Alexandria Engineering Journal (2015) 54, 127–140

HO ST E D BY

Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

www.elsevier.com/locate/aejwww.sciencedirect.com

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Microcellulose particles for surface modification

to enhance moisture management properties

of polyester, and polyester/cotton blend fabrics

* Corresponding author.

Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria

University.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2015.03.0011110-0168 ª 2015 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Magdi El Messirya,*, Affaf El Ouffy

b, Marwa Issa

c

a Textile Engineering Textile Dept Faculty of Engineering Alexandria university, Egyptb Textile Engineering Textile Dept Faculty of Engineering Alexandria university, Egyptc Faculty of Engineering Alexandria university, Egypt

Received 13 August 2014; revised 13 January 2015; accepted 8 March 2015Available online 7 April 2015

KEYWORDS

Moisture management;

Humidity comfort;

Wicking;

Diffusion;

Absorption;

Micro-cellulose particles;

Wettability

Abstract In this work we studied the effect of surface treated fabric by applying Microcrystalline

Cellulose (MCC) Particles using two different procedures. The first method was to dissolve MCC

particles and form a MCC solution which further was blended with a textile binder to obtain the

fabric coating. The second treatment was direct blending MCC particles with same textile binder

in order to get the fabric finishing to be sprayed on the fabric surface. The percentage of MCC par-

ticles was chosen 6%, as this ratio can be considered the most appropriate one. The effect of these

treatments on fabrics moisture wettability with varying percentage of coating was studied. It was

concluded that the second method by spraying MCC Particles directly on the fabric surface gives

superior improved fabric’s wettability and moisture management than solving the MCC and coat-

ing the fabric surface. The morphological study using SEM confirmed the presence of MCC parti-

cles on the fabric surface; therefore, intensification fiber surface energy leads to increase the wicking

properties and increase the rate of water absorption.ª 2015 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an

open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

In recent years, there have been considerable research and

developments in moisture management fabrics in such a waythat the body perspiration is transported away from the skinto the outer surface of fabric where it can evaporate quickly

in order to accomplishing the consumer satisfaction of com-fort. To achieve such moisture management, the structural

design and quality of fibers are modified so that the textileproducts can have good performance in absorbing, transport-

ing, and dissipating moisture. These properties can be affectedby the structure and type of fiber, yarn and fabric along withfinishes or coating applied; methods for enhancing the mois-ture management [1–7].

Polyester fiber is one of widely consumed of all fibers(about 70%), and when one perspires, the Polyester tends tokeep the perspiration trapped against the body. Due to the

hydrophobic nature, Polyester is also more electrostatic com-pared to the natural fibers. Therefore, numerous researchersare in progress on the hydrolysis and aminolysis of Polyester

Figure 1 Experimental Design Layout.

128 M. El Messiry et al.

fibers to overcome this disadvantage [8–12], in contrary to cot-ton which is hydrophilic fiber and composed mainly of cellu-

lose. Cotton fabric is able to absorb high levels of moisture,8.5% moisture regain. Unfortunately, the wicking propertybetween inner and outer surfaces of the fabrics made of cottonfibers is very poor; this makes cotton unsuitable for use against

the skin during energetic activity. However, fabrics made ofmodified Polyester can give better moisture management, espe-cially with using fine filament yarn [13–18]. Moisture manage-

ment of fabrics not only depends on the materials, but also ontheir assembly in the fabric. In case of knitted fabrics, warpknitting tends to be a more effective knitting pattern for mois-

ture management than circular knitting [19]. Multi-layers fab-ric of hydrophilic and hydrophobic material was developed inorder to improve its moisture management [20,21]. Varioustechniques have been emphasized to develop better moisture

management such as combining Polyester with different natu-ral fiber types, microfiber, Bi-component fiber, especially dif-ferent cross-section, plasma treatment and applying surface

finish [22–40]. A material such as cellulose that is producedby both plants and bacteria on a totally sustainable basisassumes great significance for future materials development

