Methods of Observation

Psychology: Chapter 2, Section 3

Methods of Observation• We all observe how people act, and often make

generalizations from what we see• However, our observations are rather haphazard

(not very systematic), and also we tend to observe things that only confirm our preexisting notions

• Thus we cannot draw scientific conclusions based only on our unstructured observations

• These observations may help us form research questions or tentative hypotheses, but in this section we will learn about more systematic and scientific methods of observation

We seem to enjoy observing other people, whether it be from a park bench or restaurant, or even reality TV shows

The Testing Method• Psychologists sometimes use psychological tests to

learn about human behavior• There are several types of psychological tests• Intelligence tests measure general learning ability• Aptitude tests measure specific abilities and special

talents, such as musical ability• Skills tests measure vocational interests• Personality tests measure character traits and

temperament, and screen for anxiety or depression

There are many different kinds of psychological tests

The Case Study Method• A case study is an in depth investigation of an

individual or a small group• Because case studies go so in depth about one

particular person, the researcher can really learn a lot about that person.

• Psychologists use what they learn in a case study to generalize broader principles that apply to the larger population

• Case studies describe, but don’t predict• Sigmund Freud developed many of his theories

from case studies of people he spoke with

An Example of a Case Study

• This is a typical case study, written about a man who had recently attempted suicide

• Note that the details are specifically about him, and not about all men in general who attempt suicide

• This sort of detail is characteristic of a case study

Longitudinal Method

• In the longitudinal method, researchers study individuals for a long period of time– following them around for years or even decades, checking in maybe once or twice a year

• By using this method, psychologists can observe how individuals change over time

• However, there is no guarantee that participants will be able to remain available for 5, 10, or 15 years

In the longitudinal method, you can observe an individual growing over time

Cross-Sectional Method• The cross-sectional method also examines changes

over time, while avoiding some of the pitfalls of longitudinal studies

• Instead of following a set of individuals over a number of years, researchers select a sample that includes people of different ages

• The researchers then compare the behavior of the participants in the different age groups

• However, one major disadvantage of comparing different individuals is that researchers can’t be certain when differences were caused by developmental changes vs. the individuals just being different people

Cross Sectional studies examine different people in different stages of life to try to extrapolate how life progresses

Naturalistic-Observation Method

• The naturalistic observation method, sometimes called field study, involves a researcher observing subjects in their natural habitat

• The researcher does not interact with the subjects, as that would contaminate the results, rather he or she simply observes from afar

Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey conducted field studies of chimpanzees and gorillas

Laboratory-Observation Method

• Sometimes it is not possible or practical to observe in a natural setting

• A laboratory is a more formal place designed for observation and experimentation, but may not be as sterile a room as usually envisioned

• For example, an aquarium could serve as a laboratory for a lake for observing fish behavior

• In a laboratory, the environment can be more easily controlled, which is a very useful feature for experiments

In a famous experiment in a laboratory by A. Bandura, children were observed to be more aggressive to a

“Bobo doll” after seeing others model aggressiveness Adult modeling aggressiveness

Children imitating aggressiveness

Analyzing Observations• When analyzing and interpreting the results from

observations, psychologists may measure correlation• The correlation is a measure of how closely one

thing is related to another• The more closely two things are related, the higher

the correlation• There might be a correlation between height and

shoe size– generally, the taller someone is, the larger their shoe size

• There does not seem to be much correlation between height and intelligence

Positive and Negative Correlation• A positive correlation is when one goes up, the other

goes up• There is a positive correlation between the time you

spend studying and how well you do in school• Generally, the more you study, the better you will do.

There will be exceptions, but that is the general trend• A negative correlation is when one goes up, the other

goes down• There is a negative correlation between stress and

health– the more stressed you are, the worse your health will be

• Things that have no relationship, such as IQ and shoe size, are said to have no correlation

Correlations resemble slopes on an x-y axis, and may be positive, negative, or no correlation. The tighter

the data around the line, the stronger the correlation

Correlation is NOT Causation• Correlation describes relationships, but does NOT reveal cause and effect• Just because two things are related does not mean that one causes the

other• Sometimes there is a hidden factor that may cause both things to occur• As ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths increases sharply.• Therefore, ice cream consumption causes drowning.• The aforementioned example fails to recognize the importance of time

and temperature in relationship to ice cream sales. • Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate

than during colder times, and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water, such as swimming.

• The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water-based activities, not ice cream. The stated conclusion is false.

Organic food sales and the rate of autism seem to have a very strong correlation, but no one is

suggesting that one causes the other

Assessment

• Complete #1-3 on page 40