantines.[23]

HistoryPre-contact cultureArchaeologist Dean Snow states that the fairly deep linguisticsplit between the Mi'kmaq and the Eastern Algonquians to thesouthwest, suggests the Mi'kmaq developed an independentprehistoric sequence emphasizing maritime orientation, as thearea had relatively few major river systems.[24] According toethnologist T. J. Brasser, with a climate unfavorable foragriculture, small semi-nomadic bands of a few patrilineallyrelated families subsisted on fishing and hunting. Their weaklydeveloped leadership did not extend beyond hunting parties.[25]

Food and hunting

The Mi'kmaq lived in an annual cycle of seasonal movement between living in dispersed interior wintercamps and larger coastal communities during the summer. The spawning runs of March began theconvergence on smelt spawning streams. This was followed by harvesting spawning herring, gatheringwaterfowl eggs, and hunting geese. By May the seashore offered abundant cod and shellfish, and coastalbreezes brought relief from the biting black flies, stouts, midges and mosquitoes of the interior. Autumnfrost killed the biting insects during the September harvest of spawning American eels, allowingdispersal back into the interior in smaller groups to hunt moose and caribou.[26] The most importantanimal hunted by the Mi'kmaq was the moose, which was used in every part: for example, the meat wasprocessed for food, the skin for clothing, tendons and sinew for cordage, bones for carving and tools.


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Other animals hunted/trapped included deer, caribou, bear, rabbit, beaver, porcupine and small animals.Bear teeth and claws were used in regalia. Porcupine quills were used in decorative beadwork done bywomen. The weapon used most for hunting was the bow and arrow. The Mi'kmaq made their bows frommaple. The Mi'kmaq people would store lobsters in the ground for later consumption.The Mikmaq atefish of all kinds, such as salmon, sturgeon, lobster, squid, shellfish, and eels, as well as seabirds and theireggs. They hunted marine mammals: porpoises, whales, walrus, and seals.[27]

Hunting a moose

Throughout the Maritimes moose was the most important animal to the Mi'kmaq. It was their secondmain source of meat, clothing and cordage, which were all crucial commodities. The Mi'kmaq usuallyhunted moose in groups of 3 to 5 men. Before the moose hunt, the Mi'kmaq would starve their dogs fortwo days to make them fierce in helping to finish off the moose. To kill the moose, they would injure itfirst, by using a bow and arrow or other weapons. After it was down, they would move in to finish it offwith spears and their dogs. The guts would be fed to the dogs. During this whole process, the men wouldtry to direct the moose in the direction of the camp, so that the women would not have to go as far todrag the moose back. A boy became a man in the eyes of the community after he had killed his firstmoose. It was only then that he earned the right to marry. Once moose were introduced to the island ofNewfoundland, the practice of hunting moose with dogs was used in the Bay of Islands region of theprovince.

First contactsThe Mi'kmaq territory was the first portion of North America to be heavily exploited for Europeanresource extraction. Reports by John Cabot and Portuguese explorers encouraged visits by Portuguese,Spanish, Basque, French, and English fishermen and whalers beginning in the early years of the 16thcentury. Early European fishermen salted their catch at sea and sailed directly home; but they set upcamps ashore for dry-curing cod as early as 1520; this became the preferred preservation method duringthe second half of the century.[28] These camps traded with Mi'kmaq fishermen; and trading rapidlyexpanded to include furs.

Trading furs for European trade goods changed Mi'kmaq social perspectives. Desire for trade goodsencouraged the men devoting a larger portion of the year away from the coast trapping in the interior.Trapping non-migratory animals, such as beaver, increased awareness of territoriality. Trader preferencesfor good harbors resulted in greater numbers of Mi'kmaq gathering in fewer summer rendezvouslocations. This in turn encouraged their establishing larger bands led by the ablest trade negotiators.[29]

Geography

The Mi'kmaq territory was divided into seven traditional districts. Each district had its own independentgovernment and boundaries. The independent governments had a district chief and a council. Thecouncil members were band chiefs, elders, and other worthy community leaders. The district councilwas charged with performing all the duties of any independent and free government by enacting laws,justice, apportioning fishing and hunting grounds, making war and suing for peace.


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Mi'kmaq encampment, Sydney, CapeBreton Island

The Seven Mi'kmaq districts are :

Epekwitk aq Piktuk (Epegwitg aq Pigtug)Eskikewa'kik (Esge'gewa'gi)Kespek (Gespe'gewa'gi)Kespukwitk (Gespugwitg)Siknikt (Signigtewa'gi)Sipekni'katik (Sugapune'gati)Unama'kik (Unama'gi)

Note : The orthography between parentheses is the one used in the Gespe'gewa'gi area.

In addition to the district councils, there was a Grand Council or Sant Mawimi. The Grand Councilwas composed of Keptinaq (captains in English), who were the district chiefs. There were also Elders,the Puts (Wampum belt readers and historians, who also dealt with the treaties with the non-natives andother Native tribes), the women's council, and the Grand Chief. The Grand Chief was a title given to oneof the district chiefs, who was usually from the Mi'kmaq district of Unamki or Cape Breton Island. Thistitle was hereditary and usually passed on to the Grand Chief's eldest son. The Grand Council met on alittle island on the Bras d'Or lake in Cape Breton called Mniku. Today the site is within the reserve calledChapel Island or Potlotek. To this day, the Grand Council still meets at Mniku to discuss current issueswithin the Mi'kmaq Nation.

