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Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America

Further information:   Metallurgy in pre-ColumbianMesoamericaMetallurgy in pre-Columbian America is the extrac-

Sican tumi  , or ceremonial knife, Peru , 850–1500 CE 

tion and purification of metals, as well as creating metalalloys and fabrication withmetal byIndigenous peoplesofthe Americas prior to European contact in the late 15thcentury. Indigenous Americans have been using nativemetals from ancient times, with recent finds of gold arti-facts in the Andean region dated to 2155–1936 BCE.[1]

and North American copper finds dated to approximately5000 BCE.[2] The metal would have been found in na-ture without need for smelting techniques and shaped intothe desired form using heat and cold hammering tech-niques without chemically altering it by alloying  it. Todate “no one has found evidence that points to the use ofmelting, smelting and casting in prehistoric eastern North

America.”[3] In South America the case is quite differ-ent. Indigenous South Americans had full  metallurgywith smelting and various metals being purposely alloyed.

Metallurgy in Mesoamericadeveloped from contactswithSouth America .

1 South America

See also: Mapuche silverwork

South American metal working seems to have developedin the Andean region of modern Peru,  Bolivia,  Chile,and Argentina with gold and copper being hammered andshaped into intricate objects, particularly ornaments.[1][4]

Recent finds date the earliest gold work to 2155–1936BCE.[1] and the earliest copper work to 1432–1132BCE.[4] There were found in the context of a society un-dergoing social and economic changes but still very mucha small food producer and not quite sedentary yet. Thisbreaks awayfrom the idea that this type of metal work de-veloped in societies with enough food surplus to supportan elite. Rather than being a product of a hierarchical so-ciety, gold might have been meshed in the creation of it.

Further evidence for this type of metal work comes fromthe sites at Waywaka, Chavín and Kotosh,[5] and it seemsto have been spread throughout Andean societies by theEarly horizon (1000–200 BCE).

Unlike in other metallurgy traditions where metals gainimportance due to their widespread use in fields rang-ing from weaponry to everyday utensils, metals in SouthAmerica (and later in Central America) were mainly val-ued as adornments and objects representative of a highstatus (though some more functional objects might havebeen produced). It is during the Early horizon that ad-vancements in metal working result in spectacular and

characteristically Andean gold objects made by the join-ing of smaller metal sheets, and also gold-silver alloy ap-pears.

Two traditions seem to have developed alongside eachother – one in northern Peru and Ecuador, and another inthe Altiplano region of southern Peru, Bolivia and Chile.There is evidence for smelting of copper sulphide in theAltiplano region around the Early horizon. Evidencefor this comes from copper slag recovered at severalsites,[6] with the ore itself possibly coming from the southChilean-Bolivian border. Extensive use of “portable”smelting kilns in the vicinity of Puma Punku, Bolivia

and at three additional sites in Peru and Bolivia to man-ufacture, in situ, “I” beams as connectors to large stoneblocks during the construction process represent a seem-

1

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2   3 MESOAMERICA

ingly anomalous function for metal smelting. The re-ported chemical analysis of these metal pours is 95.15%copper 2.05% arsenic, 1.70% nickel, .84% silicon and.26% iron. The estimated date of these pours is between8000 BCE–500 CE.

Evidence for fully developed smelting however only ap-pears with the Moche culture (northern coast, 200 BCE–600 CE).[7] The ores were being extracted at shallow de-posits in the Andean foothills, whether by specialisedworkers or slaves/prisoners is unclear. In any case theores arebelieved to havebeen smeltedat nearby locations,evidenced in the actual metal artifacts and from ceramicvessels depicting the process, which is believed to havebeen occurring in adobe brick furnaces with at least threeblow pipes to provide the air flow needed to reach thehigh temperatures. The resulting ingots would then havebeen moved to coastal centres where shaping of the ob-ject would occur in specialised workshops.[8] Both of the

workshops found and studied were located near adminis-trative sections of the respective towns – again indicativeof the high value placed upon metal.

The objects themselves were still mainly adornments,now often being attached to beads. Some functional ob-jects were fashioned but they were elaborately decoratedand often found within high status burial contexts. Forthis reason, it is believed that they were still being usedmore for symbolic purposes. The appearance of gold orsilver seems to have been important, with a high numberof gilded or silvered objects as well as the appearance ofTumbaga, a copper/gold and sometimes also silver alloy.

