method of teaching english.docx
TRANSCRIPT
Methods of Teaching English
Dr. S.A Ghaffar Dr. Arbab Khan Afridi
Uzma Dayyan (Ph.D Scholar) Azaz Ali (Ph.D Scholar)
In Collaboration with
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION & RESEARCH (IER)
MASTER COACHING ACADEMY (MCA)
(All Rights are Reserved with the Publisher)
Authors: Dr. S.A Ghafar
Dr. Arbab Khan Afridi
Uzma Dayyan (Ph.D Scholar)
Azaz Ali (Ph.D Scholar)
3rd Edition: May, 2013
No. of Copies: 1000
Publisher: Master Coaching Academy (MCA)
Printer: Ijaz Printers
Composed By: M. Nawaz Khan Abbasi
0345-9100738
Price: Rs.125/-
PREFACE
The need for having a book on Teaching of English for the B.Ed. Students
has long been felt and students were facing real hardships in finding out
and consulting related literature about the topics included in the syllabus of
the subject. The authors, by writing a book which is according to the
approved curriculum for the B.Ed., B.Ed (Hons) & M.Ed Examination,
have come to their rescue.
By appending model lesson plans to the book the authors have provided the
students an sample opportunity to learn, practice and follow the pattern
while planning their actual class room teaching.
Both the authors have a considerable experience of imparting instructions
to the prospective teachers and compiling books on education for the
benefit of their students. It is hoped that the present contribution will serve
the cause of teachers’ education in general and strengthen Teaching of
English at Secondary level in Particular.
(Abdur Rauf Jameel)
Director
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents........................................................................................1
Introduction................................................................................................1
Unit-1: Psycholinguistics............................................................................3
1.1 Characteristics of Human Language.............................................41.2 Principles of Mother Tongue Learning.........................................81.3 Developmental Stages and Language Learning.........................12
Unit-2: Learning the four Skills of English Language..........................15
2.1 Skill of Listening:.......................................................................152.1.1 The Nature of Listening Skills:...........................................152.1.2 Techniques of Developing Listening Ability:......................152.1.3 How to Attain the Quality of Alternative Listening:...........162.1.4 What Types of Listening Skills should be Developed in
Students:.............................................................................162.1.5 Considerations for Attaining Effective Listening Skill:......172.1.6 Some specific types of Listening Activities:........................18
2.2 Skill of Speaking:.......................................................................182.2.1 The Main Purpose of Teaching Speaking:.........................192.2.2 How to Promote Speaking Skills:.......................................192.2.3 Vocabulary Building:.........................................................202.2.4 Teaching Procedure for Vocabulary Building:..................21
2.3 Reading Skill:.............................................................................222.3.1 The Nature of Reading Skill:..............................................222.3.2 Aims of Teaching Reading:.................................................222.3.3 The Importance of Reading:...............................................222.3.4 Methods of Teaching Reading:...........................................232.3.5 Teaching Skills Required for Developing Reading Skills:..232.3.6 Types Purposes of English Reading:..................................232.3.7 Synthetic and Analytic Approaches/Methods of Teaching
Reading:..............................................................................252.3.7.1 The Synthetic Method:.......................................................252.3.7.2 Analytic Method:...................................................................28
2.4 Writing Skill:..............................................................................302.4.1 The Importance of Writing:................................................302.4.2 The Importance of Good Handwriting:..............................312.4.3 The Importance of Spelling in Writing...............................312.4.4 Techniques to be Adopted for Teaching of Spelling:..........31
iv
Unit-3: Methods of Teaching English.....................................................33
3.1 Grammar Translation Method....................................................343.2 Direct Method.............................................................................373.3 Structural Approach....................................................................403.4 Audio-Lingual Approach............................................................453.5 Communicative Approach..........................................................49
Unit-4: Teaching of Grammar.................................................................54
4.1 What is Grammar?......................................................................544.2 Grammar Defined by Various Linguists....................................544.3 Types/Approaches of Grammar..................................................554.4 Methods of Teaching Grammar..................................................56
Unit-5: Lesson Planning...........................................................................59
5.1 The Concept of Lesson Planning................................................595.2 Considerations in Planning of Various Lessons.........................605.3 Conceptual Aspect of 4Ps Model/Approach in Lesson
Planning in Teaching of English.................................................66
Unit-6: Use of Audio-Visual Aids in Learning English Language.......70
6.1 Meaning And Importance of Audio-Visual Aids in Teaching of English:...................................................................70
6.2 The Significance of Audio Visual Aids in Teaching of English:.......................................................................................71
6.3 Considerations to be Taken in the use of AV. Aids:..................716.4 Visual Aids.................................................................................726.5 Audio Aids..................................................................................796.6 Audio-Visual Aids......................................................................81
Referencess................................................................................................84
Appendix-A: Prose Reading Lesson.......................................................85
Appendix-B: Prose /Reading Lesson.......................................................89
Appendix-C: Poetry Lesson.....................................................................94
Appendix-D: Story Lesson.....................................................................100
Appendix-E: Composition Lesson.........................................................102
Appendix-F: Lesson Plan: Grammar...................................................104
Appendix-G: Structure Lesson..............................................................105
Appendix-H: Structure Lesson..............................................................107
v
Summaries of ten Selected Poems.........................................................108
1. Speak Gently.............................................................................1082. A Nation’s Strength..................................................................1083. The Daffodils............................................................................1094. The Miller of Dee.....................................................................1105. Stopping by woods on a Snowy Evening.................................1116. Planting a Tree..........................................................................1127. Drive the Nail Aright................................................................1138. Casabianca................................................................................1149. Written in March......................................................................11510. There’s a Good time: Coming..................................................116
Summaries or Short Questions from four Selected Famous Stories “Classic Stories from Around the World”...........................................118
Blue Beard............................................................................................118The Man Who Tamed a Shrew.............................................................123The Sphinx without A Secret................................................................128The Empty Drum..................................................................................133
vi
INTRODUCTION
The importance of English as a living and modern language is an
admitted fact. It enjoys international value, It is the reservoir of knowledge.
It is the language of science and technology. It is the language of
information technology. It is the language of the 'global village'. It is an
official language and the medium of instruction in higher education and
research in Pakistan. It is an effective instrument of print and electronic
media. In short, it has brought about unity and integration from North to
South and from East to West in the world.
English unlike the mother tongue is to be learnt and not to be
acquired. Its approach would be therefore, different. It is to be taught with
conscious efforts. It is to be taught with deliberate efforts. It is to be learnt
in a formal setting, in an organized and in a relaxed environment, in an
environment in which maximum interaction is ensured between the teacher
and the students.
Teaching of English as a second language to Pakistani children
necessities well selected content, graded vocabulary, well directed teaching
strategies. provision of instructional materials and adequate grooming of
teachers. Language is basically a skill. Teaching of English naturally
centres round the learning or the mastery of its basic skills i.e. listening,
speaking, reading and writing. These skills are not learnt automatically or
in a natural environment in which the child acquires his mother tongue.
Teachers are expected to create an environment in which English is used as
much as possible. Grammar is to be taught indirectly. Children are to be
provided ample opportunities to listen correct English. to speak and read
English with correct pronunciation and intonation and to write English with
correct spellings and punctuation. Other strategies which are expected to be
adopted by the teacher are how to teach prose, poetry. and story effectively
and also to enable the children to write a composition, a letter, to
summarize a passage and understand the relationship of ideas contained in
a passage. These are the basic concepts and considerations which have
been taken into view while writing this book for our students and working
1
teachers. The new concept of lesson planning orr4Ps model has been
elaborated so that the lesson plans be designed in a more living and
activity-oriented manner in future.
The book has been written exclusively according to the prescribed
course in vogue for the last three years and for which specific reading
material was not available in the country or in libraries of the training
institutions. In view of the limited scope of the course, it has been
sufficiently enriched. Efforts have been made to provide depth in this book
and has left sufficient margin for creative thinking for teachers and
perspective teachers.
The book has been produced on emergency basis keeping in view
the pressing need of the students. Naturally there will be wide margin left
for its further improvement and enrichment. It is therefore. colleagues,
friends, working teachers and students are requested to forward their
valuable suggestions for its improvement so that the next addition could be
presented in a more relevant fashion.
The authors are grateful to Ms. Nureen Durrani and I. U.
Akhunzada. (Librarian) for providing material to facilitate this humble
effort.
Authors February, 2003
2
UNIT-1: PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
Language is a set of sentences each finite in length and each constructed
out of a finite set of elements"
-Noam Chomsky-
Introduction
In normal circumstances, human language is the principle source of
communication used by a particular group of people within a particular
society of which they are members.
Before going to discuss the topic in detail, it is necessary to clarify
the meaning and definitions of language.
Meaning of Language
The word language has its origins in the Latin word `Lingua',
meaning "something produced with the tongue"
Definitions of Language
Various linguists have defined language differently. some famous
definitions of language are written below:
1. Block & Trager (1979),
"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of
which a social group interacts".
2. Chomsky (1990),
"Language is a set of sentences each finite in length and each
constructed out of a finite set of elements".
3. Hall (1986),
"Language is an institution whereby human beings communicate
and interact with each other by means of habitually and arbitrary symbols."
3
On the basis of the above definitions, it is obvious that.
Language is a major source of communication
Language is a systematic activity
It is basically a speech.
Psycholinguistics
The term 'Psycholinguistics' is a combination of two words,
'psycho' and 'linguistics' psycho means, 'soul' or `mind' and 'linguistics'
means, The systematic or scientific study of language' thus
psycholinguistics means,
"The systematic or scientific study of language in relation with
mind"
Psycho also refers to cognition, language and cognition are interrelated,
without cognition, language learning is impossible.
Psycholinguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology that studies
psychological basis of linguistics competence and performance. Initially
psycholinguistics was associated with philosophical context between
modern research and information theory to study how brain processes
language. Psycholinguistics covers cognitive process that makes it possible
to understand utterances, words and text. Hall describes it in the following
words as,
"When we study language in relation with mind that we actually
deal with psycholinguistics".
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE
Many people have attempted to describe the characteristics of
language. The following is based on the work of an American linguists ,
Hockett. It is a description thought by many linguists to be the most
comprehensive yet made. According to Hockett, language has all of the
following characteristics:
4
1. Language involves the use of vocal organs of the speaker and the hearing mechanism of the listener.
Remember that communication can take place in ways other than
by the use of language. What messages, for example, are communicated by
the following non-linguistics means?
A tightly clenched fist, shaken near somebody's face;
A dog's tail wagging;
A flag flying at half most;
Black clouds gathering in the sky.
2. Language is Semantic
Semantic means 'having meaning' thus language is verbal
symbols, (words), to refer to objects and actions. Thus in English, BOOK
refers to an object which consists of many pages of printed writing, usually
bound in a stiff cover. This is the word which English speakers have agreed
to use when speaking of such an object. Speakers of Urdu have agreed to
refer to it as KITAB.
3. Language is Symbolic
Human language is a set of verbal symbols which stand for real
objects, actions or concepts.
4. Language Consists of Sounds
Language is basically a set of sounds. Various sounds are
combined to make words; different words make sentences which form
language.
5. Language is Arbitrary
In this case, 'arbitrary' means not chosen for any special reason'.
Think about the words which we use refers to object. For example, what
name does your language give to a small hard object made of mineral
substances and found on the ground? In English, this is symbolized by the
5
word STONE, in URDU PATHAR, in French, PIERRE. But none of these
words in them has any real connection with the stone object itself. Actually
the connection between the word and the object exists only in the minds of
the users of that language.
6. Language is culturally transmitted:
Although children seam to be born with the ability to acquire
language, they are not equipped with the ability to acquire one particular
language more than any other. It is the job of the parents and teaches to
hand down their own language from to hand down their own language
from generation to generation.
7. Human Language is Spontaneous
Language is perhaps the greatest tool of our wish to be sociable.
We do not necessarily use it because we are forced to by circumstances but
we use it because we want to do so.
8. Human Language Involves Displacement
Language can be used to talk about things and people which are
for away, and / or which happened long ago. This important feature of
language is referred to by linguistics as displacement. For example,
language enables a person to speak of a visit he made to his relatives in
London in 1968.
9. Language is a Systematic Activity
Human language usually involves turn-taking. We do not all speak
at once, but wait for our turn. Even when we do not really have anything
very important to say to each other, we still know that we must take our
turns in speaking:
How are you?
Fine thanks. How are you?
Fine How's is the family?
Fine what about yours?
6
And so on.....
In certain circumstances however, such as speechs making, turn
taking is usually suspended. The same I onerally true of written forms of
language.
10. Language is Structure-Dependent
Human beings automaticallyrecognize patterns in the language
which they hear and organize it accordingly in their minds. Thus for
example, we do not hear.
The red book is on the table taut
The red book is on the table
11. Language is Open
This means that the verbal symbols, or words and the structures
can be combined in an infinite number of ways to produce any nu of
utterances which have never been made before. For example, in response to
a view of mountains and lacks a person may say;
What a wonderful view!
Let's bring a picnic here next week.
AND so on
12. Human Language is a Social Activity
Human language is a social activity without society and
interaction with other it can not be learnt. For example, if a child is brought
up in isolation he/she will not learn language.
Other features of human language are as follows:
Creative activity
Cognitive activity
Tool of communication
Differs humans from animals
Gives expression to thought (source:
7
Psycholinguistics and language teaching, code 552,AIlama lqbal
Open University Islamabad)
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF MOTHER TONGUE LEARNING
In resent decades there has been an increasing interest in first
language acquisition. From this, educationalists have attempted to draw
parallels between the acquisition of the mother tongue and the learning of a
foreign language. Above all, it was hoped that by studying the first
language learning experience, a model could be devised for the teaching of
a second or foreign language. Some Principles of mother tongue learning
are summarized here (They are quoted from H.H Stein Perspectives in
Second Language Teaching, Toronto 1970).
1. Principle of Practice
Language learning is a matter of practice. Just watch a small child
learning his mother tongue. He/she repeats things over and over again.
During the language learning stage he/she practices all the time. This is
what we must do when we learn a foreign or second language. Teacher
should provide ample opportunities for practice to the students in the
classroom.
2. Principle of Imitation
Language learning is mainly a matter of imitation you must be a mimic just
observe a small child, he/she imitates everything.
This principle can be applied to second foreign language learning teacher
should provide a good model of speech before the students as good speech
is the result of imitating good models of speech.
For example teacher's pronunciation should be clear and correct so that
student could imitate him/her easily.
8
3. Principle of Naturalness
A child learns his/her mother tongue naturally and unconsciously because a
natural environment exists for learning it. It is spoken in family and in
neighborhood. But this is not true for a foreign language. The child
encounters with a foreign language in his class for about six periods a week
and so it becomes difficult for him to learn it. An effort should be made to
provide the child with a natural environment for learning foreign language.
For this following points should be considered.
a. Talking to the students in foreign language in the class as well
as outside the classroom like play ground etc.
b. Encouraging students to converse only in that language.
c. Arranging for group discussion.
4. Principle of Natural Order
In first language acquisition, first we practice the separate sounds,
then words, then sentences this is the natural order and is therefore right for
learning a foreign language.
The teacher of English language should first teach phonetics, then
vocabulary and sentence structure.
5. Principle of Exposure
A child learns his mother-tongue more rapidly because he is
exposed to it. Since it is spoken around him/her so he/she listens to it and
then tries to speak it. For teaching foreign language teacher should try to
expose students to an environment loaded with the foreign language. For
this the teacher can take the following steps:
a) Distribute pamphlets written in foreign language
b) Form a foreign language speaking club in the school.
c) Display charts with slogans written in English on walls etc.
d) Take students to watch English movies
e) The use of mother-tongue in clam room minimized.
9
6. Principle of Habit
Language learning is a kind of behavior. When a child imitates the
adult who is providing stimulus; the parents are overjoyed at the child's
response and in order to get more encouragement, the child repeatedly uses
the same words and speaks the same things; the language thus becomes a
habit of the child afterwards.
As Palmer Says,
"Language learning is essentially a habit forming process, a process during
which we acquire new habits"
In learning a foreign or second language, speech habits are to be formed
consciously. In English language teaching, following habits should be
formulated in students:
a) Habit of speaking English language in classroom, outside the
classroom, with teachers and class fellows,
b) Habit of listening to sounds;
c) Habit of imitating;
d) Habit of repeating words, phrases etc;
e) Habit of reading aloud;
f) Habit of silent reading;
g) Habit of using grammar;
h) Habit of correct pronunciation;
i) Habit of consulting dictionary;
j) Habit of going to library;
k) Habit of reading newspaper, journals, story books etc.
7. Principle of Understanding
Watch a small child's speech development. First he listens, and
then he speaks. Understanding is always first in the order of presenting the
skills in a foreign language.
10
8. Principle of Proper Order
A small child listens and speaks and no one would dream of
making him read or write. Reading and writing are advanced stages of
language development. The proper order for first and second language
learning is:
First – listening Second – speaking
Third – reading
Fourth – writing
The teacher of foreign or second language mus follow this order
of language learning in the classroom.
9. Principle of Translation
You did not have to translate when you were small. I you were
able to learn your own language withou translation, you should be able to
learn a foreign language in the same way. However, recent researches have
proved that translation plays a pivotal role in second/foreign language
learning. This principle is beneficial for the beginners of English language
learning. Translation should be done in mother tongue and not in any other
language.
10. Principle of Practicality
Knowledge can be stored in mind permanently if it is gained
through practical experience. A child can remember 'Book' more if he has
seen it than when he has not seen it As P.c. wren says, "The first word of
English should be names of thing and those things should be there as they
are named."
For this, the teacher make use of either the classroom material or
other audio-visual aids.
11
11. The Principle of correlation with Life
Teacher should make efforts to relate the subject-matter to life,
customs, traditions, peculiarities and characteristics of the society to which
the students belong. This will make teaching more meaningful and learning
can be transferred to real life situation.
Examples of Real Situation
Teacher may use his body parts to teach the pupils the structure
'have' As: You have two eyes I have two hands etc. (Source:
Psycholinguistics and language teaching methodology, Allama lqbal Open
University Islamabad).
1.3 DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND LANGUAGE LEARNING
We have already studied the nature of language itself and seen how
it is a unique feature of human beings. Chomsky and his colleagues known
as 'mentalists' maintains that we are born with a programme for language
learning, already present in our brain. In contrast, the 'behaviorists'
(Skinner and his colleagues), say that our brain at birth is like blank sheets
upon which everything, we experience, is `written' and thereby learnt.
Now we are going to study the stages through which a child passes
during language learning. These stages are called developmental stages.
Developmental stages in language learning can be categorized as:
a) Physical Development
b) Psychological Development
Developmental stages
Physical Development
i. his stage is further divided into the following stages: one month
(four weeks)
ii. Four months (sixteen weeks)
12
iii. Seven months (twenty eight weeks)
iv. Thirteen months (fifty two weeks)
. Eighteen months
Three years
v ii. Five years.
One Month (four weeks)
New baby starts learning language at the age of fou weeks through
the moving of body parts. He/sh starts recognizing sounds. A sort of
twisting is show in response to the sounds, produced in his / her
surroundings.
ii. Pour months (sixteen weeks)
At this stage, the child is able to
Roll and raise his head and legs
Produce certain sounds e.g. crowing, cooing etc.
Start splitting
The baby is mere a passive listener at this stage, he/she remains quite for
the most time.
iii. Seven months (twenty eight weeks)
At this stage,
The child can sit
The spinal cord is mature
Neck muscles are mature basic sounds are start producing by the child
Sounds, like burping, babbling, spitting, squealing and sometimes
whistling and gurgling are also produced the combination of these sounds
give way to the acquisition of language.
The needs and desires of child are expressed in "mum" word.
13
Thirteen months (fifty two weeks)
At the age of fifty two weeks, all the basic sounds are almost
learnt by the child. The first easy word, learnt by the child is 'ma' or 'mum'.
There is no grammar and no structure. At this now the child can walk, can
hold something, legs and muscles are mature.
Eighteen Months One-word utterance eighteen months.
Three Years
By the age of three years,
A baby has 500 to 1000 words of his own.
Asks questions mostly about self.
Express self as 'I'
Can utter short sentences
Repetition is there to verify and to know the intensity of sounds.
Five Years
By the age of five years,
Child utters simple sentences about his / her likings and disliking
Becomes ego-centered, the talk is more egocentric,
Psychological consciousness about self is developed i.e;
14
UNIT-2: LEARNING THE FOUR SKILLS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The efficiency and effectiveness of teaching English depends
upon the understanding of its aims by the teacher. The aims of teaching
English in Pakistan is to help students to acquire practical command of
English. It means that students are able to understand spoken English.
speak English, read English and write English correctly. These are the four
basic skills, intended to be taught in teaching of English at school level.
The nature and the acquisition of these skills are discussed in this Unit.