[41,42]. Mechanical treatment and acid hydrolysis are the mainand common approaches for isolating cellulose particles [42–46]. Numerous approaches in this direction used different cel-

lulose materials: cationic cellulose, cationic Nanocrystallinecellulose and cotton powder in a way that the hydrophilicityof Polyester fabric was significantly improved [47–50]. Manyresearchers investigate the mechanism of water vapor trans-

ferred through fibrous materials. Das [7,27] indicates that thereare several ways: (i) Diffusion of the water vapor through thefibrous layers, (ii) Absorption, transmission and desorption of

water vapor by the fibers and (iii) Transmission of water vaporby forced convection. Diffusion of water vapor moleculesthrough air spaces in fabrics is a major contributor to moisture

vapor transport. The other transfer processes mentioned aboveinvolve smaller amounts of moisture vapor. These processesare more complex than the diffusion processes and can

significantly contribute to clothing comfort. With the idea ofimproving the moisture management, different nano/mi-

croparticles were tried by several researchers. Yin Fa et al.[50] applied nano-wool particles to enhance the moisture man-agement capability and hydrophility of Polyester fabrics. YingTing et al. [51] treated samples of wool by cotton particles for

better moisture management function of the fabrics such aswetting time at bottom, top maximum absorption rate, bottommaximum absorption rate, bottom maximum wetted radius

and bottom spreading speed. All these property changes sug-gest that the hydrophobicity of wool fibers increased afterthe treatment by cotton fibrils.

In this study, two techniques were suggested in order tostudy the effect of applying microcrystalline cellulose particlesas coating materials on Polyester fabric and its blend withcotton. The wettability of the fabric was measured through

the wicking height and the contact angle of the treatedsamples.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials

Threewoven fabrics were selected for this study: Polyester (plainweave, 142 g/m2, 26 picks/cm, 31 ends/cm), Cotton (plainweave, 195 g/m2, 21 picks/cm, 25 end/cm) and Polyester/

Cotton (65/35) blend (twill weave 2/1, 186 g/m2, 28 picks/cm,24 ends/cm).

Microcrystalline cellulose particles (MCC) 20 lm were pre-pared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis process, produced by Sigma–

Aldrich. For Method (A), two commercial textile additives,self-cross linking acrylic binder and Polyacrylate thickener,have been used for cellulosic coating for woven fabrics.

In order to prepare the aqueous mixtures of MCC Particles,Method B, with different mass ratios of Urea, Thiourea andNaOH, the following chemicals were used for the preparation

of the cellulose finish Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH), Urea andThiourea and textile binder.

Figure 2 Contact angle analysis set-up.

Figure 3 Mechanism of water vapor transferred through coated fibrous material.

Microcellulose particles for surface modification 129

2.2. Methods

Two methods were investigated, Fig. 1, to find a technique to

apply a thin coating of microcellulose particles on the surfaceof the fabric in order to increase the wettability of Polyesterfabric and its blends. These methods are as follows:

� Binding MCC particles to the surface of fabric directly(Method A).� Applying of aqueous mixtures of MCC particles with the

optimal mass ratios of Urea, Thiourea and NaOH to thesurface of fabric, (Method B).

For this purpose three different finish ratios were applied tothe fabric surface (50%, 30% and 20%). Several fabric proper-ties were measured for the treated and untreated woven fabric

samples (100% Polyester, Polyester/Cotton 65 /35 blends and100% cotton).

Method (A): The MCC particles were mixed directly withthe binder so that it could be sprayed directly on the fabric sur-

face with three different ratios respectively to their weight. Thepercentage of MCC particles in the spray was 6%, and thisratio can be considered the most appropriate one.

Method (B): Three aqueous mixtures with the optimalmass ratios of Urea, Thiourea and NaOH reported in a litera-ture [49] were used as solvent systems in this study. For the

binding of aqueous MCC mixtures, two commercial textile

additives, a self-cross linking acrylic binder and a

Polyacrylate thickener, were employed to form the coatingformulation [48]. After MCC solution was prepared, the bin-der and the thickener are mixed by a mechanical stirrer until

the coating attained sufficient viscosity to be applied.