Arsenic bronze [9] was also being smelted from sulphidicores, a practice either independently developed or learnedfrom the southern tradition.

This technology gradually spread north into Colombia,Panama and Costa Rica, reaching Guatemala and Belizeby 800 CE.

It is really onlywith the Incas that metals gain a more utili-tarian use. Nonetheless, they remained materials throughwhich to display wealth and status. The characteristic im-portance placed on colour, which had led to some of theearlier developments, was still present (Sun/Moon asso-ciation with gold/silver). Metals other than gold also hadan intrinsic value with the axe pieces being of particularnote in this regard. With the spread of metal tools be-ing carried out by the Incas, it is thought possible that amore Old World use of metals would have become morecommon. In any case, as Bruhns notes, “Bronze can beseen as an expensive substitute for the equally efficientstone”.[5]

2 Central America

Gold, copper and   tumbaga   objects started being pro-duced in Panama and Costa Rica between 300–500 CE.Open-molded casting with oxidation gilding and cast fil-

igrees were in use. By 700–800 CE, small metal sculp-tures were common and an extensive range of gold andtumbago ornaments comprised the usual regalia of per-sons of high status in Panama and Costa Rica.[10]

3 Mesoamerica

Mixtec  gold pendant representing a snailshell, ca. 900—1520CE 

Main article: Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

Metallurgy only appears in Mesoamerica in 800 CE withthe best evidence from west Mexico. Much like in SouthAmerica, fine metals were seen as a material for the elite.Metal’s special qualities of colour and resonance seemedto have appealed most and then led to the particular tech-nological developments seen in the region.[11]

Exchange of ideas and goods with peoples from the

Ecuador and Colombia region (likely via a maritimeroute) seems to have fueled early interest and develop-ment. Similar metal artefact types are found in West

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3

Mexico and the two regions: copper rings, needles andtweezers being fabricated in the same ways as in Ecuadorand also found in similar archaeological contexts. Thereis also a multitude of bells found, but in this case theywere cast using the same lost-wax casting method as seenin Colombia.[11] During this period, copper was being

used almost exclusively.Continual contact kept the flow of ideas from that sameregion and later, coinciding with the development of An-dean long distance maritime trade, influence from fur-ther south seems to have reached the region and led to asecond period (1200–1300 CE to the Spanish arrival).[11]

By this time, copper alloys were being explored by WestMexican metallurgists, partly because the different me-chanical properties were needed to fashion specific arte-facts, particularly axe-monies – further evidence for con-tact with the Andean region. However, in general the newproperties such alloys introduced were developed to meet

regional needs, especially wirework bells, which at timeshad such high tin content in the bronze that it was irrel-evant for its mechanical properties but gave the bells agolden colour.

The actual artifacts and then techniques were importedfrom the south, but west Mexican metallurgists workedores from the abundant local deposits; the metal was notbeing imported. Even when the technology spread fromWest into north-eastern, central and southern Mexico,artifacts that can be traced back to West Mexican oresare abundant, if not exclusive. It is not always clear ifthe metal reached its final destination as an ingot, an

ore or a finished artifact. Provenance studies on metalartifacts from southern Mesoamerica cast with the lost-wax technique and dissimilar to west Mexican artefactshave shown that there might have been a second point ofemergence of metallurgy into Mesoamerica there sinceno known source could be identified.[12]

The Aztecs did not initially adopt metal working, eventhough they had acquired metal objects from other peo-ples. However, as conquest gained them metal workingregions, the technology started to spread. By the timeof the Spanish conquest, a bronze-smelting technologyseemed to be nascent.