2.1 SKILL OF LISTENING:
2.1.1 The Nature of Listening Skills:
When a child learns his mother tongue, he listens to it. He listens
the sounds which are arranged in words, structure. Listening is a receptive
skill that is while listening, the child understands spoken language.
The listening skill plays a vital role if the communication is a two
way process. involving speaker and the listener. In this process of
communication both of them can be an initiator or a responder. If one looks
at these two, the speaker is articulating and the listener is responding and
discriminating. It means that these two skills go together and cannot be
separated from each other.
In the class room to develop the skill of listening, a lot of efforts
will have to be made by the teacher. He will to promote interaction
between himself and the pupils pupil and pupil a pupil and a group of
pupils
2.1.2 Techniques of Developing Listening Ability:
Speech comprehension or listening is an active, knowledge guided
process. It involves active cognitive process. It involves the construction of
a message from phonic material. Therefore. listening should be
15
accompanied by some activity and through which students could
demonstrate their comprehension and the enjoyment of success. Listening
is also a creative process.
Effective listening depends upon the more one can gather the
incoming information into meaningful chunks (groups) and more one can
retain. This involves altentative listening.
2.1.3 How to Attain the Quality of Alternative Listening:
The strategy adopted by the teacher should be that he should train
his students in perceiving the syntactic groups or words as units. He should
encourage his students to repeat what they hear in meaningful segments
rather than single words as answer. He should also train his students to
hold longer and longer segments in their memory to improve
comprehension. Students should be advised to answer the questions in their
own words. The teacher must differentiate what is "hearing" and what is -
listening". The term "hearing- is used to refer to the listeners ability to
recognize language elements in the stream of sound and through .the
knowledge of the phonological and grammatical system of the language, to
relate these elements to each other in clauses and sentences and to
understand the meaning of these sentences. The term listening is used to
refer to the ability to understand how a particular sentence relates to what
else has been said and its function in communication. It is at this stage, the
listener selects what is relevant to his purpose and rejects what is irrelevant
In short. if hearing can be at the recognition level. listening can be at the
selection level of language.
2.1.4 What Types of Listening Skills should be Developed in Students:
The following are the types of listening skills to be developed in
students.
Discriminating sounds in isolated word form.
Discriminating sounds in connected speech.
16
Discriminating stress patterns within words.
Recognizing variation in stress in connected speech.
Recognizing the use of stress in connected speech.
Understanding intonation, patterns and interpreting altitudinal
meaning through variation of tone.
Interpreting attitudinal meaning through variation in pitch, height,
range and pause.
Articulating sounds in isolated form.
Articulating sounds in connected form.
Articulating stress patterns within words
Manipulating variation in stress in connected speech.
Producing intonation pattern and expressing attitudinal meaning
through variations of tone or nuclear shift.
Expressing attitudinal meaning through variation in pitch, height,
pitch range and pause.
In short, among the above, the main listening skills are the ability
to:
Follow in general trend of what is said
Understand specific detail.
Understand the speaker's intention
Understand the speakers attitude
As indicated earlier the process of listening involves decoding a
heard message, processing it, checking it and sharing it. The purpose of
listening is to acquire vocabulary and word order as well as better
pronunciation. Fluent speech becomes a product not of a practice in
speaking but of participation in receptive activities.
2.1.5 Considerations for Attaining Effective Listening Skill:
Before teaching listening as a skill, the teacher must be sure that
learners.
Want to listen.
17
Are able to listen
Are prepared to listen
Understand the reason of listening
Are trained how to listen
Are trained what to listen
Are enjoying listening
Therefore the teacher must
Give more importance to training of the listening skills
Give more attention to training of the exiting skills
Become more aware of his own listening skills.
Be able to choose, and adopt clear, relevant, well-recorded
material such as tap/cassetted recorder, etc.
Be able to motivate students through involving themselves in
various activities, particularly language based activities.
Be able to provide a range of realistic follow up activities such as
note-taking, problem solving, interpretation and discussion under
his guidance.
Be able to make listening activities interesting and informative.
2.1.6 Some specific types of Listening Activities:
The following are some specific activities suggested to be
undertaken by the teacher in training of children in the listening skills:
Drills and exercises Informal talks
Narration, story-telling, action, songs, rhymes and instructions.
Dialogues
Role-playing
Communication games
Speculative activities
2.2 SKILL OF SPEAKING:
As can be observed from earlier discussion, listening and speaking
are interconnected, interactive and interdependent. They cannot be
18
separated from each other. The quality of listening skill leads to the quality
of speech habit. Speech is a primary factor when we want to express our
ideas, desire, opinion, intention and want to establish social relationship.
Language is a system for the expression of meaning. Its primary function is
for interaction and communication and its structure reflects these functions.
When we intend to teach our students speaking skills, we must be aware of
the types of language that will have to be in different context i.e. for getting
factual information or for establishing and maintaining social working.
2.2.1 The Main Purpose of Teaching Speaking:
The main and important purpose of teaching speaking is to make
our students learn some of the features of spoken English which includes
pronunciation, stress, rhythm. intonation etc This means that the language
teaching must include the teaching of pronunciation. Therefore, a
knowledge of sound system of the language thus becomes essential to
teachers. The teacher wilt have to provide ample opportunities to children
to practice in these features.
2.2.2 How to Promote Speaking Skills:
The teacher can adopt various strategies for the promotion of
speaking skills. Some are important to be briefly described.
i. Dialogue Making:
In dialogue making the learner converse with each other by
exposing them to a few model dialogues. Dialogues have been usually used
for the teaching of the rules of communication appropriately.
ii. Communication Games:
Speaking activities based on communication games are always a
useful way of giving students practice in speech. Games based activities
may focus on oral strategies like describing, and predicting etc.
19
iii. Role Playing:
Pole playing is a techniques that can be used to make the students,
use language and there by develop spoken skills It can offer enjoyment and
also mental escape from the class room
iv. Roe Adoption:
This is a teacher-based activity to describe adrama type activity
where just one student of a group or a pair take a new role or identity. He
transforms the practice and exploits the text for real performance. The
moment that a chosen student become some one else then some practice
become simulation with potential for the unexpected.
v. Free-Role Play:
In this type the guidance is oral and also the student will have to
develop their own scene. An advantage of this technique is that weak
students can restrict themselves to a few simple exchange. The context is
provided by the teacher.
2.2.3 Vocabulary Building:
Teaching of English in the existing situation is based on two
elements.
a. Vocabulary and
b. Structure
The new technique of teaching English in based on the belief that
the mastery of structure is more important than the acquisition of
vocabulary. Infact, for teaching structures, there must be sufficient
vocabulary to operate them. The teacher while teaching vocabulary will
have to take care of certain conditions such as there are no exact,
synonymous within a language. Words convey meaning in context and
there are false assumptions in nature of words.
The teaching of vocabulary or vocabulary building in English is
important because it enables the students for use of English as a library
20
language. As such facilities are not available to students in our schools.
therefore, the teacher will have to confine his efforts to teach his students
vocabulary of the textbook at their respective level
2.2.4 Teaching Procedure for Vocabulary Building:
The teaching of vocabulary passes through two stages
a. Presentation
b. Practice
a. Presentation:
The presentation of vocabulary can be done by using the
Direct Method
Transaction Method
Usage Method
Similar words Method
Deviation Method and
Reference Method
b. Practice
The practice should be at the productive level as at well as at the
application level. Productive level means to repeat what, the teacher has
said and the application level means that practice be given in speaking,
reading and writing.
The following devices for the teaching of new vocabulary/ words
should be adopted.
By showing objects
By performing action
By framing illustrative sentences
By word building
By using mother tongue
The teacher can encourage vocabulary of students through
Word chain
21
Word formation
Word lists
Word games
Vocabulary note book
2.3 READING SKILL:
2.3.1 The Nature of Reading Skill:
Like listening, reading, is a decoding process. But is a very
complex process and involves many physical, intellectual and emotional
reactions. Further, it entails the ability to recognize graphic symbols and
their corresponding vocal sounds. Thus reading skill consists of three
important components.
a. Recognition of graphic marks
b. The correlation of these with formal linguistic elements and
c. The correlation of these with meaning
2.3.2 Aims of Teaching Reading:
The following are the aims of teaching reading.
To read English with accuracy
To read English with pronunciation
To read English with fluency
To read English with understanding and comprehension
To enable students to form a habit of reading English
2.3.3 The Importance of Reading:
Teaching of reading in important because:
Reading indicates towards knowing of the language.
Reading helps in knowing world, news, important information
through various reading material.
Reading is a good source of self-education.
22
Reading expands one's horizon of thinking.
2.3.4 Methods of Teaching Reading:
The following are the methods of teaching reading which should
be elaborated by the teacher while using them in teaching of English.
Alphabetic Method.
Syllabic Method
Word Method
Sentence Method.
Story Method
Phonic Method
2.3.5 Teaching Skills Required for Developing Reading Skills:
The following skills are to be developed for the teaching of
reading skills.
Selecting and presenting reading material.
Preparing reading material
Asking questions Organizing practice session
Diagnosing reading difficulties
Organizing reading games
Making arrangement for remedial instruction in reading
2.3.6 Types Purposes of English Reading:
The main purposes of English reading are:
a. To enable the students to read English with • correct
pronunciation, intonation, articulations, stress and rhythm and.
b. To enable the students to comprehend and understand the meaning
of words and the relationship of ideas. These two important
purposes are served by
i. Load Reading and
23
ii. Silent Reading
These important, types are briefly described
i. Loud Reading:
This type of reading is also known as "oral reading", It is a
textbook based approach. In this type of reading, students learn what they
have to read in a book. The importance of "loud" reading is clear from its
term loud such as:
a. It enables the student to read English with correct pronunciation.
b. Student's knowledge of speaking in words, phrases and sentences
in tested.
c. Students are given sufficient practice and their mistakes are
corrected.
d. Cases of remedial nature in pronunciation are also attended.
e. Sufficient drill in pronunciation is given to students
ii. Silent Reading:
It is the most important type of reading. The habit of silent reading
should be developed in children even from the early age. Loud reading by
students be followed by silent reading. The importance of silent reading is
clear from its term such as:
a. Silent rending enables the students to read a passage of the text
book without making sounds and moving lips.
b. It enables the students to read with ease, speed and fluency.
c. It enables the students to read with understanding and
comprehension.
d. Student's vocabulary is expanded and they get pleasure and
appreciation from silent reading.
e. It develops in students the ability to read with interest.
24
f. In develops good habit in students for study in the library.
g. It initiates self-instruction and deep study habit in students.
h. It enables students to concentrate on meaning, ideas which result
in greater assimilation of information.,
2.3.7 Synthetic and Analytic Approaches/Methods of Teaching Reading:
According to Dr. Stanley Hall, there are two methods or
approaches of teaching of reading.
a. Synthetic method or approach which provides from letters or
sounds to words and sentence and
b. Analytic method or approach begins with words or sentences and
descends to visual or vocal elements. These methods are described
in detail.
2.3.7.1 The Synthetic Method:
The synthetic Method includes: The Alphabetic Method
i. The Phonic Method
ii. The Phonetic Method
i. The Alphabetic Method
This method is also called a "spelling method". It is an old and
traditional method. First of all names of the letters are the taught. the
syllables combining those letters follow and last of all the word as a whole.
Small letters are first taught then come capital letters. In both cases, they
are grouped according to the similarity of formation in order to facilitate
rapid recognition.
a. Advantages of the Method:
The method possess the following advantages:
25
It does not require any special efforts or training on the part of
teacher.
The child is able to learn spelling side by side with reading.
The method is effective in word recognition.
The method suits in the correction of remedial or problem cases.
b. Draw backs of the Method:
The method is criticized on the following grounds.
The procedure is unnatural and educationally unsound.
The name of individual letters forming the word is different from
the sound of the whole word.
In the case of words of irregular notion such as "catch" the sound
of the individual letters do not give any indication to the sound
which they form.
The number of English alphabet are 26 but the sounds to be
conveyed by them are 44.
Many letters have more than one sound.
Taking letters of the alphabet as the units of study is
psychologically an unsound procedure.
The unnatural combination of spelling and reading and sense of
material to the letters formation of the individual words.
It obstructs fluency and speed in reading.
ii. Phonic Method:
This method is based on the knowledge of the sounds of the
letters, the letters are learnt not by their names but by their sound. The
sounds of the words are learnt by combining the sounds of the letters
framing them.
a. Advantages of the Phonic Method:
The children are able to pronounce words correctly and distinctly.
It helps the child in attacking new words on the basis of his
acquaintance with them in the spoken form.
26
Being a method of word recognition, it sharpens visual and
auditory perceptions.
b. Disadvantages:
The method causes confusion in reading between many letters or
their combinations have more than one sound.
Vowels for example "a" has more than half dozen sounds in
words.
Some letters are mute in various positions such as psalm calm, and
autumn etc.
Some words sound alike but have different spelling and meaning
such as reign, rein.
It is psychologically unsound in the sense that it treats the parts of
a word before they are taking up in whole word.
Focusing on the readers attention on the sound of the word rather
than on the meaning of the words.
iii. Phonetic Method:
This method emphasizes the sound content of the letters and
introduces the new system of the symbols to make deficiency of the letters
in presenting the different sound which can not be represented by the 26
letters in English. It aims at representing each 5,..,und by one definite
symbol. It helps to get over the difficulty of many sounds of one and the
same letter.
a. Advantages:
As indicated above, it resolves the confusion caused by the long
and short sounds of the vowels and different sounds of
consonants.
It aims at removing the main obstacle in the reading process,
caused by the lack of correspondence between spellings and
sounds of letters and combination of letters.
It provides children with a tool to learn correct pronunciation.
27
b. Limitation:
It is alleged that phonetic symbols only delay difficulty and in no
way overcome it. The reader has got to adopte the ordinary letters
eventually because all the books are written in ordinary letters.
2.3.7.2 Analytic Method:
The analytic method includes:
i. The Word Method
ii. The Phrase Method
iii. The Sentence or Story Method.
The underlying idea of this method is that we do not ordinarily
read by letters but by the whole word units. It is also called "look and say"
method. The procedure is simply looking at the word, a phrase or a
sentence and saying it. This method aims at directly associating the sound
of the word with the form by the word as a whole. Thus the child directly
comes in contact with the words without splitting them into their
components. In this method word. phrase, and sentence form each as a unit.
i. The Word Method:
It this method words are regarded as units of the language. A
simple words is a meaningful unit for a child. The letters are meaningless
for a child. When the are associated with the words of daily use, they
become meaningful. The method is better taught with the help of audio-
visual aids.
a. Advantages
The method keeps up the interest of children by the use of various
aids.
It is the quickest and easiest device for giving good start in
reading.
The word is a unit of recognition, therefore, words are taught
before the letters.
28
b. Disadvantage:
The main objection against this method is that the child does not
learn to spell the word as he reads it as an organic whole.
The method seems like alphabet because the recognition of the
word depends upon the recognition of the component, letters and
their sequence.
ii. The Phrase Method:
The underlying idea of this method is that the "eye" does not
recognize a simple word in a span. It is not a word but a phrase which is
convenient unit for the eye to recognize. Psychologically, the approach is
round. The procedure is almost the same as is followed in the word
method. Instead of the word, a phrase is taken as a unit of language. Flash
cards are better to be used in this method..
iii. The Sentence or Study Method:
In this method, instead of phrase, a complete sentence is taken as a
unit of the language. The object is not to present the child with an "eyeful"
but a "thought" unit. The underlying icea is that it is best to begin with the
large meaningful whole and prevent from there the smaller parts which
make up the whole.
a. Advantage:
It is believed that it is a sentence not, the word which coveys a
complete meaning. The sentence is the invisible unit of thought
and of the language.
The chief merit of this method is that it makes out first experience
in reading meaningful and interesting to the pupil. He gets a good
start and gives speed and fluency in reading.
It is a natural method of learning reading since a sentence is a
complete unit of thought.
29
b. Limitation of the Method:
If this method is used persistently, it may produce readers who
would be in accordance in word perception insensitive to detail and would
lack word recognition.
2.4 WRITING SKILL:
2.4.1 The Importance of Writing:
Writing is different from speaking in that it aims at compactness
and precision in expression as well as in grammatical idiomatic and
orthographic accuracy and in these respects, writing tends to be less
flexible than that of speech, learning to write is learning to use grammar
with care and facts in some sequential order as tools. Composition or
writing letters involves both accuracy and fluency. Students need sufficient
training in the mechanics of writing such as hand writing, spelling,
capitalization, punctuation, word order and word division, sentence
structure and construction.
The importance of writing can better be revealed from Bacon
words. "Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man and writing an
exact man". According to Bell "writing is a tool used to enable us to
express which is in our mind". Writing has an instrumental valve. It is a
means of preserving the knowledge the pupil has gained.
2.4.2 The Importance of Good Handwriting:
Good handwriting is a great asset. It gives pleasant ,mpression and
adds charm to ones writing. It helps children to ..:;quire habits of accurate
observation, neatness and precision. "Beautiful hand is like a beautiful
flower," The teacher should develop in students the habit of correct writing.
The qualities of a good handwriting such as legibility, attractiveness,
uniformity, distinctiveness, style and correctly spaced, should be inculcated
in students. The teacher should provide sufficient opportunity to students to
improve their handwriting through the use of calligraphy note book,
30
showing them model hand writing, dictation, checking their mistakes,
using proper writing material and arranging competition of calligraphy
among students.
2.4.3 The Importance of Spelling in Writing.
A spelling makes written communication easier. It establishes to a
large extent a person's educational level. Good spelling carries with it
social, official and business prestige. If ones spelling is poor and careless,
communication suffers and the reader will be confused about knowing the
word. Writing of correct spelling leads to smooth and meaningful
communication. The spelling is a skill. It is a habit of care. Both the quality
of accuracy and precision should be acquired by students so that they are
well equipped for carrying out business efficiently in their future life.
While teaching to students to acquire a good habit of writing
spelling, they should make students aware of the difficulties in English
spellings such as the difficulties may be faced when these is no relationship
between the sound and the symbol in the language and the range of words
that may be required to spell.
2.4.4 Techniques to be Adopted for Teaching of Spelling:
The techniques the teacher can adopt for teaching of correct
spelling are;
Ask the students to read loudly which is associated with skills in
speaking.
Expose the class to every possible variant of spelling patterns in
the language.
Students should be made familiar with the probable structures of
word.
Sufficient practice should be given to students in dictation. Wrong
spellings should be corrected by students themselves while
comparing them with correct spellings.
Students should be encouraged to use spelling dictionary.
31
Charts and flash cards etc should be used in teaching of spellings.
Competition should be held among students for writing correct
spelling.
Computer assisted instructional program are also the best source
for learning of the spelling.
32
UNIT-3: METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH
Various methods, techniques and approaches are adopted in the
field of language learning and teaching. These are also used in the teaching
of English. All these methods have been passing through experimental
period. Their weaknesses and shortcomings have been identified and
corrected from time to time. Old methods have been either improved or
discarded and new methods have been adopted. Moreover, innovations
have been introduced in teaching of English. Teaching of English has
become a specialized field and is gaining currency in view of the explosion
in scientific and information technology. Some methods have become more
popular in view of the need of the time. Each method possesses strength
and limitations. Not a single method in complete in all respects. In fact,
methods need enrichment, and dynamism, interest, initiative and
resourcefulness on the part of teacher to make it effective. They need the
support of the conventional as well as modern and sophisticated materials
to make the learning process in teaching of English meaningful. These are
the consideration which the English teachers are expected to observe and
take care of while teaching English at school level.
Methods of teaching English are goal-oriented. They differ
according to the goals for which it is taught. Therefore, while formulating
goals or objectives, one will have to determine which method/methods are
most appropriate or relevant to achieve the desired instructional objectives.
The following methods/approaches of teaching English of both
traditional and o modern nature are described in this unit.
1. Grammar Translation
2. Method Direct method
3. Structural Approach
4. Audio Lingual Appraoch
5. Communication Approach
33
3.1 GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
3.1.1 The Nature of Method
The grammar translation method is a traditional method. It is also
called classical method. It was used in Indian schools in the British period
to facilitate the teaching of English for the Indian children, who, had come
from varied social, cultural and linguistic back ground 'The, method was
not opposed that time because in India, the classical' languages such as
Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit Had :already been taught through translation
method in higher institutions of Hindus and Muslims communities. Though
the translations method was popularly used but it was not psychologically.
sound. Teaching of grammar was the soul of the languages. Translation
method is still used by the teachers hi teaching .of English in government
Schools. They are still emphasizing grammar, however, in isolated manner.