Housing

Mi'kmaq people lived in structures called wigwams. They cutdown saplings, which were usually spruce, and curved them overa circle drawn on the ground. These saplings were lashedtogether at the top, and then covered with birch bark. TheMi'kmaq had two different sizes of wigwams. The smaller sizecould hold 10-15 people and the larger size 15-20 people.Wigwams could be either conical or domed in shape.

On June 24, 1610, Grand Chief Membertou converted toCatholicism and was baptised. He concluded an alliance with theFrench Jesuits which affirmed the right of Mi'kmaq to chooseCatholicism and\or Mi'kmaw tradition. The Mi'kmaq, as tradingallies with the French, were amenable to limited Frenchsettlement in their midst.

17th and 18th centuries

Colonial wars

In the wake of King Phillips War between English colonists and Native Americans in southern NewEngland (which included the first military conflict between the Mi'kmaq and New England), theMi'kmaq became members of the Wapnki (Wabanaki Confederacy), an alliance with four other


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Mi'kmaq at Turtle Grove (TuftsCove) settlement, Dartmouth, NovaScotia, ca. 1871.

Mi'kmaq People (1865)

Algonquian-language nations: the Abenaki, Penobscot,Passamaquoddy, and Maliseet.[30]

The Wabanaki Confederacy were allied with French colonists inAcadia. Over a period of seventy-five years, during six wars inMi'kma'ki (Acadia and Nova Scotia), the Mi'kmaq fought to keepthe British from taking over the region (See the four French andIndian Wars as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre'sWar). France lost military control of Acadia in 1710, andpolitical claim (apart from Cape Breton) by the 1713 Treaty ofUtrecht with England. But, the M'kmaq were not included in thetreaty and never conceded any land to the British.

In 1715 the Mi'kmaq were told that the British now claimed theirancient territory by the Treaty of Utrecht, which the Mi'kmaqwere no party to. They formally complained to the Frenchcommander at Louisbourg about the French king transferring thesovereignty of their nation when he did not possess it. They wereonly then informed that the French had claimed legal possessionof their country for a century, on account of laws decreed bykings in Europe, that no land could be legally owned by anynon-Christian, and that such land was therefore freely availableto any Christian prince who claimed it. Mi'kmaw historianDaniel Paul observes that

If this warped law were ever to be accorded recognition bymodern legalists they would have to take intoconsideration that, after Grand Chief Membertou and hisfamily converted to Christianity in 1610, the land of theMi'kmaq had become exempt from being seized becausethe people were Christians. However, it's hard to imaginethat a modern government would fall back and try to usesuch uncivilized garbage as justification fornon-recognition of aboriginal title.[31]

Along with Acadians, the Mi'kmaq used military force to resist the founding of British (Protestant)settlements by making numerous raids on Halifax, Dartmouth, Lawrencetown and Lunenburg. Duringthe French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years' War between France andBritain in Europe, the Mi'kmaq assisted the Acadians in resisting the British during the Expulsion. Themilitary resistance was reduced significantly with the French defeat at the Siege of Louisbourg (1758) inCape Breton.

Treaties


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Mi'kmaq People (1873)

The M'kmaq signed a series of peace and friendship treaties with Great Britain. The first was afterFather Rale's War (1725). The nation historically consisted of seven districts, which was later expandedto eight with the ceremonial addition of Great Britain at the time of the 1749 treaty.

Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope signed a Peace Treaty in 1752 on behalf of the Shubenacadie Mi'kmaq.[32]With the signing of various treaties, the 75 years of regular warfare ended in 1761 with the Burying theHatchet ceremony.

According to historian John G. Reid, although the treaties of 1760-61 contain statements of Mi'kmawsubmission to the British crown, he believes that the Mi'kmaw intended a friendly and reciprocalrelationship. This is based on what is known of the surrounding discussions, combined with the strongevidence of later Mi'kmaw statements. The Mi'kmaw leaders who represented their people in the Halifaxnegotiations in 1760 had clear goals: to make peace, establish secure and well-regulated trade incommodities such as furs, and begin an ongoing friendship with the British crown. In return, theyoffered their own friendship and a tolerance of limited British settlement, although without any formalland surrender.[33] To fulfill the reciprocity intended by the Mi'kmaq, any additional British settlement ofland would have to be negotiated, and accompanied by giving presents to the Mi'kmaq. (There was along history of the French giving Mi'kmaq people presents to be accommodated on their land, startingwith the first colonial contact.) The documents summarizing the peace agreements failed to establishspecific territorial limits on the expansion of British settlements, but assured the Mikmaq of access tothe natural resources that had long sustained them along the regions coasts and in the woods. Theirconceptions of land use were quite different. The Mi'kmaq believed they could share the land, with theBritish growing crops, and their people hunting as usual and getting to the coast for seafood.[34]

The arrival of the New England Planters and United EmpireLoyalists in greater number put pressure on land use and thetreaties. This migration into the region created significanteconomic, environmental and cultural pressures on the Mi'kmaq.The Mi'kmaq tried to enforce the treaties through threat of force.At the beginning of the American Revolution, many Mikmaqand Maliseet tribes supported the Americans against the British.They participated in the Maugerville Rebellion and the Battle ofFort Cumberland in 1776. (M'kmaq delegates concluded the firstinternational treaty, the Treaty of Watertown, with the United