4 North America

Archaeological evidence has not revealed metal smeltingor alloying of metals by pre-Columbian indigenous peo-ples northof the Rio Grande; however, they did use nativecopper extensively.[14]

As widely accepted as this statement might be it shouldnot be considered synonymous with a lack of metal ob-jects, as it points out native copper was abundant partic-

ularly in the Great Lakes region and “overlooks the sim-ple fact that there was really very little to be gained bysmelting...”[15] The latest glacial period had resulted in

Hopewell  copper falcon, ca. 200 BCE–1 CE, Ohio[13]

Plates from Malden , Etowah and  Spiro

Mace shaped copper headdress ornaments from Moundville

the scouring of copper bearing rocks. Once the ice re-treated, these were readily available for use in a varietyof sizes.[15] Copper was shaped via cold hammering intoobjects from very early dates (Archaic period in the GreatLakes region: 8000–1000 BCE). There is also evidenceof actual mining of copper veins (Old Copper Complex),but disagreement exists as to the dates.[15]

Unlike its Southern counterpart, North American met-allurgy had a more utilitarian purpose from very earlyon, shifting away from primarily attaching prestige to themetal artifacts (knives, fishhooks, bracelets).

Extraction would have been extremely difficult.Hammerstones  may have been used to break off piecessmall enough to be worked. This labor-intensive process

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4   6 NOTES 

might have been eased by building a fire on top of thedeposit, then quickly dousing the hot rock with water,creating small cracks. This process could be repeated tocreate more small cracks.

The copper could then be cold-hammered into shape,

which would make it brittle, or hammered and heated inan annealing process to avoid this. The final object wouldthen have to be ground and sharpened using local sand-stone. Numerous bars have also been found, possibly in-dicative of trade for which their shaping into a bar wouldalso serve as proof of quality.

Great Lake artifacts found in the Eastern Woodlands ofNorth America seem to indicate there were widespreadtrading networks by 1000 BCE. Progressively the usageof copper for tools decreases with more jewellery andadornments being found. This is believed to be indica-tive of social changes to a more hierarchical society.[15]

However this Great Lake model as a unique source ofcopper and of copper technologies remaining somewhatstatic for over 6000 years has recently come into somelevel of criticism, particularly since other deposits seemto have been available to ancient North Americans, evenif a lot smaller.[16][17]

During the Mississippian period (800–1600 CE, vary-ing locally), elites at major political and religious cen-ters throughout the midwestern and southeastern UnitedStates used copper ornamentation as a sign of their statusby crafting the sacred material into representations con-nected with the Chiefly Warrior cult of the Southeastern

Ceremonial Complex (S.E.C.C.).[18] This ornamentationincludes  Mississippian copper plates,  repousséd   platesof beaten copper now found as far afield as Alabama,Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, Oklahoma, andTennessee. Some of the more famous of the plates are ofraptorial birds and avian-themed dancing warriors. Theseplates, such as the Rogan plates from Etowah, the Spiroplates from the Spiro in Oklahoma, andtheWulfingcachefrom southeast Missouri, were instrumental in the de-velopment of the archaeological concept known as theS.E.C.C.[18]

The only Mississippian culture site where a copper work-

shop has been located by archaeologists is Cahokia  inwestern Illinois.[19] Excavations of the copper workshopsat Mound 34 (a small mound located on the Ramey Plazaeast of Monks Mound[20]) indicate copper was workedthere. Numerous copper fragments as well as ashes fromfires were found in the area as well as the remains of threetree stumps thought to have been used to hold anvil stonesused for beating out the flattened sheets of copper.[19]

After the collapse of the Mississippian way of life in the1500s with the advent of European colonization, copperstill retained a place in Native American religious life asa special material. Copper was traditionally regarded as

sacred by many historic period Eastern tribes. Coppernuggets are included in medicine bundles among GreatLakes tribes. Among 19th century Muscogee Creeks, a

group of copper plates carried along theTrail of Tears areregarded as some of the tribe’s most sacred items.[21]

5 See also

•   Axe-monies

•  Cape York meteorite

•  Copper Inuit

•  Mississippian copper plates

•  Native copper

6 Notes

[1] Mark Aldenderfer, Nathan M. Craig, Robert J. Speak-man and Rachel Popelka-Filcoff (2008).   “Four-thousand-year-old gold artifacts from the Lake Titi-caca basin, southern Peru”.   PNAS   105: 5002–5005.doi:10.1073/pnas.0710937105.

[2] Beukens, R.P., Pavlish, L.A., Hancock, R.G.V.,Farquhar, R.M., Wilson, G.C., Julig, P.J. (1992).“Radiocarbon dating of copper-preserved organics”.Radiocarbon 34: 890–897.