The procedure adopted by the teacher in translation methods is
simple. The English teacher' translates each and every word, phrase and
sentence of English into Urdu or mother tongue of the students. The text
book occupies an important place and is the major source of containing,
reading material, specific graded vocabulary, nevi words and rules and
exercises of grammar. The teacher makes` efforts toff make the meaning
and use of every new word clear to students' by translating it into Urdu or
mother tongue Simultaneously, he emphasizes grammatical points and
rules. In short, its characteristics are clear such as the unit of teaching is a
word. Urdu or mother tongue is frequently used. Grammatical rules are
emphasized and explained in due situation. Moreover, it is assumed that
students are expected to attain high standard for which as already indicated,
textbook is the main source of knowledge, vocabulary and translation. It is
further assumed that the structure of a foreign language like English is best
learnt when it is compared and contrasted with that of a mother tongue.
3.1.2 Merits of the Translation Method
The method has the following merits
34
Children are not given vague explanation with the help of
gestures or with English word, or object or picture. If. there
are exact word in the vocabulary of the mother tongue, it is
given straight away without any hesitation.
It is an appropriate way of giving the meaning of words
which stand for abstract things or qualities (such as bad
good).
It involves the principle of proceeding from known to
unknown as the child associates a foreign word with the word
of his mother tongue, already known to him.
It is economical method and saves time of the teacher
It helps in enhancing the student's vocabulary in English.
It helps in having better understanding of word meaning.
It establishes link between new ideas (foreign language) and
old ideas (mother tongue)
It provides correct understanding of English while explaining
its grammatical rules.
In case of deductive approach, it is not time consuming as it
does not require long exercises.
It is convenient in the sense that it needs not material aids or
illustrations.
It helps to develop in students the art of translation.
It supports the notion of "faculty Psychologists" who claim
that grammar discipline the mind of the children.
It helps in testing comprehension.
It helps students to differentiate between the structures of
English and vernacular.
This method can be conveniently used in large classes.
It interprets foreign phraseology in the best possible manner.
3.1.3 Demerits of the Translation Method
lnspite of the fact that translation method is very popular among
the teachers and they are accustomed to its use from time immemorial but
35
it has such serious drawbacks that cannot be exclusively and ideally
accepted for the teaching of English. These limitations are briefly stated.
It is an unnatural method because it uses the `eyes' and
ignores the 'ear'.
Language learning requires practice and not learnt by
grammatical rules.
It is always impossible to translate completely the spirit of the
ideas from one language to another.
There are large number of words and phrases for which exact
equivalents cannot be found in other language.
The method of employing word by word translation destroys
the child's fluency and spontaneity of speech.
The translation method is obstructing the ability of children to
understand, speak, read, write and think directly in English. It
gives little help in the development of self expression in
English.
The translation method was usually attractive to the teaching
of classical languages which have become obsolete while
English is as a living language does not suit translation
method.
A living language is learnt first by having a training to speech
and attempting later to read and write but translation method
reverses this natural order.
English is a modern language if it is taught with translation
method, the learning of accent, intonation and pronunciation
will be naturally ignored.
Though, this method encouraged literal translation but
sometimes literal translation becomes ridiculous.
The fundamental weakness of the method is that it prevents or
retards those children from thinking freely in English.
It however, helps to develop bookish. English but prevents
the delicate expression.
36
The excessive emphasis on grammar taxes the brain of the
pupil and in this way stops him from taking interest in
learning the language.
It is not psychologically sound, as the theory of "Faculty of
Psychology" has been' discarded.
-It is against the maxim from “whole to part".
'If completely neglects silent reading and rapid reading.
It fails to impress upon the pupils the fine shades of
differences that exist between one language and the other.
3.2 DIRECT METHOD
3.2.1 Background
As already observed, Directed Method was the reaction of
Translation Method which was followed in extreme form in the teaching of
foreign language in British and American schools. The object of this
departure was to evolve a method of teaching for a foreign language, which
should approach in principles and practice and which could enable the
child to think in the language and to speak it with correct pronunciation.
The Direct Method was evolved out of these principles enunciated
by the "reformed method". The term 'Direct Method' was used for the first
time in 1901.
3.2.2 Fundamental Principles of Direct Method
a. Direct Bond
The basic principles of the Direct Method is that the foreign words
and its idea should be associated directly with each other without the
intermediary link of the mother tongue. When the pupil desires to express,
an idea in the foreign language, he would automatically find the
appropriate word for it first without thinking in the mother tongue.
37
b. Oral Practice Essential in the Beginning
The importance of oral work in learning of a language has been
duly stressed by the modern linguists. Oral method of learning a language
in the beginning is the most natural method. Therefore, in Direct Method
oral practice is essential in the beginning which gives a much better
command cover the language than reading and writing do.
c. Acquiring New Vocabulary
According to the Direct Method, a limited a vocabulary should be
taught. in the initial stage. The method lays emphasis on quality in the early
stage rather on quantity of the language
Words phrases are learnt through spoken English and it is mainly
through articulation that pupils memorize words and phrases Articulation
with correct, pronunciation and intonation is stressed in the method. In
Direct Method, new words are introduced. They are linked with a direct
bond with objects and actions for which they stand. They are practised
through the spoken medium. The early vocabulary is confined to the
concrete objects.
d. Inhibition of the Mother Tongue
In Direct Method, the aim is to secure direct bond between the
experience and the expression in English. So it is necessary to employ the
mother tongue to the minimum. The extreme position such as the use of
free mother -tongue in Translation Method and absolutely avoiding the
mother tongue in the Direct Method creates confusion of thought.
Therefore, such extreme position should not be adopted in either case. The
teacher should create an environment in which he uses English as much as
possible during the period and may use Urdu/regional language (when need
arises) to the minimum extent.
e. Sentence as the Unit of Speech
We see that in our life, the single and isolated words have no
meaning. We speak and think of complete sentences. The words have
38
meaning only in the context. Complete sentences can express complete
thought. Therefore, this is the quality of Direct Method to teach a short and
complete simple sentence and gradually it is enlarged with addition of
nouns and other parts of speech. Learning words in a meaningful sentence
is easier for immediate recall than learning of isolated words through
mechanical fashion as is done in Translation Method.
f. The Place of Grammar in Direct Method
According to old method grammar was taught deductively i.e.
definitions and rules of grammar were learnt by pupils which was totally
discarded by the advocates of Direct Method Later on, it was realized that
in Direct Method too, teaching of grammar should not be completely
ignored. It should be taught inductively and the rules, definitions etc are to
be derived from giving a large number of concrete examples. It depends
upon the ability of teachers how can he grade his lesson and plan his
teaching work.
3.2.3 Advantage of Direct Method
a. In actual practice, the direct method has achieved better results
than other method, such as by recurring a direct bond between the
idea and expression. It gives fluency to speech which indicates an
amount of command over the language.
b. It is the quickest way of getting started and creates maximum
interest of students and the instruction is full of life and activity.
c. The method promotes not only the ability to speak but also the
ability to understand English.
d. The Direct Method promotes the power of the pupil of writing as
well. A pupil who has fluency of speech and a language sense,
will be able to write more freely and express his thought more
clearly than the one who is thinking out parts of sentences and is
struggling for correct pronunciation and intonation to be achieved
through loud reading.
39
3.2.4 Limitations of the Direct Method
The method inspite of the fact producing encouraging results. has
some serious limitations.
a. Children at the age of five entering schools, have already formed
the direct bond between the objects and the worlds in the mother
tongue that stand for them. When they are learning the names of
the same objects in a foreign language, they cannot completely
keep up at bay the words of the mother tongue for those objects.
b. There are quite a number of abstract words which have to be
explained through definitions or by concept such as 'good', tad',
'truth' and 'honesty' etc.
c. According to some linguists, the Direct Method while over
emphasizing the actual side of the language, undermines the
importance of reading. Infect, balance is not maintained between
the four fold aims/skills of the language.
d. Teaching through Direct Method requires a lot of instructional
materials and audio-visual aids, which an ordinary school cannot
afford.
e. The effectiveness of the method in overcrowded classes (as in our
schools) becomes dubious. Moreover, it is not a complete method
itself. At the early stage, it is the best method but at the later stage,
other methods are to be used to teach reading and writing more
effectively.
3.3 STRUCTURAL APPROACH
3.3.1 The Meaning of Structural Approach
The structural approach is the direct action of the efforts of
behavioral psychologists and the researches done in Britain. The
underlying idea of this approach is that in learning a foreign language
"master of structures" is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary.
40
Structural approach means the arrangement of words in such a way as to
form a suitable pattern of sentences. So, the different arrangement or
patterns of words are called structures. They be a complete pattern or they
may form a part of a large pattern. They are tools of a language and do not
need any grammatical background, where as sentences are the grammatical
order of the words. Sentence, phrase and idiom etc. are the types of
structure. The selection of structure is based on usefulness, simplicity and
teacheability. Learner's age, mental levels are taken into consideration. The
importance and formation of language habit to arrange words in suitable
English sentence pattern are also taken into view in structural approach.
3.3.2 The Objectives of Structural Approach
The following are the objectives of the structural approach.
To lay the foundation of English by establishing through drill and
repetition of graded vocabulary.
To enable the children to attain mastery over the essential
vocabulary.
To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the
reading lesson.
To teach the fundamental skills in orderly manner.
To lay emphasis on active method instead of formal grammatical
approach.
3.3.3 Characteristics of the Approach
The structural approach enjoys the following characteristics.
It can be used easily by an average trained teacher.
Items already taught can be revised easily.
It enables the children to write composition after learning a few
items.
The teaching of text book becomes interesting if structural
approach is followed.
As speech is regarded the basis of the language, therefore,
structure is viewed basis to the speaking ability.
41
New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.
Language units are presented in terms of sentence patterns. The
teacher is more concerned with sentence building than analysis.
Grammar is taught inductively.
Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is considered
crucial.
Automatic control of basic structure and sentence pattern is
fundamental and is achieved through oral work.
Oral exercise precedes written exercise in composition.
Reading and writing are introduced after a sufficient lexical and
grammatical basis is established.
Substitution drills are use for practice.
Learners are teacher directed. The teacher sets the pace of
learning.
3.3.4 Procedure of Teaching
In structural approach, every structure is taught separately. The
following steps are involved in this approach.
a. Presentation
The teacher presents the lesson which serves as a model. He sets
up situation in which the need for the structure to be taught is created. The
learners at this stage is required to listen, imitate and practice. What the
teacher says to him and responds to the teacher's commands and questions.
The central role of the teacher is essential to the success of the lesson. The
text book has an important role which contains organized lessons planned
around different grammatical structure and also guides the learning
process. The use of visual aids is considered as important as the text book.
b. Oral Drill
Sufficient oral work/drill is conducted by the students of situations
created. Although it is always desirable to do much oral work in the early
stages but reading and writing should not be neglected.
42
3.3.5 Merits of the Structural Approach
The following are the merits of the Structural Approach.
It puts more emphasis on speech and oral aspect of learning which
enables students to acquire good pronunciation, intonation and
fluency through speech.
It is relevant for all stages of education.
It creates appropriate environment for learning in language.
It stresses habit formation through intensive drill, students develop
habit of speaking English.
It provides enough opportunities to students to express their ideas
and feelings.
As students are provided with carefully selected and graded
language material they get command over about 275 basic
structures and about 3000 words.
Its objectives at every stage of teaching are clearly defined and are
attainable.
It makes both teacher and students active.
Almost all students are attended through this approach.
This approach makes teachers task clear and definite and can
carryout confidently.
Students learning standard is approved.
Though greater emphasis is laid on speech, however, other skills
in reading and writing are not ignored.
The principle of selection and gradation makes the teacher's job
most easier.
The approach had stimulated the production of quality books
which had facilitated the teaching learning process.
This is the first method which has been recognized by the teachers
and specialists as based on scientific principles.
3.3.6 Demerits of the Structural Approach
The following list indicates the demerits of the Structural
Approach.
43
The Structural Approach is most suitable for lower classes.
It over looks the linguistic habit already formed while learning the
mother tongue by children.
It is possible to teach only well selected sentences patterns with
the help of this approach.
It is not possible to teach the prescribed text book by this method.
Too much mechanical drilling is emphasized which makes the
teaching dull and uninteresting.
Teachers who are trained in traditional methods, finds difficult to
teach by this approach.
Much of the aids are needed for teaching this approach.
The course designed on this pattern if followed, becomes time
consuming for the teacher.
This approach over emphasizes oral monolingual presentation and
mechanical drill etc.
This approach neglects reading of all types vocabulary expansion
and exploitation of pupils knowledge and mother tongue.
The teacher dominates the class and the learners role becomes
extremely passive.
Pupils thinking and creative faculties are suppressed.
Meaningless and mechanical repetitions are accepted as the sound
procedure of habit formation, which are psychologically unsound.
Too much emphasis is placed on rote memorization by children
without understanding what is being meaningful.
3.4 AUDIO-LINGUAL APPROACH
3.4.1 Its Nature, Underlying Principles and Psychological Foundation
The audio-lingual approach has derived its basic philosophy from
structural approach, discussed earlier. This new approach was properly
developed and improved and established its reputation among educators as
an effective and scientific method of teaching foreign languages. The
44
approach was widely adopted in American educational institutions in 60's
and special text books series were developed to teach English to foreign
students inside and outside the United States.
The theory of this approach is largely drawn on the behavioral
concept of psychology which claims that language learning is a form of
behavior which can be learned through conditioning i.e. Stimulus-
Response and Reinforcement Bond (SRR Bond). The underlying principles
of this approach are:
Language is speech not writing.
A language is a set of habits.
Teach the language not about the language.
A language is what its native speakers say not what some one
thinks they ought to say.
Languages are different.
The psychological basis of this approach are:
Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical
habit formation. Good habits are formed by reinforcing correct
responses rather than by making and correcting mistakes. Chances
of making mistakes can be minimized by memorization and
pattern drills.
Language is learned more effectively if the language items are
presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form.
Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than
analysis.
Grammar is recommended to be taught inductively.
Drills are considered essential to enable the learners to form
correct analysis.
Meaning of the words could be learned only in a linguistic and
cultural context not in isolation.
3.4.2 Characteristics of Audio-Lingual Approach
The following are the characteristics of the audio-lingual
approach.
45
The teacher plays pivotal and dynamic role in this method. All
activities are dominated and directed by the teacher.
Through skilled training techniques, children would be able to
produce correct responses.
Structures and forms are given priority over meaning.
Memorization of the structure oriented dialogues are thought
essential.
Constant repetition leads to mastery of the language.
Structures are arranged in logical order and are taught at a time.
Native-spoken like pronunciation is emphasized.
Grammar receives least attention in this approach activities are
followed by long and strenuous drills.
Translation of sentences and paragraphs are not allowed in this
approach, however, the translation of abstract words is tolerated.
Language skills are placed in natural order i.e. as listening.
The prime objective in teaching is that children should achieve
linguistic competence.
Vocabulary is highly selective and is learned in context.
The principle that linguistic complexity determines the sequence
of units.
Errors are controlled and accuracy is the main concern in this
approach.
Students are given opportunities' to interact with the teaching
mechanics/ material of the language.
The teaching of the languages is sufficiently backed by the use of
audio-visual aids and language laboratory.
3.4.3 Strengths of the Audio-Lingual Approach
The following are some of the strengths of Audio-Lingual
approach.
It develops fluency in speaking of English.
The structures learned by students are of immediate use for
communication.
46
The discriminatory auditory quality of students in improved
through this approach.
Structural patterns are systematically introduced and practiced.
Student's sense of achievements is developed at an early stage in
their studies.
Students are actively involved in class room activities.
Through individualized instruction in language laboratory.
Students individual difficulties in learning potentials are met.
The books written on the basis of Audio-Lingual method contain
controlled vocabulary and structures of common use and are
accompanied by attractive illustrations.
The method is liked because it possesses the strengths of Direct
Method.
If a more flexible and modified approach is adopted to make it
adjusted to the objectives and the demands of the present
situation, it is hoped to deliver good more satisfactorily.
3.4.4 Weaknesses of the Approach
The following are the weaknesses of audio-lingual approach in
teaching of English.
Students may become efficient in speed but they are uncertain of
meaning of what they are speaking.
Students are able to use exclusively the memorized material they
have learned.
Memorization and drill generally become mechanical and boring
for students.
Only competent and innovative teacher is able to handle the
method successfully.
The method is not effective for teaching of a foreign language to
adults.
Brilliant students are not much profited by the approach.
Grammar receives much less attention.
Grammar patterns are presented in isolated fashion.
47
Every thing in this approach is rigidly controlled and directed by
the teacher.
Even the interaction between the teacher and students is initiated
by the teacher.
Artificially created environment bear little resemblance to a
natural language use.
Students tends to become bored by continuous repetition of formal
patterns.
It does not rely on communication needs or create communicative
skills.
Pattern practice in learning of a language goes against the learning
theory.
The method calls for a considerable energy of the teacher to keep
the tempo of oral practice.
The consideration of transfer of learning is limited in the method.
The method has been termed as illogical and unsound and the idea
of model imitation and repetition is also not, appreciated.
3.5 COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
3.5.1 Background
When the "Cognitive-Code-Learning Approach" failed to prove
its worth as a better substitute for Audio-lingual Approach, the applied
linguists both in USA and UK started concentrating on another
fundamental dimension of language teaching that was either completely
ignored or inadequately treated in the previous approaches. The need was
for cultivating communicative proficiency among the learners rather than
more mastery of structures which meant the cognitive competence.
Applied linguists like Candless Williams and Widdowson were
already working on determining a theoretical basis for communicative
approach to language teaching. Wilkins contribution is significant. He
proposed a functional or communicative definition of language which
served the basis for developing communicative symbols for language
48
teaching. The council of Europe in 1971 took initiative and appointed a
group of experts to make suitable recommendations for the improvement of
foreign language teaching in Europe. The Wilkins study was found helpful
for the council which set a basis for a communicative or functional
approach to language teaching.
Thus a new approach of teaching was soon recognized nationality
and internationally and was given the name of "Communicative role of a
foreign language." This approach aimed at making communicative
competence the goal of the language teaching and concentrated on
purposes for which the language is used.
3.5.2 The Concept of Linguistic Competence and Communicative Competence
A language is basically a means of communication. We therefore,
need to have a knowledge of the social meaning. of the linguistic forms and
also their function. In appropriate terms we need to have linguistic
competence as well as communicative competence. The linguistic
competence means that the user of the language has the knowledge of
language rules and forms. The term communicative competence means that
the user of the language possesses the knowledge that enables him to
communicate of functionally and interactively. Communicative
competence includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the
language, knowledge of the rules of speaking, knowledge how to use and
respond to different types of speech and further knowing how to use the
language appropriately.
3.5.3 What is Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach aims at developing the
communicative competence of the learner which would include the
learner's acquiring the knowledge of communicative functions of the
language and the linguistic means to perform different kinds of function.
The language functions in different manner. They are intersectional,
personal, heuristic, imaginative and representational.
49
The term communicative function refers to what the speaker uses
language for as opposed to how he does it. It means that the term function
refers to the purpose for which language is used. Functions are often
described as categories of behaviour such as request, apologies, complaint,
suggestion, complement etc.
3.5.4 Characteristics of Communication Approach
The following are the characteristics of the communicative
approach.
In communicative approach, the focus is on learning on
communication.
The selection of language items are based on the learners needs to
know in order to get through done.
The language items as determined, emphasize the content,
meaning and interest.
The degree of coverage of items depends on what the learner
needs and sees as important.
Variety of language is accepted and as characterized by the
particular communication needs.
The daily use of language is emphasized in this approach.
Linguistic skills i.e. speaking, reading and writing are emphasized.
It is a students centered approach.
Partially correct or incomplete utterances are not seen as eviction
from the norms of standard grammar.
The approach resembles to the natural language learning process
in which content of the utterances in emphasized rather than the
form.
The approach is concerned with activities which create realistic
situation for language work.
Effective communication is sought. Comprehensible
pronunciation is sought.
Attempts to communicate is encouraged from the very beginning.
50
Linguistic variation is a central concept in material and
methodology.
Fluent and acceptable language is the primary goal of the
approach.
Accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context.
3.5.5 The Role of the Teacher Adopting Communication Approach
Communicative language teaching is task oriented. The teacher
plays role as a facilitator. He is the manager of the class room and creates
the environment which tends to promote communication. During this
activities, he acts as an advisor, ensuring questions and monitoring their
performances. Students are actively involved in the process of learning.
The students mother tongue has no particular role in this approach. The
teacher and students use the target language during communicative
activities. However, there are a few techniques which can be used in this
approach such as the use of authentic materials, language games, role
playing, picture strip study and problem solving communicative task.
3.5.6 Merits of the Communication Approach
The following are the merits of the Communication Approach in
teaching of English as a foreign language.
In emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge of linguistic forms i.e.
linguistic competence and communicative competence.
Its focus is on development of communicative and linguistic skills
because language is primarily the method of communication.
The approach is flexible in which variety of language is accepted
and used.
It is more related to every day use language.
The approach is not teacher dominated but student centered.
Students are not discouraged while using partially correct or
incomplete utterances, as wrong.