States soon after it declared its independence in July 1776. These delegates did not officially representthe Mi'kmaq government, although many individual Mi'kmaq did privately join the Continental army asa result.) In June 1779, Mikmaq in the Miramichi valley of New Brunswick attacked and plunderedsome of the British in the area. The following month, British Captain Augustus Harvey, in command ofthe HMS Viper, arrived and battled with the Mikmaq. One Mikmaq was killed and 16 were takenprisoner to Quebec. The prisoners were eventually taken to Halifax. They were released on 28 July 1779after signing the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown.[35][36]

As their military power waned in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Mi'kmaq people madeexplicit appeals to the British to honour the treaties and reminded them of their duty to give "presents" tothe Mi'kmaq in order to occupy Mi'kma'ki. In response, the British offered charity or, the word mostoften used by government officials, "relief". The British said the Mi'kmaq must give up their way of life


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Grand Chief Jacques-Pierre PeminuitPaul (3rd from left with beard) meetsGovernor General of Canada,Marquess of Lorne, Red Chamber,Province House, Halifax, NovaScotia, 1879

and begin to settle on farms. Also, they were told they had to send their children to British schools foreducation.[37]

The Treaties did not gain legal status until they were enshrined into the Canadian Constitution in 1982.Every October 1, "Treaty Day" is now celebrated by Nova Scotians.

Burials

During this time period two colonial figures were honoured at their deaths by the Mi'kmaq. Two hundredMi'kmaq chanted their death song at the burial of Governor Michael Francklin.[38] They also celebratedthe life of Pierre Maillard.[39]

19th century

Royal Acadian School

Walter Bromley was a British officer and reformer whoestablished the Royal Acadian School and supported theMi'kmaq over the thirteen years he lived in Halifax, Nova Scotia(1813-1725).[40] Bromley devoted himself to the service of theMikmaq people.[41] The Mi'kmaq were among the poor ofHalifax and in the rural communities. According to historianJudith Finguard, his contribution to give public exposure to theplight of the Mikmaq particularly contributes to his historicalsignificance. Finguard writes:

Bromleys attitudes towards the Indians were singularlyenlightened for his day. Bromley totally dismissed theidea that native people were naturally inferior and set outto encourage their material improvement throughsettlement and agriculture, their talents through education,and their pride through his own study of theirlanguages.[40]

MicMac Missionary Society

Silas Tertius Rand in 1849 help found the Micmac Missionary Society, a full-time Mi'kmaq mission.Basing his work in Hantsport, Nova Scotia, where he lived from 1853 until his death in 1889, hetravelled widely among Mi'kmaq communities, spreading the faith, learning the language, and recordingexamples of the Mi'kmaq oral tradition. Rand produced scriptural translations in Mi'kmaq and Maliseet,compiled a Mi'kmaq dictionary and collected numerous legends, and through his published work, wasthe first to introduce the stories of Glooscap to the wider world. The mission was dissolved in 1870.After a long period of disagreement with the Baptist church, he eventually returned to the church in


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Mi'kmaq making hockey sticks fromhornbeam trees (Ostrya virginiana) inNova Scotia about 1890.

1885.

Mic-Mac hockey sticks

The Mi'kmaq practice of playing hockey appeared in recordedcolonial histories from as early as the 18th century. Since thenineteenth century, the Mi'kmaq were credited with inventing theice hockey stick.[42] The oldest known hockey stick was madebetween 1852 and 1856. Recently, it was appraised at $4 millionUS and sold for $2.2 million US. The stick was carved byMikmaq from Nova Scotia, who made it from hornbeam, alsoknown as ironwood.[43]

In 1863, the Starr Manufacturing Company in Dartmouth, NovaScotia began to sell the Mic-Mac hockey sticks nationally andinternationally.[44] Hockey became a popular sport in Canada in

the 1890s.[45] Throughout the first decade of the twentieth century, the Mic-Mac Hockey Stick was thebest-selling hockey stick in Canada. By 1903, apart from farming, the principal occupation of theMi'kmaq on reserves throughout Nova Scotia, and particularly on the Shubenacadie, Indian Brook andMillbrook Reserves, was producing the Mic-Mac Hockey Stick.[44] The department of Indian Affairs forNova Scotia noted in 1927, that the Mi'kmaq remained the "experts" at making hockey sticks.[46] TheMi'kmaq continued to make hockey sticks until the 1930s, when the product was industrialized.[47]

20th and 21st centuriesJerry Lonecloud (18541930) worked with historian and archivist Harry Piers to document theethnography of the Mi'kmaq people in the early 20th century. Lonecloud wrote the first Mi'kmaqmemoir, which his biographer entitled "Tracking Dr. Lonecloud: Showman to Legend Keeper".[48]Historian Ruth Holmes Whitehead wrote, "Ethnographer of the Micmac nation could rightly have beenhis epitaph, his final honour."[49]

World Wars

In 1914, over 150 Mi'kmaw men sign up during World War I. During the First World War, thirty-four outof sixty-four male Mikmaq from Lennox Island First Nation, Prince Edward Island enlisted in thearmed forces, distinguishing themselves particularly in the Battle of Amiens.[50] In 1939, World War IIbegins and over 250 Mi'kmaq volunteer. (In 1950, over 60 Mi'kmaq enlist to serve in the Korean War.)