2.3. Procedures

For each method, fabric samples of 75 mm · 75 mm were pre-pared from Polyester, Polyester/Cotton (65/35) and washedwith distilled water and dried in an oven before applying the

coat. The increase of dried fabric weight due to coating mate-rial was 0%, 20%, 30% and 50%. After applying the coating,the fabric was dried at 80 �C for 20 min and cured for 15 min.

2.4. Testing apparatus

2.4.1. Fabric wicking

Wicking of fabrics was measured in accordance with ISO 9073after three washes. According to the ISO 9073 standard, thewater transport height is determined by a vertical strip wicking

test. This test method was applied to determine the wicking offabrics in warp and weft directions.

2.4.2. Fabric contact angle

The test was carried out according to ASTM D7334, and afabric specimen was placed in the instrument, and a drop of

Figure 4 Wicking height in warp and weft directions versus the type of material coating.

Figure 5a Wicking height in warp direction using different percentages of coating versus the type of material coating.

Figure 5b Wicking height in weft direction using different percentages of coating versus the type of material coating.

130 M. El Messiry et al.

Microcellulose particles for surface modification 131

distilled water was placed on the fabric surface using a syringeat room temperature. Video of the drop was recorded and ana-lyzed. After the drop was set on the fabric surface, video of

droplet was executed on three different spots on each sample.The contact angle and percentages of water absorption werecalculated by analyzing the shape of the water droplet using

the set-up shown in Fig. 1.

2.4.3. Fabric air permeability

Fabric Air Permeability test is preformed according to the

ASTM D737 – 04, and five samples were tested in each case(see Fig. 2)

2.4.4. Fabric surface morphology

The surface morphology of the treated fabrics was character-ized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Samples weremounted on aluminum stumps and coated with gold in a sput-

tering device for 1.5 min at 15 mA and examined under scan-ning electron microscope (Model JEOL, JSM 5300).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Mechanism of water vapor transfer

In this work, we introduce a technique to assist the diffusion ofwater vapor molecules through the filling of the air gaps in the

fabric by ultra-hydrophilic material that absorbs water vaporand transfers it to the hyperbolic coating layer on the fabric.Fig. 3 represents the sketch of the mechanism of water vaportransfer through fibrous material coated by ultra-hydrophobic

layer with piles that are passing through the porous spacesbetween crossed yarns forming the fabric.

By implementing this method of partial fine particle appli-

cation in which the particles are to be firmly deposited at themiso-pores of the woven fabric structure, combined with a tar-geted binding of the particles to the woven fabric fibers, the

coated layer will have a moisture attracting piles through thefabric pores that activate the mechanism of diffusion of thewater vapor through the fibrous layers and rapidly pulled

Figure 6 Wicking height of Polyester and Polyester/Cotton

fabrics versus the ratio of material coating.

through to the outer layer. The micro-cellulose particles areultra-hydrophilic material in which the moisture content canreach 20% [52–54] and the water absorption may reach 5000

(ll/g).Furthermore, they have high specific surface. This mecha-

nism will force the transfer of moisture away from the skin

to the outside of the fabric. The coating applied to outer sur-face enables the water to spread quickly where it can evapo-rate. The moisture vapor transport occurs by ‘molecular

wicking’, and the water molecules are first adsorbed to the sur-face of the hydrophilic material then they move to the nextmolecule along. This process continues throughout the thick-ness of the hydrophilic material.

Covering both sides of the fabric by ultra-hydrophobicmaterial increases the diffusion of the water vapor throughthe fibrous layers, absorption, and transmission and desorp-

tion of water vapor by the outer coating layer.

3.2. Effect of cellulosic coating on fabric wicking performance

Mainly, performance fabrics are engineered to keep the bodydry during vigorous activities. Keeping the body dry, especiallyduring cold weather, ensures that the wearer does not lose heat

unnecessarily by having wet skin; hence, the interaction of afabric with moisture affects body comforts [51–55]. Wickingis the spontaneous flow of liquid in a porous substance drivenby capillarity force [56]. The wicking is the most effective pro-

cess to maintain a feel of comfort. In the case of clothing withhigh wicking properties, moisture coming from the skin isspread throughout the fabric offering a dry feeling and the

spreading of the liquid enables moisture to evaporate easily[7]. The capillary pressure increases as the radius of the capil-lary reduces causing higher capillary rise of the liquid. The

coatings will result in reduction of the pore size in the yarnand between weft and warp. Depending on the distributionand size of the pores, the wicking height will be determined

by Laplace equation [7], as the radius of the capillarydecreases, the pressure generated in the capillary will be higher,causing faster flow through the capillary. Hence the applica-tion of MMC to the surface of fabric will reduce the water

vapor resistance and lessen the air permeability. Accordingly,the difference between the methods (A) and (B) will bedistinguished.