51
In this approach. the content is more important than the form of
the language.
It sets realistic learning tasks in which full class or individualized
instruction may be utilized.
It recognizes that the language used in any speech act should be
grammatically and semantically appropriate.
The act of communication at any level, will be intrinsically
motivating simply because it expresses basic universal
communicative function of the language.
It enables teacher to exploit sound psycho-linguistic, socio-
linguistic, linguistic and educational principles.
The adoption of eclectic approach has been found the most suited
approach while integrating relevant features of several methods
into a functional notional approach.
3.5.7 Limitations of the Communicative Approach
The following are some limitations of the Communicative
Approach in and teaching of English.
It over emphasizes the functional aspect of the language and under
mines the importance of grammatical rules.
The use of authentic language becomes difficult for a teacher
when he is not well versed in linguistic skills and communicative
function. Only a competent teacher can deal with such approach.
The Communicative Approach implies producing learners with a
native speakers communicative competence. Directly it is
desirable but practically it is impossible in the present set up of the
developing countries like Pakistan.
The Communicative Approach lays emphasis on using language
in real situation. Such real situation cannot be created in the
traditional class room environment.
The construction of valid tests to measure communicative
competence, becomes difficult for the teacher.
52
53
UNIT-4: TEACHING OF GRAMMAR
4.1 WHAT IS GRAMMAR?
"If words constitute the physical structure of the language, its soul
is grammar" Grammar is complementary to vocabulary and corresponding
to it as a language feature. Grammar is the study of abstraction. The
modern attitude is against the rigidity of classical tradition which was
based on English grammar, which was considered the written language as
the foundation of grammar and which interpreted rules as linguistic Laws.
The descriptive approach in teaching of English is more flexible. It treats
English independently of classical forms and considers spoken language to
be the foundation of English as a living language. Its approach is inductive
that is the amassing of data from which true inferences alone may be
derived. The tendency among the reformers of the language is that they are
against the rules. According to them a language is learnt by pattern rather
than by rules, by imitation than by rules. lnspite of these facts, rules are
often a great help and an indispensable help.
4.2 GRAMMAR DEFINED BY VARIOUS LINGUISTS
Grammar has been defined by various linguists in different terms.
Such as:
Language is a method of conveying our ideas to the mind of other
persons and the grammar of the language is a collection of
observations on the structure of it and a system of rules for proper
use of it (Joseph Priestley).
Grammar has been defined as the practical analysis of the
language, its anatomy (Dr. Sweet).
Grammar presents the facts of the language, arranged under
certain categories and deals only with what can be brought under
general laws and stated in the form of general rules. (Thompson).
54
Grammar is the code of rules, it is like etiquette and table manner,
a statement of convention, it summarizes what is done by cultured
people and like etiquette, it is in a state of constant change (Dr.
West).
Grammar is a study of language by specialists made in order to
establish the rules and principles which are followed more or less
unconsciously or instinctively by the native speaker.
Grammar is a system of rules in a well defined way assigns
structural descriptions to sentences (Chomsky).
All these definitions forwarded by various grammarians lead us to
the conclusion that grammar consists of rules and principles that
govern the system of units and structures by which we
communicate with each other. It helps in communication because
it is a system of phonology, morphology, semantic and syntax.
4.3 TYPES/APPROACHES OF GRAMMAR
There are five types or approaches of grammar
i. Prescriptive Grammar/ Approach
ii. Descriptive Grammar/Approach
iii. Scholarly Traditional Grammar/Approach
iv. Structural Grammar/Approach
v. Transformational-generative Grammar/Approach
The discussion on these types will be confined to two
types/approaches.
i. The Prescriptive Grammar/Approach
ii. The Descriptive Grammar/Approach
The prescriptive grammar or approach is called formal or
theoretical grammar/approach and the descriptive grammar/approach is
called pure or functional grammar or approach. Therefore, the term
"theoretical" and "functional" will be used in the discussion.
55
i. Theoretical Grammar/Approach
In theoretical grammar the main emphasis is on rules and forms
rather than on their application on definitions rather than on application. Its
limitation is that it does not consider change in the language. Infact, this
type of grammar is for the teacher. He gets himself familiar with theory,
rules, principles and generalizations which give him an insight into the
structure of the language.
ii. Functional Grammar/Approach
In functional grammar, the main emphasis is on the functional
side of the language. It changes along with the changes in the language. It
functions in correct speech. This is mainly for the students who acquire
correct usage by imitation. This is the practical aspect of the grammar and
signifies the functioning of the various parts of speech or the parts of a
sentence in the practical use of language. It does not lay down "a set of
dogmatic rules" to be strictly and rigidly followed. It conceives of English
grammar as the grammar of a living language.
Functional grammar further implies that parts of grammar which
directly helps in pupil in learning to speak, read and write English. It
enables him to gain practical command of the language. Whatever the
student learns, he is expected to make use of it immediately in oral and
written work. Grammar is used only as a means to an end, the end being
the practical command of English.
4.4 METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR
There are two methods of teaching grammar.
i. The Deductive Method
ii. The Inductive Method
56
4.4.1 The Deductive Method
The deductive method is the old method of teaching grammar. It is
based on the concept of type of the theoretical grammar, as described
earlier. It is believed that the knowledge of the rules and principles of
grammar is pre-requisite-for giving command over the language and the
ability to speak and write the language is impossible without previous
mastery of the grammatical rules. According to this method the rules and
definitions are taught first and then applied to particular examples. These
rules are given by the teacher. The children are not given an opportunity to
arrive at them after examining the correct examples themselves. They have
to take them as they are and have to memorize them. The procedure is
psychologically unsound because the teacher proceeds from the abstract to
concrete. This method does not develop in children the powers of thinking,
reasoning or initiating. In short, the method is defective because it
emphasizes cramming. It is least interesting and it is almost becoming
absolete and redundant.
4.4.2 Inductive Method
The inductive method is based on the concept of functional
grammar. It is child centered method. Here the pupil proceeds from the
particular to general. He is presented with a set of concrete examples. He
examines them and isolates the common elements in them. He is
encouraged to draw his own conclusion and formulate a rule or a
definition. The teacher helps him to arrive at a rule or a generalization. This
is a psychological approach rather than logical approach. It is based on
principles of teaching such as from simple to complex, from concrete to
abstract and from particular to general. In this method, the student does not
receive ready made" rules. He deduces them for himself and by himself
from the given data. The student is actively involved in the class work and
he is encouraged to discover the rules himself. Thus his power of thinking
reasoning, and assimilating the language are stimulated. He realizes the
practical value of what he is doing. In short, the procedure makes the
learning of grammar living and interesting.
57
The value of teaching grammar lies in the combination of both
approaches. Grammar should be taught inductively and then applied
deductively. It means that rules should be derived from particular examples
and then applied to further examples.
58
UNIT-5: LESSON PLANNING
5.1 THE CONCEPT OF LESSON PLANNING
The term "Lesson Planning" means the organization of pupil's
learning activities and resources that are needed for a period of time in such
a way that maximum learning will take place from the experience. Many of
us still erroneously believe that 'instruction' means a series of lessons and
the class is a place where these lessons are delivered. It is not the case. The
concept of lesson planning is very broad. It embraces in fact, all aspects of
human life. Even the teaching of a lesson is not stereotypo, routinized, and
a mechanical job but a dynamic, a living and a purposeful activity,
providing opportunity to pupils for acting, reacting, learning, thinking,
reflecting and understanding and also providing a generous scope for their
self expression, self realization and self direction under the guidance of
their teacher.
Teaching is goal-oriented. Its excellence depends upon the extent
an imaginative and careful planning is accomplished. It is through this
strategy that the teacher takes up into consideration both the pervasiveness
and the direction in teaching learning process and the creation of a
permissible teaching-leasing environment.
Lesson planning serves as a guide to the teacher in directing his
work towards what he wants to teach? What he needs most in his plan?
What activities are important to be chosen? How the proposed strategy
could be carried out, efficiently? What instructional materials or aids are
essential to be acquired or developed by the teacher himself for a particular
lesson? And how the outcome of the above efforts could be assessed at the
end of the lesson? Lesson planning is not a simple job. It is the teacher's
social, mental and emotional visualization of the classroom experiences
which are planned and which require hard work, home work, potentiality
and resourcefulness of the teacher.
59
In simple words, lesson planning is the pooling of the ideas about
what is to be done? and how it is to be done? And teacher will have to
channelize all his efforts towards this direction.
5.2 CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING OF VARIOUS LESSONS
Lesson plans are different so far as the nature, scope and demand
of a particular lesson is. concerned. Plans may, however, provide a
common frame work indicating objectives, resources, teaching strategies,
and mode of evaluation, but the approach for achieving the instructional
targets would be different. What are these fundamentals, or what are these
basic considerations which are peculiar to a lesson of a prose, poetry, story,
grammar and composition and which are crucial to be taken in view by the
teacher while deciding to make a plan of a certain lesson and attempt to
execute it in the classroom? Therefore, an attempt has been made in this
unit to identify those principles/considerations which characterize the
nature of a lesson and which is required to be taught in its unique fashion.
5.2.1 Considerations in Planning of a Prose Lesson
The teaching of prose/teach/passage is important in the sense that
it achieves multipurpose objectives i.e. understanding, speaking. reading
and writing of English. However, the emphasis is on cognitive aspect. That
is the understanding of facts. ideas, concepts etc, contained in the passage
intended for teaching. The following are some considerations to be taken in
view by the teacher.
a. Selection of the Content (Passage or Lesson)
When a teacher decides to teach the text, then care should be
taken in the selection of the content or a passage. It should be self
contained. adequate for the teaching of various skills, and may reflect the
experiences of life of children. It should be informative and also
interesting.
60
The criteria of the selection of a passage are its appropriateness,
suitability and simplicity. It should not contain too difficult words or
structures. Preparation for the teaching of the target content demands the
pooling of the related resources i.e. instructional material and audio visual
aids.
b. Various Shades of Activities
i. Framing of Questions
The questions framed on the text should be short, clear and
thought provoking. They should be developmental; they should be
according to the mental level of students. They are arranged in logical
sequence. Students should be encouraged to give answer of the questions in
their own words. They should not be discouraged for partially in-corrected
answer. These questions should be mostly directed to test the facts, ideas,
concepts etc contained in the text.
ii. Explanation of Difficult Word/Phrases Etc.
The meaning of the difficult words/phrases should be explained in
the context. These should be used in meaningful sentences. Students are
allowed to use them in their own sentences. The meaning of an abstract
word/phrase which could not be explained through direct method, be given
straight night in Urdu or in the mother tongue of the students. For
explaining ideas, concepts and situation. demonstration will be helpful. The
teacher must take support of audio-visual aids in teaching of English. For
example, for the introduction of new words, the use of "flash cards" will be
very useful.
iii. Involvement of Children in Teaching-Learning Process
The teacher will have to perform certain activities such as asking
introductory questions, declaring the purpose of the new lesson, to provide
direction and simulation to the expected activities to be performed by
students. An adequate teacher student interaction will facilitate the
involvement of children in teaching-learning process, effective. Asking
questions, pronouncing correct English words, using difficult words in
simple sentences and comprehending the relationship between the ideas
61
contained in the selected passage. are such activities which are to be carried
out by the students in the class room.
c. Generalization
After thoroughly teaching the selected passage, with meaning and
explanation. the teacher with the help of student should conclude the whole
discussion and arrive at a generalized statement based on the key concepts
of the selected content. The generalized statement would be the net result
of understanding of the facts and ideas contained in the target lesson. The
applicability of what has been concluded in similar situation should also be
sought, so that the purpose of transfer of learning could be achieved.
d. Evaluation
If is desirable that the out come of what has been taught. he
evaluated. Such evaluative questions or instrument be prepared earlier and
must reflect what the objectives as framed earlier, demand from the entire
teaching-learning process. carried out by the teacher in the class room.
Evaluation questions or instrument prepared for this purpose must be based
on comprehending the facts. the ideas and the concepts and their
relationship contained in the passage taught by the teacher.
5.2.2 Considerations in Planning of Poetry/Poem Lesson
Poetry or a poem is taught to children in a different way. Its
teaching is different in certain respects from a prose lesson, which is based
on cognitive aspect of learning, emphasizing the understanding of facts,
ideas concepts etc. while the teaching of poetry or a poem is based on
affective aspects advocating appreciation and enjoyment and the creation
of an emotionalized environment in which the feelings of children are
synchronized with the feelings of the poet. The emphasis of teaching a
poem should not be so much on the meaning of the words, using the words
in sentences and on the teaching of grammatical rules but on the
understanding, feelings and appreciation of the ideas contained in the poem
which have been delicately interwoven in it. The tone, the rhythm and other
62
stylistic features of the poem as expressed by the teacher, will create
appreciation. The teacher is however, required to make understand to
students the difficult words phrases etc. but he should not consume so
much time on them. His main efforts should be directed towards
comprehending the different ideas contained in the poem and go deep in to
the inspiring and emotionalized situation in which these have been
expressed by the poet spontaneity. Repetition of the poem again and again
by the teacher and then by students with appreciation, stress and intonation,
will make the lesson interesting and stimulating. Let the students arrive at a
juncture to understand the "message" the poet intends to convey. At the end
of the lesson, the teacher may ask questions from students on different
ideas and the central theme contained in the poem.
5.2.3 Considerations in Planning a Story Lesson
Teaching of a story is both interesting and challenging on the part
of the teacher. Planning and preparation are essential for a teacher to teach
a story. He must read himself the whole story thoroughly and after
acquainted himself with the content of the story, he should divide if one
units, stages or episodes. These stages should be logically and sequentially
arranged, so that these could easily lead to the understanding of the idea,
the moral which is intended to be conveyed to students.
The teaching of a story through pictures, or pictorial charts
showing the description, of a story in various stages leading to the moral,
will be easy and interesting for the teacher. :3uch pictures or charts are
available in the market. Even an interested teacher can make himself such
charts or sketches for the teaching of story. The approach in the teaching of
a story is mostly based on question-answer method. The teacher puts
questions in order on each stage or part of a story and derives .inswers from
students and thus lead them to the conclusion of the story. The teacher
prepares an outline of the story on the hoard. Thus student are asked to
develop the outline in a complete story and derive the moral at the end of it.
The story should be narrated in simple and short sentences. Logical
sequence and vividness be maintained while describing the story either in
63
oral or in written form. Too much emphasis should not be given on the
explanation of words, phrases and other grammatical matters.
5.2.4 Considerations in Planning a Composition Lesson
Planning and preparation is also important for the teacher
intending to teach composition. Through planning, the teacher would be
able to guide students to the task. The first task of the leacher in teaching of
a composition is to guide students to the selection of the topic. After
selection of the topic, he is required to discuss with students all relevant
points or ideas to be developed in composition systematically. The teacher
should also help students in the preparation of an outline to be developed
by the teacher with the involvement of students.
Composition means composing of ideas and to provide them focus
and direction If allows thinking, and reflection and selection of suitable
vocabulary so that these could be effectively expressed. Though writing a
composition is limited in scope but it requires a high standard Making
errors in composition are very serious. If the mistakes of students are not
checked, in time, they will tend to become habitual.
Writing of a composition allows collective activity. It calls for
much work on the part of teacher and much care on the part of students.
Teaching composition requires preparation for productive writing. It calls
application of habits of thinking. composing and recording. The form and
the style are the important features of productive writing which should be
reflected from the composition exercise. In the early stage, Wrilien
composition should be based on "intensive oral preparation." These
practices should be given in functional grammar. If a teacher takes the
support of questions, these should be uniform and provide a broad base and
lead to initiating continuity in composition. Pictures. charts and other
relevant aids are best for their use in composition. These are excellent
means for promoting both oral and written composition. Even a chalk
board becomes effective if teacher writes the key words of a composition
on it in a systematic manner which could provide continuity of ideas to the
64
students. As already indicated that the purpose of composition is to develop
in children the quality of "divergent thinking," therefore, children should be
encouraged to think freely and independently and produce the ideas as well
as the language.
5.2.5 Considerations in Planning Grammar Lesson
If words constitute the physical structure of a language, its soul or
genius is sought in its grammar. Grammar is important because these are
the laws of language that are revealed in speech and writing as the laws of
nature are reflected in living beings.
Grammar is essentially concerned with generalized facts, is thus
basically a study of abstractions. Grammar performs dual functions,
dealing with the form and function of single words and with the
construction of the sentences. There had been traditional or prescriptive
approach of teaching of grammar. The new or the modern approach is
prescriptive or functional. Therefore, in teaching of grammar to children
the traditional approach should be avoided which is inherently defective.
Some of its striking limitations are that it considers the literary language. It
presents language as a logical system of coordinated parts. It interprets
rules as linguistic laws. It requires rigidly adherence to the established
forms. It treats the subject of grammar on deductive lines.
The prescriptive or the modern approach which is recommended
by the teacher is more flexible and humanistic. It is an important approach
because it treats English independently of classical forms. In considers
spoken English to be the foundation of English as a living language and
stresses the influence of sounds in the development of forms. Its approach
is inductive that is the amassing of data from which true inferences alone
could be drawn.
In view of the above characteristic of the modern approach,
grammar should be taught inductively. Children should not be called upon
to memorize definitions, or rule or to indulge in superfluous exercise such
as that of "parsing." The use of vernacular is recommended in certain
65
unavoidable circumstances such as when there are abstract ideas, words or
concept and their explanation in English is not understandable and not
readily effective to children.
5.3 CONCEPTUAL ASPECT OF 4PS MODEL/APPROACH IN LESSON PLANNING IN TEACHING OF ENGLISH
Lesson planning according to modern concept is a kind of
"Strategic Planning" which includes such elements as planning,
identification, organization and utilization of resources, setting of targets,
and adoption of tactics and assessment of the outcome in concrete terms.
The traditional or the popular Harbartian pattern of lesson
planning is known to every student of education which possesses the
following distinct stages or steps in lesson planning.
a. Preparation
b. Presentations
c. Application
The presentation stage includes comparison and generalization.
The traditional model or these stages have been adopted in
modified form such as:
a. Preparation
b. Presentation
c. Generalization
d. Evaluation and
e. Application
As there had been no hard and fast rules for the lesson planning,
therefore the emphasis varied but its central concept to teach a lesson in a
systematic, orderly and effective manner, remained in all situation.
66
5.3.1 4Ps Model/Steps in Lesson Planning
Recently the traditional model has been modified. It presents
FOUR STEPS or STAGES. Each step starts from the letter P. Therefore, it
is termed as 4Ps Model/pattern or approach to lesson planning such as:
Preparation
Presentation
Practice and
Product
In tact, this model is not different in substance and in spirit from
the traditional approach, however, its emphasis on activities" and on "cash
results" is more pronounced. The present design of lesson planning is more
based on psychological considerations and principles of learning which
demand adequate interaction of students and teacher, more involvement of
students in activities and providing them more opportunities for their
reflective thinking and self expression. The teaching learning process is
living in this approach because it is not teacher-centred and where
discussion, questions, investigation and other activities characterize the
entire teaching learning situation. The rigidity and monotonous nature of
traditional approach in lesson planning and its execution in the class room
situation has been relaxed to considerable extent in this approach.
5.3.2 Elaboration of 4Ps Model
Now these 4Ps steps or stages in lesson planning are Haborated
with reference to teaching of "knowledge lesson" in I nglish.
a. Preparation
The preparation stage is also called introductory stage !his stage
includes elements like:
Framing of general objectives
Framing of specific (behavioural) objectives
Identification of resources to be used
Organization of resources to be used
67
Framing of introductory questions or adopting any modality
through which previous knowledge of students is linked with new
experience.
Identification of "basic concepts" of the lesson which is to be
focused and around which all activities will revolve.
b. Presentation
This includes presentation of the lesson which is divided into parts
or phases for teaching purpose. The teacher introduces the new lesson
when he has meaningfully linked the previous knowledge of students with
the intended new experiences and when he has mentally prepared
(motivated) students for acquiring new experiences in 'brief and brisk'
manner.
The teacher provides a model reading of the proposed passage
with clarity in pronunciation and intonation. Then he picks out different
words. phrases for the purpose of meaning and explanation and writes them
on the board. He then conducts loud reading by a few students for the
purpose of correcting their pronunciation and silent reading for the purpose
of understanding of the ideas in the proposed passage.
c. Practice
The practice in fact becomes an integral part of the teaching
learning process. The steps of presentation and practice cannot be kept in
water tight compartment. For example, in loud reading the teacher provides
practice/drill of correct pronunciation of difficult words and their use is
also practiced by the teacher. However, at this stage the interaction
between the teacher and students is more active. The activities carried out
at this stage, are of common nature such as:
Explanation of difficult words
Explanation of phrases, and idioms
Use of words in sentences by students
Use of phrases/idioms by students in sentences
Asking questions by teacher on the content taught to students
68
Allowing students to ask questions from teacher for clarification
of some points.