Treaty Day

Gabriel Sylliboy was the first Mi'kmaq elected as Grand Chief (1919) and the first to fight for treatyrecognition - specifically, the Treaty of 1752 - in the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia (1929).

In 1986, the first Treaty Day was celebrated by Nova Scotians on October 1 in recognition of the


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Chief Gabriel Sylliboy - first to fight for TreatyRights in the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1929

Monument to the Treaty of 1752, ShubenacadieFirst Nation, Nova Scotia

Treaties signed between the British Empire and theMi'kmaq people. The first treaty was signed in 1725after Father Rale's War. The final treaties of 1760-61, marked the end of 75 years of regular warfarebetween the Mi'kmaq and the British (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale's Warand Father Le Loutre's War). The treaty making process of 1760-61, ended with the Burying the Hatchetceremony (Nova Scotia) (1761).

The treaties were only formally recognized by the Supreme Court of Canada once they were enshrinedin the Canadian Constitution in 1982. The first Treaty Day occurred the year after the Supreme Courtupheld the Peace Treaty of 1752 signed by Jean-Baptiste Cope and Governor Peregrine Hopson. Sincethat time there have been numerous judicial decisions that have upheld the other treaties in the SupremeCourt, the most recognized being the Donald Marshall case.

Tripartite Forum

In 1997, the Mi'kmaq-Nova Scotia-Canada Tripartite Forum was established. On August 31, 2010, thegovernments of Canada and Nova Scotia signed a historic agreement with the Mi'kmaq Nation,establishing a process whereby the federal government must consult with the Mi'kmaq Grand Councilbefore engaging in any activities or projects that affect the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia. This covers most, ifnot all, actions these governments might take within that jurisdiction. This is the first such collaborativeagreement in Canadian history including all the First Nations within an entire province.[51]

Mikmaq Kina matnewey

The Nova Scotia government and the Mikmaq community have made the Mikmaq Kina matnewey,which is the most successful First Nation Education Program in Canada.[52][53] In 1982, the firstMikmaq operated school opened in Nova Scotia.[54] By 1997, all education for Mikmaq on reserveswere given the responsibility for their own education.[55] There are now 11 band run schools in NovaScotia.[56] Now Nova Scotia has the highest rate of retention of aboriginal students in schools in thecountry.[56] More than half the teachers are Mikmaq.[56] From 2011 to 2012 there was a 25% increaseof Mikmaq students going to university. Atlantic Canada has the highest rate of aboriginal students


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A dancer in the Mi'kmaq celebration

attending university in the country.[57][58]

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

In 2005, Nova Scotian Mi'kmaq Nora Bernard led the largest class-action lawsuit in Canadian history,representing an estimated 79,000 survivors of the Canadian Indian residential school system. TheCanadian government settled the lawsuit for upwards of 5 billion dollars.[59]

On June 11, 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper made an apology to the residential schoolsurvivors.[60]

In the Fall of 2011 there was an Indian Residential Schools Truth and Reconciliation Commission thattravelled to various communities in Atlantic Canada, who were all served by the Shubenacadie IndianResidential School. For 37 years (1930-1967), 10% of Mi'kmaq children attended the institution.[61]

CelebrationsIn the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador, October is celebrated asMi'kmaq History Month. The entire Mi'kmaq Nation celebrates Treaty Day annually on October 1. Thiswas date when the Peace and Friendship Treaty of 1752 was signed by Jean-Baptiste Cope ofShubenacadie and the king's representative. It was stated that the natives would be given giftsannually,"as long as they continued in Peace."[62]

HerbalismThey use the leaves of Ranunculus acris for headaches.[63]

Religion and folkloreMany Mi'kmaq practice the Catholic faith, some only practicetraditional Mi'kmaq religion, while many have adopted bothreligions.[64] There is one myth [source required] explaining thatthe Mi'kmaq once believed that evil and wickedness among menis what causes them to kill each other. This causes great sorrowto the creator-sun-god, who weeps tears that become rainssufficient to trigger a deluge. The people attempt to survive theflood by traveling in bark canoes, but only a single old man andwoman survive to populate the earth.[65]

The Mi'kmaq people had three levels of oral traditions: religiousmyths, legends, and folklore. Myths are used to tell the stories of the earliest possible time, whichincludes their creation stories. Other myths account for the organization of the world and society; forinstance, how men and women were created and why they are different from one another. These mythswere powerful symbolically and as the expression of how things came to be and should be. The most


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well known Mi'kmaq myth is of Glooscap.

Legends are oral traditions related to particular places. Legends can involve the recent or distant past,but are most important in linking people and specific places in the land.

The people also tell folktales, which involve all the people. They are understood to be fictional. Thesetraditional tales also give moral or social lessons to youth, and are told for amusement about the waypeople are. Good storytellers were highly prized by the Mi'kmaq,[66] as they are in every culture, whichdevelop many means to tell their stories.