Fig. 4 illustrates the wicking height in warp and weft direc-tions for different types of coated material. It is noticeable thatthe wicking height is generally increased when using method

(A), and there is difference in the wickability of the weft andwarp directions of the fabric. This may be due to the fabricstructure; hence, the number of picks/cm and ends/cm is notequal which leads to the different sizes of capillarity between

the yarns, thus variation of the wicking height. Generally,the treatment of the fabric with cellulosic coat will changethe performance of wicking in the fabric; therefore the coat will

pull more water up increasing the fabric wickability. So, themechanism of wicking in this case is rather complicated andwill depend on the capillarity phenomena as well as the ability

of finishing coat to absorb moisture.Figs. 5a and 5b) illustrate wicking height in warp and weft

directions when using several percentage of coating for the dif-

ferent types of fabric. It is clear that the increase in the weightof coating layer will increase the wickability of the fabric in all

Original Polyester fabric Original Polyester/ cotton Fabric

Figure 7 SEM micrographs of untreated Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics.

At 20 % MCC Particles finishing ratio

At 30 % MCC Particles finishing ratio

At 50 % MCC Particles finishing ratio

Figure 8a SEM images of treated Polyester fabric with different finishing ratios using Method (A).

132 M. El Messiry et al.

circumstances; however, the percentage increase is more sig-nificant when using a coat ratio higher than 20% and whenthe coating material is prepared by method (A), especially

when coating a Polyester fabric. It can be also detected thatthe MCC particles, Method (A), have a pronounced influencein improving the wicking heights in both directions for

Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics which has also beenproven by the Single factor ANOVA at confidence level 95%.

Moreover, Method (B) has no significant effect on the wick-

ing heights for both types of fabric, even by increasing of coat-ing percentage, which is also emphasized by the Single factorANOVA at confidence level 95%. The wicking mechanism

depends on two factors: the presence of capillarity still openedand the absorption ability of the coating material.

For the anti-wicking performance, it prevents the fabric

from absorbing water through capillary action of the yarnsas the coating material absorbs water by itself. In the case ofanti-wicking fabric coating, the capillarity will be completely

closed and the coating material has no-wickable properties.In our case, both methods have different degrees of each effect.

Fig. 6 illustrates that the increase of the coating ratio over

30% has no effect on the wickability of the fabric.The analysis of the above results exemplifies that the wicka-

bility of Polyester fabric and Polyester/Cotton fabric improved

At 20 % MCC Particles finishing ratio

At 30 % MCC Particles finishing ratio

At 50 % MCC Particles finishing ratio

At 50 % MCC Particles finishing ratio

Figure 8b SEM images of treated Polyester/Cotton fabric with different finishing ratios using Method (A).

Microcellulose particles for surface modification 133

in the case when treated with coating method (A) with coating

percent 30%.Coating fabric with a hydrophilic microcellulosic coat

increases the surface energy, but substantially increases the

surface energy of the outer Polyester face, and this differencein surface energy is what drives the one-way wicking behavior.

3.2.1. Morphological study

The morphology treated by both methods samples was inves-tigated using SEM. Fig. 7 shows SEM micrographs ofPolyester and Polyester/Cotton original untreated fabrics.