Conducting remedial practice/drill for students who have speech
difficulty.
d. Product
The concept of product of the lesson taught by the teacher is
assessing the net result of teaching. It means that to what extent the
objectives of the lesson have been achieved in terms of evaluating students
to:
Understand the subject matter
Know the meaning of difficult words and phrases
Use difficult words and phrases in their sentences
Read a passage with correct pronunciation and intonation
Remove speech difficulty of some students who needed remedial
practice
Answer questions on the content taught by the teacher
Could linkage in different ideas contained in the target lesson
Elaborate key ideas contained in the passage
Use words, phrases, ideas in different situation or every day
business of life
Develop habit of extra reading
Express their creative feelings and ideas through preparation of
charts. pictures etc.
69
UNIT-6: USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS IN LEARNING ENGLISH LANGUAGE
6.1 MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS IN TEACHING OF ENGLISH:
Instructional aids which are used in instruction to convey concepts
and ideas clearly, effectively and successfully to students, are labelled
"audio-visual aids". They provide vicarious experience. These are the
alternative of the "real objects" or experience. Their appropriate selection
and use in teaching may confidently lead to the achievement of the
instructional objections in a meaningful manner. The use of audio-visual
aids, infact, not only makes teaching interesting to students but it also
facilitates the teaching learning process for the teacher.
"Good instruction" is the foundation of any educational
programme and audio-visual aids help the teacher in imparting such good
instruction. Therefore, the English teacher must realize the importance of
aids and should know their various types and should also be skilful to use
them properly and meaningfully in teaching. He should be resourceful in
the sense if some relevant aids are not readily available in school, he
should prepare himself such maternal. The teacher should also encourage
students to prepare charts, cards pictures etc. themselves.
English can be taught effectively through "direct method", i.e.
associating the word/idea with the object, directly. This can be easily done
through the extensive use of "flash cards" which can be conveniently
prepared by the teacher and can be effectively used in the teaching of new
words. When teacher teaches English with the support of aids, the
experiences so gained by students, are lasting. Any thing experienced by
children through senses in the early stage, setting a permanent stamp on the
mind of children. Once Descartes rightly said, "Nothing ought to be taught
to children which could not be attested by eyes". The frustrating situation
in our schools is that English is taught through translation method. Audio-
70
visual aids, are either not available in schools or in case they are available
teachers are reluctant to use them in teaching of English.
6.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS IN TEACHING OF ENGLISH:
Teachers are well aware of the value and importance Aids and that
they play effective role in instruction. The manner they contribute to the
effectiveness of teaching learning process with special reference to the
teaching of English, is revealed from the following.
The audio-Visual aids, make teaching and learning effective and
meaningful.
Experience provided through them are lasting.
They provide variety on teaching
They provide interest and inspiration
They create a creative language atmosphere.
They facilitate teachers work.
They provide confidence to teacher in teaching
They clarify the subjects matter.
They save time, energy of the teacher.
They stimulate activities in the class room.
They develop and maintain continuity of thought
They contribute to the efficiency. depth and variety of learning.
6.3 CONSIDERATIONS TO BE TAKEN IN THE USE OF AV. AIDS:
The following considerations should be taken in view while using
audio-visual aids in teaching of English.
The use of teaching aids should be an integral part of teaching.
These should be supplemented both in oral and written work,
being done in teaching of English.
Teaching aids should be consistent with the objectives.
71
These should be in conformity with the intellectual level of
students.
They should be related with the experiential background of
students.
They should be novel. objective, attractive, inspiring and in
imaginative
They are improving child's understanding of the subject matter,
process or activity.
The real objects are preferred to be used.
The teacher himself should be skilful in the use and handling of
the aids specially the projectors.
The use of aids needs appropriate selection and planning and other
physical facilities for their use.
The effectiveness of aids should be regularly evaluated.
Efforts be made to prepare and use of no-cost and low-cost
teaching aids.
AV aids of sophisticated nature/type need proper maintenance and
storage facility.
6.4 VISUAL AIDS
Visual aids of various types are briefly described
6.4.1 Board/Green Board/Chalk Board:
The boards/green boards or chalk boards are very old, and
traditional aids. They are commonly used. They are economical in use.
They are effective White boards have been recently introduced in the class
room for instructional purpose, but, these can be afforded only by the elite
institutions or in the institution of higher education. Boards which are
commonly used in ordinary schools. are made of wood or cement and are
fixed to the walls of the class room. There are also portable boards,
erecting on stand. White chalk sticks are usually used by the teacher. The
teacher can also use colored chalk for better illustration of the lesson. The
legible and attractive handwriting of the teacher makes his instruction
72
interesting and appealing. A smooth leveled, dull surface of the board, its
adequate size, proper lighting in the class room etc make its use convenient
and effective.
In teaching of English, the board is. used for variety of activities
such as writing of words for pronunciation, words for meaning, words for
use in sentences, framing of model sentences, questions to be answered,
questions for assessment, framing of objective type items Its most effective
use is when teacher prepares "board summary" during the developmental
process of his teaching. In teaching of composition, the teacher can prepare
with the help of students its outline on the board. The teacher can also
provide such outline for the teaching of stories and poems. The teacher can
provide sufficient exercises on the board while teaching grammar
particularly through inductive approach In short the use of the board is
enormous It is really an integral part of every bit of teaching However it
depends upon the teacher how to make its use effective Its maintenance is
also matter of importance.
6.4.2 Flannel/Display Board:
The flannel board is also called display board, flannel graph; or
felt board. It is made of wood/card board covered with flannel/woolen
cloth. It is one of the latest device. It is not commonly used, in our ordinary
schools_ It is usually used for displaying materials like cutouts, pictures,
drawings, cartoons etc with are relating to teaching of English. It is
effective in the sense that pictures, or cuttings can be easily pasted and
removed without spoiling the material, which can be used again and again
when they are needed to use. It makes teaching interesting and arrest the
attention of the children. It makes teaching convenient for the teacher.
In teaching of English, the use of the flannel board will be
effective in case the teacher is teaching picture composition, story through
pictures, introducing new words through flash cars, putting design and
scenes on it for oral discussion. The maintenance and proper selection of
material for display, also are concern of the teacher. Children should be
encouraged to prepare their own material relating to teaching of English
73
and competitions should also be held among them for displaying them on
the flannel board.
6.4.3 Flash Cards
Flash card are simple and economical to the prepared. They are
very useful to be used in teaching of English particularly to lower classes.
They are effectively used in teaching of English through direct method,
while introducing new words through pictures or sketches. The cards, if not
readily available, can be prepared by the teacher himself. The teacher is
required to write a difficult or a new word on one side of the card and draw
a sketches or picture of it on other side of the card. For example, if the
teacher introduces the word DOG for a dog. He should simply write the
word DOG on one side of the card and should draw, or paste a picture of
dog on other side of the card. The teacher should then demonstrate to the
class showing the picture first to the class while saying -dog and then turn
ng the card showing the words DOG" (as written on the 'other side of the
card) saying "COG" The teacher repeats showing the picture and the word
"DOG" for a dog several times. Thus he associates the word dog for the
dog directly without translating it in the mother tongue of the children.
6.4.4 Pictures/Portraits:
Pictures of various types will be of great help in teaching of
English particularly too children of lower classes. It pictures or portraits,
are large attractive and brightly coloured, will be very effective in teaching
of English. The problem for the teacher is their proper selection,
procurement, their use and their relevance for the teaching purpose in
English. Simply decoration of e class room wall with pictures, will not
answer the academic purpose.
In teaching of English pictures of great men, important historical,
industrial, commercial, agricultural, geographical, holy places, community.
life etc will be very useful to be used, keeping in view their relevance to the
course and intellectual level of the children: In picture composition and in
74
teaching of a story or poem, :he job of the teacher will be easy and
convenient, interesting and appealing.
Teaching of English through direct method is a problem for our
teacher who are accustomed to teach in translation method. The use of
pictures will facilitate him to teach a certain topic or a lesson through direct
method.
6.4.5 Charts:
Charts are commonly used in teaching of English Ly the teacher_
They are easy to prepare and are also easily available in the market Charts
are helpful and better appealing if they are attractive, clear in content.
concept, consistent with the objectives relating to the topic and have been
carefully selected by the teacher. Students should also be encouraged to
prepare charts, relating to their subjects
In teaching of English, charts on various types can effectively be
used such as charts relating to new vocabulary, grammatical exercises,
meaning and use of difficult words, phrases and model sentences,
Calligraphic charts, charts showing various objects, places, animals, birds,
fruits, vegetables, forests, parts of body etc. can be meaningfully used in
teaching of English and more particularly in learning of vocabulary. Charts
in teaching of composition, and grammar through inductive method story
and comprehension are also useful and effective. Charts should be
appropriately used in instruction.
6.4.6 Models:
Models are more important and effective in instruction as
compared to charts and pictures because they are more close to the reality.
Models like pictures are no one dimensional. They may to examined form
all side. In fact a model is miniature reproduction a real object. place or
thing that corresponds in detail with original. Models core costly and they
are purchased. Teachers are either not skilful or not permitted by the
limited resources of the school to prepare them. However, they should not
lose heart and try to prepare models of indigenous type to make teaching of
75
English interesting. Models of holy places, buildings, dams. barrages etc
can be used meaningfully if they are related to the subjects
6.4.7 Real Objects (Specimens)
Real objects or specimens of various kinds possess enormous
advantage of being not a picture or model but the reality, While using
specimen the teacher infact, is teaching with actual objects. The problem of
teaching in relation to teaching with real objects is their appropriate
selection and their procurement from various places or sources. These can
be obtained free of cost. but access to such materials in a matter of
difficulty. In teaching of English, the real objects of various kinds such as
coins paper currency, stamps, minerals, manuscripts newspapers, utensils
and other old implements etc. can be effectively used if they are related to
the subject or topic. The better solution for the problem of easy and
convergent access to such real objects are archives and museums. A visit of
children can be arranged to these places, Peshawar. Taxila and Lahore
museums are the such places to be visited Stamp collection and other
specimen old books, coins, newspapers minerals and various product etc
can be adopted as a creative and productive hobby by the children
6.4.8 Film Strips:
Film strips have one distinct advantage over motion pictures or
television programs in that the teacher can adjust the role of presentations
to suit his own classroom needs. He can also extend interval between
frames so that he may elaborate orally important points and can ask
questions from students on certain events. He may also enable the students
to ask questions about certain points if they are not clear to them Film
strips can be used effectively in teaching of English if the content of the
course demands such activity. The problem for the teacher is its
appropriate selection. operation and maintenance.
76
6.4.9 Slides:
Slides offer a convenient way to the teacher to have the entire
class involved in the viewing of pictures diagrams or any flat, visual object
Slides often deal with material that are unique distinctive or peculiar to the
local scene. It is desirable that slides should be prepared by the teacher for
use in connection with special points of emphasis that he may make in his
teaching. The teacher can make slides from various material such as plain
glass, transparent plastic or photographic film. Variety of slides have been
prepared by various ncn government organizations like W.W F and IUCN
on wild life which can be used in teaching of English interestingly acid
effectively if they are related the subject
6.4.10Over Head Projector:
Overhead Projectors are usually used in higher educational
institutions. Though they are not commonly used in routine instructions,
they are often used in special occasions like seminars workshops. by
resource persons.
Its rare use in routine instruction is due to the fact that it requires
preparation of transparencies and because of time and resource constraints.
teachers are unable to do such job. Moreover, such facilities are not
provided to schools. School teachers are not trained in preparation of
transparencies and they have no sources or required material at their
disposal.
For overhead projectors, transparencies are prepared on special
transparent plastic sheets with special marker. They are put on the glass
sheet of the projector and are reflected on the screen and with the help of
pointer the teacher explains the content to the students or audience.
The overhead projector be effectively used in teaching of English
activities like explaining meanings of difficult words, teaching correct
spelling, writing words in model sentences, preparing outing for
composition or a story, recording the central idea of a poem, writing a
generalized statement derived from the text, poem or story and for teaching
77
of grammar through inductive approach. Its use in teaching of English is
effective and arresting the attention of the students on the screen and later
on they can conveniently write them is their note books. It is economical in
the sense that once transparencies on any topic are carefully prepared by
the teacher, can be used for years if they are kept safe and secured. The
overhead projector can be operated more effectively in the dark room.
6.4.11Opaque Projector:
Opaque projectors are rarely available even in higher institutions.
School teachers are not so much familiar with it. It i more costly and
sophisticated than overhead projector. The device permits the operator (the
teacher) to project a non-transparent material i.e. flat pictures. photographs,
written pages sketches, graphs diagrams etc on the screen which is
reflected in a magnified form on the screen. Usually white sheet are put as
a screen on the wall and the same (magnified) object is drawn on it with
pencil of marker. Later on the details are filled up by the teacher/student.
Its use will be more effective in the dark room.
Opaque projector can be effectively used for preparing sketches in
teaching of English when the teaching is intending to teach a picture
composition, or a story given in the text in pictorial form. The teacher can
prepare large pictures of "great men" given in the text book for teaching in
English course.
6.4.12 The Use of Computer:
Information Technology (IT) has brought about revolution in the
field of science, technology, commerce, industry an communication. It has
virtually brought closer together entire world, community and has brought
about changes in the management system. Nowadays all aspects of our life
being influenced by the computer technology. It is also exerting significant
impact on the education system particularly at higher level. The technology
is not only confined to the use of English language but it is also used for
the promotion of our national and other classical languages.
78
Computer can be used effectively in teaching of English grammar,
composition stories and more effectively for the teaching of spelling and
writing of correct sentences. Series of spellings of difficult works are given
and a student will have to identify the correct ones. Special computer DICS
(CDs) can are be prepared on different aspect of teaching of English to
students at different levels. The computer assisted programme world be of
general nature for students; studying in government schools. The use of
computer in teaching of English by children is productive, effective and
interesting Children are sitting for hours and hours at the disk of computer.
6.5 AUDIO AIDS
6.5.1 Radio
Radio programmes can enrich a unit a topic and furnish vivid
contact with teaching learning situation and can keep teachers and students
upto date in the relevant knowledge. Radio programmes with special
references to teaching of English can be prepared to foster in children the
quality of attention and discrimination while listening to a certain
programme. They may also be able to develop critical and constructive
reactions towards such programmes. Radio assisted programmes in
teaching of English can be used for teaching of pronunciation. intonation,
dialogues, vocabulary building, use of words, phrases, idioms and oral
composition.
As radio programmes would be time bound therefore, these will
have to be adjusted n the school weekly schedule. The provision of a radio
for orientation of teachers in such programmes is also essential. Teachers
teaching and children studying in rural schools situated in the for flung
area, can be adequately benefited from radio programmes.
6.5.2 Cassette Player:
The cassette player can be effectively used .in the teaching of
English under the careful guidance of teacher and controlled environment
of the school. For example a student is assigned certain passage of English
79
text to read loudly which is recorded in the cassette player and item it is
replayed. The student thus gets a chance to listen to his own voice. The
teacher and his class fellows hear the reading and make comments on it
The student becomes alert of his shortcomings and try to correct them next
time The teacher should encourage students in self instructions
Cassette players can be effectively used for correcting speech
defects. Efforts be made by the teacher in much remedial instruction. In
short cassette programmes can be prepared by the teachers for teaching of
pronunciation dialogue, oral composition, model reading and using of
question answer techniques in teaching of English
6.5.1 Languages Laboratory
6.5.1.1 The Role of Language Lab
The language laboratory -is one of the new and very effective
approach for the teaching of English language. The setting of a language
lab is costly. An ordinary school cannot afford it. The essential equipment
in lab includes tap recorders earphones, microphone and the positions at
which the students are to listen to a master voice, to repeat, what they hear
and at times to record their responses for review and correction. The !
anguage lab, in all its technical variety, is an attempt to harness a term of
tape recorders for class use. Variety of activities are to be performed by
students such as listening material in the tape recorders, making audio
taped exercise with the help of mechanical devices
6.5.1.2 Types of Language Labs
These are various types of language laboratories. The most
popular among them are
i) The Language Room
ii) The Listening Laboratories
iii) An Audio Active Laboratory.
iv) The Listen-Respond-Record-Laboratory
v) The Delux Laboratory.
80
These laboratories are briefly described
i) The Language Room
The language room in which the tape recorders play for groups of
students. The students listen and respond as a group. Such rooms are
usually arranged in the elite institutions
ii) The Listening Laboratory
This type of installation consists of individual student booths. At
each booth there s a head phone.
iii) An Audio Active Laboratory
It is sometimes called the listen respond laboratory. It is divided
into individual booths. At each booth, there is a set of head phones, a
microphones and an amplifier plus the volume control and the channel
selector.
iv) The Listen Respond Record Laboratory
It adds another dimension. It permits students to make recording
of their response.
v) The Deluxe Laboratory.
It has all the features of listen-respond-record-laboratory plus
facilities for visual aids as well. The language laboratory method in
teaching of a foreign language is very effective but it is expensive.
However, in a central school of an area such language laboratories of any
kind can be installed and other schools can be benefited from it
conveniently.
6.6 AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
6.6.1 Television Set
No communication medium in history of mankind has enjoyed s
rapid and sudden rise to the position of prominence that television has had
81
It is not surprising that such a an all pervasive medium is having its
enormous impact on the school and students at all grades, and levels.
Television as a teaching aid has both visual and auditory aspects.
It shares most of the advantages inherent in motion pictures. Its appeals
however. lies in its distinctive characteristics not shared by other teaching
aids. Its one characteristics which is of paramount importance to teaching
through T.V is its immediacy.
Educational programmes of T.V are more fruitful for teaching and
learning purpose. However, the teacher will have to decide its value and
relevance as a teaching aid in comparison with commercial programmes.
T.V educational programmes are scheduled. School will have to
adjust their schedule according to its specific timings.
Allama lqbal Open University Islamabad, has launched .V
programme in teaching of English for students of secondary schools in the
country. This programme is very appealing. The school intending benefit
from it, will have to adjust its weekly schedule. However, individually
students can be benefited from it f they are regularly viewing it. T.V
programmes for the purpose of teaching of English need careful planning
and preparation, Close circuit Television programmers can be prepared for
teaching of English specially relating to teaching of grammar through
inductive and functional approach, developing outline of a composition,
teaching of stories and poems, teaching of spellings, pronunciation and
intonation, model reading and use of different words and phrases in model
sentences.
6.6.2 Movies
Movies/motion pictures in fact add very important elements to
visual aided instruction. Research and expesimentaion justify the
conclusion that motion pictures make some very definite contribution to
teaching and learning. The teacher can provide in a twenty minutes period
the amount of potential learning material contained in a good film on any
aspect of teaching of English. A demonstration or a model lesson through a
82
film would be more effective, living and appealing. Any programme shown
though a film with specific reference to the teaching of English will be very
helpful and useful because;
It will be interesting and inspiring.
It will provide motivation.
It will extend of experiences of students.
It will classify the processes and the procedures.
It will strengthen retention.
It will clarify the ideas, concepts, and understanding.
It will encourage students to read and work.
These characteristics are also attributed to" television programmes
6.6.3 V.C.Rs, VTR and DVD
The role of VCRs, VTR and DVD in teaching of English will be
more effective as compared to T.V because their programmes can be easily
adjusted to the routine schedule of the institution. Students in individual
manner can be more benefited from VCRs. However, the problem lies with
careful planning, preparation and selection of much programmes. The
programmes are prepared by experts and their operation need both material
and financial resources in the institutions.
83
REFERENCESS
1. Ahmad Nazir Sh. (1975). Teaching of English as a Second Language
The Carvan Book House, Lahore.
2. Allama lqbal Open University (1990). Teaching of English, (B.Ed.
Level) AIOU Press, Islamabad.
3. Bhatia & Bhatia (1974). The Principles and Methods of Teaching,
Doaba House Delhi.
4. Grane & Petty (1998). Developing Language Skills in Elementary
Schools, Huston Allym & Brace.
5. Hag Abdul Sh. (1961). The Teaching of English in Pakistan, Urdu
Bazar, Lahore.
6. Kitsoxn E. (1974). Theory and Practice of Modern Language
Teaching, London Longman.
7. Morris. I. (1964). The Arts of Teaching English as a Living Language,
Macmillan & Co Ltd. New York.
8. Rivers, W.M (1981). Teaching Foreign Language, Skills, Chicago
University Press.
9. Sweet H (1964). The Practical Study of Language, London, Oxford
University Press.
10. Sheikh Asghar Ali (1997). Methods of Teaching English As a Foreign
Language, The Carvan Book House, Karachi.
11. Shahid, S.M. (2002). Teaching of English, Majeed Book Depot Urdu
Bazar, Lahore.
84
APPENDIX-A
PROSE READING LESSON
CLASS–VI
Topic "My City Peshawar"
Instructional Objectives
At the completion of the lesson "My city Peshawar" the students
will be able to.