Spiritual sitesOne spiritual capital of the Mi'kmaq nation is Mniku, the gathering place of the Mkmaq Grand Councilor Sant Mawimi, Chapel Island in Bras d'Or Lake of Nova Scotia. The island is also the site of the St.Anne Mission, an important pilgrimage site for the Mi'kmaq (Robinson 2005). The island has beendeclared a historic site.[67]

First Nation subdivisionsMi'kmaw names in the following table are spelled according to several orthographies. The Mi'kmaworthographies in use are Mkmaw pictographs, the orthography of Silas Tertius Rand, the Pacifiqueorthography, and the most recent Smith-Francis orthography. The latter has been adopted throughoutNova Scotia and in most Mi'kmaw communities.


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Community Province/State Town/Reserve Est.Pop. Mi'kmaq name

Abegweit FirstNation

Prince EdwardIsland

Scotchfort, RockyPoint, Morell 396 Epekwitk

Acadia First Nation Nova Scotia Yarmouth 996 MalikiaqAnnapolis ValleyFirst Nation Nova Scotia Cambridge Station 219 Kampalijek

Aroostook Band ofMicmac Maine Presque Isle 920 Ulustuk

Bear River FirstNation Nova Scotia Bear River 272 Lsetkuk

Buctouche FirstNation New Brunswick Buctouche 80 Puktusk

Burnt Church FirstNation New Brunswick Esgenopetitj 14 1,488 Eskinuopitijk

Chapel Island FirstNation Nova Scotia Chapel Island 576 Potlotek

Eel Ground FirstNation New Brunswick Eel Ground 844 Natuaqanek

Eel River Bar FirstNation New Brunswick Eel River Bar 589 Ugpi'gangij

Elsipogtog FirstNation New Brunswick Big Cove 3000+ Lsipuktuk

Eskasoni FirstNation Nova Scotia Eskasoni 3,800+ Wkistoqnik

Fort Folly FirstNation New Brunswick Dorchester 105

AmlamkukKwesawk

Micmacs ofGesgapegiag Quebec Gesgapegiag 1,174 Keskapekiaq

Nation Micmac deGespeg Quebec Fontenelle 490 Kespk

Glooscap FirstNation Nova Scotia Hantsport 360 Pesikitk

Indian Island FirstNation New Brunswick Indian Island 145 Lnui Menikuk

Lennox Island FirstNation

Prince EdwardIsland Lennox Island 700 Lnui Mnikuk


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Year Population Verification1500 4,500 Estimation1600 3,000 Estimation1700 2,000 Estimation1750 3,000 Estimation1800 3,100 Estimation1900 4,000 Census

Community Province/State Town/Reserve Est.Pop. Mi'kmaq name

Listuguj Mi'gmaqFirst Nation Quebec

Listuguj Mi'gmaq FirstNation 3,166 Listikujk

Membertou FirstNation Nova Scotia Sydney 1,051 Maupeltuk

MetepenagiagMi'kmaq Nation New Brunswick Red Bank 527 Metepnkiaq

Miawpukek FirstNation

Newfoundland andLabrador Conne River 2,366 Miawpukwek

Qalipu First Nation Newfoundland andLabradorNewfoundland andLabrador 21,429

[5] Qalipu[68][69]

Millbrook FirstNation Nova Scotia Truro 1400 Wkopekwitk

Pabineau FirstNation New Brunswick Bathurst 214 Kkwapskuk

Paq'tnkek FirstNation Nova Scotia Afton 500 Paqtnkek

Pictou Landing FirstNation Nova Scotia Trenton 547 Puksaqtknkatik

Indian Brook FirstNation Nova Scotia

Indian Brook(Shubenacadie) 2,120 Sipeknkatik

Wagmatcook FirstNation Nova Scotia Wagmatcook 623 Waqmitkuk

Waycobah FirstNation Nova Scotia Whycocomagh 900 Wkoqmq

DemographicsThe pre-contact population is estimated at 3,000-30,000.[70] In 1616,Father Biard believed the Mi'kmaq population to be in excess of 3,000,but he remarked that, because of European diseases, there had beenlarge population losses during the 16th century. Smallpox and otherendemic European infectious diseases, to which the Mi'kmaq had noimmunity, wars and alcoholism led to a further decline of the nativepopulation. It reached its lowest point in the middle of the 17thcentury. Then the numbers grew slightly again, before becomingapparently stable during the 19th century. During the 20th century, thepopulation was on the rise again. The average growth from 1965 to1970 was about 2.5%.


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1940 5,000 Census1960 6,000 Census1972 10,000 Census1998 15,000 SIL2006 20,000 Census

CommemorationsThe Mi'kmaq people have been commemorated in numerous ways,including the HMCS Micmac (R10), and place names such as LakeMicmac, and the Mic Mac Mall.[71]

Notable Mi'kmaqAcademics

Pamela Palmater, professor at Ryerson University

ActivistsAnnie Mae Pictou Aquash, activist (19461976)Nora Bernard, Canadian Indian residential school system activistDonald Marshall, Jr., wrongly convicted of murderDaniel N. Paul, Elder, author, tribal historian, columnist, and human rights activistGabriel Sylliboy, Grand Chief of the Mi'kmaq Nation, 1918 to 1964

ArtistsAlice Azure, poetNatasha Henstridge, actorRita Joe, poet

AthletesChad Denny, ice hockey player for the Lewiston MAINEiacs and Atlanta Thrashers drafteeSandy McCarthy, played for the Calgary Flames ice hockey teamEverett Sanipass, played for the Quebec Nordiques ice hockey team