When fabric is treated by Method (A), it is expected that themicrocellulosic particles on the surface of the fibers are aggre-gated on the surface of the fibers due to the tendency of the

microcellulosic particles to gather together. Continuous or dis-continuous coats may not be smooth as in the case of Method(B). Figs 8a and 8b and Figs. 9a and 9b) illustrate SEM micro-graphs of Method (A) for treated Polyester and Polyester/

Cotton fabrics.The morphology of the fibers was assessed by SEM, and

studies revealed that micrometer-sized fibers were obtained

after application of coating by method (A) in all fiber. Withthe increase of the coat percentage, a fragment of the coatflakes is attached to the fibers, and at 50% the coat closes some

pores between fibers and covers the fibers surface. The type offibers affects the continuity of the coating film. The method (B)

creates a thicker continuous film of coat which will reduce the

porosity and consequently, the fabric wickability. This willalso influence the fabric air permeability.

Fig. 10a and b shows the effect of two treatments, Method

(A) and Method (B), on the air permeability. It can beobserved that both of the treatments cause the reduction ofair permeability as it was detected by the morphological study.

With method (A) reduction in the air permeability of thePolyester fabric after coating significantly depends on the coat-ing ratio, on the contrary to the Method (B), while in the caseof Polyester/Cotton fabric, the reduction of the air permeabil-

ity is a function of the coating ratio for both methods. The sin-gle factor ANOVA with confidence level 95% shows asignificant effect of the percentage of the coating on the air

permeability of Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics treatedby method (A).

3.3. Effect of surface treatment method on the fabric wettability

According to Young’s equation, a liquid (water) will wet a fab-ric when its surface energy is lower than the fabric’s surface

energy. Surface energy is sensitive to the chemistry of the sur-face, the morphology and the presence of absorbed materials.There are several factors influencing the wettability of thematerial, and surfaces with high surface energies will have a

strong tendency to adsorb water, as well as surfaces with

At 20 % MCC SolutionFinishing ratio

At 30 % MCC SolutionFinishing ratio

At 50 % MCC SolutionFinishing ratio

Figure 9a SEM image of treated Polyester/Cotton fabric With different finishing ratios using Method (B).

Figure 9b SEM image of treated Polyester fabric With different finishing ratios using Method (B).

134 M. El Messiry et al.

(a) Polyester fabric

(b) Polyester/Co�on Fabric

Figure 10 (a, b) Air permeability of Polyester and Polyester/Cotton coated with different coat percentages.

Microcellulose particles for surface modification 135

irregular texture. The contact angle measurement is directlyrelated to capability of the fabric wettability. A low contactangle between the fabric and the liquid means high wettability

[56]. The wettability also increases as the surface tensionbetween the solid and the liquid interface diminishes. Thewettability of the material additionally changes with the chemi-

cal nature of the surface and so with an increase in hydropho-bicity, the contact angle is reduced, thus increasing the surfacewettability [57]. Drop shape analysis (DSA) is an image analy-

sis method for determining the contact angle from the shadowimage of drop using video imaging. The contact angle wasrecorded at the start and after 10 s. Both, the contact angle

and percentages of water absorption, were calculated by ana-lyzing the shape of the water droplet and measured foruntreated and treated woven fabrics with three different finish-ing ratios (see Table 1)

3.3.1. Drop shape analysis (DSA) of fabrics

Further measurements of the contact angle of all treated

samples were made using the apparatus shown in Fig. 1.Table 2 displays captured images of the contact angles ofthe untreated and coated fabrics at zero time and after 10 s

from the initial water drop contact the surface of the fabricwhich was coated by 50% using methods (A and B). It canbe observed that the cotton fabric has the lowest contact

angle and completely absorbed the water drop after 10 swhich reflects its high wettability. On the other hand, thePolyester fabric has high contact angle 99.67� which did

not change after 10 s due to its hydrophobic nature andlow wettability. For Polyester/Cotton fabric, the contactangle is 90� and slightly reduced to 77.67� after 10 s owing

to the cotton fiber presence.Fig. 11 shows the contact angle for the different fabrics

treatments which illustrates captured images of the initial con-

tact angles of Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics treatedby Method (A) and Method (B) using 50% coating percentageand after 10sec from the initial contact. It is clear that theMethod (A) reduced the contact angles and improved water

drop absorption for both fabric types, and also the water dropis distributed better on the fabric surface in less than 10 s.Although Method (B) with 50% coating percentage enhanced

the contact angles and water drop absorption after 10 s forboth fabric types, the water drop absorption was not dis-tributed evenly over the fabric surface.