1. Read the lesson with correct pronunciation.
2. Tell the meaning and spellings of new words.
3. Answer the questions of the lesson.
Teaching Aids:
1. Two colour fur charts for summary.
2. A few flash-cards for new words.
Leaning Activities:
1. The students will discuss the topic with the teacher.
2. They will find meanings of words with cards.
3. They will participate in question answer session.
Heading Matter & Method Work on Board
Motivation/
P K test
In order to motivate the students
and prepare them for the new
lesson, a few questions will be
asked.
1. Do you live in a city or in a
village?
Ans. L live in a city
85
2. In which city do you live?
Ans. I live in Peshawar
I live in a city of
Peshawar
Presentation
Declaration Direct method will be used our
new lesson is “My city Peshawar”
A brief summary of the lesson will
be presented
“My city Peshawar”
Will be written on
Board
Summary Peshawar is an old & and famous
city. It is the capital of N.W.F.P it
comes from the Persian word
“Peshawar” means a man with a
profession. Masjid Mohabat khan,
Peshawar museum and Peshawar
university are some historical
buildings and Qissa Khawani
Bazzar is the famous bazaar
Capital of N.W.F.P.
Peshawar a man with
a profession historical
buildings Masjid
Mohabat Khan,
Peshawar Museum,
University. Hisotircal
Bazaar. Qissa Khawni
Bazzar. And Chowk
Yadgar.
Model
Reading
The teacher will read the lesson
loudly and clearly with special
attention to pronunciation, the
students will open the books at
Page # 73
Words for correct
pronunciation will be
written on Board
Word study Words Meanings Sentences
1. Famous Popular Peshawar
is a
famous
city
Famous
2. Old Things of past
times
He is an
old man
Ancient
86
3. Capital city Major City Islam
Abad is
Capital
city
The
capital
city of
Peshawar
4. Bazaar A place of
transaction
Qissa
Khawani
Bazaar is
a famous
bazaar
Bazaar
5. Beautiful Charming It is a
beautiful
flower
Beautiful
Activities Practice
Opportunities of practice will be provided to
the students for learning new vocabulary and
sentences
1. Reading aloud.
Three or four students will read the lesson
loudly turn by turn.
Pair-work 2 All students will do pair work for spellings
Silent Reading 3 All students will read the lesson silently for
two minutes
4 Pair work for finding answers to questions
will be done
Production:
Student’s level of comprehension will be
87
judged through test.
Oral questions Questions
1. Name some historical places in Peshawar?
Ans. Masjid Mohabat khan, the Peshawar
Museum, university of Peshaar, Qissa
Khawani and Chowk Yadgar.
2. Who built Masjidi Mohabat Khan?
Ans. The Mughal Governer Mohabat khan
built Masjid Mohabat Khan.
3. Who was the ruler at that time?
Ans. Augranzeb was the ruler at that time.
4. What is the capital of N.W.F.P.
Ans. The capital of N.W.F.P is Peshawar
Written work Choose the correct answers
1. The capital of the N.W.F.P is
a. Kohat b. Peshawar c. Bannu
2. The statues of Buddha are kept in the
a. Peshawar fort b. Shahi Bagh c. Peshawar
Museum
3. Qiss a Khawani Bazzar is the bazaar of
a. Story-tellers b. Story makers c. Story writer
4. People go to visit
a. The Museum b. parks c. Chow Ydgar d.
Qissa Khawani Bazar
88
APPENDIX-B
PROSE /READING LESSON
CLASS—IX
Topic: "The Turning Wheel"
Instructional Objectives:
At the completion of the lesson "The Turning Wheel", the students will be
able to:
1. Read the lesson with correct pronunciation.
2. Tell the meanings & spellings of new words.
3. Answer comprehension questions.
4. Use the new words in their own sentences.
Teaching Aids:
1. Two colourful charts showing summary.
2. A few flashcards for words and meanings.
3. Some real objects toys of vehicles or charts showing vehicles
Learning Activities:
1. Writing sentences on the board.
2. Pair work for spellings and question answers.
3. Cards for language name.
Heading Matter & Method Work on Board
Preparation
Motivation
In order to motivate the students and
to prepare them for the new lesson, a
few easy questions will be asked.
1 Where do you live?
Exp Ans. I live in Peshawar City
89
2. How do you came to school?
Exp. Ans. I come to school by bus or
on foot.
3. What would happen if wheels are
removed from bus?
Exp. Ans. It would not move.
Presentation
Declaration
Summary
Direct method will be used our new
lesson is “The Turning Wheel”
A brief summary of the lesson will
be presented. In the modern world
we talk about wonderful inventions
like X-Ray. Radio, Rockets, Jet-
Planes and Atomic Power Plants. In
the past wheel was a great invention.
We find wheels in bicycles, motor
cars, scooters, railway engines and
in machines. The first wheel was
present in Nature, it was the trunk of
a tree Babylonians and Egyptians
used to wheels, for the first time, in
horse drawn carriages.
(The student will read from the
board)
The Turning
Wheel Wonderful
inventions of the
modern world X-
Ray, Radio, Jet
Planes, Atomic
Plant, Wheel – a
great invention of
the past Many
machines have
wheels. First whel
trunk of a tree.
A chart of a
“wheel” will be
shown to students
Model
Reading
The students will open the books at
page 65. The teacher will read the
lesson loudly and clearly, with
special attention to pronunciation
and intonation.
Word Study Words Meanings Sentences
1. Vehicle Conveyance 1. I don’t have 1.
90
a vehicle of
my own.
2. Our school
vehicle is not
working
Vehicle
2. Ancient Very old 1. We can see
ancient things
in the
museum.
2. Gandara is
an ancient
civilization.
2.
Ancient
3. Invented To create
something
for the first
line
1. Radio was
invented by
Marconi
2. Man should
not have
invented
bombs
3.
Invented
4. Compl-
icated
Not simple 1. The topic is
too
complicated to
understand.
2. She asked
me a
complicated
question.
4.
Complic-
ated
5. Removed Taken away 1. The sweeper
removed the
garbage
5.
Removed
91
2. He removed
the picture
from the wall
Practice
Activities /
and reading
Pairwork
Game Silent
reading
piarwork
opportunities of practice will be provided to
the students for learning new vocabulary and
sentences.
two or three students will read the lesson
1.loudly turn by turn mistakes of
pronunciation will be noted and corrected.
2.all students will do pair work for spellings.
3.a few students will be involved in
vocabulary game with cards i.e. matching
words with meanings.
4.all the students will read the lesson silently
for two minutes.
5.pairwork for finding answers to question.
Production Students level of comprehension will be
judged.
Oral
Questions
Questions:
1. Name some of the modern inventions?
Ans. X-ray, radio & rockets are some of the
modern inventions
Written work 2. Which was a great inventions of the past?
Ans. Wheel was a great invention of the past.
3. Why is the wheel an important invention?
Ans. It is used in all vehicles and machines.
Correction 4. Which was the first wheel p[resent in
Nature?
92
Ans. It was the trunk of a tree
5. Where were the wheels used for the first
time?
Ans. The first wheel was used in horse \drawn
carriages.
Fill up the blanks with suitable words from
the lesson.
The use of the wheel is so ______ that it is
not possible to say when man first ____ it.
Horse drawn carriages were used by the
_____ and ancient ____. The first wheel was,
however, present in _____. It was, and it is
now the _____ of a tree.
Ex-books will be corrected by the teacher.
93
APPENDIX-C
POETRY LESSON
CLASS–X
Topic: "Written in March"
Instructional Objectives
At the end of instruction the students will be able to:
i) Read the poem with special attention to rhythm and appreciation.
ii) Understand the theme or the central idea of the poem.
iii) Appreciate the poem by giving examples of the poet's use of
similies, sound words and rhyming words.
iv) Write the central idea of the poem.
Teaching Aids
i) Two colourful charts for summary.
ii) Flashcards for words and meanings.
iii) Tape-recorder and audio-cassette for teaching the words `twitter'
and 'flowing'.
iv) Pictures showing colourful spring
Learning Activities
Pair work for identifying.
i) Rhyming words.
ii) Similies
iii) Sound words
Headings Matter & Method Work on Board
Preparation In order to motivate the students
and prepare them for the new
94
Motivation Lesson the given questions will
be asked
1. How is the weather like in
winter?
Ans. Cold and chilly.
Which season follows winter?
Ans. Spring
How is life in spring?
Ans. Pleasant and active
In which month is spring at its
peak?
Ans. March
Presentation
Declaration
Direct method will be used.
Today we shall read the poem,
“Written in March”.
Written in March
Summary A brief summary of the poem
will be presented with the
purpose to familiarize the
students with the theme of the
poem.
This poem is written by words-
worth. He is a poet of nature.
This is a poem of extreme beauty
in which the poet has expressed
his feelings in very simple
language. He expresses his
feelings in very coming of
spring. He is overjoyed at the
change of season and strongly
Words-worth/ poet of
nature/ poem of
beauty/ feeling
expressed simply / joy
at the coming of
spring/ brids are happy
people are busy/ cattle
are grazing/ life
everywhere/ joy on
95
expresses that activity of life has
come back. The brids are happy
and all people are us in their
work. The cattle are grazing and
there is life all around. There is
joy on the mountains and
foundations are full of life. The
poet has used some attractive
similies sound and rhyming
words
mountains/ life in the
fountains / used
similies, sound words
are rhyming words
Model
Reading
The teacher will read the poem
loudly and clearly with
expressions Attention will be
paid to the rhythm of verses
Practice
Loud
Reading
As many students as possible
will be encouraged to read the
poem turn by turn. Their
mistakes will be noted and
corrected after they have
finished reading
Presentation
Explanation
of the poem
Stanza 1
Words
Glitter
Sleeps
Meanings
Chirp
Shine
Stretched
Words
Glitter
Sleeps
Meanings
Make small noise
Shine
Stretched
The cock is crowing and the
stream is flowing. The small
birds are making noise and the
lake is shining. The green field is
stretched in the sun
96
Stanza 2 Words
With the
strongest
Meanings
With full
Energy
Words
With the
Strongest
Meanings
With full
Energy
Everyone is busy doing work.
The cattle are grazing. The are
plenty in number but they look
alike
Stanza 3 Words
Sailing
Prevailing
Meanings
Moving Has
gained victory
Words
Sailing
Prevailing
Meanings
Moving
Has
gained
victory
Joy can be seen on the
mountains and fountains as they
are full of the small clouds can
be seen moving and the sky is
blue. The rain is all over now
Practice Opportunities of practice in the
form of given activities will be
provided
Painwork Students will do pairwork for
identifying similies, sound and
rhyming words
Reading
Aloud
Few students will be asked to
read the poem aloud once again.
Since now they have understood
the poem it is expected that they
will read better and will enjoy it
more
97
Silent
Reading
All the students will read the
poem silently for three minutes
and will do pairwork for finding
answer to questions related to the
poem.
Production
Oral
Students level of comprehension
will be judged by asking them
questions.
1. By whom is this poem
written?
Ans. This poem is written by
words-worth
1. Wordsworth
2. What does the poet express in
this Poem?
Ans. He expresses joy at the
coming of Spring.
2. Expresses joy
3. What happens to snow in
spring?
Ans. Snow melts in spring.
3. Snow melts
4. How is the weather like in
spring?
Ans. It stops raining and the sky
becomes Clear
4. Rain stops
5. How do birds feel?
Ans. The birds are happy and
they chirp.
5. Birds chirps
6. What happens to the frozen
stream & lake?
6. Stream flows and
lake shines
98
Ans. The stream flows and the
lake shines
7. What do people do?
Ans. People are active and busy
in farming.
7. People active busy
8. What do the cattle do?
Ans. The cattle graze
8. Cattle graze
9. How do people feel?
Ans. Everybody looks happy and
has begun to work with energy.
9. Happy work with
energy
Written
work
Correction
Write the summary of the poem
written in March.
The teacher will correct the
exercise books.
Students will be asked to
develop the outline of the poem
in a descriptive from in their
note books
99
APPENDIX-D
STORY LESSON
CLASS–X
Topic: "The Two Cats and the Monkey"
Instructional Objectives
At the completion of the story, -The Two Cats and the Monkey",
the students will be able to:
i) Narrate the story with the help of key-words.
ii) Write the story with correct spellings in their note g books.
iii) Tell the meanings of new words.
iv) Arrive at the control idea/moral of the story
Teaching Aids
1. Two colourful charts for discussion
2. Flashcards for new words.
3. Realia such as a balance and a piece of bread.
Learning Activities
1. The students will discuss the topic with the teacher.
2. They will find meanings of words with cards.
Headings Matter & Method Work on Board
Preparation In order to motivate the students and
to prepare them for the new lesson
some easy questions will be asked
1. Tell me the titles of the stories that
you have read. Exp ans. ‘The have
100
Practice
Narration 1. Pair work
The students will narrate the third unit
with the help of key words in pains
2. Individual narration
A few students will narrate the same
to the teacher turn by turn.
Unit-IV
Oral
Development
of the Unit
Teachers
questions
Students
12 can you see There is a last 12 Last because
of
101
APPENDIX-E
COMPOSITION LESSON
CLASS–X
Topic "Spring Season"
Instructional Objectives:
At the completion of the composition -spring Season", the
students will be able to:
1. Discuss the topic under the guidance of the teacher.
2. Develop the composition orally with questions.
3. Narrate the composition with the help of key-words.
4. Tell spellings and meanings of new words.
5. Write the composition in their exercise-books.
Teaching Aids:
i. Two colourful charts for discussion.
ii. A few flash-cards for new words.
iii. Some real objects such as fruits, vegetables and flowers.
Learning Activities:
Headings Matter & Method Work on Board
Preparation In order to motivate the students and to
prepare them for the new lesson some
easy questions will be asked a
1. How many months are there in a
year?
(There are twelve months in a year)
2. How many seasons are there in a
102
year?
12. Do you enjoy Yes we enjoy spring
season? Spring season.
12 Enjoy
We feel happy in spring season. We
like to go for long walks. We arrange
picnics. We have holidays in spring
season. We enjoy it very much
Practice
The students will narrate the second
part of the composition with help of
key-words
ii) First the students will do pair work
for narration, later they will narrate it
to the teacher
Oral
production
Written
production
Production
(i) The students will narrate the whole
composition to the teacher.
(ii) All the students will curate down
the composition in their ex-books.
Correction:
The teacher will supervise their work
and will make corrections later on.
103
APPENDIX-F
LESSON PLAN: GRAMMAR
CLASS—IX
Topic: Change of Narration Instructional Objectives:
At the completion of the lesson, "change of Narration" the
students will be able to:
1. Differentiate between direct and indirect narration.
2. Generalize rules of grammar for the change of narration.
3. Apply the rules for converting sentences from direct into indirect
narration.
Teacher Aids:
1. Wall charts with examples of direct and indirect narration on
them.
Learning Activities:
1. Pairwork for discussing rules of changing narration.
2. Changing sentences on board.
Headings Matter & Method Work on Board
Preparation
Motivation
In order to motivate the students and to
prepare them for the new lesson some
easy questions will be asked
1. What TV programmed did you
watch yesterday?
Exp. Ans. I watched cartoon and
drama.
Teacher. She says I watch
104
APPENDIX-G
STRUCTURE LESSON
CLASS—VIII
Topic: I've been Learning English for Thirteen Years.
Instructional Objectives
At the end of the lesson the students will be able to express
actions that started in the past and are still going on.
Teaching Aids
Flashcards for substitution practice.
Learning Activities
Students will make sentences with the help of visual and
Headings Matter & Method Work on Board
Preparation
Motivation
In order to motivate the students and
prepare them for the new lesson they
will be asked the following questions
1. What are you doing?
Exp. Ans. I m learning English
OR
I’m listening to you
2. What am I doing?
Exp Ans. You are teaching us English
OR
You are talking
Presentation The structure will first be presented
orally in order to
105
Written
work
Students will be asked to make five
sentences in their notebooks expressing
activities that started in the past and are
still going on.
Q. Make five
sentences
expressing
activities that
started in the past
and are still
going on.
Correction Students written work will be
supervised and corrected.
106
APPENDIX-H
STRUCTURE LESSON
CLASS–VI
Topic: Present Continuous Tense
Instructional Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students will be able to describe
actions using the present contiguous tense.
Teaching Aids:
i. One chart for presenting the structure.
ii. One chart and flashcards for substitution practice.
Learning Activities:
Students will make sentences with the help of picture.
Headings Matter & Method Work on Board
Preparation
In order to motivate the students and
prepare them for the new lesson, they
will be asked the following questions:
Q1. What is he/she doing?
(after having asked him/her to stand up)
Exp. Ans. He/she is standing
Q2. What is he/she doing?
(Asking a student to read a book)
Exp. Ans. He/she is reading a book.
107
SUMMARIES OF TEN SELECTED POEMS Marks -40
1. SPEAK GENTLY
Speak gently; it is better far
To rule by love than fear,
Speak gently; let no hard word mar
The good we may do here.
Speak gently to the little child;
It’s love be sure to gain;
Teach it is accents soft and mild,
It may not long remain.
Speak gently to the aged one;
Grieve not the care-worn heart,
Whose sands of life are nearly run;
Let such in peace depart.
Speak gently; it’s a little thing
Dropped in the heart’s deep well;
Te good the joy that it may bring
Eternity shell tell.
(Anony Mous)
2. A NATION’S STRENGTH
Not gold, but only men can make;
A people great and strong,
Men who, for truth and honour’s sake,
108
Stand fast and suffer long.
Brave men who work while others sleep,
Who dare while others fly
They build a nation’s pillars deep,
And lift them to the sky.
(R.W. Emerson)
3. THE DAFFODILS
I wondered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o’er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils.
Besides the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay;
They thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.
The waves besides them danced, but they
Outdid the sparkling waves in glee;
A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company;
I gazed- and gazed -but little thought
What wealth the show to me had brought,
109
For oft, when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude:
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
(William Wordsworth)
4. THE MILLER OF DEE
There dwelt a miltter hale and bold
Down by the River Dee,
He worked and sang from morn till night
No lark more blithe than he,
And this the burden of his song
For ever used to be…
I envy nobody, no, not I,
Nor nobody envies me,
Thou’rt wrong, my friend, cried old King Hal
Thou’rt wrong as wrong can be,
For had I half such health as thine
I would gladly change with thee,
Then tell me now what makes thee sing
With heart so light and free.
While I am sad although I am king,
Down by the River Dee?
The miller smiled and doffed his cap
110
I love my wife, said he,
I love my friends, I love my mill,
I love my children three.
I love my children three,
I owe mno penny I cannot pay.
I thank the River Dee,
That turns the mill to grind the corn
That feeds my babes and me.
Farewell, my friend! Cried old King Hal,
And happy may you be!
And had I half such health as thine
I would gladly change with thee,
Thy mealy cap is worth my crown,
Thy mill my kingdoms three,
Such men as thou are England’s boast,
Oh, miller of the Dee.
(Alfred Williams)
5. STOPPING BY WOODS ON A SNOWY EVENING
Whose woods these are I think I know,
His house is in the village thought;
He will not see me stopping here,
To watch his woods fill up with snow.
My little horse must think it queer
To stop without a farmhouse near,
Between the woods and frozen lake
111
The darkest evening of the year.
He gives his harness bells a shake
To ask if there is some mistake,
The only other sound’s the sweep
Of easy wind and downy flake.
The woods are lovely, dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep,
And miles to go before I sleep.
And miles to go before I sleep.
(Robert Frost)
6. PLANTING A TREE
What do we plant when we plant the tree?
We plant the ship which will cross the sea.
We plant the mast to carry the sails;
The keel, the keelson, the beam, the knee;
What do we plant when we plant the tree?
We plant the ship when we plant the tree?
We plant the ship when we plant the tree,
We plant the houses for you and me.
We plant the rafter, The shingles, the floors,
We plant the studding, the laths, the doors,
The beam and studding; all parts that be;
We plant the house when we plant the tree.
What do we plant when we plant the tree?
A thousand things that we daily see.
112
We plant the spire that out-towards the crag.
We plant the staff for our country’s flag,
We plant the shade, from the hot sun free;
We plant all these when we plant the tree.
(Henry Ebby)
7. DRIVE THE NAIL ARIGHT
Drive the nail aright, boys,
Hit it on the head;
Strike with all your might, boys,
While the iron’s red;
When you’ve work to do, boys,
Do it with a will;
They who reach the top, boys,
First must climb the hill;
Standing at the foot, boys,
Looking at the sky,
How can you get up, boys,
If you never try?
Though you stumble oft, boys,
Never be downcast;
Try and try again, boys,
You will win at last,
Drive the nail aright, boys,
Hit it on the head;
Strike with all your might, boys,
113
While the iron’s red
(Anonymous)
8. CASABIANCA
The boy stood on the burning deck.