Militarytienne Btard (18th century)Chief Jean-Baptiste CopeJoseph Francis, Vietnam War Veteran, Bronze Star with the Combat V for valour, Purple Heart forbeing wounded in combat, enrolled in the National Purple Heart Hall of Fame[72]Sam GloadeDonald M. Julien[73]Paul Laurent[74]Private Joe Tuplin, Distinguished Conduct Medal, Military Medal[72]

Other


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Peter Paul Toney Babey, a Mi'kmaq chiefIndian Joe, a scout around the time of the American Revolutionary WarNoel Jeddore, Saqmaw forced into exile (18651944)Noel Knockwood, Grand Council member and spiritual leader of the Mi'kmaq peopleJerry Lonecloud, entertainer, ethnographer and medicine manHenri Membertou, Grand Chief and spiritual leader (c.1525-1611)Lawrence Paul, a chief of Millbrook First Nation

MapsMaps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of the Wabanaki Confederacy(from north to south):

Mi'kmaq

Maliseet,Passamaquoddy

Eastern Abenaki(Penobscot, Kennebec,Arosaguntacook,Pigwacket/Pequawket)

Western Abenaki(Arsigantegok,Missisquoi, Cowasuck,Sokoki, Pennacook

In popular cultureThe history of the Mi'kmaq feature in the Syfy television series Haven.

The Mi'kmaq are mentioned as well in Stephen King's novel Pet Semetary.

See alsoList of Grand ChiefsMilitary history of Nova ScotiaSilas Tertius RandTarrantine

NotesFlags of the World (http://flagspot.net/flags/ca_micmc.html)

1. Native Languages of the Americas: Mi'kmaq(Mi'kmawi'simk, Mi'kmaw, Micmac, Mkmaq)

2.


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(http://www.native-languages.org/mikmaq.htm)Lockerby, E. (2004). "Ancient MikmaqCustoms: A Shaman's Revelations." TheCanadian Journal of Native Studies, 24(2),403-423. see note 2

3.

Sock, S., & Paul-Gould, S. (2011). Best Practicesand Challenges in Mikmaq andMaliseet/Wolastoqi Language ImmersionPrograms.

4.

"Programs and Services" (http://qalipu.ca/membership-programs-and-services/membership). Qalipu.ca.

5.

http://www.thewesternstar.com/News/Local/2013-01-17/article-3158443/Protest-against-Qalipu-application-process-planned-for-Monday/1. Western Star, 13 Jan. 2013. Web. 3Mar. 2013.

6.

Indigenous Languages Spoken in the UnitedStates (http://www.yourdictionary.com/elr/natlang.html)

7.

Statistics Canada 2006 (http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89189&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=705&Temporal=2006&Theme=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928)

8.

http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/story/2012/10/04/nl-qalipu-mikmaq-membership-claims-1004.html

9.

Sheppard, Brendan (17 January 2013). "Updateon Enrolment Process" (http://qalipu.ca/). QalipuMi'kmaq First Nation Band.

10.

Sheppard, Brendan (January 2014). "Messagefrom the Chief" (http://qalipu.ca/site/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Message-from-the-Chief-January-2014.pdf) (PDF). Qalipu.ca. Retrieved27 September 2014.

11.

"Government of Canada announces creation ofQalipu Mi'kmaq First Nation Band"(http://www.marketwatch.com/story/government-of-canada-announces-the-creation-of-the-qalipu-mikmaq-first-nation-band-2011-09-26), MarketWatch, 26 September 2011

12.

"Qalipu Mi'kmaq - First Nation Band"(http://www.qalipu.com/). Qalipu.ca. Retrieved1 February 2015.

13.

Emmanuel Metallic et al., 2005, The MetallicMgmaq-English Reference Dictionary

14.

Anne-Christine Hornborg, Mi'kmaq Landscapes(2008), p. 3

15.

"It is now the preferred choice of our People."Daniel Paul, We Were Not the Savages, 2000, p.10

16.

The Nova Scotia Museum's Mkmaq Portraitsdatabase (http://museum.gov.ns.c/mikmaq/)

17.

Mi'kmaw Resource Guide, Eastern WoodlandsPublishing (1997)

18.

Weshki-ayaad, Lippert, Gambill (2009). FreelangOjibwe Dictionary

19.

cited in Paul to Marion Robertson, Red Earth:Tales of the Micmac, with an introduction to theircustoms and beliefs (1965) p. 5.

20.

Johnston, A. J. B. (2013). Ni'n na L'nu: TheMi'kmaq of Prince Edward Island. Acorn Press.p. 96.

21.

Relations des Jsuites de la Nouvelle-France22. Lydia Affleck and Simon White. "Our Language"(http://www.peicaps.org/betweengen/circle/language.html). Native Traditions. Retrieved2006-11-08.

23.

Snow, p.6924. Brasser, p.7825. Bock, pp.109&11026. [1] (http://museum.gov.ns.ca/)27. Brasser, pp.79&8028. Brasser, pp.83&8429. The allied tribes occupied the territory which theFrench named Acadia. The tribes ranged frompresent-day northern and eastern New England inthe United States to the Maritime Provinces ofCanada. At the time of contact with the French(late 16th century), they were expanding fromtheir maritime base westward along the GaspPeninsula /St. Lawrence River at the expense ofIroquoian-speaking tribes. The Mi'kmaq name forthis peninsula was Kespek (meaning "last-acquired").