Table 1 Drop shape analysis of different untreated and coated fabrics.

Material of Fabric Untreated Method ‘‘A’’ Method ‘‘B’’

Percentage of coating 50% Percentage of coating 50%

0 s and 10 s 0 s and 10 s 0 s and 10 s

100% Cotton

Polyester fabric

Polyester/cotton

136 M. El Messiry et al.

Table 2 gives a ranking for the different treatmentsconfirming the improvement of the fabrics with the use of

Method (A).

3.3.2. Effect of method of treatment on the Contact Angles at

different finishing ratios

For different percentages of the coating the value of contactangle is found to be varied significantly as shown in Fig. 12.With the increasing percentage of coating material, Method

(A), the contact angle is significantly reduced for both treatedfabric types which has also been proved by single factorANOVA at 95% confidence level, versus to Method (B).

Fig. 13 shows the value of the initial contact angle as afunction of the coating percentage for the fabrics treated bymethod (A).

The rate of fabric absorption is established to depend onfabric material and type of coating, as shown in

Fig. 14. The Polyester fabric has the highest rate whencoated by MMC particles in Method (A).

3.4. Effect of washing cycles on the fabric coating

After coating of the samples by either Method (A) or (B), thesamples are washed several times and the loss of its weight is

determined. Figs. 15 and 16 indicate the loss of the fabricweight after washing cycles for the different ratios of cellulosiccoating prepared by Methods (A) and (B). The results specifythat in all cases the loss of fabric weight after washing is less

with the use of Method (A), reaching 8–10%. Moreover, thecomparison between two methods states that Method (A)

Table 2 Ranking of fabrics for the different treatment according to the value of contact angle.

Figure 11 Initial contact angle and after 10 s. of various types of material.

Figure 12 Contact angles for untreated and coated fabrics by Method (A) and Method (B) for Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics

with different percentages of coating.

Microcellulose particles for surface modification 137

Figure 13 Initial value of contact angle versus the coating

percentage for Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics treated by

Method (A).

Figure 14 Fabric absorption rate of the different materials.

Figure 15 Fabric weight loss after washing versus the number of

washing cycles in the case of using Method (A) with different

percentages of coating.

Figure 16 Fabric weight loss after washing versus the number of

washing cycles in the case of using Method (B) with different

percentages of coating.

138 M. El Messiry et al.

has a better coat binding of the micro-cellulose to the fabricthan Method (B). This may be due to the fact that inMethod (A) the microparticles are bound, while in Method

(B) the cellulosic layer is adhered to the fabric surface whichcan easily separate from the surface of the fabric.

4. Conclusion

The results obtained within the frame of this work prove theconcept for functional microcellulose finishing as a surface

modifying system with the aim to upgrade the moisture man-agement of Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics. MMC par-ticles are applied using two different methods, based on that,treatment has advantage of the activation of surface energy

in order to obtain super-hydrophilic matrix over the fabricand through its pores.

1. The analysis of the results of wetting properties of both fab-rics proves the improvement in the moisture managementof Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fabrics.

2. The treatment of the fabric with cellulosic coat will changethe performance of wicking in the fabric depending on thepercentage of coating.

3. The Drop shape analysis (DSA) of the results indicates

that:� For both methods, the initial contact angle is affected by

the cellulosic coating.

� The use of the MMC particles - binder spray directly tothe surface of the fabric, Method (A), reduces signifi-cantly the value of the contact angle.

� The percentage cellulosic coating on Polyester/Cottonand Polyester fabrics reduced contact angles as thepercent of coating increases. The spraying of small

percentage of coating will significantly reduce thecontact angle enhancing the wetting properties of thePolyester fabric and insure high rate of waterabsorption.

Microcellulose particles for surface modification 139

4. SEM micrographs of Polyester and Polyester/Cotton fab-rics treated by Method (A) show that the presence of cellu-lose particles on the surface is rather evidential influence on

high hydrophilic properties of the coat.

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