Whence all but him had fled:
The flame that lit the battle’s wreak
Shone round him o’er the dead.
Yet beautiful and bright he stood,
As born to rule the storm,
A creature of heroic blood,
A Proud, though child-like form.
The flames rolled on ___ he would not go
Without his father’s word.
That father faint in death below,
His voice no longer heard,
He called aloud: “Say, father, say
If ye my task is done.
He knew not that the chieftain lay
Unconscious of his son.
“Speak father,” once aagain he creied,
“If I may yet be gone”.
And but the booming shots replied,
And fast the flames rolled on.
Upon his brow he felt their breath,
And in his waving hair,
114
And looked from that lone post of death
In still, yet brave despair,
And shouted but once more aloud,
“My father, must I stay?”
While o’er him fast, through sail and shroud,
The wreathing fires made way,
They wrapt the ship in splendor wild,
The caught the flag on high,
And streamed above the gallant child,
Like banners in the sky.
There came a burst of thunder sound
The boy ____ oh, where was he?
Ask of the winds that far around
With fragments strewed the sea,
With mast, and helm, and pennon fair
That well had borne their part;
But the noblest thing which perished there,
Was that young faithful heart.
9. WRITTEN IN MARCH
The cock is crowing,
The stream is flowing,
The small birds twitter,
The lake doth glitter,
The green field sleeps in the sun,
The oldest and the youngest,
115
Are at work with the strongest;
The cattle are grazing,
Their heads never raising,
There forty feeding like one.
Like an army defeated,
The snow hath retreated,
And now doth fare ill
On the top of the bare hill;
The plough boy is whooping – anon –anon;
There’s joy in the mountains,
There’s life in the fountains;
Small clouds are sailing,
Blue sky is prevailing,
The rain is over and gone!
(William Wordsworth)
10. THERE’S A GOOD TIME: COMING
There’s a good time coming, boys,
A good time coming;
We may not live to see the day,
But earth shall glisten in the ray
Of the good time coming.
Cannon balls may aid the truth,
But though’s a weapon stronger;
We’ll win our battle by its aid ____
Wait a little longer,
There’s a good time coming, boys,
116
A good time coming;
The pen shall supersede the sword,
And right, not might, shall be the lord
In the good time coming.
Worth, not brith, shall rule manking,
And be acknowledged stronger;
The proper impulse has been given
Wait a little longer,
There’s a good time coming, boys,
A good time coming;
War in all men’s eyes shall be
A monster of iniquity
In the good time coming.
Nations shall not quarrel then,
To prove which is the stronger;
Nor slaughter men for glory’s sake _____
Wait a little longer.
There’s a good time coming b oy,
A good time coming,
Let us aid it all we can,
Every woman, every man,
The good time coming.
Smallest helps, if rightly given,
Make the impulse stronger,
It will be strong enough one day _____
Wait a little longer.
(Charles Mackay)
117
SUMMARIES OR SHORT QUESTIONS FROM FOUR SELECTED FAMOUS STORIES “CLASSIC STORIES FROM AROUND THE
WORLD”
BLUE BEARD
Charles Perrault
(1628-1703)
(From Tales of Perrault)
There lived once upon a time a man who had lovely houses in town and
country an avoidance of gold and silver plate, embroidered furniture and
gilded coaches. But, unfortunately, he had a blue beard, which made him
so frightfully ugly, that there was neither dame nor maiden that did not fly
at sight of him.
The of his neighbours, a lady of quality, had two perfectly beautiful
gamesters; and asked the lady for the hand of one of these, leaving the
matter of choice to her. Neither of the two wanted him, and they sent him
from one to the other, not being able to make up their minds to take a
husband with a blue beard. What particularly disgusted them was the fact
that he had already married several wives, and, moreover, no one knew
what had become of them.
Blue Beard, in order to make their acquaintance, invited them, with their
mother and three or four of their lady friends as well as several young men
of the neighbourhood, to one of his country houses, where they spent a
whole week. One round of pleasure succeeded another, walking, hunting,
fishing, feasting, dancing. They never slept, but rather passed the hours of
night joking and teasing one another. In short all went so smoothly; that the
younger daughter began to find that their host did not have so blue a beard
after all, and that he was indeed a very honest man. As soon as they
returned to town, the marriage was concluded.
118
At the end of month, Blue Beard told his wife that he was obliged to take a
journey into the Provinces, for some six weeks at least, for some business
of serious consequence. He begged her to divert herself during his absence
by inviting some of her friends, to take them to the country if she so
desired; and above all, to make good cheer.
"Here," said he, "are the keys to the two great store-chambers. This one
opens the room of my gold and silver plate, which is but seldom used;
these -are the keys of my jewel coffers, and here is the master-key to all of
the apartments. As for this little key, that is for the cabinet at the end of the
great gallery of the ground floor apartment. Open all the doors; go
everywhere, but I forbid you to enter that little cabinet. And I forbid you so
strongly, that if you should open it, there is nothing you may not expect
from my anger."
She promised to obey all his orders exactly; and after embracing her, he got
into his coach and oil his journey.
Her friends and kind neighbours scarcely waited for the young bride's
invitation, so impatient were they to see all the riches of her home, having
never dared to come while her husband was in, because of his blue beard
which terrified them. They ran through the entire house, the chambers, the
closets, the wardrobes, each one proving to be more beautiful than the last.
They went into the store-rooms, where they could not sufficiently admire
the number and beauty of the tapestries, beds, sofas, consoles, tables and
mirrors, in one could see oneself from head to foot, with their frames of
glass and silver And silver-gilt, the most magnificent ever seen. They did
not cease to extol and to envy, the good fortune of their friend who.
meanwhile, was not in the least amused by the sight of all these riches,
being impatient to open the little cabinet on the ground floor.
She was so pressed by her curiosity, that, without considering how uncivil
it was to leave her guests, she ran down a back staircase with such haste
that she thought she would break her neck. When she reached the door of
the cabinet, she hesitated for a moment, thinking of her husband's order,
and considering what ill fate might befall her if she disobeyed it. But the
119
temptation was so powerful, that she could not overcome it. She therefore
took the little key, and, trembling, opened the door.
At first she could see nothing, because the window-shutters were closed.
After some moments, she began to perceive that the floor was covered with
clotted blood in which was reflected the corpses of several dead women,
hanging along the 'wall.' These were the 'Women whom Blue Beard had
married, and whose throats he had slit, one after the other. She thought to
die of fear, and the key, which she had pulled from the lock, fell from her
hand.
After having regained her senses a little, she picked up the key, locked the
door, and went up to her room to recover herself. This was very difficult,
because she was so wrought up. Having observed that the key was smeared
with blood, she wiped it two or three times; but the blood would not come
off. She tried to wash it, even scrubbed it with sand and pumice stone, but
the blood still remained; for the key was a magic one, and there was no
means of making it quite clean; when the blood was scoured off on one
side, it came back on the other.
Blue Beard returned that same evening. He told her that he had received
letters on the road which had apprised him that the business he had gone
about had been settled to his advantage. His wife did all she could to give
him proof that she was delighted at his speedy return.
The next morning he asked her to return the keys; whish she gave him, but
with such a trembling hand, that he easily guessed what her transpired.
“Why is not the key to the cabinet among the rest?" he raked.
"I must have lest it upstairs on my table." she re-plied.
"Do not fail id let me have it at once," said Blue Beard.
Not being able to delay any longer, she finally broa-dit.the key. Blue
Beard, having scrutinized it, asked his wife. “Why is there blood on this
key?"
"I know nothing at all about it," replied the poor woman paler than death.
120
“You know nothing about it'?" cried Blue Beard. ''But I know very well.
You have chosen to enter the cabinet. Well, madam, you shall enter it and
take your place among the ladies you saw there."
She flung herself at her husband's feet weeping and begging his pardon
with every sign of truly repenting her disobedience. She would have melted
a rock, so beautiful and distressed was she: but Blue Beard had a heart
harder than a rock.
"You must die, madam," said he, "and immediately."
Since I must die, she answered, looking at him with her eyes bathed in
tears, “give me a little tune to pray."
"I give you fifteen minutes," replied Blue Beard. "but not a moment more."
On being left alone, she called her sister and exclaimed, "My dear Anne,"
(for that was the other's name) "ascend, I implore you, to the top of the
tower, to see if my brothers are approaching. They promised to come and
see me today. And when you see them, beckon them to make haste."
Sister Anne ran up to the roof of the tower; and from time to time, the
afflicted one cried up to her, "Anne, Sister Anne, do you see anyone
coming?"
And Sister Anne answered her, "I see nothing but the noon dust a-blowing
and the green grass a-growing.
Meanwhile, Blue Beard, holding a hinge sabre in his hand, cried with all
his might, "Come down quickly, or I will go up to you!" -
"Another moment, I pray you," his wife replied. And then she called softly
to her sister, "Anne, Sister Anne, do you see anyone coming?" And Sister
Anne answered, "I see nothing but the noon dust a-flying and the green
grass a-growing."
“Come down quality," shouted Blue Beard, “or I will go up to your
“I am coming," answered his wife. And then she cried, "Anne, Si',tei Anne,
do you see anyone coming?"
121
"I see," replied Sister Anne, "a great cloud of dust coming from yonder.”
"Is it my brothers?"
"Alas! no, sister. I see a flock of sheep. . . ."
"Will you not come down?" shouted Blue Beard.
"Yet another moment," pleaded his wife. And again she called, "Anne,
Sister Anne, do you see nobody coming?"
"I see two knights approaching, but they are yet a long way off.... God be
praised," she cried out a moment after, "they are our brothers. I'll signal
them to make haste."
The Blue Beard began to roars so terribly that he made the whole house
tremble.. The poor lady came down and cast herself at his feet, all in tears
and dishevelled. "This shall not help you," said Blue Beard. "You must
diel!”? Then clutching her hair in one hand, and flourishing the sabre in the
other, he was going to strike off her head. The poor lady wriggled about
and looked up at him with dying eyes, imploring him to grant her just a
moment to fix her thoughts on devotion.
"No, no." said he, "recommend thyself to God," and lie lifted his arm .....
In that moment there came so loud a knocking at the gate, that Blue Beard's
arm abruptly paused, midair. The gate was opened, and two cavaliers ran in
withdrawn swords and rushed at Blue Beard. He had recoenised them as
his wife's brothers,— one was a dragoon, the other a musketeer-and he ran
to save himself. But the two brothers pursued him so swiftly, that they
overtook him before he could reach the perron. They passed their swords
through his body, and left him there for dead. The poor lady was nearly as
dead as her husband, and had not the strength to rise and embrace her
brothers.
It transpired that Blue Beard had no heirs, and thus his wife became
mistress of his estates. She employed a part of her wealth to marry her
young Sister Anne to a young gentleman who had loved her a long while.
Another part she used to purchase captain's commissions for her two
122
brothers; and the rest to marry herself to a very honest man, who made her
forget the unhappy time she had passed with Blue Beard:
THE MAN WHO TAMED A SHREW
Spain
Juan Manuel
(1282-1349)
(From Count Lucanor, XLV)
One day the Conde Lucanor, speaking with his counsellor Patronio, said,
"Patronio, I have a servant who informs me that he has it in his power to
marry a very wealthy woman, but who is higher in station than himself. It
would, he says, be a very advantageous match for him, only for one
difficulty which stands in the way, and it is this. He has it on good
authority, that this woman is one of the most violent and willful creatures
in the world; and now I ask for your counsel, whether I ought to direct him
to marry this women, knowing what her character is, or advise him to give
up the match?" "My Lord Conde Lucanor." said Patronio, "if your man
hath any resemblance to the son of a certain good man, who was a Moor. I
advise him to marry at all venture, but if he be not like him. I think he had
better desist." And the Conde then enquired how that affair had been?
THE HISTORY
Fatronic said, that in a certain town there lived a noble Moor, who had one
son, the best young man ever known perhaps in the world. He was not,
however, wealthy enough to enable him to accomplish half the many
laudable objects which his heart prompted him to undertake, and for this
reason he was in great perplexity, having the will and not the power to
perform it.
"Now in that same town there dwelt another Moor, far more honoured and
rich than the youth's father; and he, too, had an only daughter, who offered
123
a strange contrast to this excellent young man; her manners being as
violent and bad as his were good and pleasing, insomuch that no man liked
to think of an union with such an infuriate shrew.
"Now that good youth one day came to his -father arid said 'Father, 1 am
well assured that you are not rich enough to support me according to what I
conceive becoming and honourable. It will, therefore, be incumbent
uponree to lead a mean and indolent life, or to quit the country; so that if it
seem good unto you, I Should prefer for the best to form some marriage
alliance by which I may be enabled to open myself a way to higher things.
And the father replied, that it would please him .well if his son should be
enabled to marry according to his wishes. He then said to his father, that if
he thought he should be able to manage it, he should be happy to have the
only daughter of the good man given him in marriage. Hearing this, the
father was much surprised, and answered, that as he understood the matter,
there was not a single man whom he knew, how poor soever he might be,
who would consent to marry such a vixen. And his son replied, that he
asked it as a particular favour that he would bring about this marriage; and
so far insisted, that, however strange he thought the request, his father gave
his consent.
"In consequence of this, he went directly to seek the good man, with whom
he was on the most friendly terms, and having acquainted him with all that
had passed, begged that he would be pleased to bestow his daughter's hand
upon his son, who had courage enough to marry her. Now, when Me good
man heard this proposal from the lips of his best friend, he said to him:—
Good God, my friend, if I were to do any such thing. I should serve you a
very bad turn; for you possess an excellent son, and it would be a great
piece of treachery on my part, if I were to consent to make him so
unfortunate, and become accessory to his death by marrying such a woman.
Nay, I may say worse than death, for better would it be for him to be dead
than to be married to ray daughter! and you must not think that I say thus
much to oppose your wishes; for as to that matter, I should be well pleased
to give her to your son or to anybody's son, who would be foolish enough
to rid my house of her. To this his triend replied, that he felt very sensibly
124
the kind motives which led to speak thus; and yet entreated that, as his son
seemed so bent upon the match, he would be pleased to give the lady in
marriage. He agreed, and accordingly the ceremony took place. The bride
was brought to her husband's house, and it being a custom with the Moors
to give the betrothed a supper, and to set out the feast for them, and then to
take leave and return to visit them on the ensuing day, the ceremony was
performed accordingly. However, the fathers and mothers, and all the
relations of the bride and bridegroom, went away with many misgivings,
fearing that when they returned the ensuing day. They should either find
the young man dead or in some very bad plight indeed. 'So it came to pass,
that as soon as the young people were left alone, they seated themselves at
the table, and before the dreaded, bride had time to open her lips, the
bridegroom, looking behind him, saw stationed there his favourite Mastiff
dog, and he said to him somewhat sharply:- ‘Mr. Mastiff, bring us some
water for our hands, and the dog stood still, and did not do it. His master
then repeated the` order more fiercely, but the dog stood still as before. His
master then leaped up in a great passion from the table, and, seizing his-
sword, ran towards the mastiff, wile, seeing him coming, ran away, leaning
over the chairs and tables, and fire-place, trying every place to make his
escape, with the bridegroom hard in pursuit of him. At length, reaching the
dog, he smote off his head with his sword; he then hewed off his legs, and
cutup all his body, until and Whole place was covered with blood. He then
resumed his place at table, all covered as he was with gore; and soon
casting his eyes around, he beheld a lap-dog, and commanded him to bring
him water for his hands, and because he was not obeyed, he, said: ‘How,
false traitor! see you not the fate of the mastiff, because he would-not do as
I commanded him? I vow that if you offer to contend one moment with me,
I will treat thee to the same fate as I did the mastiff. And when he found it
was not done, he arose, seized him by the legs, and dashing him against the
wall, actually beat his brains out; showing even more rage than against the
poor mastiff.
"Then, in a great passion, he returned to the table, and cast his eyes about
on all sides, while his bride, fearful that he had taken leave of his senses, -
125
attired not to utter a word. At length he fixed his eyes upon his horse, that -
was standing before the door, though he had only that one belonging to
him; and he commanded him to bring him water, which the horse did not
do. ‘How now Mr. Horse,' cried the husband, 'do you imagine because I
have only you, that I shall suffer you to live, and not do as I command you?
No! I will inflict as hard a death upon you as upon the others; yea, there is
no living thing I have in the world, which I will spare, if I am not to be
obeyed!' But the horse stood where he was, and the master, approaching
with the greatest rage, smote off his head, and cut him in pieces, in the
same way, with his sword. Well! And when his wife saw that he had
actually killed his horse, having no other, and now heard him declare that
he would do the same to any creature that ventured to disobey him, she
found that he had by no means done it by way of jest, and took such an
alarm, that she hardly knew whether she were dead or alive.
Then, all covered with gore as he was, he again seated himself at table,
swearing that though he had a thousand horses, or wives, or servants, if
they refused to do his behest he would not scruple to kill them all; and he
once more began to look around him, with his sword in his hand. And after
he had 'coked well round him, and found no other living thing near him, he
turned ':is eyes fiercely upon his wife, and said in a great passion, 'Get up,
and bring me some water to wash my hands': and his wife, expecting
nothing less than to be cut to pieces, rose in a great hurry, and giving him
water for his hands, said to him,—' Ah, how I ought to return thanks to
God, who inspired you with the thought of doing as you have just done!
for, otherwise, owing to the wrong -treatment of my foolish friends, I
should have behaved in the same way to you as I did to them.
"After this he commanded her to help him to something to eat, and this in
such a tone, that she felt as if her head were on the point of dropping off
upon the floor; so that there was a perfect understanding settled between
them during that night; and she never spoke, but only did everything which
he required her to do. After they had reposed sometime, the husband said,
— ‘The passion I have been put into this night has hindered me from
126
sleeping: get you up, and see that nobody comes to disturb me, and prepare
me something well cooked to eat!”
“When it came full day, and the fathers, mothers, and other relatives
arrived at the door, they all listened; and hearing no one speak, at first
concluded that the unfortunate man was either dead or mortally wounded
by his ferocious bride. In this they were the more confirmed, when they
saw her standing at the door and the bridegroom not there. But when the
lady saw them advancing, she stepped gently on tip-toe towards them, and
whispered, 'False friends, as you are, how dared you to come up to the door
in that way, or even to breathe a word? Be silent, as you value your lives or
mine; '—hist, and awake him not.'
"Now when they were all made acquainted with what she said, they greatly
marvelled at it; but when they learnt all that had passed during the night,
their wonder was changed into admiration of the young man, for having so
well known how to manage; what concerned him, and to maintain order in
his house. From that day forth, so excellently was his wife governed, and
so well conditioned in every respect, that they led a very pleasant sort of
life together. Such indeed was the good example set by the son-in-law, that
a few days afterwards, the father-in-law, desirous of the same happy
change in his household, also killed-a horse; but his wife only observed to
him, '13y my faith, Don Foolano, you have thought of this plan somewhat
too late in the day; we are now too well acquainted with each other.'
"And you, my Lord Conde Lucanor, if that servant of yours wish to marry,
such a woman, and hath as great a heart as this youth, in God's name,
advise him to take her, for he will surely know how to manage in his house.
But should he be of another kidney, and not so well know what is most
befitting, then let him forego it, or run a bad chance. And I do further
advise you, with whatever manner of men you have to do, you always give
them well to understand on what footing they are to stand with you." And
the Conde held this for a good example; made it as it is, and it was
esteemed good. Also, because Don Juan found it a good example, he
ordered it to be written in this book, and made these verses, which follow
127
If at: first you-don't chew yourself just what you are,
When you afterwards' wish it, your fortune 'twill mar
THE SPHINX WITHOUT A SECRET
Oscar Wilde
(1856-1900)
One afternoon I was sitting outside the Café de la Paix, watching the
splendour and shabbiness "of Parisian life, and wondering over my
vermouth at the strange panorama of pride and poverty that was passing
before me, when I heard some one call my name. I turned round, and saw
Lord Murchison. We had not met since we had been at college together
nearly ten years before, so I was delighted to come across him again, and
was shook hands warmly. At Oxford we had been great friends. I had liked
him immensely, he was so handsome, so high-spirited, and so honourable.
We used to say of him that he would be the best of fellows, if he did not
always speak the truth, but I think we really admired him all the more
forever frankness. I found him a good deal changed. He looked anxious
and puzzled and seemed to be in doubt about something. I felt it could not
be modern skepticism, for Murchison was the stoutest of Tories, and
believed in the Pentateuch as firmly as he believed in the House of Peers;
so I concluded that it was a woman, and asked him if he was married yet.
"I don't understand women well enough," he answered.
"My dear Gerald," I said, "women are meant to be loved, not to be
understand."
"I cannot love where I cannot trust," he replied.
"I believe you have a mystery in your life, Gerald," I exclaimed; "tell me
about it."