30.

Daniel Paul, We Were Not the Savages pp 74-75.31. Historian William Wicken notes that there iscontroversy about this assertion. While there areclaims that Cope made the treaty on behalf of allthe Mi'kmaq, there is no written documentation tosupport this assertion (See William Wicken.Mi'kmaq Treaties on Trial: History, Land, andDonald Marshall Jr, University of Toronto Press,2002, p. 184)

32.

John Reid. Nova Scotia: A Pocket History,Fernwood Press. 2009. p. 23

33.

Plank, Unsettled Conquest, p. 16334. Sessional papers, Volume 5 By Canada.Parliament July 2 - September 22, 1779; WilfredBrenton Kerr. The Maritime Provinces of BritishNorth America and the American Revolution(http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?id_nbr=2486;), p. 96

35.


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Among the annual festivals of the old times, nowylost, was the celebration of St. Aspinquid's Day;he was known as the Indian Saint. St. Aspinquidappeared in the Nova Scotia almanacks from1774 to 1786. The festival was celebrated on orimmediately after the last quarter of the moon inthe month of May, when the tide was low. Thetownspeople assembled on the shore of the NorthWest Arm and shared a dish of clam soup, theclams being collected on the spot at low water.There is a tradition that in 1786, soon after theAmerican Revolutionary War, when there werethreats of American invasion of Canada, agents ofthe US were trying to recruit supporters inHalifax. As people were celebrating St.Aspinquid with wine, they suddenly hauled downthe Union Jack and replaced it with the Stars andStripes [US flag]. This was soon reversed, butpublic officials quickly left, and St. Aspinquidwas never after celebrated at Halifax. (See Akins.History of Halifax, p. 218, note 94)

36.

Reid. p. 2637. Memoir of Michael Franklin Collections of theNova Scotia Historical Society, p. 38(http://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov16novauoft#page/n87/mode/2up)

38.

"Burial celebration of Pierre Maillard"(http://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov01novauoft#page/n49/mode/1up), Collections of the Nova Scotia HistoricalSociety. Vol. 1, p. 44

39.

Walter Bromley - Canadian Biography(http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/bromley_walter_7E.html)

40.

Thomas Atkins. History of Halifax. p. 159(https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofnov07novauoft#page/158/mode/2up/search/indians)

41.

Brian Cutherbertson, "The Starr ManufacturingCompany: Skate Exporter to the World", Journalof the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol.8, 2005, p. 60

42.

[2] (http://www.odec.ca/projects/2008/chon8n2/)43. Brian Cutherbertson The Starr ManufacturingCompany: Skate Exporter to the World. Journalof the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol.8, 2005, p. 61

44.

Cutherbertson, p. 5845. Cutherbertson (2005), "The Starr ManufacturingCompany", p. 73

46.

Cutherbertson (2005), "The Starr ManufacturingCompany", p. 63

47.

http://novascotia.ca/news/release/?id=20021011009

48.

Canadian Biography On Line(http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=8249)

49.

http://www.mmnn.ca/2013/12/in-our-words-stories-of-veterans/

50.

"Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia, Province of NovaScotia and Canada Sign Landmark Agreement"(http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Mikmaq-of-Nova-Scotia-Province-of-Nova-Scotia-and-Canada-Sign-Landmark-Agreement-1311913.htm), Market Wire, August 2010

51.

Chris Benjamin. Indian School Road: Legacies ofthe Shubenacadie Residential School. NimbusPress. 2014, p. 226

52.

[Mikmaq Kina matnewey http://kinu.ca/]53. Benjamin, p. 20854. Benjamin, p. 21055. Benjamin, p. 21156. Benjamin, p. 21457. http://thechronicleherald.ca/novascotia/1244586-number-of-mi-kmaq-graduates-continues-to-rise

58.

Halifax Daily News article on Bernard in 2006(http://www.apmlawyers.com/news-54.htm)Archived at Arnold Pizzo McKiggan

59.

Benjamin, p. 19060. Benjamin, p. 19561. Treaty of 1752 (http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/al/hts/tgu/pubs/pft1752/pft1752-eng.asp)

62.

Chandler, R. Frank, Lois Freeman and Shirley N.Hooper 1979 Herbal Remedies of the MaritimeIndians. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1:49-68(p. 60)

63.

(Robinson 2005)64. Canada's First Nations - Native Creation Myths(http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firstnations/mikmaq.html), University of Calgary

65.

[3] (http://www.muiniskw.org/)66. CBCnews. Cape Breton Mkmaq site recognized(http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2005/07/31/chapel-island050731.html)

67.

'Government of Canada Announces the Creationof the Qalipu First Nation Band' by Marketwirehttp://www.marketwatch.com/story/government-of-canada-announces-the-creation-of-the-qalipu-mikmaq-first-nation-band-2011-09-26

68.

Press Release September 26, 2011http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/26/idUS146921+26-Sep-2011+MW20110926

69.

Dickshovel - Micmac(http://www.dickshovel.com/mic.html)

70.