[3] Martin, S.R. (1999). Wonderful Power: The Story of An-

cient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin . GreatLakes Books Series. Wayne State University Press. p.136.

[4] Scattolin, M. Cristina, M. Fabiana Bugliani, LeticiaCortés, Lucas Pereyra Domingorena y C. MarilinCalo (2010).   ; http://www.precolombino.cl/biblioteca/boletin-del-museo-chileno-de-arte-precolombino-volumen-15-n%C2%BA-1-2010/ “Una máscara de cobre de 3000años. Estudios arqueometalúrgicos y compara-ciones regionales”.   Boletín del Museo Chileno de

Arte Precolombino, Santiago de Chile   15: 25–46.doi:10.4067/s0718-68942010000100003.

[5] Bruhns, K.O. (1994).  Ancient South America. CambridgeUniversity Press.

[6] Keatinge, R.W. (1988).   Peruvian Prehistory: An

Overview of Pre-Inca and Inca Society. Cambridge Uni-versity Press.

[7] G. Horz, M.K. (2000). “The treasure of gold and sil-ver artifacts from the Royal Tombs of Sipa n, Peru Ða study on the Moche metalworking techniques”.   Mate-

rials Characterization 45: 391–420.   doi:10.1016/s1044-5803(00)00093-0.

[8] Lechtman, H. (1991). “The Production of Copper-

Arsenic Alloys in the Central Andes: Highland Ores andCoastal Smelters? extquotedbl.  Journal of Field Archae-

ology 18: 43–76. doi:10.1179/009346991791548780.

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[9] Lechtman, H. & Klein, S. (1999).   “The Pro-duction of Copper–Arsenic Alloys (Arsenic Bronze)by Cosmelting: Modern Experiment, Ancient Prac-tice”.   Journal of Archaeological Science  26: 497–526.doi:10.1006/jasc.1998.0324.

[10] Jeffrey Quiltes & John W Hoopes (2003).  Gold andPower 

in Ancient Columbia, Panama and Costa Rica. Harvard:Dumhurton Oakes. pp. 220–223.

[11] Hosler, D. (1988). “Ancient West Mexican Metallurgy:South and Central American Origins and West Mexi-can Transformations”.  American Anthropologist  90: 832–855. doi:10.1525/aa.1988.90.4.02a00040.

[12] Hosler, D. (1999). “Recent insights into the metallurgicaltechnologies of ancient mesoamerica”.   JOM Journal of 

the Minerals  51: 11–14.   doi:10.1007/s11837-999-0034-6.

[13]   “Falcon-shaped Cut-Out.”  Ohio Pix.   (retrieved 12 July

2011)

[14] George Rapp Jr, Guy Gibbon & Kenneth Ames (1998).Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: an Encyclo-

 pedia. New York: Taylor & Francis. p. 26.

[15] Martin, S.R. (1999). Wonderful Power: The Story of An-

cient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin . GreatLakes Books Series. Wayne State University Press.

[16] Levine, M.A. (2007). “Overcoming Disciplinary Soli-tude: The Archaeology and Geology of Native Copperin Eastern North America”.   Geoarchaeology: An Inter-

national Journal  22: 49–66. doi:10.1002/gea.20146.

[17] Levine, M.A. (2007). “Determining the Provenance ofnative copper artifacts from Northeastern North Amer-ica: evidence from instrumental neutron activation anal-ysis”.   Journal of Archaeological Science  34: 572–587.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.06.015.

[18] Robb, Matthew H. (March 2010). “Mildred Lane KemperArt Museum-Spotlight Series March 2010”.  Saint LouisArt Museum. Retrieved 2012-04-19.

[19]   Pawlaczyk, George  (2010-02-16).   “Copper men: Ar-chaeologists uncover Stone Age copper workshop nearMonk’s Mound”.   SOTT.net  (Signs of the Times).

[20]  “Cahokia Mounds – Mound 34”. Cahokia Mounds StateHistoric Site.

[21] Brose, David S.; James A. Brown; David W. Penney(1985).  Ancient Art of the American Woodlands Indians .New York: Harry N. Abrams. p. 149.   ISBN 0-89558-105-1.

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6   7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 

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