"Let us go for a drive," he answered, "it is too crowded here. No, not a
yellow carriage, any other colour—there, that dark green one will do;' and
128
in a few moments we were trotting down the boulevard in the direction of
the Madeleine.
"Where shall we go tor I said.
"Oh, anywhere you like!" he answered—"to the restaurant in the Bois; we
will dine there, and you shall tell me all about yourself."
"I want to hear about you first," I said, "tell me your mystery."
He took from his pocket a little silver-clasped morocco case, and handed it
to me. I opened it: Inside there was the photograph of a woman. She was
tall and slight, and strangely picturesque with hardedge vague eyes and
loosened hair. She looked like a clarivoyante, and was wrapped in rich furs.
"What do you think of that face?" he said' "is it truthful?"
I examined it carefully. It seemed to me the face of someone who had a
secret, but whether that secret was good or evil I could not say. Its beauty
was a beauty moulded out of many mysteries—the beauty, in fact, which is
psychological not plastic—and the faint smile that just played across the
lips was far too subtle to be-really sweet.
"Well," he cried-impatiently; "what' do, you say?”
“She is the Gioconda in sables," I answered. "Let me know all about her."
“Not now” he said; "after dinner," and began to talk of other things.
When the waiter brought us our coffee and cigarettes I reminded Gerald of
his promise. He arose from his seat, walked two or three times up and
down the room, and: sinking into an- armchair, told me the following story:
"One evening," he said, “I was walking down Bond street above five
o'clock. There was a terrific Crush of carriages, and the traffic was almost
stopped. Close to the pavement was standing a little yellow brougham,
which, for some reason of other, attracted my attention. As I passed by
there looked out from it the face I showed yon this afternoon. It fascinated
me immediately. All that night I kept thinking of it, and all the next day. I
wandered up and down that wretched Row, peering into every carriage, and
waiting for the yellow brougham; but I could not find ma belle inconnue,
129
and at last I began to think she was merely a dream. About a week
afterwards I was dining, with Madame de Rastail. Dinner was for eight
o'clock, but at half-past eight we were still waiting in the drawing-room.
Finally the servant threw open the door, and announced Lady Alroy. It was
the Woman I had been locking for. She came in very slowly, looking like a
moonbeam in grey lace, and, to my intense delight, I was asked to take her
in to dinner. After we had sat down, I remarked quite innocently: 'I think I
caught sight of you in Bond Street some time ago, Lady Alroy.' She grew
very pale, and said to me in a low voice: 'Pray donut talk so loud; you may
he overheard.' I felt miserable at having made such a bad beginning, and
plunged recklessly into the subject of the French plays. She spoke very
little, always in the same low musical voice, and scorned as if she was
afraid of some one listening. I fell passionately, stupidly in love, and the
indefinable atmosphere of mystery that surrounded her excited my most
ardent curiosity. When she was going away, which she did very soon after
dinner, I asked her if I might call and see her. She hesitated for a moment,
glanced round to see if any one was near us, and then said: 'Yes, to-morrow
at a quarter to five.' I begged Madame de Rastail to tell me about her: but
all that I could learn was that she was a widow with a beautiful ,house in
Park Lane, and as some scientific bore began a 'dissertation on widows; as
exemplifying the survival of the matrimonially fittest, I left and went home.
“The next day I arrived at Park Lane punctual to the moment, but was
by the butler that Lady Alroy had just gone out. I went down to the club
unhappy and very much puzzled, and atter long consideration wrote her a
letter, asking if I. might be allowed to try my chance some other afternoon.
I, had no answer for several days, but at last I got a little note saying she
would lie at home on Sunday at four, and with this extraordinary
postscript: Please do not write me here again; I will explain when I see you.
On Sunday she received me, and was perfectly charming; but when I was
going away she begged of me; if Lever had occasion to write to her again
to address my letter to Mrs. Knox, care of Whittaker's Library, Green
Street."There are reasons, she said, 'why I cannot receive letters in my own
house:
130
"All through the season I saw a great deal of her, and the atmosphere of
mystery never left her. Sometimes I thought that she was in the power of
some man, but she looked so unapproachable that I could not believe it. It
was really very difficult for me to come to any conclusion, for she was like
one of those strange crystals that one sees in museums, which are at one
moment clear, and at another clouded. At last I determined to ask her to be
my wife; I was sick and tired of the incessant secrecy that she imposed on
all my visits, and on the few letters I sent her. I wrote to her at the library to
ask her if she could see me the following Monday at six. She answered yes,
and I was in the seventh heaven of delight. I was infatuated with her; in
spite of the my stery, I thought then—in consequence of it, I see now. No;
it was the woman herself I loved. The mystery troubled me, maddened me.
Why did chance put me in its track?"
"You discovered it, then?" I cried.
"I fear so," he answered. "You can judge for yourself.
"When Monday came round I went to lunch with my uncle, and about four
o'clock found myself in the Marylebone Road. My uncle, you know, lives
in Regent's Park. I wanted to get to Piccadilly, and took a short cut through
a lot of shabby little streets. Suddenly, I saw in front of me Lady Alroy,
deeply veiled and walking very fast. On coming to the last house in the
street, she went up the steps, took out a latch-key and let herself in. 'Here is
the mystery,' I said to myself; and I hurried on and examined the house. It
seemed a sort of place for letting lodgings. On the doorstep lay her
handkerchief, which she had dropped.. picked it up and put it in my pocket.
Then I began to consider what I should do. I came to the conclusion that I
had no right to spy on her, and I drove down to the club. At six I called to
see her. She was lying on a sofa, in a tea-gown of silver tissue looped up by
some strange moonstones, that she always wore. She was looking quite
lovely. 'I am so glad to see you,'' she said; I have not been out all day. I
stared at her in amazement, and pulling the handkerchief out of my pocket,
handed it to her. You dropped this in Cumnor Street this afternoon, Lady
Alroy, I said every calmly. She looked at me in terror, but made no attempt
131
to take the handkerchief. What were you doing here? I asked. What rights
have you to question me? She answered. The right of a man who loves
you,' I replied; 'I came here to ask you to be my wife.' She hid her face in
her hands, and burst into floods of tears. 'You must .tell me,' I continued.
She stood up, and looking me straight in the face, said: 'Lord Murchison,
there is nothing to tell you.' 'You went to meet some one,' I cried; 'this is
your mystery.' She grew dreadfully white, and said, 'I went to meet no
one."Can't you tell the truth?' I exclaimed. 'I have told it,' she replied. I was
mad, frantic; I don't know what I said, but I said terrible things to her.
Finally I rushed out of the house. She wrote me a letter the next day; I sent
it back unopened, and started for Norway with Alan Colville. After a
month I came back, and the first thing I saw in 'The Morning Post' was the
death of Lady Airoy. She had caught a chill at the Opera, and had died in
five clays of congestion of the lungs. I shut myself up and saw no one. I
had loved her so much, I had loved her so madly. Good God! how I had
loved that woman!".
"You went to the street, to the house in it?" I said.
"Yes," he answered.
"One day I went to Cumnor Street. I could not help it; I was tortured with
doubt. I knocked at the door, and a respectable-looking woman opened it to
me. I asked her if she had any rooms to let. 'Well, sir,' she replied, 'the
drawing-rooms are supposed to be let; but I have not seen the lady for three
months, and as rent is owing on them, you can have them.' 'Is this the lady?'
I said, showing the photograph. 'That's her; sure enough,' she exclaimed;
'and when is she coming back, sir?"The lady is dead,' I replied. 'Oh, sir, I
hope not! said the woman; she was my best lodger. She paid me three
guineas a week merely to sit in my drawing-rooms now and then. She met
some one here?' I said; but the woman assured me that it was not so, that
she always came alone, and saw no one. 'What on earth did she do here?' I
cried. 'She simply sat in the drawing-room, sir, reading books, and
sometimes had tea,' the woman answered. I did not know what to say, so I
132
gave her a sovereign and went away. Now, what do you think it all meant?
You don't believe the woman was telling the truth?"
"I do."
"Then why did Lady Alroy go there?"
My dear Gerald," answered, "Lady Alroy was simply a woman with a
mania for mystery. She took these rooms for the pleasure of going there
with her veil down, and imagining herself a heroine. She had a passion for
secrecy, but she herself was merely a Sphinx without a secret."
"Do you really think so?"
“I am sure of it,” I replied.
He took out the morocco case, opened it, and looked at the photography. “I
wonder?” he said at last.
THE EMPTY DRUM
Leo Tolstoy
(1828-1910)
Emilyan, who worked out as a day-labourer, was crossing the meadow one
day on his way to work, when he nearly stepped on a frog that hopped right
in front' of him. He just managed to avoid it. Suddenly he heard someone
calling to him from behind. He looked round and saw a lovely girl who
said to him:
"Why don't you marry, Emilyan?" -
"How can I marry, my pretty maid? I have nothing in this world, and no
one would have me."
"Well, then," said the maid, "take me for a wife."
The girl appealed to Emilyan. "I should like to," said he. "but where could
we live?"
133
"Why worry about that?" said the girl. "All one has to do is to work hard
and sleep loss, and one can find food and clothing anywhere.
"Very well, let us get married, then," said he. "Where shall we go?”
"Let us go to the city."
And Emilyan and the girl went to the city. She took him to a small cottage
on the outskirts of the city, and they were married and began keeping
house.
One day the king, coming through the city, passed by Emilyan's cottage.
Emilyan's wife came out to look at him. When the king saw her he was
surprised. "Where did such a beauty come from?" he though. He stopped
his carriage, called Emilyan's wife and questioned her, "Who are you?"
"The wife of the peasant Emilyan," said she.
"How did you, such a beautiful woman, come to marry a peasant'? You
ought to be a queen."
"Thank you for your compliment," said she, "but I am well content with my
husband."
The king talked with her awhile, and then rode on. He arrived at his palace,
but Emilyan's wife was on his mind. He was sleepless throughout the night,
scheming how to get her for himself. He could think of no way of doing it,
and therefore summoned his servants and asked them to plan some way.
The king's servants said, "Have Emilyan come here as a workman, and we
will work him to death. His wife will be left a widow; and you will then be
able to have her
The king heeded their counsel. He sent for Emilyan to come as a workman
and to live at the palace with his wife.
The messengers came to Emilyan With the king's command. His Wife said,
"Go and work there during the day, but come home to me at night."
Emilyan went, and when he reached the palace, the king's steward
questioned him, "Why have you come alone without your wife?"
134
"Why should I have her with me? She has her own home."'
At the palace they gave Emilyan more work than two could have
completed, and he began without hope of finishing it. But when evening
came, lo and behold! it was all done. The steward saw that he had finished,
and gave him four times the amount for the next day. Emilyan went home,
and found everything there neat and in order; the stove was heated, the
meal was being prepared, and his wife was sitting by the table sewing and
awaiting his return. She welcomed him, set the table, gave him his supper,
and then began to ask him about his work.
"Well." said he, "it's not so good. They gave me more than my strength was
equal to. They will kill me with work."
"Don't worry about your work," said she. "Don't look behind nor before
you to see how much has been done or how much you have left to be done.
Just keep right on working, and all will be well,"
So Emilyan went to sleep. The next morning he went to work again and
toiled on without ever turning round. And le and behold! it was all done by
the evening, and in the twilight he returned home for the night.
Ever they kept increasing his tasks, and he nevertheless managed to get
through in time to go home for the night. After a week had thus passed, the
king's servants saw they could not overcome him with rough work, and
they began assigning, him to work that necessitated skill; but this availed
little more. Carpentry, masonry, or roofing—no matter what—Emilyan
finished in time to go home to his wife for the night. And a second week
passed.
Then the king summoned his servants and said, "Why should I feed you for
doing nothing? Two weeks have passed and I fail to see what you have
done. You were going to kill Emilyan with work, but from my windows I
can see him going home every evening, singing cheerfully. Is it your
purpose to ridicule me?"
The servants began to make excuses. "We tried our very best to tire him
out," they said, "but he found nothing too difficult: No work seemed to tire
135
him. Then we had him do things requiring skill, thinking he lacked the wit
for it, but he accomplished everything. Whatever task he is put to, he does
with little effort. Either he or his wife must know magic. We are tired with
it all, and try to think of something he cannot do. We have determined to
have him build a cathedral in one day. Will you send for Emilyan and
command him to build a cathedral opposite the palace in a single day? And
if does not succeed, let his head be cut off in punishment."
The king sent for Emilyan: "Attend well my command," said he:"Build me
a new cathedral on the square opposite my palace, and have it all done by
to-morrow evening. If it is ready I will reward you, and if you fail your
head will be cut off."
Emilyan heard the king's command, turned round and went home. “Well,”
thought he, "my end is near." He came to his wife and said, "Get ready,
wife, we must escape from here, or I shall surely be lost."
"What makes you so frightened?" she asked, "and why must we run away?"
"How can I help being frightened?" said he. “The king, has ordered me
tomorrow to build a cathedral, all in a since day. If I fail he will have my
head cut off. The only thing to be done is to fly while there is time."
But his wife would not hear of tills. "The king has many soldiers. They will
catch us anywhere. We can't escape from him, but must obey him as long
as you have the strength."
"But how can I obey him when I lack the strength?"
"Listen, little father, don't be worried. Eat your supper now and go to bed.
Get up a little earlier in the morning and all will be well.
And Emilyan went to sleep. His wife wakened him next day:
"Go quickly," said she, "and build our cathedral. Here are nails and a
hammer. There is enough work for the day" .
Emilyan went to the city, and when he arrived at the square, a large
cathedral, almost finished, stood there. Emilyan started to work and by
evening he completed it.
136
The king awoke and looked out from his window, and saw the cathedral
already built, with Emilyan driving in the last nails. And the king was root
pleased to see the cathedral. He was angered not to be able to punish
Emilyan and take away his wife. And he called his servants again.
"Emilyan has finished his task, and there is nothing to punish him for. Even
this," he said, "was easy for him. A craftier plan must be devised, or I will
punish you as well as him."
And the king's servants suggested that he should order Emilyan to construct
a river round the palace, and have ships sailing on it. The King summarized
Emilyan and explained his new task.
“If,” said he, "you are able to erect a cathedral in one night, you should also
be able to do this. See to it that it is ready to-morrow, or else your head will
be cut off."
Emilyan despaired more than ever, and returned, disconsolate, to his wife.
"Why are you so downcast?" said his wife. "Have you some new task to
perform?"
Emilyan told her "We must escape," said he.
But his wife said “You can't escape from the soldiers; they will catch us
wherever we be. There is nothing but to obey."
"But how can I obey”
"Weil, little fains, said she, 'don't be so gloomy. Lat your supper now and
go to bed. Group early, and all will get done betimes." '
And Emilyan went to sleep. The next morning his wife wakened him.
"Go," said she. "to the city. All is ready. At the wharf you will find just one
mound. Take your spade and level it."
When Emilyan reached the city, he saw a river encircling the palace, will
ships sailing about. And when the king awoke, he saw Emilyan levelling
the mound. He was surprised, but not overjoyed at the sight of the river or
the ships. He was merely annoyed at not being able to punish Emilyan.
137
"There is no task that he cannot do. What shall we set him next?" And he
summoned his servants to take counsel.
"Plan some, task," said he, beyond Emilyan's power. For whatever you
have thus far seheine6, he has accomplished, and I cannot take his wife
from him."
The king's servants pondered a long time, and at last conceived a plan.
They came to the king and said, “Summon Emilyan and say to him: 'Go
somewhere, you don't know where, and bring back something, you don't
know what.' Now there will be no escape for him, for wherever he goes,
you can say he went to be wrong place, and whatever he brings, you can
say he brought back the wnra2 thing. --Clem you can have him beheaded
and have his wife.”
This pleased the king. "That," lie said, "is a brilliant thought." And the ring
sent for Emilyan and said to him, "Go somewhere you don't know here,
and bring back something, you don't know what. If you fail, I will cut our
head off."
Emilyan went to his wife and told her what the king had said. His wife
thought a while. .
"Well," said she, "they have taught the king how to trap you. We must act
wisely." She sat down, cudgelled her brain, and then spoke to her husband.
'You will have to go far, to our grandmother—the old peasant woman—
and you must ask her help. She will give you something, and you will take
it at once to the palace; I drill be there. I cannot escape them now; They
will take me by force, but not for long. If you follow our little grandmother,
you will quickly rescue me”.
The wife prepared her husband for the journey. She gave him a wallet as
well as a spindle. "Give her this. By this she will know you are my
husband." And then she showed him 'the road.
Emilyan set out. He arrived beyond the city and. saw some soldiers
drilling. Emilyan stopped to watch them. When the drill was over, the
soldiers sat down to rest. Emilyan drew near and asked, "Do you know, my
138
brothers, the direction to 'somewhere I don't know where', and where I Can
find 'something I don't know what'?"
The soldiers listened in amazement. "Who sent you on this quest?" asked
they.
"The king," he replied.
"From the day we became soldiers, we have ourselves gone 'we don't know
where', and have sought 'we don't know what'. We surely cannot help you."
After he had rested a while, Emilyan continued on his way. He travelled on
and on, and at last came to a forest where he found a hut. In the hut sat a
little old woman—the old peasant woman—spinning flax and weeping.
When the old woman saw Emilyan, she cried out to him, "What have you
come for?"
Emilyan gave her the spindle and told her his wife had sent it. In answer to
her questions, Emilyan began to tell her about his life: how he married the
girl; how they had gone to live in the city; how he had drudged at the
palace; how he had built the cathedral, and made a river with ships; and
how the king had told him to go somewhere, he knew not where, and bring
back something, he knew not what.
The little old woman heard his story, and then ceased weeping. She
muttered to herself. Then she said to him, "Very well, my son, sit down and
have something to eat."
Emilyan ate, and the little grandmother spoke to him. "Here is a little ball
of thread; roll it before you, and follow it wherever it rolls. You will go far,
till you get to the sea. There you will find a great city. You will enter the
city and ask for a night's lodging at the last house. There you will find what
you seek."
"But how shall I recognise it, granny?"
“When you see that which men obey sooner than father or mother, that will
be it. Seize it and take it to the king. If the king will say it is not the right
thing, answer him: 'If it is not the right thing, it must be broken'; then beat
139
the thing and take it down to the river Smash it and pitch it into the water.
Then yon will recover your wife”
Emilyan said good bye to the old woman, and rolled the little ball before
him. It rolled on and on until it reached the sea; and by the sea was a great
city, and at the end of the city was a large house. There Emilyan asked for
shelter, and it was granted him'. He went to sleep, and awoke early in the
morning to hear a father calling his son and telling him to cut firewood. But
the son would not obey. "It is too early," he said, "I have time enough."
Then Emilyan heard the mother say, "Go, son your father's bones ache him;
would you have him go? It is time to get up.''
"There's time enough," the son muttered and went off to sleep again.
Scarcely had he fallen asleep when there came a crashing noise in the
street. The son jumped up, hastily put on his clothes and ran into the street.
Emilyan jumped up also, and followed him to see what a son obeys more
than his father or mother. Ile saw a man walking along the street carrying a
round thing on which he beat with sticks. And this had made the
thundering noise which the son had oln.yed. Emilyan ran up closer and
examined it; and saw it was round like a small tub, and skins were
stretched over both ends. He asked what it was called.
"A drum," he was told.
Emilyan was astonished, and asked them to give him this object, but they
refused. So Emilvan ceased asking, and walked along, following the drum-
mer. He walked all day, and when the drummer lay down to sleep, Emilyan
snatched the dram and ran off with it.
He ran and ran, and at last came back to his own city. He hoped to see his
wife but she was not at home. The day after he had gone away, they had
taken her to the king. Emilyan went to the palace and told them to
announce to the king that 'He, who went he knew not where, has returned,
and brought back he knows not what.'
When they told the king, he asked Emilyan to return the next day.
140
But Emilyan insisted, "Tell the king I have come to-day, and have brought
what he wanted. Let him come to me, or I will go to him."
The king came out. "Where have you been?" he asked.
"I don't know," Emilyan replied.
"What did you bring?"
Emilyan showed him the drum, but the king refused to look at it.
"That's not it."
“If it's not the right thing, it must be beaten," said Emilyan, "and the devil
take it”
Emilyan came out of the palace and beat the drum, and as he did so, all the
king's army ran to follow him, saluting Emilyan and awaiting his
commands.
From the window the king began to shout to his army, forbidding them to
follow Emilyan. But they did not heed the king and kept on following
Emilyan.
When the king perceived this he ordered Emilyan's wife returned to him,
and asked Emilyan for the drum.
"I cannot do that." said Emilyan. "I must beat it, and then pitch the scraps
into the river."
Emilyan went to the river, still carrying the drum and followed by the
soldiers. At the bank of the river, Emilyan beat the drum into pieces and
threw them into the water. And all the soldiers ran off in all directions.
Then Emilyan took his wife and brought her home. And thenceforth the
king ceased to worry him, and he lived happily ever after.
141