Bates, George T. (1961). Megumaage: the homeof the Micmacs or the True Men. A map of NovaScotia.

71.


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http://peicanada.com/west_prince_graphic/publication/mikmaq_soldiers_lennox_island_had_distinguished_service

72. Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Government - DonaldJulien (http://lt.gov.ns.ca/media/evenings-government-house/lecture-by-dr.-donald-m.-julien-the-involvement-and-sacrifices-of-mikmaq-in)

73.

http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/laurent_paul_3E.html

74.

ReferencesBock, Philip K. (1978). "Micmac". In Trigger, Bruce G. Handbook of North American Indians.Vol. 15. Northeast. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 109122.Brasser, T.J. (1978). "Early Indian-European Contacts". In Trigger, Bruce G. Handbook of NorthAmerican Indians. Vol. 15. Northeast. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 7888.Davis, Stephen A. (1998). Mkmaq: Peoples of the Maritimes. Nimbus Publishing.Joe, Rita; Choyce, Lesley (2005). The Mkmaq Anthology. Nimbus Publishing.ISBN 1-895900-04-2.Johnston, A.J.B.; Francis, Jesse (2013). Ni'n na L'nu: The Mi'kmaq of Prince Edward Island.Charlottetown: Acorn Press. ISBN 978-1-894838-93-1.Magocsi, Paul Robert, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. Toronto: University ofToronto Press.Paul, Daniel N. (2000). We Were Not the Savages: A Mkmaq Perspective on the CollisionBetween European and Native American Civilizations. Fernwood Pub.Prins, Harald E. L. (1996). The Mkmaq: Resistance, Accommodation, and Cultural Survival. CaseStudies in Cultural Anthropology. Wadsworth.Robinson, Angela (2005). Tn Teli-Ktlamsitasit (Ways of Believing): Mkmaw Religion inEskasoni, Nova Scotia. Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-177067-5.Snow, Dean R. (1978). "Late Prehistory of the East Coast: Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, andEastern New Brunswick Drainages". In Trigger,Bruce G. Handbook of North American Indians.Vol. 15. Northeast. Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 69.Speck, Frank (1922). Beothuk and Micmac (https://archive.org/details/beothukmicma00spec).Whitehead, Ruth Holmes (2004). The Old Man Told Us: Excerpts from Mkmaq History1500-1950. Nimbus Publishing. ISBN 0-921054-83-1.Wicken, William C. (2002). Mkmaq Treaties on Trial: History, Land, and Donald MarshallJunior. University of Toronto Press.

18th-19th centuriesBromley, Walter (1814). Mr. Bromley's second address, on the deplorable state of the Indiansdelivered in the "Royal Acadian School," at Halifax, in Nova Scotia, March 8, 1814(https://archive.org/details/cihm_20998).Bromley, Walter (1822). An account of the aborigines of Nova Scotia called the Micmac Indians(https://archive.org/details/cihm_57322).Elder, William (January 1, 1871). "The Aborigines of Nova Scotia" (https://archive.org/stream/jstor-25109587/25109587#page/n1/mode/2up). The North American Review.Malliard, Antoine Simon (1758). An account of the customs and manners of the MicMakis and


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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Micmac.

Marichetts Savage Nations (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15567/15567-h/15567-h.htm).Thomas Pichon on Mi'kmaq (http://www.ourroots.ca/e/page.aspx?id=1051975)Piers, Harry (1896). Relics of the stone age in Nova Scotia (https://archive.org/details/cihm_35337).Rand, Silas Tertius (1850). A short statement of facts relating to the history, manners, customs,language, and literature of the Micmac tribe of Indians, in Nova-Scotia and P.E. Island: being thesubstance of two lectures delivered in Halifax, in November, 1819, at public meetings held for thepurpose of instituting a mission to that tribe (https://archive.org/details/cihm_39506).Vetromile, Eugene (1866). The Abnakis and their history: Historical notices on the aborigines ofAcadia (https://archive.org/stream/cihm_33924#page/n7/mode/2up).

Documentary filmOur Lives in Our Hands (Mkmaq basketmakers and potato diggers in northern Maine, 1986) [4](http://www.folkstreams.net/film,94)British Radio Documentary on the Mi'k Maq Community at Millbrook nr Truro Recorded byTerry Mechan June 2012 [5] (http://podcasts.canstream.co.uk/stroud/index.php?id=703)

External linksFirst Nations Profiles (http://sdiprod2.inac.gc.ca/FNProfiles/FNProfiles_home.htm)Qalipu First Nation (http://qalipu.ca/)Micmac History (http://www.dickshovel.com/mic.html)Mkmaq Portraits Collection (http://museum.gov.ns.ca/mikmaq/)Mi'kmaq Language. Mass Historical Society (https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofmas16mass#page/16/mode/2up/search/micmac)Mkmaq Dictionary Online (http://www.mikmaqonline.org/)The Micmac of Megumaagee (http://www.blupete.com/Hist/Gloss/Indians.htm)Mkmaq Learning Resource (http://www.booth.k12.nf.ca/projects/Mi'kmaq/97index.htm)

"Micmacs". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.Unama'ki Institute of Natural Resources (http://www.uinr.ca/)Mi'kmaw Native Friendship Centre (http://www.mymnfc.com/)

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